“Speaking” Subalterns: A Comparative Study of African American and Dalit/Indian Literatures by Mantra Roy A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Co-Major Professor: Gurleen Grewal, Ph.D Co- Major Professor: Hunt Hawkins, Ph.D Elizabeth Hirsh, Ph.D Shirley Toland-Dix, Ph.D Date of Approval: March 16, 2010 Keywords: Race, Caste, Identity, Representation, Voice © Copyright 2010, Mantra Roy Acknowledgments I must thank James Baldwin for his book Nobody Knows My Name which introduced me to the world of African American literature and culture. Since that first encounter as a teenager I have come a long way today in terms of my engagement with the world of Black literature and with the ideas of equality, justice, and respect for humanity. Professor R. Kapadia and Professor B. DaSilva, my teachers from my undergraduate college and very good friends today, not only guided me to academically engage with literature but also helped me steer through college life and its excitement and challenges. I am very grateful for Dr. Hawkins’s questions that make me think, read, and reflect. His concern for students is very inspiring; I hope I can be a teacher like him and touch students’ lives the way he does. Meeting Dr. Grewal marks a milestone in my life. My introduction to Postcolonial Theory and literature under her guidance has changed the way I understand and view life. Talking to her over a period of three and a half years has helped me understand myself – as a human being, as an Indian. As an international student, I have found an anchor in her. My Gurudakshina is incalculable. I must also thank Dr. Gary Lemons, Dr. Pratyusha Basu, and Dr. Gyanendra Pandey for their timely advice. My best friends, Maa and Baba, have been with me through every stage of my life. I cannot thank them enough for what they have taught me: Knowledge is the world’s greatest wealth and every human being is equally loveable and respectable. My grandmother, who left us in 2006, firmly believed that higher education and service to humanity should be more important for her granddaughters than culinary skills. I hope I can live up to what they expect of me. Along with them, I must thank my sisters for their unconditional friendship, support and advice. Lastly I must thank Prateek, my first friend in a foreign country and my partner today, for putting up with my mood swings and for always being a patient listener. Thanks for everything. Mantra Roy February 2010 Table of Contents Abstract iii Introduction A Transnational Study of Subalterns: African Americans and Dalits African American Connection with India 1 What is the Caste System? 10 The Nation and Its Others 12 Why ‘Subaltern’? 16 Racism and Casteism: Which is Worse? 24 Caste and Race: Similar or Different? 27 Women, Caste, and Race 31 Their Literatures 36 “Speaking” Subalterns: A Comparative Study of African American Literature and Dalit/Indian Literature 38 Chapter I Harriet Jacobs and Phoolan Devi: The Case of the Subaltern Voice 43 Do we hear Harriet Jacobs’s voice? 44 Who is the real Phoolan Devi? 57 Chapter II The Case of the Subaltern Mother: Sethe in Beloved and Pandu’s Mother in “Mother” 74 Sethe as a Subaltern Mother 78 i Pandu’s Mother as a Subaltern Mother 86 Chapter III Subaltern Children: The Trauma of Silence and Recovery 96 Subaltern Children in The Bluest Eye 102 Subaltern Children in The God of Small Things 112 Chapter IV Subaltern Poets of Protest: Amiri Baraka and Namdeo Dhasal 126 Conclusion Literature of the Subaltern in a Transnational Context 161 “Speaking” Subalterns as Comparative Literature 164 My Voice/Positionality 165 Works Cited 167 Bibliography 176 About the Author End Page ii “Speaking” Subalterns: A Comparative Study of African American and Dalit Literatures Mantra Roy ABSTRACT “Speaking Subalterns” examines the literatures of two marginalized groups, African Americans in the United States and Dalits in India. The project demonstrates how two disparate societies, USA and India, are constituted by comparable hegemonic socio- economic-cultural and political structures of oppression that define and delimit the identities of the subalterns in the respective societies. The superstructures of race in USA and caste in India inform, deform, and complicate the identities of the marginalized along lines of gender, class, and family structure. Effectively, a type of domestic colonialism, exercised by the respective national elitists, silence and exploit the subaltern women and emasculate the men. This repression from above disrupts the respective family structures in the societies, traumatizes the children, and confuses the relationships between all the members of the families. While African American women, children, and men negotiate their national identities in USA, Dalits, the former Untouchables, attempt to realize their national identities guaranteed by the Indian Constitution. While successful resistance to oppression informs the literatures written by these historically marginalized peoples, thereby giving voice to the silenced subalterns, I argue that it is equally important to be attentive to the simultaneous silencing that has not ended. Moreover, we must be iii skeptical about the power seemingly achieved by the subalterns in articulating their claims to legitimate rights because re-presentation of subaltern resistance by the elite intellectuals and by subalterns themselves becomes a critical inquiry. Thus, while some subaltern women claim agency through representation, their narratives may not be exempt from hegemonic control. Others are thoroughly misrepresented by elitists. While some subaltern mothers undertake outlaw mothering by defying normative patriarchal motherhood, responsible representation can re-cover these tales which are silenced when these mothers succumb to their children and community’s disparagement. While some subaltern children may survive disastrous experiences, others may be traumatized into silence. Representation bears witness to these traumatic silences and the silencing processes. While historically emasculated subaltern men may vent and represent their rightful frustration and wrath against the oppressors, they may be simultaneously silencing their own doubly-oppressed women. iv Introduction A Transnational Study of Subalterns: African Americans and Dalits African American Connection with India In 1873 Jyotirao Phule, a Marathi Dalit (then known as an Untouchable), published his book Gulamgiri (Slavery) and dedicated the treatise to the then Negroes in America as a “‘token of admiration for their sublime disinterestedness and self- sacrificing devotion in the cause of Negro Slavery,’” as noted by S.D. Kapoor in Dalits and African Americans: A Study in Comparison (13). The example of the growth of African American consciousness and its expression in literature, especially in the slave narratives, functioned effectively as a model for Phule to resist the oppressive caste system that had left the ati-shudras (the untouchables) without a sense of self-identity and consciousness in India. Phule’s life-long work to raise awareness among the lowest castes about their degraded condition as effected by the Brahminical caste system remains an inspiration today. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, perhaps the greatest Dalit leader in India who drafted the Constitution of a free and new India and was the country’s first Law Minister, acknowledged Phule’s work by dedicating his own book, Who Were the Shudras? to Phule. Ambedkar, who was actively involved in the national politics of India and drafted the Constitution of independent India, also highlighted the comparison between African Americans and the Dalits. As a graduate student at Columbia University from 1913 to 1916, Ambedkar witnessed the growing consciousness among the Blacks and their 1 struggle to claim their identity and humanity against the white supremacist oppression. Such first-hand experience helped him develop a “framework” for the “issue of caste segregation back home” (Kapoor 15). When Lala Lajpat Rai, a famous Indian activist against British Raj and a “founding member of the Hindu reformist movement, Arya Samaj” (14), compared the lynchings of Negroes in America with the attitudes of the Brahmins toward the pariahs, the untouchables, and found the former more atrocious and more inhuman, Ambedkar retorted that the Brahmin torture of Untouchables was never known, unlike the lynchings, because all “Hindus” conspire to keep their shameful and inhuman acts a secret (Kapoor 16). Ambedkar believed that the existence of an American conscience allowed the ex-Negroes to publish their suffering in the form of narratives to expose the horrors of slavery. But in India, he argued, the “Hindus” have no conscience that prohibits them from recognizing the injustice in the caste system that they adhere to (Kapoor 14). Along with the parallels between Dalits and African Americans, the Indian freedom movement acquired a strong parallel story to that of the African Americans in the early twentieth century. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), Howard Thurman (1899- 1981), and later Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968) formed the pillars of the interchange of knowledge and inspiration. The Dalit identification with African Americans has continued through the late 19th century until the late 20th century. Sudarshan Kapur in his critically acclaimed book, Raising Up a Prophet: the African-American