ROCZNIK ORIENTALISTYCZNY, T. LXXI, Z. 1, 2018, (s. 109–126)
MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ
The Culture of Reconciliation. The Moral Aspect of Speech in Saʿdi’s Teachings
Abstract
The 13th-century Persian poet Saʿdi from Shiraz is considered to be one of the most prominent representatives of medieval Persian ethical literature. His works full of moralizing anecdotes were well known and widely read not only in Persia, but in the other parts of the Islamic world as well. Due to his highly humanistic approach, the relations between people were one of the most important issues discussed by the poet. This article is an attempt to define the status of ‘speech’ in Saʿdi’s moral imagination and to show how it becomes a key instrument in shaping relations with others. In the poet’s opinion, the right words reasonably spoken, just like an appropriate silence, shape the relationship between people and help them avoid conflict and open dispute. Quarrels and confrontations, according to the poet, not only damage a person literally by exposing his flaws and imperfections of character, thereby compromising his reputation (aberu), but may also undermine the basis of social life, generating hostility between people. That is why Saʿdi urges his readers to use soft and gentle speech in dealing with people and always behave in a conciliatory manner in response to aggression and rudeness. Highlighting the moral aspect of speech, Saʿdi shows how kind words form an invisible veil between people, which should be preserved if man desires to maintain his image, good name and dignity.
Keywords: Persian moral literature, Saʿdi, ethics, moral conduct, adab, aberu, taʿarof, face, human relations, speech
In many cultures, the highest-ranking relation a human being was capable of entering into was his relationship with God. Yet in Antiquity the classical authors focused their attention on the essence of a meeting between two human beings. In European culture 110 MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ a noteworthy case is that of Plato, to whom a meeting of conversation partners was a pretext for a joint quest for the Truth. Similarly, mystical currents, although focused on what binds man with the Creator, used the metaphor of humane love to express it. That is also the case with Persian Sufism that manifests itself inter alia in the poetical trope of asheq and maʿshuq, loving and beloved. In the context of Perso-Islamic culture, a special interest in what arises between people and how relations between people should be shaped can be observed in the works belonging to the genre of medieval didactic literature, in Western scholarship referred to as ‘adab literature’. Throughout the ages, the term adab had numerous meanings in Persian. It could denote proper conduct and good manners, politeness and courtesy, as well as appropriate behaviour in any field of activity, or in general knowledge of what is good and bad, right and wrong.1 In the broadest sense, the term is used to denote literary tradition, or literature which was fully developed during Islamic era. Its identity however, as Fereshteh Davaran notices, was dual – both Iranian and Islamic at the same time.2 The tradition was developed as a sum of still remembered ancient pre-Islamic Zoroastrian instructions preserved in advice treaties (andarzname) and the Islamic moral teachings of the sunna and the Quran. However, the Perso-Islamic adab tradition did not constitute a rigid set of works. Rather, its humanistic message could be found in many works of poetry and prose of different literary types – epical, mythical or lyrical – over several centuries.3 Its didactic content, instructions on correct behaviour, moral and practical advice were already present in the 10th-century national Iranian epic Shahname (“The Book of Kings”) written by Ferdousi Tusi, as well as in the books of counsel for kings, the so-called ʻmirrors for princes’ written by Keykavus ibn Eskandar, Mohammad Ghazali, Nizam al-Mulk or, Faridoddin Attar’s Pandname (“The Book of Advice”), and Abu Shakur Balkhi Afarinname (“The Book of Benediction”), as well as many other stories (hekayat), recited by Persian poets – all these texts follow Hamid Dabashi’s definition of adab and could be classified as belonging to the Persian literary humanism tradition.4 In this search for an ideal model of personal and social conduct there is in Persia probably no greater master of didactic literature than medieval poet Abu Mohammad Moslehoddin b. Abdollah better known as Saʿdi from Shiraz (1209–1291)5. This claim
1 Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, Adab, in: Loghatname-ye Dehkhoda, Mohammad Moin, Ali Akbar Dehkhoda (eds.), Moʿassese-ye enteshar va chap-e daneshgah-e Tehran, Tehran 1372 Anno Persico, p. 43. 2 Fereshteh Davaran, Continuity in Iranian Identity Resilience of a Cultural Heritage, Routledge, New York 2010, p. 6. 3 Ibidem, p. 171. 4 Cf. Hamid Dabashi, The World of Persian Literary Humanism, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, London 2012, p. 1 et seq. 5 Scholarly interest in Saʿdi’s poetry, both native and foreign goes back less than a hundred years. It resulted in the numerous works on the life and writings of the poet, primarily in Persian. His poetry was studied by Mohammad Ali Farughi who prepared an edition of the poet’s works and wrote several articles on his life and teachings. Of the more prominent literary scholars who worked on Saʿdi we can also mention Saʿid Nafisi (Sokhanan-e Saʿdi dar bare-ye khodesh, Tehran 1316 AP) and Abdolhosein Zarrinkub (Hadis-e khosh-e Saʿdi, Tehran, Sokhan 1379 AP). Western scholars who worked on Saʿdi’s poetry include Homa Katouzian (of Persian origin), the author THE CULTURE OF RECONCILIATION. THE MORAL ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 111 may be justified by quoting an already mentioned scholar of Persian culture and literature Hamid Dabashi, who once recalled the widespread belief that, “if something catastrophic were to happen, and the entire Persian literary culture were to disappear from the face of the earth, and all that remained was the text of Saʿdi’s Golestan, that lost civility could be constructed anew.”6 Living in the 13th-century, Saʿdi was active in the turbulent period of the decline and fall of the Salghurid atabaks of Fars and the Mongolian invasion in Iran. He was the author of anthologies of moralistic anecdotes which were and are still highly valued and widely read today, not only in Iran but in the other parts of Islamic world as well. He went down in the history of Persia not only as a poet, but also as a doctor of contemporary sciences, traveller and mystic. It is most probably to the broadness of his experience that he owed his versatility; as Homa Katouzian rightly noted, “there are few aspects of life on which Saʿdi does not speak.”7 In this particular study based on Saʿdi’s works, I would like to look at him as a teacher of human relations, who deliberated on what happens between people during face to face encounters.8 Such an idea had occupied thinkers in many epochs. In 20th-century thought the same concern become central for thinkers representing the so-called philosophy of dialogue, or philosophy of meeting, a trend which strived to re-establish faith in human coexistence, improve human relations, after it had been badly damaged by the traumatic of a monograph under the title Saʿdi, the Poet of Life, Love and Compassion published in 2006 in London; John D. Yohannan who published a book entitled The Poet Saʿdi: a Persian Humanist (University Press of America, 1987) and French orientalist Charles-Henri de Fouchecour, who elaborated on Saʿdi in his famous Moralia: les Notions Morales dans la Littérature Persane du 3e/9e au 7e/13e siècle, Paris 1987. There are also several research articles in English language on the selected aspects of poet’s life and teachings, which however not related directly to the subject of this article, are worth mentioning e.g. Fatemeh Keshavarz, Much Have I Roamed through the World: In Search of Sadi’s Self-Image, “International Journal of Middle East Studies” Vol. 26, No. 3 (Aug., 1994), pp. 465–475; John Andrew Boyle, The Chronology of Saʿdi’s Years of Travel in: Islamwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen: Fritz Meier zum sechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. R. Gramlich (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1974), pp. 1–8; Hasan Nishat Ansari, Did Shaykh Saʿdi Visit India? “Journal of the Bihar Research Society” 59 (1973), pp. 173–186; Ahmedmian Akhtar, Saʿdi’s Visit to Somnat, “Islamic Culture” 8 (1934), pp. 212–221; Minoo S. Southgate, Men, Women, and Boys: Love and Sex in the Works of Saʿdi, “Iranian Studies” 1984, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 413–452; and many other in Persian e.g. Charles-Henri de Fouchecour, Shaykh Saʿdi az didgah-e khod-e u in: Zekr-e Jamil-e Saʿdi: Collected Articles and Poems for the Commemoration of the 800th Birth Anniversary of Sheikh Saʿdi, 3 vols. (Tehran: National Commission of Unesco in Iran and Ministry of Islamic Guidance, 1987), p. 131–141. 6 Hamid Dabashi, The World of Persian Literary Humanism, p. 2. 7 Homa Katouzian, Saʿdi: The Poet of Life, Love and Compassion, Oneworld Publications, Oxford 2006, p. 89. 8 The source material for this study are Saʿdi’s two major works: Golestan (“The Rose Garden”) and Bustan (“The Orchard”) published in the Mosleh b. Abdollah Saʿdi Kolliyat-e Saʿdi (Collected Works of Saʿdi) edited by Bahaoddin Khorramshahi, sixth edition, Entesharat-e dustan, Tehran 1389 AP. English translations of Saʿdi’s works (if not stated otherwise) come from, respectively, Edward Rehatsek (Golestan) and G.M. Wickens (Bustan), both published by Hermes Publishers in Tehran in 2004. The Rehatsek and Wickens translations were chosen due to their faithfulness to the original text and their undisputed beauty. Footnotes referring to Persian text are recorded as Saʿdi, Golestan or Bustan; and those referring to English translations as Saʿdi, Gulistān or Būstān. 112 MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ
events of the 20th century. Saʿdi would therefore probably agree with the protestant theologian Karl Barth, who over seven hundred years later wrote that “humanity is the fellowship of men. Where there is no fellowship there is inhumanity.”9 And although Persian culture emphasises the significance of a solitary quest for excellence, and there are many ways in which man may grow towards perfection, reading Saʿdi’ poetry allows us to look at the encounter of two people as a lesson in humanity using speech and words as its tools.
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Although Saʿdi’s moral imagination was, to a large degree built on the virtue of silence, I would like to argue that even though silence was a fundamental concept in Perso- 12 ‘Speech’ Islamicis considered ethics on by the Sa whole’di to10 be, the a gifthighest from status God. in the The context capability of human of making relations, use Saʿdi of grants to the concept of speech and proper utterance (adab-e sokhan, adab-e sohbat).11 speech is similar to the possession of a soul: it is an attribute that distinguishes and, in fact, ‘Speech’ is considered by Saʿdi to be a gift from God.12 The capability of making elevates humansuse above of speech other is beings. similar As to theSa ’ possessiondi says: of a soul: it is an attribute that distinguishes and, in fact, elevates humans above other beings. As Saʿdi says:
به نطق آدمی بهتر است از دواب.13 14 By speechBy speech a human a human is better is betterthan a thanbrute a14 .brute
9 Karl Barth, The New Humanism, p. 162 cited after Gary Deddo, Karl Barth’s Theology of Relations, Hence, invol. the I, Wipfpoet and’s Stockopinion, Publishers, language Eugene 2015,is a p. tool 99. for improving the soul, a key to the 10 Hamid Dabashi, The World of Persian Literary Humanism, p. 156. ‘Silence’ (khamushi) was an important 15 treasury of beingethical a cultured concept not person. only in Saʿdi’s Yet writings,speech but serves substantially the elevation in the whole of Perso-Islamic a human ethicalbeing tradition only expressed in poetry and in theological and ethical tractates.16 Much attention had been given to the idea of when it meets silencecertain by Moulanacriteria: Jalaloddin when Rumi,it is whosokhan even - usede savab the term ,khamush that is, as hiswhen takhallos wo rds(pseudonymous). are uttered By many authors ‘verbosity’ was considered a sign of moral weakness and as 15th-century Persian theologian and properly, appropriatelyjurist Jalaloddin and Davani prudently. noticed it For was awords sign of humiliationto contribute (Akhlaq-e to jalaliraising, Abdollah a human Masʿudi Aranitowards (ed.), Entesharat-e ettelaʿat, Tehran 1391 AP, p. 200). Refraining from speaking on the other hand was considered excellence, theycivil must and polite. result Nezami from Ganjavi, reflection. a 12th-century Sa ’Persiandi asserts poet wrote that on deliberation speech and the riskwhich of its abuseought (Hezar to andarz hakim nezami, Vahid Dastgerdi (ed.), Tehran, Armaghan 1319 AP, pp. 6–14). According to a Safavid precede every utterancescholar, poet is and needed, philosopher above Sheykh all, Bahai, to anothercontrol poet, language. 13th-century There Amir Khosrou, is nothing had said worse that although than a person who lacksspeech control is pleasant, over silence the is gift much of better, speech. especially in putting an end to a trouble or perturbation. He adds that he has seen many regretting uttered words but no one being sorry for not speaking and keeping silence. Sheykh Bahai, Kashgul, web library viewed 21 January 2017,
Secondarily, as the poet emphasises, speech was given to humans “for gratitude and thanks;” hence it ought to be always characterised by softness and compassion. Gentleness evident in articulation and wording is an attribute of a cultured person – a man whom Sa’di
12 Mosleh b. Abdollah Sa’di, Bustan in: Kolliyat-e Sa’di, (ed.) Bahoddin Khorramshahi, 6th edition, Entesharat-e Dustan, Tehran 1383 AP, p. 185. 13 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 29. 14 Sheikh Muṣleḥ’iddin Sa’di, Gulistān, Edward Rehatsek (transl.) in: Gulistān and Būstān, Hermes Publishers, Tehran 2004, p. 89. 15 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 27. Similar thought can be found in the poetry of the 13th-century Persian poet Jalaloddin Rumi who once wrote: Ey zaban, ham ganj-e bi payan toi, ey zaban ham ranj-e bi darman toi (Oh tongue, you are both endless treasure and irremediable pain), Jalaloddin Mohammad Moulavi Rumi, Masnavi Ma’navi, R. Nicolson (ed.), vol. I, Mo’asesse-ye entesharat-e amir kabir, Tehran 1373 AP, p. 104. 16 A similar idea can be found in Naser Khosrou’s poetry, where it is called sokhan-e nik. 17 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 26. 18 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 79.
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ethics on the whole10, the highest status in the context of human relations, Sa’di grants to the concept of speech and proper utterance (adab-e sokhan, adab-e sohbat).11 ‘Speech’ is considered by Sa’di to be a gift from God.12 The capability of making use of speech is similar to the possession of a soul: it is an attribute that distinguishes and, in fact, elevates humans above other beings. As Sa’di says:
به نطق آدمی بهتر است از دواب.13 By speech a human is better than a brute14
THE CULTURE OF RECONCILIATION. THE MORAL ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 113 Hence, in the poet’s opinion, language is a tool for improving the soul, a key to the treasury of being a cultured person.Hence,15 Yet in speech the poet’s serves opinion, the elevationlanguage is of a atool human for improving being only the soul, a key to the 15 when it meets certain criteria: treasurywhen it of is being sokhan a cultured-e savab person.16, that Yetis, speechwhen woservesrds theare elevation uttered of a human being only when it meets certain criteria: when it is sokhan-e savab16, that is, when words are properly, appropriately and prudently. For words to contribute to raising a human towards uttered properly, appropriately and prudently. For words to contribute to raising a human excellence, they must result fromtowards reflection. excellence, Sa ’theydi asserts must result that from deliberation reflection. whichSaʿdi asserts ought that to deliberation which precede every utterance is needed,ought above to precede all, to everycontrol utterance language. is needed,There is above nothing all, worse to control than language. There is a person who lacks control overnothing the gift worse of speech. than a person who lacks control over the gift of speech.
زبان بریده به کنجی نشسته صم بکم به از کسی که نباشد زبانش اندر حکم.17
To sit in a corner, like one with a cut tongue, deaf and dumb, To sit in a corner, likeIs one better with than a cut a man tongue, who deafhas no and command dumb, over his tongue.18
Secondarily, as the poet emphasises, speech was given to humans “for gratitude and 10 Hamid Dabashi, The World of Persianthanks;” Literary hence itHumanism ought to ,be p. always156. ‘Silence’ characterised (khamushi by )softness was an importantand compassion. Gentleness ethical concept not only in Sa’di’s evidentwritings, inbut articulation substantially and in wording the whole is anPersian attribute-Islamic of aethical cultured tradition person – a man whom expressed in poetry and in theologicalSaʿdi and ethical calls saheb-etractates. honar Much attention and considers had been a paragon given to ofthe allidea virtues. of silence19 Insolence, rudeness by Moulana Jalaloddin Rumi, who evenor vulgarity, used the interm turn, khamush are to as him his atakhallos clear proof (pseudonymous). of ignorance. By Hence many the poet expresses authors ‘verbosity’ was considered a sign of moral weakness and as 15th-century Persian theologian and jurist Jalaloddin Davani noticed it was aa signconviction of humiliation that a person (Akhlaq ought-e jalalialways, Abdollah to formulate Mas’udi their Arani statements (ed.), be lotf va khoshi, 20 Entesharat-e ettela’at, Tehran 1391 AP,that p. is200). in aRefraining gentle and from pleasant speaking manner. on the other hand was considered civil and polite. Nezami Ganjavi, a 12th-centuryThe Persian idea poet was wrote not alienon speech to Iranians and the evenrisk of before its abuse Saʿdi (Hezar as andarz a very similar statement hakim nezami, Vahid Dastgerdi (ed.),concerning Tehran, Armaghan speech 1319 can beAP, found pp. 6 -14). in earlierAccording Persian to a Safavid literary scholar, works. For example, in poet and philosopher Sheykh Bahai, anotherFerdousi’s poet, Shahname, 13th-century the Amir principle Khosrou, of had ‘soft said spokenness’ that although is speech widespread is – narmguyi or pleasant, silence is much better, especiallyavaz-e in narmputting that an endcan tobe a understoodtrouble or perturbation. as a rule to He speak adds quietly,that he has slowly seen and smoothly and many regretting uttered words but noin onea moderate being sorry manner. for not21 This speaking idea mayand keepingbe considered silence. as Sheykh a legacy Bahai, of Pre-Islamic Persian Kashgul, web library viewed 21 January 2017,
Secondarily, as the poet emphasises, speech was given to humans “for gratitude and thanks;” hence it ought to be always characterised by mildness and compassion. Gentleness evident in articulation and wording is an attribute of a cultured person – a man whom Sa’di calls soheb-e honar and considers a paragon of all virtues.18 Insolence, rudeness or vulgarity, in turn, are to him a clear proof of ignorance. Hence the poet expresses a conviction that a person ought always to formulate their statements be lotf va khoshi, that is in a gentle and pleasant manner.19 The idea was not alien to Iranian even before Sa’di as a very similar statements concerning speech can be found in earlier Persian literary works. For example in Ferdousi’s Shahname widespread is the principle of ‘soft spokenness’, narmguyi or avaz-e narm, that can be understood as a rule to speak quietly, slow and smooth and in a moderate manner.20 This idea may be considered as a legacy of Pre-Islamic Persian ethical tradition manifested in both Zoroastrian114 religious texts and texts belongingMAGDALENA to RODZIEWICZ the genre of 21 advice literature (andarz). Ethical aspect of speech canthe mainbe attested Zoroastrian already moral in principle the main of Zoroastrian‘good thoughts, moral good words, good deeds.’23 The principle of “good thoughts, good words, good deeds.”book22 The Javidan book Kherad Javidan-e (“Eternal kherad Wisdom”) (Eternal24, Pahlavi Wisdom) in origin,23, also mentions that one of Pahlavi in origin also mentions that one of the best the moral best principlesmoral principles is narm is narm sokhan sokhan ‘soft ‘soft speech’. speech’.2425 InIn Pahlavi literature, speaking courteously and suavely was regarded as proper, and a role model was someone who Pahlavi literature, speaking courteously and suavely was regarded proper, and a role model was someone 26 is “extremely courteous, sweet in his speech25 and a great respecter of persons.” Based who is “extremely courteous, sweet in his speech anond what a great Maganlal respecter Amritlal of Buch persons.” writes on Based Zoroastrian on what ethics, we can assume that the Maganlal Amritlal Buch writes on Zoroastrian ethics,purpose we can of assume using sweet that andthe civilpurpose language, of using was tosweet develop and the capability of “preventing civil language, was developing the capability of “preventingmutual injuries mutual among injuries man.” 27 among This can man.” be confirmed26 It can bybe what another scholar Djalal confirmed by what another scholar Djalal Khaleghi-MKhaleghi-Motlaghotlagh notices, that notices, in one that of in the one andarz of the andarztexts “it texts is “it is emphasized that we should27 not ‘hurt people with words.’”28 This tradition was continued in Islamic ethics emphasized that we should not ‘hurt people with words.’” This tradition was continued in Islamic ethics 29 which28 teaches that speech should not hurt or cause any pain. which teaches that speech should not hurt or cause any pain.The main reason for Saʿdi’s conviction on using considered and soft speech in contact The main reason for Sa’di’s conviction on usingwith another a considered person is andquite mild similar speech to what in is contactmentioned with above, as the poet is convinced another person softis quite speech similar helps to to the avoid above or alleviatementioned, thatconflicts as soft the speech andpoet can is helps convincedbe toa avoidcultured that or alleviate mansoft’ sspeech best conflicts answer help ands to to can be a cultured man’s best avoid or alleviateaggression conflicts. and vulgarity answer to aggression and vulgarity
ﺩﻭدو ﻋﺎﻗﻞعاقل ﺭﺍرا نباشدﻧﺒﺎﺷﺪ کینﮐﻴﻦ وﻭ پیکرﭘﻴﮑﺎﺭ نهﻧﻪ داناییﺩﺍﻧﺎﻳﯽ ستیزدﺳﺘﻴﺰﺩ باﺑﺎ سبکسار ﺳﺒﮑﺴﺎﺭی اگرﺍﮔﺮ نادانﻧﺎﺩﺍﻥ بهﺑﻪ وحشتﻭﺣﺸﺖ سختﺳﺨﺖ گویدﮔﻮﻳﺪ ﺧﺮﺩﻣﻨﺪﺵ ﺑﻪ ﻧﺮﻣﯽ ﺩﻝ ﺑﺠﻮﻳﺪ.29 خردمندش به نرمی دل بجوید.30
Two wise men do not contendTwo and wise quarrel, men do not contend and quarrel nor does a scholarTwo wisefight men with do a contemptiblenotNor contend does a and scholarfellow quarrel ,fight with a contemptible fellow. if an ignorantNor does man a scholarin his rudeness fight withIf speaksan aignorant contemptible harshly, man in fellow.his rudeness speaks harshly If an ignorant man in hisAn rudeness intelligent speaks man tenderlyharshly reconciles his heart.31 31 17 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 79. An intelligent man tenderly reconciles his heart. 18 Measured words can soothe unnecessary emotions, of which the following story Soheb-e honar – literally the owner of the art, craft, knowledge or particular skills. 19 is also a proof. A drunkard accosted a certain pious and wise man, who immediately Sa’di, Golestan, p. 26.Measured words can soothe unnecessary emotions, of which the following story is also 20 Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh, Adab i. Abad in Iran, in: Ecyclopaediarecognised Iranica what, vol. kindI, Ehsan of personYarshater he (ed.), was dealingBibliotheca with Persic and a refused to respond to taunts Press, New York 2001,a proof. p. 432. A drunkard accosted a certain pious and wise man, who immediately recognised what 21 Cf. Shaul Shaked, Andarz i. Andarz and Andarz Literature in Pre-Islamic Iran, in: Ecyclopaedia Iranica, vol. II, Ehsan kind of person he was dealing with and 23refused Mary Boyce, to respondHumata hūxata to tauntshuvaršta , orin: Encyclopӕdiato be drawn Iranica into, Vol. a XII, Fasc. 5, Encyclopӕdia Iranica Yarshater (ed.), Bibliotheca Persica Press, New York 2000, pp. 11-22. 22 fight. Asked by the bystanders why he wasFoundation, not defending New York 2004, himself pp. 561-562. against such harassment, he Mary Boyce, Humata hūxata huvaršta, in: Encyclopaedia Iranica24 , Vol. XII, Fasc. 5, pp. 561-562. 23 Translated into Arabic before being lost and then only into New Persian by Persian philosopher Ahmad Translated intoresponded Arabic before that beingit was lost notand thenseemly only intoforb. New anMohammad intelligentPersian b. byMeskavaye. Persian man philosopherto squabble Ahmad with b . aMohammad dim-witted b. Meskavaye. drunkard. In the Bustan, Sa’di remarks: 25 Ahmad b. Mohammad b. Meskavaye, Javidan Kherad (“Eternal Wisdom”), Mehdi Mohaghegh, Chaarles 24 Ahmad b. Mohammad b. Meskavaye, Javidan Kherad (Eternal Wisdom), Mehdi Mohaghegh, Chaarles Adams (eds.), Adams (eds.), Moʿassesse-ye motaleʿat-e eslami daneshgah-e makgil, shoʿbe-ye Tehran, Tehran 1976, p. 59. Tehran, Mo’assesse-ye motale’at-e eslami daneshgah-e makgil, sho’be-ye26 Maganlal Tehran, Amritlal 1976, Buch, p. 59. Zoroastrian Ethics, Baroda 1919, p. 142. 25 هنرور چنین زندگانی کند . Ibidem, p. 143 Maganlal Amritlal Buch, Zoroastrian Ethics, Baroda 1919, p. 27142. 26 Ibidem, p. 143. 28 Khaleghi-Motlagh, Adab i. Abad in Iran, p.32 432. جفا بیند و مهربانی کند. 27 Khaleghi-Motlagh, Adab i. Abad in Iran, p. 432. 29 Ali b. Abi Taleb, Nahj al-balaghe, Mohammad Dashti (transl.), Entesharat-e payam-e edalat, Tehran 1389 28 Ali b. Abi Taleb, Nahj al-balaghe, Mohammad Dashti (transl.),AP, p.Entesharat-e 485. payam-e edalat, Tehran 1389 AP, p. 485. 29 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 111. Thus leads his30 Saʿdi,life the Golestan virtuous, p. 111. man : 31 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 439. 33 Brutality he suffers,4 himself shows kindness.
Sa’di’s postulate that verbal aggression should be responded to gently and with kindness is also evident in the worldview of other Persian poets. Sa’di’s compatriot Hafez, who lived not many decades after him, wrote that:
آسایش دو گیتی تفسیر این دو حرف است با دوستان مروت با دشمنان مدارا.34
The peace of both worlds lies in these two words Show kindness to your friends, forbearance to your enemies.35
30 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 111. 31 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 439. 32 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 272. 33 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1011. 34 Hoja Shamsoddin Mohammad Hafez Shirazi, Divan (based on the Mahmud Hakim Farzand Mirzai Wasal’s edition), Entesharat-e Pishi, Tehran 1374 AP, p. 22 35 Own translation.
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soft speech helps to avoid or alleviate conflicts and can be a cultured man’s best answer to aggression and vulgarity soft speech helps to avoid or alleviate conflicts and can be a cultured man’s best answer to دو عاقل را نباشد کین و پیکر aggression and vulgarity نه دانایی ستیزد با سبکسار دواگر عاقلنادان رابه نباشد وحشت کین و سخت پیکر گوید نه دانایی خردمندش به ستیزد با نرمی دل سبکسار بجوید.30 اگر نادان به وحشت سخت گوید
خردمندش به نرمی دل بجوید.30 Two wise men do not contend and quarrel Nor does a scholar fight with a contemptible fellow. If anTwo ignorant wise menman doin hisnot rudenesscontend andspeaks quarrel harshly NorAn doesintelligent a scholar man fight tenderly with reconcilesa contemptible his heart. fellow.31 If an ignorant man in his rudeness speaks harshly 31 Measured wordsAn can intelligent soothe unnecessary man tenderly emotions, reconciles of whichhis heart. the following story is also a proof. A drunkard accosted a certain pious and wise man, who immediately recognised what kind ofMeasured person hewords was can dealing soothe with unnecessary and refused emotions, to respond of which to taunts the followingor to be drastorywn isinto also a afight. proof. Asked A drunkard by the bystandersaccosted a certainwhy he piouswas not and defending wise man, himself who immediately against such recognised harassment, what he kindresponded of person that heit waswas dealingnot seemly with forand anrefused intelligent to THErespond CULTUREman to OF taunts squabbleRECONCILIATION. or towith be THE draa MORAL dimwn -ASPECTwittedinto aOF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 115 fight. Asked by the bystanders why he was not defending himself against such harassment, he drunkard. In the Bustan, Sa’di remarks: or to be drawn into a fight. Asked by the bystanders why he was not defending himself responded that it was not seemly for an intelligent man to squabble with a dim-witted against such harassment, he responded that it was not seemly for an intelligent man to :Saʿdi remarks هنرور ,Bustan چنین In the زندگانی کند .drunkard. In the Bustan, Sa’di remarks: squabble with a dim-witted drunkard جفا بیند و مهربانی کند.32 هنرور چنین زندگانی کند
جفا بیند و مهربانی کند.32 Thus leads his life the virtuous man: 33 Brutality he suffers, himself Thusshows leads kindness his life. the virtuous man: : Thus leads his life the virtuousBrutality man he suffers, himself shows kindness.33 .33 Sa’di’s postulate Brutalitythat verbal he suffers, aggression himself should shows be kindness responded to gently and with Saʿdi’s postulate that verbal aggression should be responded to gently and with kindness is also evident in the worldview of other Persian poets. Sa’di’s compatriot Hafez, ’ ’ kindness is also evident in the worldview of other Persian poets. Saʿdi’s compatriot who livedSa di nots postulatemany decades that afterverbal him, aggression wrote that: should be responded to gently and with Hafez, who lived not many ’decades’ after him, wrote that: kindness is also evident in the worldview of other Persian poets. Sa di s compatriot Hafez, آسایش دو گیتی تفسیر این دو حرف است :who lived not many decades after him, wrote that با دوستان مروت با دشمنان مدارا.34 آسایش دو گیتی تفسیر این دو حرف است
باtwo words دوستان these مروتin با lies دشمنان worlds مدارا.The peace of both34 The peace of both worlds lies Showin these kindness two words to your friends, forbearance to your enemies.35 Show kindness to your friends, forbearance to your enemies.35 This idea is clearlyThe present peace inof theboth Bustan worlds tale liesThis of in idea a theseslave is clearly two who, words present having in been the Bustan condemned tale of ato slave who, having been condemned 35 death, gave a speech Show filled kindness with to kind your andfriends, calmto forbearancedeath, words; gave by a tothis,speech your he filled enemieswon withthe. sympathykind and calm of thewords; by this, he won the sympathy of the monarch and avoided terrible punishment. Saʿdi comments that: monarch30 and avoided terrible punishment. Sa’di comments that: Sa’di, Golestan , p. 111. 31 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 439. 32 غرض زین حدیث آن که گفتار نرم .Sa’di, Bustan, p. 272 30 33 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 111. 31 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1011. چو آبست بر آتش مرد گرم .Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 439 34 32 Sa’di,Hoja Bustan,Shamsoddin p. 272. Mohammad Hafez Shirazi, Divan (based on the Mahmud Hakim Farzand Mirzai تواضع کن ای دوست با خصم تند Wasal’s33 edition), Entesharat-e Pishi, Tehran 1374 AP, p. 22 35 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1011. 34 36 که Mirzai نرمی کند تیغFarzand برنده Hakimکند. HojaOwn translation.Shamsoddin Mohammad Hafez Shirazi, Divan (based on the Mahmud Wasal’s edition), Entesharat-e Pishi, Tehran 1374 AP, p. 22 35 Own translation. This story’s purpose is to show soft speech This story’s purpose is to showWill actsoft as speech water on the fire of men hot-tempered; Will act as water on the fire6 of Bemen humble, hot-tempered; friend, with acrid adversaries, Be humble, friend, with acridFor adversaries,softness blunts a cutting sword.37 6 For softness blunts a cutting sword.37
32 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 272. II33 Saʿdi, Būstān, p. 1011. 34 Hoja Shamsoddin Mohammad Hafez Shirazi, Divan (based on the Mahmud Hakim Farzand Mirzai Wasal’s Using self-controlled and thoughtful wordsedition), shapes Entesharat-e relations Pishi, Tehran in many1374 AP, other p. 22 ways, as it 35 Own translation. makes one’s face pleasant to behold. People are36 Saʿdi, naturally Bustan, p.drawn 277. to a man with a ‘pleasant face’, while they avoid someone who has a ‘sullen37 Saʿdi, face Būstān’. ,In p. 1027.fact, Sa’di warns his readers to avoid those who are torsh ruy (sour-faced) and have khuy-e zesht (a nasty-temper), and says that:
شکر عاقل از دست آن کس نخورد که روی تکبر برو سرکه کرد.38
The intelligent man will not eat sugar from the hand of one, Who makes a vinegar-face at him for arrogance.39
Better, he adds expressively, to drink warm water from a gutter than to taste sweet syrup from the hands of an arrogant and disagreeable man.40 Therefore according to Sa’di, a soft- tempered and kind-faced man is not only closer to God, but also his status in society is higher. The reference to a high status in the eyes of the society translates into the final argument in favour of soft and conciliatory language. Gentle language protects one from shame and public disgrace. It acts similarly to silence and in many situations helps to avoid humiliation (in accordance with the poet’s opinion that “man is hidden ‘neath his tongue”).41 The reason for
36 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 277. 37 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1027. 38 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 295 39 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1085. 40 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 271. 41 Ibidem., p. 303.
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This idea is clearly present in the Bustan tale of a slave who, having been condemned to death, gave a speech filled with kind and calm words; by this, he won the sympathy of the monarch and avoided terrible punishment. Sa’di comments that:
غرض زین حدیث آن که گفتار نرم چو آبست بر آتش مرد گرم تواضع کن ای دوست با خصم تند که نرمی کند تیغ برنده کند.36
This story’s purpose is to show soft speech Will act as water on the fire of men hot-tempered; Be humble, friend, with acrid adversaries, For softness blunts a cutting sword.37
116II MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ II Using self-controlled and thoughtful words shapes relations in many other ways, as it makes one’s face pleasant to behold. People areUsing naturally self-controlled drawn to anda man thoughtful with a words‘pleasant shapes relations in many other ways, face’, while they avoid someone who has a ‘assullen it makes face ’ one’s. In fact, face Sa pleasant’di warns to behold. his readers People to are naturally drawn to a man with a ‘pleasant face’, while they avoid someone who has a ‘sullen face’. In fact, Saʿdi warns avoid those who are torsh ruy (sour-faced) andhis havereaders khuy to avoid-e zesht those (a whonasty are-temper), torsh ruy and(sour-faced) says and have khuy-e zesht (a nasty- that: temper), and says that:
شکر عاقل از دست آن کس نخورد که روی تکبر برو سرکه کرد.38
The intelligent man will not eat sugar from the hand of one, The intelligent man will not eat sugar from the hand of one, Who makes a vinegar-face at him for arrogance.39 Who makes a vinegar-face at him for arrogance.39 Better, he adds expressively, to drink warm water from a gutter than to taste sweet Better, he adds expressively, to drink warmsyrup water from from the handsa gutter of than an arrogant to taste and sweet disagreeable syrup man.40 Therefore according to from the hands of an arrogant and disagreeableSaʿdi, man. a 40 soft-tempered Therefore according and kind-faced to Sa man’di, a is soft not - only closer to God, but also his status in society is higher. The reference to a high status in the eyes of the society tempered and kind-faced man is not only closer to God, but also his status in society is higher. translates into the final argument in favour of soft and conciliatory language. Gentle The reference to a high status in the eyes of languagethe society protects translates one from into shamethe final and argument public disgrace. in It acts similarly to silence and favour of soft and conciliatory language. Gentlein language many situations protects helps one to from avoid shame humiliation and public (in accordance with the poet’s opinion disgrace.this Itis actsthat gsimilarlyentle words to silenceraise an andinvisible in manythat barrier “man situations b isetween hidden helps people ‘neath to thatavoid his ought tongue”). humiliation to 41be Thea permanent (in reason for this is that gentle words accordanceelement with of theevery poet relationship’s opinion thatwith “man anotherraise is hidden humanan invisible ‘ neathbeing. barrier his This tongue”). between barrier people41 can The be thatreason imagined ought for to beas aa permanent element of every veil woven from the courteous, pleasantrelationship and kindly with words another that human may being. be exchanged This barrier betweencan be imagined as a veil woven from the courteous, pleasant and kindly words that may be exchanged between two people. ’ – two people. Sa di compares it to a hSaʿdiair stretched compares between it to a hair interlocutors stretched between a hair interlocutors which, – a hair which, although 36 Sa’di,although Bustan fragile, p. 277. and barely visible, mustfragile remain and intact barely if people visible, are must to remainmaintain intact an ifappropriate people are to maintain an appropriate 37 Sa’di,relationship. Būstān, p. 1027. relationship. 38 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 295 39 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1085. دو صاحبدل نگهدارند مویى .Sa’di, Bustan, p. 271 40 همیدون سرکشی و آزرمجویی .Ibidem., p. 303 41 وگر بر هر دو جانب جاهالنند اگر زنجیر باشد بگسالنند.42 7 Two pious men keep a hair between them untorn Two pious men keepAnd a so hair does between a mild themwith a untorn headstrong man. And so does a mild with a headstrong man. If however38 Saʿdi, both Bustan sides, p. are295. fools 39 Saʿdi, Būstān, p. 1085. 43 If there be40 a Saʿdi,chain Bustan they, p.will 271. snap it. 41 Ibidem., p. 303. Another metaphor he uses to describe42 Saʿdi, speech Golestan is, p.that 111. of a hundred-layered silk tunic which a man dons for contact with others. This tunic is like a suit of armour, defending the wearer against wounds inflicted by a blade made of rude, aggressive or destructive words.44 Maintaining such a veil or a barrier of kind words in conversation with another person, creates a decorous connection between people, because it prevents a disagreement from escalating. It is exactly in disagreement and confrontation that Sa’di sees the danger of humiliation, as one may be defiled or discredited in the eyes of others.
چو کردی با کلوخ انداز پیکار سر خود را به نادانی شکستی.45
When you fighest with a thrower of clods Thou ignorantly break thy own head.46
By engaging in a confrontation one voluntarily turns oneself into the target of an attack and may therefore expose oneself to many dangers. This is because, as Sa’di argues, whoever aims an arrow towards an enemy must know that he himself becomes a target. 47 Verbal quarrelling accompanied by aggressive, hostile and offensive language or negative emotions destroy the veil of courtesy and pit people against each other without any barrier. Following
42 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 111. 43 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 439. 44 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 277. 45 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 52. 46 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 177. 47 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 52.
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this is that gentle words raise an invisible barrier between people that ought to be a permanent element of every relationship with another human being. This barrier can be imagined as a veil woven from the courteous, pleasant and kindly words that may be exchanged between two people. Sa’di compares it to a hair stretched between interlocutors – a hair which, although fragile and barely visible, must remain intact if people are to maintain an appropriate relationship.
دو صاحبدل نگهدارند مویى همیدون سرکشی و آزرمجویی وگر بر هر دو جانب جاهالنند اگر زنجیر باشد بگسالنند.42
Two pious men keep a hair between them untorn And so does a mild with a headstrong man.
If however both sides THEare CULTUREfools OF RECONCILIATION. THE MORAL ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 117 If there be a chain they will snap it.43 If however both sides are fools If there be a chain they will snap it.43 Another metaphor he uses to describe speech is that of a hundred-layered silk tunic which a man dons for contact with others. This tunicAnother is like metaphor a suit of he armour, uses to describedefending speech the is that of a hundred-layered silk tunic 44 wearer against wounds inflicted by a blade madewhich of rude, a man aggressive dons for contact or destructive with others. words. This tunic is like a suit of armour, defending Maintaining such a veil or a barrier of kind wordsthe in wearerconversation against with wounds another inflicted person, by a bladecreates made of rude, aggressive or destructive 44 a decorous connection between people, because itwords. prevents Maintaining a disagreement such a veilfrom or escalating.a barrier of kindIt words in conversation with another person, creates a decorous connection between people, because it prevents a disagreement is exactly in disagreement and confrontation that Sa’di sees the danger of humiliation, as one from escalating. It is exactly in disagreement and confrontation that Saʿdi sees the danger may be defiled or discredited in the eyes of others.of humiliation, as one may be defiled or discredited in the eyes of others.
چو کردی با کلوخ انداز پیکار سر خود را به نادانی شکستی.45
When you fighest with a thrower of clods When you fighest with a throwerThou of ignorantly clods break thy own head.46 Thou ignorantly break thy own head.46 By engaging in a confrontation one voluntarily turns oneself into the target of an By engaging in a confrontation one voluntarilyattack turns and mayoneself therefore into the expose target oneself of an toattack many dangers. This is because, as Saʿdi argues, whoever aims an arrow towards an enemy must know that he himself becomes and may therefore expose oneself to many dangers. This47 is because, as Sa’di argues, whoever a target. Verbal quarrelling accompanied47 by aggressive, hostile and offensive language aims an arrow towards an enemy must know orthat negative he himself emotions becomes destroy a thetarget. veil of Verbal courtesy and pit people against each other quarrelling accompanied by aggressive, hostile andwithout offensive any barrier. language Following or negative the images emotions offered by the poet, the instant when this veil destroy the veil of courtesy and pit people againstfalls each or the other tunic without of delicate any words barrier. is torn Following marks the beginning of an open confrontation, which is considered disgraceful for a cultured man and the avoidance of which is so wholeheartedly advised by Saʿdi. Dropping this veil of courtesy leaves people naked, exposed to the heat of confrontation, to scathing words, aggression and assault. 42 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 111. This is also the reason behind Saʿdi’s acceptance of a white lie (dorugh-e maslahati). 43 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 439. 44 The positive outcome of words uttered is so important for Saʿdi that he states that a lie Sa’di, Bustan, p. 277. 45 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 52. told with good intention is sometimes better than the truth. In the first chapter of his 46 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 177. Golestan, the poet tells the story of a ruler who convicted a prisoner to death and became 47 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 52. the subject of his mockery and insults. Intrigued by what the prisoner said, the king asked him to repeat his words. The good-natured vizier (nikmahzar) twisted the words of the condemned man by saying that he expressed the view that those who abase their anger and forgive would be rewarded by God. The shah, impressed by the speech of the 8 prisoner, decided to show mercy and to forgive the man. But the other vizier protested
43 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 439. 44 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 277. 45 Saʿdi, Golestan, p. 52. 46 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 177. 47 Saʿdi, Golestan, p. 52.
the images offered by the poet, the instant when this veil falls or the tunic of delicate words is torn marks the beginning of an open confrontation, which is considered disgraceful for a cultured man and the avoidance ofthe which images is offeredso wholeheartedly by the poet, advisedthe instant by whenSa’di. this Dropping veil falls or the tunic of delicate words is this veil of courtesy leaves peopletorn naked, marks exposed the beginning to the heat of ofan confrontatiopen confrontation,on, to scathing which is considered disgraceful for a words, aggression and assault. cultured man and the avoidance of which is so wholeheartedly advised by Sa’di. Dropping This is also the reason behindthis Sa ’veildi’s ofacceptance courtesy ofleaves white people lies. The naked, positive exposed outcome to the of heat of confrontation, to scathing words uttered is so important for words,Sa’di thataggression he states and that assault. a lie told with good intention is sometimes better than the truth. In the firstThis chapter is also of the his reason Golestan behind, the Sapoet’di ’tellss acceptance the story of aw hite lies. The positive outcome of ruler who convicted a prisoner to wordsdeath anduttered became is so theimportant subject forof hisSa ’mockerydi that he and states insults. that a lie told with good intention is Intrigued by what the prisoner said,sometimes the king asked better himthan to the repeat truth. his In words.the first The chapter good of-natured his Golestan , the poet tells the story of a vizier (nikmahzar) twisted the wordsruler of who the condemnedconvicted a manprisoner by saying to death that and he becameexpressed the the subject of his mockery and insults. view that those who abase their angerIntrigu anded by forgive what thewould prisoner be rewarded said, the kingby God. asked The him shah, to repeat his words. The good-natured impressed by the speech of the prisoner,vizier ( decidednikmahzar to )show twisted mercy the wordsand to offorgive the condemned the man. But man by saying that he expressed the the other vizier protested by sayingview that that people those of whosuch abaserank, shouldtheir anger only andspeak forgive the truth, would so be rewarded by God. The shah, the king must know that the prisonerimpressed in fact insultedby the speech and curse of thed him. prisoner, In answer, decided however, to show the mercy and to forgive the man. But 118 MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ ruler said: the other vizier protested by saying that people of such rank, should only speak the truth, so the king mustby saying know that that people the prisoner of such inrank, fact should insulted only and speak curse the dtruth, him. so In the answer, king must however, know the :cursed him. In answer, however, the ruler saidدروغ andوی پسندیده insulted تر آمدin factمرا زین prisoner راست the که توthat گفتی :said که rulerروی آن در مصلحتی بود و بنای این بر خبثی و خردمندان گفتهاند دروغی مصلحتآمیز به که راستی دروغ وی پسندیده تر آمد مرا زین راست که تو فتنه گفتیانگیز. 48که روی آن در مصلحتی بود و بنای این بر خبثی و خردمندان گفتهاند دروغی مصلحتآمیز به که راستی فتنهانگیز.48 That lie was more acceptable to me than this truth thou hast uttered because the former That lie was more acceptable to me than this truth thou hast uttered proceeded from a conciliatory disposition and the latter from malignity; and wise men have because the former proceeded from a conciliatory disposition and the said: “A falsehood resulting in conciliation is better that a truth producing trouble.”49 That lie waslatter more from acceptable malignity; to andme wisethan menthis havetruth said:thou “Aha st falsehood uttered because resulting the former proceeded from ain conciliatory conciliation isdisposition better that aand truth the producing latter from trouble.” malignity;49 and wise men have said: “A falsehoodIII resulting in conciliation is better that a truth producing trouble.”49
III However, the danger of open conflict lies not only in being vulnerable to aggressionIII but also in the possibility of exposing human vices,However, weaknesses the danger or offlaws. open conflictAny confrontation lies not only in being vulnerable to aggression which is accompanied by meaningless speech,However,but just also theas in anythedanger possibility reckless of open ofbehaviour exposing conflict humanor lies foolish not vices, only words weaknesses in being orvulnerable flaws. Any to confrontation aggression but may reveal human imperfection. also in thewhich possibility is accompanied of exposing by meaningless human vices,speech, weaknesses just as any reckless or flaws. behaviour Any confrontationor foolish which is accompaniedwords may reveal by meaningless human imperfection. speech, just as any reckless behaviour or foolish words may reveal human imperfection. چون نداری کمال فضل آن به که زبان در دهان نگه داری چون نداری کمال فضل آن به آدمی را زبان فضیحه کند که زبان در دهان نگه داری جوز بیمغز را سبکساری.50 آدمی را زبان فضیحه کند
جوز بیمغز را سبکساری.If thou possess not the perfection of excellence 50 It is best to keep thy tongue within thy mouth. 48 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 31. Disgrace is brought on a man by his tongue. 49 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 97. A walnut, having no kernel, will be light.51 50 Ibidem., p. 162. 48 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 31. 49 Sa’di, GulistānThis, p. aspect 97. of Saʿdi’s teachings is also depicted in a Bustan story of a man who 50 Ibidem.,lost p. 162. his good reputation and was put to shame as a consequence of his shortcomings being9 revealed. A good-natured sage in Egypt who, due to his reticence gathered around himself a group of people, once decided to confront his audience and spoke. Unfortunately, as soon as he uttered his first words, frailties of his character were 9
48 Saʿdi, Golestan, p. 31. 49 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 97. 50 Ibidem., p. 162. 51 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 649.
If thou possess not the perfection of excellence It is best to keep thy tongue within thy mouth. Disgrace is brought on a man by his tongue. A walnut, having no kernel, will be light.51
This aspect of Sa’di’s teachings is also depicted in a Bustan story of a man who lost his good reputation and was put to shame as a consequence of his shortcomings being revealed. A good-natured sage in Egypt who, due to his reticence gathered around himself a group of people, once decided to confront his audience and spoke. Unfortunately, as soon as he uttered his first words, frailties of his character wereTHE CULTURErevealed. OF RECONCILIATION. He then admitted THE MORAL that ASPECT if he OF had SPEECH looked IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 119 in the mirror before he spoke, he revealed.would have He thenrealized admitted his thatweaknesses if he had lookedand would in the have mirror never before he spoke, he would torn the veil that covered them.52 haveIn this realized particular his weaknesses situation, andthe wouldveil that have covered never torn the thesage veil’s that covered them.52 vices was not speech but silence, butIn thisthe mechanism particular situation, remains the the veil same. that In covered human the interactions, sage’s vices was not speech but soft speech forms a screen, whichsilence, if dropped but the mechanismor torn, leaves remains a personthe same. naked In human with interactions, all his soft speech forms a screen, which if dropped or torn, leaves a person naked with all his imperfections ’ imperfections visible to the outsidevisible world. to the What outside Sa world.di speaks What Saʿdiof here speaks is ofnot here a physical is not a physical ugliness that ugliness that is revealed, but a flawis revealed, in the butsoul a that flaw should in the soul be thathidden, should not be exposed. hidden, not Sa exposed.’di Saʿdi warns his warns his readers that: readers that:
اگر عالمی، هیبت خود مبر و گر جاهلی، پرده خود مدر.53
If you are learned, make not away with your own dignity: If you are learned, makeIf notignorant away fool, with rent your not own the veildignity: around you.54 If ignorant fool, rent not the veil around you.54 By articulating this thought Saʿdi follows here the Islamic theological concept of By articulating this thought eybpushiSa’di follows, or khatapushi here the, that Islamic is a percept theological of covering concept or keeping of eyb hidden one’s vices or pushi, or khata pushi, that is aimperfections. percept of Thecovering concept or was keeping developed hidden especially one’ s in vices Shiʿite or Islam, where following the Quranic massage on not deriding others55, theologians and philosophers formulated imperfections. The concept was developed especially in Shi’ite Islam, where following the the argument55 that a person’s weaknesses and faults should not be exposed in the sight Qur’anic massage on not deridingof anotherothers man., theologians It is said that and the philosophersfirst Shiʿa imam, formulated Ali had said the that people’s faults and argument that a person’s weaknessessins and will faults be hidden should till not their be end. exposed56 According in the tosight Shiʿite of another doctrine, the Creator sees all man. It is said that the first Shi’athe imam, person’s Ali weaknesses, had said thatbut decidespeople ’tos keepfaults them and secret, sins willso the be person could keep his th hidden till their end. 56 Accordingor herto Shi dignity’ite indoctrine, the eyes ofthe others. Creator The sees 19 -century all the Persian person theologian’s Mulla Ahmad Naraqi wrote that every person commits several sins each day – and God sees them weaknesses, but decides to keep them secret, so the person could keep his/her dignity in the all, but does not remove the veil that conceals them.57 Hence in Shiʿite Islam, God is eyes of others. The 19th-century sometimesPersian theologian described as Mulla khatapush Ahmad – He Naraqi who veils wrote the errors that andevery faults of His creatures.58 person commits several sins each Theday idea– and is alsoGod present sees them in Persian all, but literary does tradition.not remove That theis how veil a 13th-century Persian poet Moulana Jalaloddin Rumi comments on the issue:
51 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 649. 52 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 303. 52 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 303. 53 Ibidem., p. 303. 53 Ibidem., p. 303. 54 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1109. 54 Saʿdi, Būstān, p. 1109. 55 55 Quran 104:1; 9:79; 49:11. Quran 104:1; 9:79; 49:11. 56 56 Ali b. Abi Taleb, Nahj al-balaghe, p. 453. Ali b. Abi Taleb, Nahj al-balaghe, p. 453. 57 Ahmad b. Mohammad Mehdi Naraqi, Maʿraj al-saʿade, Adine-ye sabz, Tehran 1390 AP, p. 451. 58 A similar idea can be found in the New Testament, in the first letter of Saint Peter where it is said that God covers man’s sins with His love. “Above all, maintain constant love for one another, for love covers a multitude of sins.” The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version containing the Old and New Testaments with 10the Apocryphal/Deuterocanoniocal Books, New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press 1990, 1 Peter 4:8.
57 that conceals them. Hence in Shi’ite Islam, God is sometimes described as khatapush – He who veils the errors and faults of His creatures.58 The idea is also present in Persian literary tradition. That is how a 13th-century Persian poet Moulana Jalaloddin Rumi comments on the that conceals them.57 Hence in Shi’ite Islam, God is sometimes described as khatapush – He issue: who veils the errors and faults of His creatures.58 The idea is also present in Persian literary tradition. That is how a 13th-century Persian poet Moulana Jalaloddin Rumi comments on the این قدر ارشاد تو بخشیدهای issue: MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ تا بدین بس عیب ما پوشیدهای.59 120
این قدر ارشاد تو بخشیدهای You have granted us much of your guidance تا بدین بس عیب ما پوشیدهای.59 You have covered so many of our sins?60
You have granted us much of your guidance You have granted us much of your guidance 60 For Sa’di theYou conclusion have covered is obvious,so many of and our again sins? is not very far from what other Persian You have covered so many of our sins?60 authors articulated. If God obscures human weakness, and veils people’s faults so that people For Saʿdi the conclusion is obvious, and again is not very far from what other Persian could enjoy the respect of others, they should not act otherwise. According to Sa’di, being a For Sa’di the conclusion is obvious, andauthors again articulated.is not very If far God from obscures what humanother Persian weakness, and veils people’s faults so that cultured person does not necessarily mean being faultless, but results in the fact that the authors articulated. If God obscures human weakness,people could and veils enjoy people the respect’s faults of others, so that they people should not act otherwise. According to defects of Saʿdi,character being remain a cultured hidden person from does the not sight necessarily of others, mean covered being faultless,by a veil but of resultscourtesy in and could enjoy the respect of others, they should not act otherwise. According to Sa’di, being a politeness.the The fact only that onethe defectsentitled of tocharacter see a manremain’s defectshidden fromis God. the sightHere, of Sa others,’di seems covered to byfollow cultured person does not necessarily mean being faultless, but results in the fact that the religious ethicsa veil ofin courtesywhich t ando disclose politeness. someone The only’s faults one entitled and to to seek see a signs man’s of defects imperfection is God. in defects of character remain hidden from the sightHere, of Saʿdiothers, seems covered to follow by a religiousveil of courtesy ethics in whichand to disclose someone’s faults and another human being is considered to be one of the more serious sins.61 The sin born from politeness. The only one entitled to see a manto’s seekdefects signs is ofGod. imperfection Here, Sa ’ indi anotherseems to human follow being is considered to be one of the disclosing someone’s weakness61 and mocking their faults is the sin of violating that which in religious ethics in which to disclose someonemore’s faults serious and sins. to seek The signs sin born of imperfection from disclosing in someone’s weakness and mocking Persian culturetheir faults is called is the aberu sin of – violating i.e. the thatperson which’s reputation, in Persian culture good nameis called or aberugood –image i.e. the in the another human being is considered to be one of the more serious sins.61 The sin born from eyes of operson’sthers sometimes reputation, referredgood name to or as good niknami image. 62in Thus,the eyes disclosing of others sometimessomeone ’referreds faults or disclosing someone’s weakness and mocking their faults is62 the sin of violating that which in defects destroysto as niknami his or. herThus, aberu disclosing. In Persian, someone’s aberu faults literallyor defects means destroys “water his or herof theaberu face,”. In or Persian culture is called aberu – i.e. the personPersian,’s reputation, aberu refers good to name the “light or good or glow image of the in face”the (though it’s popular etymology is “light or glow of the face,” and translates directly into esteem, respect and social position that eyes of others sometimes referred to as niknami“water. 62of Thus,the face”), disclosing and translates someone directly’s faults into esteem,or respect and social position that in many situations can also be equated with dignity. A person with aberu is revered and defects destroys his or her aberu. In Persian, inaberu many literallysituations means can also “water be equated of the with face,” dignity. or A person with aberu is revered and venerated.venerated. Sa’di himself Saʿdi himselfalso considers also considers a person a person’s’s aberu aberu to tobe bean an essential essential quality, quality, andand an “light or glow of the face,” and translates directly into esteem, respect and social position that important anelement important of everyelement person of every’s public person’s and public social and life, social saying life, that: saying that: in many situations can also be equated with dignity. A person with aberu is revered and venerated. Sa’di himself also considers a person’s aberu to be an essential quality, and an و حکیمان گفته اند: آب حیات اگر فروشند فی المثل به آب روی. دانا نخرد که مردن important element of every person’s public and social life, saying that: به علت، به از زندگانی به مذلت.63 63
instance the water of life were to be و If for“ حکیمان :said گفته اند: have آب حیات اگر Philosophersفروشند فی المثل به آب روی. دانا نخرد که no wise man would purchase it because مردن به ,reputation علت، goodبه a از for زندگانی به exchangedمذلت.63 it is preferable to die with honour then to live in disgrace.64
Saʿdi points to the fact that human aberu is also a valuable quality in the eyes of 57 AhmadGod, b. Mohammad who covers Mehdi peoples’ Naraqi, sins Ma’raj and al takes-sa’ade care, Adine that- ye people sabz, Tehran keep their 1390 good AP, p. name 451. and 58 A similarreputation idea can in be the found eyes in ofthe theirNew fellowTestament, men. in As the hefirst writes: letter of Saint Peter where it is said that God covers man’s sins with His love. “Above all, maintain constant love for one another, for love covers a multitude 57 of sins.” The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version containing the Old and New Testaments with the Ahmad b. Mohammad Mehdi Naraqi, Ma’raj al-sa’ade, Adine-ye sabz, Tehran 1390 AP, p. 451. 58 Apocryphal /Deuterocanoniocal59 Rumi, Masnavi Maʿnavi, Books, vol. New I, Yorkp. 114. and Oxford, Oxford University Press 1990, 1 Peter 4:8. A similar idea can be found in the New Testament,59 in the first letter of Saint Peter where it is said that God Rumi, Masnavi60 Own Ma’navi,translation. vol. I, p. 114. covers man’s sins with His love. “Above all, maintain60 constant love for one another, for love covers a multitude Own translation.61 Abdolhosein Dastgheyb, Gonahan-e kabire (“Great sins”), Nas, Tehran 1390 AP, p. 729; p. 509. of sins.” The Holy Bible: New Revised Standard Version containing the Old and New Testaments with the 61 Abdolhosein62 I elaborateDastgheyb, on this Gonahan idea in: -Ae kabire Contribution (Great to sins), the Study Nas, of Tehran the Persian 1390 Concept AP, p. of 729; Aberu p. ”Hemispheres.509 Apocryphal /Deuterocanoniocal Books, New York62 and Oxford, Oxford University Press 1990, 1 Peter 4:8. 59 I elaborateStudies on on this the Culturesidea in: and A ContributionSocieties” 2014, to vol. the 29, Study no. 1, of pp. the 113–127. Persian Concept of Aberu ”Hemispheres. Rumi, Masnavi Ma’navi, vol. I, p. 114. 63 60 Studies on the Cultures Saʿdi, Golestan and Societies”, p. 92. 2014, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 113-127. Own translation. 63 64 61 Sa’di, Golestan Saʿdi,, p.Gulistān 92. , p. 365. Abdolhosein Dastgheyb, Gonahan-e kabire (Great sins), Nas, Tehran 1390 AP, p. 729; p. 509 62 I elaborate on this idea in: A Contribution to the Study of the Persian Concept of Aberu ”Hemispheres. Studies on the Cultures and Societies” 2014, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 113-127. 63 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 92. 11
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defects of character remain hidden from the sight of others, covered by a veil of courtesy and politeness. The only one entitled to see a man’s defects is God. Here, Sa’di seems to follow religious ethics in which to disclose someone’s faults and to seek signs of imperfection in another human being is considered to be one of the more serious sins.61 The sin born from disclosing someone’s weakness and mocking their faults is the sin of violating that which in Persian culture is called aberu – i.e. the person’s reputation, good name or good image in the eyes of others sometimes referred to as niknami. 62 Thus, disclosing someone’s faults or defects destroys his or her aberu. In Persian, aberu literally means “water of the face,” or “light or glow of the face,” and translates directly into esteem, respect and social position that in many situations can also be equated with dignity. A person with aberu is revered and venerated. Sa’di himself also considers a person’s aberu to be an essential quality, and an important element of every person’s public and social life, saying that:
و حکیمان گفته اند: آب حیات اگر فروشند فی المثل به آب روی. دانا نخرد که مردن به علت، به از زندگانی به مذلت.63
Philosophers have said: “If for instance the water of life were to be exchanged for a Philosophers have said: “If for instance the water of life were to be exchanged for a good reputation, no wise man wouldgood purchase reputation, it because no wise it man is preferable would purchase to die withit because honour it is preferable to die with honour 64 then to live in disgrace. then to live in disgrace.64
Sa’di points to the fact that human aberu is also a valuable quality in the eyes of God, who covers peoples’ sins and takes careSa that’di pointspeople to keep the theirfact that good human name aberuand reputation is also a valuablein quality in the eyes of God, the eyes of their fellow men. As Sawho’di writes:covers peoples’ sins and takes care that people keep their good name and reputation in the eyes of their fellow men. As Sa’di writes: پرده ناموس بندگان به گناه فاحش ندرد، و وظیفه روزی به خطای منکر نبرد.65 THE CULTURE OF RECONCILIATION. THE MORAL ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 121 He tears not the veil of reputation of his worshippers even for grievous sins, and does پرده ناموس بندگان به گناه فاحش ندرد، و وظیفه روزی به خطای منکر نبرد. not withhold their daily allowance of bread for great crimes. 6665
He tears not the veilHe tears of reputationnot the veil ofof reputation his worshippers of his worshippers even for even grievous for grievous sins, sins,and does It is entirely unseemly for a humanIt isbeing entirely therefore unseemly to act for in a a human way that being could therefore damage to act in a way that could damage66 not withhold their dailyand allowance does not of withhold bread fortheir great daily crimes. allowance66 of bread for great crimes. his/her own or someone else’s favourablehis/her own image or someone in society else. The’s favourable poet also imagewarns inaga societyinst . The poet also warns against reproaching others for their faults, because this mayIt notis entirely only unseemlymay injure for someonea human being’s good therefore to act in a way that could damage reproaching others for their faults, because this may not only may injure someone’s good name, but may also respectively undermine a personhis’ s own own or reputation. someone else’sHe writes: favourable image in society. The poet also warns against 61 reproaching others for their faults, because’ this may not only injure someone’s good name, Abdolhosein but may alsoDastgheyb, respectively Gonahan undermine-e kabire (Great a person sins), Nas,s own Tehran reputation. 1390 AP, Hep. 729; writes: p. 509 62 name, but may also respectively undermine a person’s own reputation. The poet writes: .of the Persian Concept of Aberu ”Hemispheres مردمان Study را to theعیب نهانی پیدا Contribution مکن A که :idea in مرایشان thisرا on رسوا کنی، وI elaborate خود را بیاعتماد.67 Studies on the Cultures and Societies” 2014, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 113-127. مردمان را عیب نهانی پیدا مکن که مرایشان را رسوا کنی، و خود را بیاعتماد.Sa’di, Golestan, p. 92. 67 63 Reveal not the secret faults of man64 Sa’di, because Gulistān thou, p. 365.wilt put them to shame and wilt forfeit 65 68 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 23.Reveal not the secret faults of man because thou wilt put them to shame thy own confidence. 66 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 69. 68 Reveal not the secretand wiltfaults forfeit of man thy ownbecause confidence. thou wilt put them to shame and wilt forfeit 68 Islamic teachings of religiousthy ownliterature confidence. are Islamicfull of teachingsmoral maxims of religious similar literature to the are full of moral maxims similar to the following: “Do not follow vices and errors offollowing: the believers, “Do not because follow vices whoever and errors seeks of the believers, because whoever seeks 14 imperfection in a brother, God will seek imperfectionsimperfection in him/her, in a brother, and if God He willfinds seek it, imperfectionshe/she in him, and if He finds it, he will will be disgraced.”69 Sa’di consequentlyIslamic warns the teachingsbe reader disgraced.” that: of 69religious Saʿdi consequently literature warnsare full the readerof moral that: maxims similar to the following: “Do not follow vices and errors of the believers, because whoever seeks نیک سهلست زنده بیجان کرد imperfection in a brother, God will seek imperfections in him/her, and if He finds it, he/she کشته را باز زنده نتوان کرد 69 :that شرط reader عقلست the صبر warns تیرانداز will be disgraced.” Sa’di consequently که چو رفت از کمان نیاید باز.70 70
نیک سهلست زنده بیجان کرد .It is quite easy to deprive a man of life It is quite easy to deprive a man of life. کشته را باز زنده نتوان کرد .When he is slain he cannot be resuscitated again When he is slain he cannot be resuscitatedIt is a condition again. of wisdom in the archer to be patient شرط عقلست صبر 71تیرانداز.It is a condition of wisdom in the archerBecause to be when patient the arrow leaves the bow it returns no more که چو رفت از کمان نیاید باز.70 For this reason, Saʿdi warns his readers to avoid situations (whether this be 64 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 365. a verbal confrontation or senseless speech), which may reveal people’s weaknesses and 65 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 23. imperfections. That is also the reason why silence is so valued, as it is often the easiest 66 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 69. It is quite easy to deprive a man of life. 67 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 163. 65 68 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 651. Saʿdi,When Golestan he, isp. 23.slain he cannot be resuscitated again. 66 69 Hamed Rahmat Kashani, Farhang-e sokhanan-e rasul -Saʿdi,e khoda Gulistān (The, p. 69.Dictionary of God’s Prophet 67 It is a condition of wisdom in the archer to be patient Nahj Saʿdi, al -Golestanbalaghe, p. 163. Massage), Payam-e edalat: Tehran, 1391 AP; Ali b. Abi Taleb,68 , p. 356. 70 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 165. Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 651. 71 Because69 Hamed whenRahmat Kashani,the arrow Farhang-e leaves sokhanan-e the bow rasul-e it returns khoda (The no Dictionary more. of God’s Prophet Massage), Payam-e edalat: Tehran, 1391 AP; Ali b. Abi Taleb, Nahj al-balaghe, p. 356. 70 Saʿdi, Golestan, p. 165. 71 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 657. For this12 reason, Sa’di warns his readers to avoid situations (whether this be a verbal confrontation or senseless speech), which may reveal people’s weaknesses and imperfections.
67 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 163. 68 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 651. 69 Hamed Rahmat Kashani, Farhang-e sokhanan-e rasul-e khoda (The Dictionary of God’s Prophet Massage), Payam-e edalat: Tehran, 1391 AP; Ali b. Abi Taleb, Nahj al-balaghe, p. 356. 70 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 165. 71 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 657.
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Because when the arrow leaves the bow it returns no more.71
For this reason, Sa’di warns his readers to avoid situations (whether this be a verbal confrontation or senseless speech), which may reveal people’s weaknesses and imperfections. That is also the reason why silence is so valued,122 as it is often the easiest wayMAGDALENA to prevent RODZIEWICZ embarrassment. However, man cannot be silent all the time. If he speaks, then appropriate, way to prevent embarrassment. However, man cannot be silent all the time. If he speaks, sensible and soft language with kind words can shape his interactions with others, alleviate then appropriate, sensible and soft language with kind words can shape his interactions the heat of conflict and can therefore play a similarwith protective others, alleviate role as silence.the heat of conflict and can therefore play a similar protective role Concern for keeping aberu in contact with asanother silence. person seems to be a key argument in Sa’di’s philosophy of human relations. The poet warnsConcern against for keeping destroying aberu in someone contact with else another’s person seems to be a key argument good reputation in the neighbourhood because it inis Saʿdi’slikely that philosophy fortune of will human wreck relations. a person The’ s poet warns against destroying someone 72 else’s good reputation in the neighbourhood because it is likely that fortune will wreck aberu in the whole city. Material possessions may come and go, as he notices, whereas a person’s aberu in the whole city.72 Material possessions may come and go, as he notices, – ’ – aberu the respect and esteem of one s fellow whereasmen gaberuuarantees – the life respect-long andtranquillity esteem of and one’s fellow men – guarantees life‑long peace of mind; its loss, in turn, makes life more complicated.tranquillity and peace of mind; its loss, in turn, makes life more complicated.
سختست پس از جاه، تحکم بردن خــــــو کرده به ناز، جــور مردم بردن.73
It is difficult to obey after losing dignity It is difficult to obey after losingand dignity to bear violence from men after being caressed.74 and to bear violence from men after being caressed.74 Saʿdi is convinced that a violation of another person’s aberu in the eyes of society Sa’di is convinced that a violation of anotherdestroys person not ’ onlys aberu the personin the himself, eyes of but society damages the very foundations of social life. destroys not only the person himself, but damagesWhen the very someone’s foundations good name of social is destroyed, life. When that person becomes untrustworthy in the eyes of others; he may be ostracized and may feel excluded. Deprived of his good ’ someone s good name is destroyed, that person becomesname, he untrustworthy suffers disgrace in and the hiseyes social of others; position is weakened. Saʿdi’s concern for an he may be ostracized and may feel excluded. Deprivedindividual’s of his welfare good name,is therefore he suffers a concern disgrace manifested towards the whole society. In the and his social position is weakened. Sa’di’s concernpoet’s for view, an individual this state of’s affairswelfare – that is therefore is, depriving a someone of aberu, good image, name concern manifested towards the whole society. In andthe poet reputation’s view, – cannotthis state bring of anythingaffairs – good;that is, it only begets mistrust between people. depriving someone of aberu, good image, name andHence, reputation a person’s – cannot perfection bring depends anything on whether good; the words he utters reinforce concord and empathy between people and thus safeguard dignity. it only begets mistrust between people. Hence, a person’s perfection depends on whether the words he utters reinforce concord and empathy between people and thus safeguard dignity. IV IV It is, however, important to notice that Saʿdi’s call to take care of aberu (both one’s own and someone else’s) in an everyday interaction is not a sign of vanity or arrogance ’ ’ ’ It is, however, important to notice that Sa diconnecteds call to take with care longing of aberu for high (both esteem one ands own good fame, but conversely, a testimony to and someone else’s) in an everyday interaction is thenot poet’s a sign humility of vanity (tavazo or arroganceʿ), which in connected Perso-Islamic ethical tradition is considered to be with longing for high esteem and good fame, onebut ofconversely, the greatest a virtuestestimony of all. 75to Saʿdithe poet recognizes’s it as a condition for humanity as he states that:
72 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 306. 73 Saʿdi, Golestan, p. 139. 74 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 559. 71 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 657. 75 Saʿdi himself wrote a whole chapter on humility in his Bustan, but the concept can be found in many 72 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 306. other Persian literary texts. 73 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 139. 74 Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 559.
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humility (tavazo’), which in Persian-Islamic ethical tradition is considered to be one of the greatest virtues of all.75 Sa’di recognizes it as a condition for humanity as he states that: humility (tavazo’), which in Persian-Islamic ethical tradition is considered to be one of the 75 ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 123 بنی MORALآدم that: THEسرشت از states خاک RECONCILIATION. he داردgreatest virtues of all. Sa’di recognizes it as a condition forTHE humanity CULTURE OF as اگر خاکی نباشد آدمی نیست.76 بنی آدم سرشت از خاک دارد 76 اگر خاکی نباشد آدمی نیست. .A man’s nature is of earth 77 If he is not humble he is not a man.A man’s nature is of earth. ’ A man s nature is of earth.If he is not humble he is not a man.77 77 Because God concealsIf ahe person is not ’humbles faults heand is notsins a andman. allows human beings to enjoy respect in the eyes of others, they ought to adopt a Becausesimilar Godperspective. conceals a Thisperson’s should faults beand sins and allows human beings to enjoy respect in the eyes of others, they ought to adopt a similar perspective. This should be manifestedBecause in manGod’ sconceals decision a not person to harm’s faults others, and not sins to andinsult allows them human and not beings to put to them enjoy to respect in the eyes of others, they ought to adoptmanifested a similar in perspective.man’s decision This not toshould harm others,be not to insult them and not to put them shame, as it might destroy or undermine their good name.to shame, The asidea it mightis beautifully destroy orexpressed undermine by their good name. The idea is beautifully ’ manifestedthe poet himself in man in ones decision of his masnavisnot to harm: others, notexpressed to insult by themthe poet and himself not to in put one them of his to masnavis : shame, as it might destroy or undermine their good name. The idea is beautifully expressed by من آن مورم که در پایم بمالند :the poet himself in one of his masnavis نه زنبورم که از دستم بنالند منکجا آن خود مورم شکر که این در پایم نعمت بمالند گزارم نهکه زور زنبورم مردمکه از آزاری دستم ندارم.بنالند 78 کجا خود شکر این نعمت گزارم foot که underزور مردم is troddenآزاری ندارم.I am that ant78 which I am that ant which is trodden underNot footthe wasp, the pain of whose sting causes lament. Not the wasp, the pain of whose sting causesHow shall lament. I give due thanks for the blessing HowI am shall that antI give which due isthanks trodden for undertheThat blessing foot I do not possess the strength of injuring mankind?79 ThatNot I thedo wasp,not possess the pain the of strength whose ofsting injuring causes mankind? lament. 79 Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari, a well-known 20th-century Iranian Shiʿa scholar How shall I give due thanks for the blessing That I do not possess the strength ofphilosopher injuring proposedmankind? a 79slightly different reading of the last verse. Instead of the words: Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari, a well-known 20th“that - Icentury do not Iranian possess theShi ’ strengtha theologist of injuring and mankind,” he suggested: “that although philosopher proposed a slightly different reading of theI have last theverse. power, Instead I do of not the cause words: anyone “that distress.” I 80 Motahhari’s proposal even better do notAyatollah possess Mortezathe strength Motahhari, of injuring a well mankind,”-known 20thillustrateshe suggested:-century the Iranian idea “that that Shialthough respect’a theologist forI have other andthe people is a matter of choice rather than philosopherpower, I do proposednot cause aanyone slightly distress.” different80 reading Motahhari of the’humans proposallast nature.verse. even Instead better of illustratesthe words: the “that idea I For Saʿdi, humility is also a key element of proper human relations. As such it dothat not respect possess for otherthe strength people isof a injuringmatter of mankind,” choice rather he thansuggested: human “that nature. although I have the power, I do not cause anyone distress.”80 Motahhari’shoulds proposal be understood even better in theillustrates context ofthe such idea terms as modesty (shekaste nafsi, forutani) For Sa’di, humility is also a key element of properor lowering human oneself relations. in front As of such others it (shouldezhar-e khari) which are still present in Persian thatbe understood respect for inother the peoplecontext is of a mattersuch terms of choice as modesty rathersocial than (shekaste convention. human nafsi, nature. Such forutani humility ) doesor lowering not lead to humiliation, but enriches and ennobles oneselfFor in Sa front’di, ofhumility others is(ezhar also -ae keykhari element) which ofare proper man,still present andhuman as Saʿdi in relations. Persian himself socialAs says: such convention. it should beSuch understood humility indoes the notcontext lead of to such humiliation, terms as modestybut enriches (shekaste and ennobles nafsi, forutani man, )and or loweringas Sa’di oneselfhimself insays: front of others (ezhar-e khari) which are still present in Persian social convention. Such humility does not lead to humiliation, but enriches and ennobles man, and as Sa’di 76 Saʿdi, Golestan, p. 85. himself says: 77 Saʿdi, Gulistān, p. 327. 75 Sa’di himself wrote a whole chapter on humility in his Bustan78 Saʿdi,, but theMawaʿez concept (Sermons) can be in: found Kolliyat-e in many Saʿdi other, p. 784. Persian literary texts. 79 Muslihʿuddin Saʿdi, The Gulistan Or Rose Garden of Saʿdi, E. Rehatsek (trans.), D. Rosenbaum (ed.), 76 75 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 85. Omphaloskepsis Books 2010, s. 101. 77 Sa’di himself wrote a whole chapter on humility in his Bustan, but the concept can be found in many other Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 327. 80 Mohammad Kazem Kamran, Wisdom of Saʿdi, Alhoda International Publishers and Distributions, p. 59. Persian78 literary texts. 76 Sa’di, Mawa’ez (Sermons) in: Kolliyat-e Sa’di, p. 784. 79 Sa’di, Golestan, p. 85. 77 Muslih’uddin Sa’di, The Gulistan Or Rose Garden of Sa’di Sa’di, Gulistān, p. 327. , E. Rehatsek (trans.), D. Rosenbaum (ed.), Omphaloskepsis78 Books 2010, s. 101. 80 Sa’di, Mawa’ez (Sermons) in: Kolliyat -e Sa’di, p. 784. 79 Wisdom of Sa’di Muslih’uddinMohammad Kazem Sa’di, Kamran,The Gulistan Or Rose Garden, Alhoda of International Sa’di, E. Rehatsek Publishers (trans.), and Distributions, D. Rosenbaum p. 59(ed.),. Omphaloskepsis Books 2010, s. 101. 80 Mohammad Kazem Kamran, Wisdom of Sa’di, Alhoda International Publishers and Distributions, p. 59. 14
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ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺖ ﺟﺰ ﺍﻳﻦ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ﺩﺭﻭﻳﺶ ﺭﺍ
ﮐﻪ ﺍﻓﮑﻨﺪﻩ ﺩﺍﺭﺩ ﺗﻦ ﺧﻮﻳﺶ ﺭﺍ RODZIEWICZ ﺑﻠﻨﺪﻳﺖ ﺑﺎﻳﺪ MAGDALENAﺗﻮﺍﺿﻊ ﮔﺰﻳﻦ 124 ﮐﻪ ﺁﻥ ﺑﺎﻡ ﺭﺍ ﻧﻴﺴﺖ ﺳﻠﻢ ﺟﺰ ﺍﻳﻦ.81 طریقت جز این نیست درویش را که افکنده دارد تن خویش را There is for the darvish no other way بلندیت باید تواضع گزین ;Than to keep his person cast down 81 که آن بام را نیست سلم جز ,yاین. If eminence is what you’d have, then choose humilit 82 For this is the sole ladder to ascend to suchThere a roo is ftop.for the darvish no other way There is for the darvish no otherThan way to keep his person cast down; It is also lowering oneselfThan and to acceptingkeep his person one’s castinconspicuousness down;If eminence is thatwhat foryou’d Sa’di have, builds then choose humility, man’s aberu in the eyesIf eminence of others. is what Tawazo’ you’ dsar-e have, raf’at then afrazadatchooseFor this humility, is“humility the sole ladderwill elevate to ascend the to such a rooftop.82 82 head of exaltation For for this you” is the he sole says ladder in his to Bustanascend. 83to suchBeing a rooftop. humble is accompanied by It is also lowering oneself and accepting one’s inconspicuousness that for Saʿdi builds awareness that both the soul and intellect, as well as man’sthe tongue, aberu inare the not eyes the of sole others. conditions Tawazoʿ of sar-e rafʿat afrazadat “humility will elevate ’ ’ a person’sIt is humanityalso lowering but onlyoneself its preconditions and accepting that one enablesthe inconspicuousness head man of toexaltation prove his for that nobility.you” for he Sa says di buildsin his Bustan .83 Being humble is accompanied by man’sThe aberu humility in the thateyes theof others. poet sees Tawazo as an’ sar important-e rafawareness’at eleafrazadatment that ofboth “humility everyday the soul and will life, intellect, elevate stands as the inwell as the tongue, are not the sole conditions 83 oppositionhead of exaltation to arrogance for oryou” insolence, he says takkabor in his , Bustanwhichof .asa person’s heBeing writes humanityhumble be khak isbut andar accompaniedonly itsandazadat, preconditions by that enable man to prove his nobility. “willawareness cast you that in both the thedust”. soul84 Takkabarand intellect, is a ascharacter well as defectthe Thetongue, and humility is are born not that from the the solegiving poet conditions sees prior as ity an ofto important element of everyday life, stands a person’s humanity but only its preconditions that enablein opposition man to toprove arrogance his nobility. or insolence, takabbor85 , which as he writes be khak andar the lowest dimension of the human soul – nafs-e ammareandazadat – which, “will is cast a seat you ofin worldlythe dust”. lusts.84 Takabbor is a character defect and is born from As ArleyThe Loewen humility states, that inthe Sufi poet literature, sees as thean batimportanttle againstgiving element priority the ego of to was theeveryday lowestexpressed dimensionlife, exactly stands of by thein human soul – nafs-e ammare – which is followingopposition proper to arrogance conduct or whichinsolence, meant takkabor giving, upwhich one’a seatass heownof writesworldly needs be lusts. in khak favour85 As andar Arley of andazadat, aLoewen supreme states, in Sufi literature, the battle against the 84 goal.“will86 cast Man you instinctively in the dust”. concentrates Takkabar onis ameeting character his egodefect lowe was stand expressedneeds, is born follows exactlyfrom giving nafs by following, and priority places proper to conduct which meant giving up one’s 86 85 oneselfthe lowest in thedimension centre, andof the this human causes soul arrogance. – nafs- eA ammares anown example needs – which in of favour suchis a seat ofa man,a ofsupreme worldly Sa’di goal. presents lusts. Man instinctively concentrates on meeting his As Arley Loewen states, in Sufi literature, the battle lowestagainst needs, the ego follows was nafsexpressed, and places exactly oneself by in the centre, and this causes arrogance. someone who becomes embroiled in a dispute andAs seek an examples confrontations, of such a man, a Saʿdi situation presents that someone who becomes embroiled in a dispute eventuallyfollowing properends in conducthis disgrace. which meant giving up one’s own needs in favour of a supreme 86 and seeks confrontations, a situation that eventually ends in his disgrace. goal. Man instinctively concentrates on meeting his lowest needs, follows nafs, and places ﻳﮑﯽ presentsﻧﺎﺳﺰﺍ di’ﮔﻔﺖ Sa ﺩﺭ ﻭﻗﺖ,a man ﺟﻨﮓ oneself in the centre, and this causes arrogance. As an example of such that ﮔﺮﻳﺒﺎﻥ tionﺩﺭﻳﺪﻧﺪ situaﻭی aﺭﺍ ﺑﻪ ﭼﻨﮓ ,someone who becomes embroiled in a dispute and seeks confrontations ﻗﻔﺎﺧﻮﺭﺩﻩ، ﻋﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻭ ﮔﺮﻳﺎﻥ ﻧﺸﺴﺖ .eventually ends in his disgrace ﺟﻬﺎﻧﺪﻳﺪﻩﺍی ﮔﻔﺘﺶ ﺍی ﺧﻮﺩﭘﺮﺳﺖ ﭼﻮ یکی ﻏﻨﭽﻪ ناسزا ﮔﺮﺕگفت در ﺑﺴﺘﻪ وقت ﺑﻮﺩی جنگﺩﻫﻦ ﺩﺭﻳﺪﻩ گریبان ﻧﺪﻳﺪی درینده ﭼﻮ وی ﮔﻞ را به ﭘﻴﺮﻫﻦ.87چنگ قفاخورده، عریان و گریان نشست جهاندیدهای گفتش ای خودپرست 81 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 265. 82 چو غنچه گرت بسته بودی دهن.Saʿdi, Būstān, p. 989 دریده ندیدی چو گل پیرهن. .Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 265 83 84 Ibidem., p. 265. 81 87 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 265. 85 که آن بام را نیست سلم جز این. .Quran 12:53 82 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 989. 86 Arley Loewen, Proper Conduct (Adab) Is Everything: The Futuwwat-nāmah-i Sulṭānī of Husayn Va’iz-i 83 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 265. 84 Kashifi, “Iranian Studies” 2003, Vol. 36, No. 4, p. 550. Ibidem., p. 265. 87 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 303. 85 Quran 12:53. 86 81 ArleySa’di, Loewen,Bustan, p. Proper 265. Conduct (Adab) Is Everything: The Futuwwat-nāmah-i Sulṭānī of Husayn Va’iz-i Kashifi82 Sa’di,, “Iranian Būstān Studies” 2003, Vol. 36, No. 4, p. 550. 87 , p. 989. 83 Sa’di,Sa’di, BustanBustan,, p.p. 303.265. 84 Ibidem., p. 265. 85 Quran 12:53. 86 Arley Loewen, Proper Conduct (Adab) Is Everything: The Futuwwat-nāmah-i Sulṭānī of Husayn Va’iz-i Kashifi, “Iranian Studies” 2003, Vol. 36, No. 4, p. 550.15 87 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 303.
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A man while quarrelling said THEwhat CULTURE was improper,OF RECONCILIATION. THE MORAL ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 125 And those who stood by tore his collar with their claws; A man while quarrelling said what was improper, He suffered cuffs and sat down,And naked, those who weeping, stood by tore his collar with their claws; 88 At which one, world-experienced, said:He ‘O suffered worshipper cuffs ofand the sat self! down,’ naked, weeping, At which one, world-experienced, said: ‘O worshipper of the self!’88 Here such a man is called khod parast, one who worships oneself. In the centre of his Here such a man is called khod parast, one who worships oneself. In the centre of interest he places not God or another person but his own ego. Sa’di questions the humanity of his interest he places not God or another person but his own ego. Saʿdi questions the such a person by saying: humanity of such a person by saying:
کسی سیرت آدمی گوش کرد که اول سگ نفس خاموش کرد.89
A person can heed humanity’s course A person can heed humanityOnly when’s course he’s silenced the lower-self’s dog.90 Only when he’s silenced the lower-self’s dog.90 Again, Saʿdi’s words correspond with the ideas expressed in Persian mystical tradition, 91 Again, Sa’di’s words correspond with inthe which ideas human expressed perfection in Persian is seen mystical as a state tradition, achieved by moderating nafs. For Saʿdi, in which human perfection is seen as a statecontrolling achieved nafs resultsby moderating in being humble, nafs. 91 respectful For Sa ’ofdi, others and peace-loving. controlling nafs results in being humble, respectful of others and peace-loving. V V Seyyed Ataʿollah Mohajerani, a Persian historian and writer, called Saʿdi a poet of Seyyed Ata’ollah Mohajerani, a Persianmodara historian and mehrabani and writer,, that iscalled tolerance Sa’ anddi a kindness, poet of and considered it to be one of the reasons for the lasting relevance of his poetry.92 Indeed, the philosophy that emerges modara and mehrabani, that is tolerance andfrom kindness, Saʿdi’s approach and considered is one of consentit to be and one amicability, of the of reconciliation that manifests 92 reasons for the lasting relevance of his poetry.itself particularly Indeed, the in philosophy an encounter that between emerges two from people. What shapes this meeting in Sa’di’s approach is one of consent and amicability,Saʿdi’s view of are reconciliation soft and kind words,that manifests which calm itself emotions and prevent an escalation particularly in an encounter between two people.of controversy. What shapes By preventing this meeting the symbolic in Sa’ di hair’s view of interaction from being torn, people are soft and kind words, which calm emotionsform and proper prevent and healthy an escalation relations. of This controversy. relationship By is also based on mutual respect for a person’s aberu – that is, good image in the eyes of others. When the relationship is not preventing the symbolic hair of interaction fromworthy being of attention, torn, people speech form or its proper absence and allows healthy one to avoid unwanted confrontation, relations. This relationship is also based on mutualbut save respect face (aberu for a). pe Thisrson in’s turnaberu is very– that important is, good because for Saʿdi the respect for image in the eyes of others. When the relationshiphuman aberu is not would worthy appear of attention, to be the speech foundation or its of society. This respect should be absence allows one to avoid unwanted confrontation,directed toward but bothsave one’sface own(aberu aberu). This and thein turnaberu is of the interlocutor. Any violation very important because for Sa’di the respect for human aberu would appear to be the 88 foundation of society. This respect should be directed Saʿdi, Būstān toward, p. 1111. both one’s own aberu and the 89 Saʿdi, Bustan, p. 293. aberu of the interlocutor. Any violation of90 it,Saʿdi, brought Būstān, p.about 1079. by shame or humiliation, infringes social order, evoking insecurity and instability91 Annemarie because Schimmel, itMystical makes Dimensions people ofunreliable Islam, University in of North Carolina Press, Chapell Hill 1978, p. 112. 92 Seyyed Ataʿollah Mohajerani, Saʿdi shaʿer-e modara va mehrabani (Saʿdi a Poet of Tolerance and Kindness), Viewed 15 January 2017,
88 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1111. 89 Sa’di, Bustan, p. 293. 90 Sa’di, Būstān, p. 1079. 91 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, University of North Carolina Press, Chapell Hill 1978, p. 112. 92 Seyyed Ata’ollah Mohajerani, Sa’di sha’er-e modara va mehrabani (Sa’di a Poet of Tolerance and Kindness), Viewed 15 January 2017,
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126 MAGDALENA RODZIEWICZ
of it, brought about by shame or humiliation, infringes social order, evoking insecurity relation to each other. Above all it is also a form of wicked behaviour, in which someone puts and instability because it makes people unreliable in relation to each other. Above himself ahead of God, who in His mercifulnessall it is also chooses a form of to wicked veil a behaviour,man’s weaknesses in which someonerather puts himself ahead of than expose them. That is why in manyGod, occasions who in His Sa mercifulness’di emphasizes chooses the to need veil ato man’savoid weaknesses any rather than expose risky situations that may directly leadthem. to the That disclosure is why inof many anyone occasions’s vices, Saʿdi shortcomings emphasizes and the need to avoid any risky weaknesses as this may harm this personsituations’s aberu that ,may which directly is guarded lead to theby disclosureGod. Whether of anyone’s man vices, shortcomings and weaknesses as this may harm this person’s aberu, which is guarded by God. Whether man maintains his aberu depends, therefore, not only on his own behaviour, but also lies in the maintains his aberu depends, therefore, not only on his own behaviour, but also lies in hands of others, those who might decidethe hands to respect of others, or destroythose who it. might In one decide of his to respectghazals or Sadestroy’di it. In one of his ghazals writes: Saʿdi writes:
ای کاب زندگانی من در دهان تست تیر هالک ظاهر من در کمان تست.93
Oh You who keep the water of my life in your mouth Oh You who keep the waterIn your of mybow, life there in youris an moutharrow that can destroy my appearance.94 In your bow, there is an arrow that can destroy my appearance.94 Appearance, here expressed by the term zaher, meaning what is external and visible Appearance, here expressed by tothe others, term zaher can be, meaning compared what to aberu is external, one’s and good visible image, to which may be subject to someone’s attack or an attempt to point out various shortcomings or mistakes that may others, can be compared to aberu, one’s good image, which may be subject to someone’s expose someone to shame. Therefore, for Saʿdi what might be shameful in man, his attack or an attempt to point out variousignorance, shortcomings momentary or weaknessmistakes orthat rudeness may expose should besomeone kept hidden, covered by the veil to shame. Therefore, for Sa’di what ofmight conciliatory be shameful words – incourtesy man, wovenhis ignorance, from kind momentarywords, placatory gestures or silence.95 weakness or rudeness should be keptFollowing hidden, Alicovered Farughi’s by beliefthe veil that ofin Saʿdi’sconciliatory poetry ‘Iranity’words –had reached its perfection, courtesy woven from kind words, placatorywe should gestures not be surprisedor silence. by95 the Following obvious similarityAli Farughi of Saʿdi’s’s philosophy and the complicated system of phrases and behaviours called taʿarof popular among Iranians. belief that in Sa’di’s poetry ‘Iranity’ had reached its perfection, we should not be surprised by It’s hard not to notice that the Persian system of courtesy and its use corresponds with the obvious similarity of Sa’di’s philosophySaʿdi’s thought. and Eventhe complicatedtoday taʿarof helps system Iranians of tophrases avoid embarrassmentand and save face in behaviours called ta’arof popular amonga difficult Iranians situation.. It’96s hard not to notice that the Persian system of courtesy and its use correspondsKeeping with the Sa veil’di ’ofs courteousthought. speechEven todayuntouched ta’ arofduring helps a meeting with another person Iranians to avoid embarrassment and saveprotects face both in a sides difficult from situation. controversies96 or other situations that could bring disgrace and could result in loosing aberu. Reciprocity is here crucial, as we read in the collection Keeping the veil of courteous speech untouched during a meeting with another person of the 12th-century book of advice Pandname whose authorship was attributed to the protects both sides from controversiesPersian or other poet situations Attar: that could bring disgrace and could result in loosing aberu. Reciprocity is here crucial, as we read in the collection of the 12th- century book of advice Pandname whose93 authorshipSaʿdi, Ghazaliyat was (“Ghazals”) attributed in: Kolliyat-e to the PersianSaʿdi, p. 380, poet ghazal Attar: 56. 94 Own translation. 95 This view seems to be deeply rooted in Islamic tradition, as Ibn Arabi said that God forbade what is in truth it should have been kept ای while) برادر پرده manifest مردم openly مدر shameful, that is “only that which has been made Concepts, University of تا Philosophical ندرد Key پردهof ات Study شخص دگر.concealed.)” T. Izutsu, Sufism and Taoism: A Comparative97 California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles 1984, p. 250. 96 On taʿarof see: William Beeman, Language, Status, and Power in Iran, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1986.
93Sa’di, Ghazalyat (“Ghazals”) in: Kolliyat-e Sa’di, p. 380, ghazal 56. 94 Own translation. 95 This view seems to be deeply rooted in Islamic tradition, as Ibn Arabi said that God forbade what is shameful, that is “only that which has been made openly manifest (while in truth it should have been kept concealed.)” T. Izutsu, Sufism and Taoism: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical Concepts, University of California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles 1984, p. 250. 96 On ta’arof see: William Beeman, Language, Status, and Power in Iran, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1986. 97 Attar, Pandname, Ketabkhana-ye elektroniki,
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relation to each other. Above all it is also a form of wicked behaviour, in which someone puts himself ahead of God, who in His mercifulness chooses to veil a man’s weaknesses rather than expose them. That is why in many occasions Sa’di emphasizes the need to avoid any risky situations that may directly lead to the disclosure of anyone’s vices, shortcomings and weaknesses as this may harm this person’s aberu, which is guarded by God. Whether man maintains his aberu depends, therefore, not only on his own behaviour, but also lies in the hands of others, those who might decide to respect or destroy it. In one of his ghazals Sa’di writes:
ای کاب زندگانی من در دهان تست تیر هالک ظاهر من در کمان تست.93
Oh You who keep the water of my life in your mouth In your bow, there is an arrow that can destroy my appearance.94
Appearance, here expressed by the term zaher, meaning what is external and visible to others, can be compared to aberu, one’s good image, which may be subject to someone’s attack or an attempt to point out various shortcomings or mistakes that may expose someone to shame. Therefore, for Sa’di what might be shameful in man, his ignorance, momentary weakness or rudeness should be kept hidden, covered by the veil of conciliatory words – courtesy woven from kind words, placatory gestures or silence.95 Following Ali Farughi’s belief that in Sa’di’s poetry ‘Iranity’ had reached its perfection, we should not be surprised by the obvious similarity of Sa’di’s philosophy and the complicated system of phrases and behaviours called ta’arof popular among Iranians. It’s hard not to notice that the Persian system of courtesy and its use corresponds with Sa’di’s thought. Even today ta’arof helps Iranians to avoid embarrassment and save face in a difficult situation.96 Keeping the veil of courteous speech untouched during a meeting with another person protects both sides from controversies or other situations that could bring disgrace and could result in loosing aberu. Reciprocity is here crucial, as we read in the collection of the 12th- century book of advice Pandname whose authorship was attributedTHE CULTURE to the OF Persian RECONCILIATION. poet Attar: THE MORAL ASPECT OF SPEECH IN SAʿDI’S TEACHINGS 127
ای برادر پرده مردم مدر تا ندرد پردهات شخص دگر.97 ’ O brother! Do not tear people s veil So that yours would not be tornO98 .brother! Do not tear people’s veil So that yours would not be torn.98
93Sa’di,Such Ghazalyat an approach (“Ghazals”) may in:be Kolliyat considered-e Sa’di the, p. 380,highest ghazal expressionSuch 56. an approach of humanity may be consideredthat can bethe highest expression of humanity that can be 94 summarised Own translation. again in the following verses of Persian poetry:summarised again in the following verses of Persian poetry: 95 This view seems to be deeply rooted in Islamic tradition, as Ibn Arabi said that God forbade what is shameful, that is “only that which has been made openly manifest (while in truth it should have been kept of قدر مردم niversityرا U ,شناس ای Concepts محترم concealed.)” T. Izutsu, Sufism and Taoism: A Comparative Study of Key Philosophical تا شناسند دیگران قدر تو هم.California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles 1984, p. 250. 99 96 ta’arof On see: William Beeman, Language, Status, and Power in Iran, Indiana University Press, Bloomington 1986. Know people’s magnitude, respected one 97 ’ Attar, Pandname, KetabkhanaKnow-ye peopleelektroniki,s magnitude,
97 Attar, Pandname, Ketabkhana-ye elektroniki,
98 Own translation. 99 Ibidem. 100 Own translation. 101 A. Zarrinkub, Hadis-e khosh-e Sa’di, p. 115.
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