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The Ties That Bind: Gospel Music, Popular Music, And

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The Ties That Bind: Gospel Music, Popular Music, And THE TIES THAT BIND: GOSPEL MUSIC, POPULAR MUSIC, AND RACE IN AMERICA, 1875-1940 A thesis submitted To Kent State University in partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts by Daniel J. Young August 2021 © Copyright All rights reserved Except for previously published materials Thesis written by Daniel J. Young B. A., Saint Vincent College, 2019 M. A., Kent State University, 2021 Approved by Dr. Kenneth Bindas, Advisor Dr. Kevin Adams, Chair, Department of History Dr. Mandy Munro-Stasiuk, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences TABLE OF CONTENTS . iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . iv INTRODUCTION . v CHAPTERS I. “A Better Home:” Racialized Imagery of Heaven in Gospel Music . 1 II. “A Friend Above:” Theological Themes in White and Black Gospel Music . .29 III. “When You Go to Heaven:” Racialized Religious Imagery in Popular Song . 58 CONCLUSION . 79 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 84 iii Acknowledgements First off, I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Kenneth Bindas, without whom this project would not have been possible. Dr. Bindas first referred me to gospel music as a topic of study. Additionally, his feedback throughout the process of researching and writing has been indispensable. In addition to referring me to gospel, as well as keeping me on track when the temptation to dive into various tangentially related topics proved very strong, Dr. Bindas was very helpful in framing my thinking about gospel, not just as religious music but also as it was tied to the socioeconomic context of the time and elements of modernism especially. Next, I would like to thank the other members of my committee, Dr Elaine Frantz and Dr. Elizabeth Smith-Pryor. Dr. Elaine Frantz helped me refine my thought about gospel as religious music, and also helped me stay on track with completing the thesis. And I would like to thank Dr. Elizabeth Smith-Pryor for helping me think about gospel scholarship, as well as referring me to a number of sources about both gospel and race issues more generally. Without their help, this project would certainly not be what it is. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Brian and Margie Young, whose support, particularly as I worked from home during the COVID shutdown, made this project both possible and bearable. The pandemic shaped many aspects of this project, since the bulk of it was written at that time, and from home, which posed its own challenges. My parents both allowed me time to work on it and helped out with the difficulties posed by working from home. Without them this project would likely never have come to fruition as it is. iv Introduction In 1996 Charles Johnson had been a southern gospel singer for just over a decade. A veteran of the successful black gospel quartet The Nightingales, he had jumped over to southern (i.e., white) gospel in the 1980s, cultivating a sound that mixed the influences of black gospel music with the countryish sound of southern gospel. That year, in an interview with historian James R. Goff, Jr., who was studying southern gospel, he elaborated his views on gospel and race: “Gospel don’t have no color to it. Now how am I going to put a tag on the gospel of God – God’s gospel? It don’t have no color.”1 He may have been reflecting the perceptions of a variety of listeners and musicians at the time. But this statement glosses over the long and complex history of gospel music. Gospel music was (and remains, for that matter) racialized to a large degree. White and black gospel sprang from mostly different roots, and while the share some similar religious heritage, they developed a style and message that reinforced, albeit subtly at times, their distinction. Through the different performance styles and the different understandings composers and listeners brought to gospel, gospel helped reinforce racial identity and experience, even if the distinctions between them were subtle enough that white listeners and church congregations used black gospel, and vice versa. Through gospel’s message and other associations, it is possible to see the articulation of racial identity as well as implicit rejections of racism and affirmations of it. Race, in short, is an issue without which gospel cannot properly be 1 Quoted in James R. Goff Jr., Close Harmony: A History of Southern Gospel (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 199-200. v understood, and it can tell us much about race and racism in nineteenth- and twentieth-century America. Racial division is a fact in modern-day gospel music, and in truth has been a fact for much of gospel’s existence, but gospel has neither completely reinforced division nor fostered racial unity to a meaningful degree. White and black gospel employed many of the same images and terms, so even the differing understanding did not mean that white gospel songs were incomprehensible or even not meaningful to black listeners, and vice versa. Rather, some of gospel’s power lay in the ability of listeners to apply it to their own circumstances. It was not necessarily consciously ambiguous, so much as it was able to transcend its origins despite the intentions behind many of the songs. It is perhaps easiest to think of white and black gospel as two streams, stemming from a common source but also having their own distinct tributaries as well as smaller streams connecting them farther downstream. This belabored geological analogy is useful for framing gospel in terms of interaction, for precious little space has been devoted to it. Gospel is an enthusiast’s genre, and while a number of popular and scholarly treatments exist, there appears to be a certain scholarly reticence about addressing gospel in a meaningful way, an unfortunate oversight or omission that is doubly obvious for white gospel, although it applies to black gospel as well, particularly in the years after about 1950. The wide religious listenership of gospel may have something to do with the general scholarly hesitancy to engage with it, particularly its connection to the more fundamentalist and dynamic white and black churches. As Douglas Harrison argues, it is an unfortunate tendency of scholars studying gospel to find the essentially foreign milieu difficult to navigate sympathetically, with the result being a kind of “intellectual tourism” at worst or a failure to fully understand the music’s function and vi significance.2 This is a perceptive, albeit heavy-handed, critique. The scholarship on gospel is in truth quite sporadic, not including popular histories and treatments, and a survey suggests there is plenty of work to be done on both black and white gospel music. Before proceeding farther, it is necessary to provide some definition of gospel music. Defining gospel music has proven difficult for scholars, mostly because there is so much variation in the musical style and lyrical message of gospel. This musical variation owes to the large number of outside musical influences both strains of gospel absorbed. However, one thing defines both black and white gospel music: a Christian religious message that somehow expresses “good news,” the meaning of the word gospel. White gospel developed as religious revival music. The melodies of white gospel songs are popular in nature, and not tied to any specific style.3 Vocal harmony, particularly within the quartet, developed as a defining characteristic of white gospel during the early twentieth century.4 White gospel also tends to have a broadly appealing religious message that can be fit to the listeners’ experience and beliefs.5 Black gospel is slightly better defined, owing to the fact that it apparently absorbed fewer outside influences than white gospel did.6 Until the 1960s, black gospel used a simple harmonic structure with basic major and minor chords.7 Syncopation and dynamic rhythm are also an important musical characteristic of black gospel, and the performance employs improvisation and audience participation.8 For black gospel’s message, Lawrence Levine 2 Douglas Harrison, Then Sings My Soul: The Culture of Southern Gospel Music, (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 2. 3 James R. Goff Jr., “The Rise of Southern Gospel Music,” Church History 67, no. 4 (Dec., 1998), 724-725. 4 Douglas Harrison, “Why Southern Gospel Music Matters,” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation 18, no. 1 (Winter 2008): 51. See also Goff Jr., Close Harmony, 64-143 on quartets. 5 Harrison, “Why Southern Gospel Music Matters,” 52. 6 Ibid, 32-33. Goff Jr., Close Harmony, 5 and 20. 7 Horace Clarence Boyer, “Gospel Music,” Music Educators Journal 64, no. 9 (May, 1978): 34-43. 8 Boyer, “Gospel Music,” 35. Pearl Williams-Jones, “Afro-American Gospel Music: A Crystallization of the Black Aesthetic.” Ethnomusicology 19, no. 3 (Sep., 1975): 378-382. vii emphasizes the significance placed on Jesus and the acceptance of injustice in the world encouraged by black gospel.9 In this study, I will employ the terms “black gospel” and “white gospel” to distinguish between the two forms. White gospel is known nowadays, and often has been known retrospectively, as “southern gospel,” a term not coined until the 1970s, and by its nature somewhat exclusionary, since black gospel is also inherently southern, but is generally only ever referred to as black gospel. As a result of the disparity in characteristics, listeners can distinguish white and black gospel. While she was writing about jazz in the 1950s and 1960s, Ingrid Monson provided a framework that can also be applied to gospel. Jazz, she argued, was racially coded, with some sounds and styles being thought of as inherently white or black, with some overlap and the possibility of crossover by whites or blacks, as well as cross-generational cross-racial influence.10 Gospel is much the same way in its distinction, and in the fact that there was some stylistic overlap and influence between white and back gospel.
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