Introduction: Girls' Aesthetics

Home , Double Suicide, Sakura no Sono, The Heart of Thomas, The Rose of Versailles

Notes

Introduction: Girls’ Aesthetics

1. In Japanese names, family names come before given names. I follow this order in this book, except for individuals who publish their writings in English. 2. To be precise, it started as shō nen-ai manga. The differences between shō nen-ai manga and BL manga are detailed in Chapter 2. 3. Adult males were granted suffrage in 1925. 4. The postwar constitution of Japan declares eternal renunciation of war, and the Self-Defense Forces are supposed to only defend the Japanese land and people in cases of foreign attack. However, their status is ambivalent, demonstrated in their involvement in the Gulf and Iraq Wars, for example. For more discussions on the Self-Defense Forces, see Chapter 3. 5. I translated all of the Japanese titles except those that were previously translated into English. 6. See Driscoll’s book Girls: Feminine Adolescence in Popular Culture and Cultural Theory (2002). 7. The term “lesbian” started to be used in Japan in the 1950s. At this early stage, it was pronounced “resubian,” not “rezubian” like it is now. This is because, as Akaeda Kanako reports based on her extensive archival research, the term was initially introduced in relation to French culture and the terms lesbien and lesbienne (2014: 138–42). 8. For more details, see Miyadai Shinji’s Choice of Girls in School Uniform: After Ten Years (Seifuku shō jo tachi no sentaku, After 10 Years) (2006) and Sharon Kinsella’s Schoolgirls, Money and Rebellion in Japan (2014). In the 1990s, the mass media started to report widely that female high-school students were involved in prostitution or other forms of sex business with middle-aged men as their clients, but these forms of sex business in fact emerged earlier, in the 1980s. As Miyadai explains, the modern, gender-segregated educational system resulted in the emergence of the idea of female high-school students as a “sex brand” (Miyadai 2006: 131) because they evoke the image of sexually innocent female students who have mature bodies and yet whose sexuality is surveilled and protected by schools. I acknowledge that resistant girls’ aesthetics also embrace this image of sexually innocent schoolgirls. However, as explained in the Introduction, the meaning of sexual innocence is different in girls’ aesthetics. Therefore, for the pur- poses of this book, the female high-school students in the sex business are not considered to be “girls.” 9. Driscoll distinguishes between what she calls “feminine adolescence” and “female adolescence,” but it is beyond the scope of this introductory chapter to explain the differences. 181 182 Notes

10. Yet, the term “girl” still seems to have negative connotations, as pointed out by Elaine Aston and Geraldine Harris in their book A Good Night Out for the Girls: Popular Feminisms in Contemporary Theatre and Performance (2013: 2). The mainstream theatre aimed at women is promoted as “a good night out for the girls” in the British media. One of the reasons for this is that the sentimentality evoked in these shows is associated not with mature womanhood, but with girlhood. 11. These English titles are given by Aoyama and Hartley to the excerpts from Honda’s and Kawasaki’s books, and therefore there are no original Japanese titles I can provide here. But the former is from Honda’s Children as Different Cultures, mentioned above, and the latter is from Kawasaki’s Fine Days for Girls (Shō jo biyori) (1990). 12. In Women Critiqued: Translated Essays on Japanese Women’s Writing (2006), edited by Rebecca Copeland. 13. She is the daughter of the late Tsuka Kō hei, a resident Korean (zainichi Korean) and renowned playwright. 14. The performance does not have a particular title, but it is included in its 2002 video work, Mission/K.

1 Girls’ Time, Girls’ Space

1. In Japan, the period of a pregnancy is counted from the time of conception, and therefore lasts ten, not nine, months. 2. SEIKO is a Japanese company that produces wristwatches and clocks. 3. English translation by Nobuko Anan and Franklin Chang is available in the programme of the Tate film Shū ji Terayama: Who Can Say That We Should Not Live Like Dogs? (2012). 4. However, Terayama was familiar and sympathized with girls’ culture, or what I call “girls’ aesthetics” in this monograph, in his earlier career. With renowned illustrator Uno Akira (also known as Uno Aquirax), he contributed to a book series, For Ladies (Foa rediisu), which targeted girls, despite its title, in the mid 1960s until he founded his theatre company, Tenjō Sajiki, in 1967. Uno and Konno Yū ichi, the editor of Yasō , an important subcultural magazine for those with girlie sensibilities, describe this shift on Terayama’s part as one from the lyrical world of girls to the world of theatre with material bodies (Uno and Konno 2013: 36). Hagio Moto, a girls’ manga artist who will be mentioned in this chapter and discussed in more detail in the next chapter, also worked with Terayama for this series (Hagio 2011: 105–7). The series was published by Shinshokan from 1965 to 1981. 5. The Meiji Period is from 1868 to 1912. 6. However, as Koyama Shizuko elucidates, in theory there was supposed to be no hierarchical relationship between women and men in the “good wife, wise mother” ideology. Both parties were supposed to belong to the category of the people of Japan, a status achieved through different, but equally valuable, contributions to the nation. Nevertheless, as Koyama Notes 183

also indicates, in reality women were apparently secondary to men because, even though the former were in charge of homemaking and the education of children, they were dependent on the latter financially (Koyama 1991: 55–7). 7. The magazine Kawamura looked at is Female Learning World (Jogaku sekai), and this was not specifically categorized as a girls’ magazine. It was a “women’s magazine,” but it was also read by schoolgirls (Imada 2007: 19). 8. However, girls’ aesthetics in the modern period did not always exclude the poor, lower-class female youth, such as servants in wealthy households. They could identify themselves with the imagined community of girls through participating in the communications taking place in readers’ columns (Watanabe 2007: 309). It should also be noted that middle- class status in modern Japan was more precarious due to fewer social support services (for example, unemployment insurance began in 1947). Therefore, as Watanabe Shū ko writes, the status of the social category of girls was rather fragile; a girl’s status could easily fall with the death or illness of her father (2007: 305). 9. Even when she is working part-time, as long as her annual earnings are less than 1,300,000 yen (about £7,300 as of March 2015), her duty to con- tribute to a pension is waived. Moreover, when a wife’s annual income is less than 1,030,000 yen (about £5,800 as of March 2015), her husband can receive a preferential rate for his income tax. 10. In an increasingly aging society with a low birth rate, the debates over the change in the pension system have been ongoing, but as of 2015 no change has yet been implemented. 11. The Year 24 Group is not a self-organized group. It is a label used to cat- egorize female artists who started their careers around this time and contributed to the development of content and visual aspects of girls’ manga. 12. Snow Child demonstrates another trait of girls’ aesthetics to be explored in the next chapter, namely, the longing for an androgynous body in order to imaginatively disregard female material bodies. The girl protagonist of Snow Child is disguised as a boy. 13. Japanese theatre and the sex business have a long intertwined history. For example, kabuki began in 1603 with female performers, but it was later banned by the government due to the involvement of the performers with prostitution. After it was banned, adolescent boys performed kabuki until it was banned again in the mid seventeenth century due to prostitution. It finally settled on adult men as performers. 14. Here, I agree with Harry Harootunian’s argument that modernity was a phenomenon shared across the globe. He critiques the “time-lag” theory, which presumes that there was a correct model of modernity, that of the West, followed by other, “less developed” nations. He also rejects the idea of “alternative modernities,” which some have argued that these “less developed” nations experienced, because it presumes “exceptionalism and uniqueness” (2000: xvi). Rather, he calls our attention to the “co- existence” of the modern experiences: “[W]hatever and however a society 184 Notes

develops, it is simply taking place at the same time as other modernities” (2000: xvi). “What co-eval suggests,” he explains, “is contemporaneity yet the possibility of difference” (2000: xvii). 15. Participants came from six countries (Japan, China, Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia) and from different fields such as traditional and contemporary theatre, dance, and music. Although the script was originally written in Japanese, it was translated into four languages (English, Chinese, Indonesian, Thai) for the multilingual production (Hata 1997: 17–18). 16. Dreamtime in Morishita Studios was directed by Ong, and Kishida partici- pated in the production as general advisor. For details, see my PhD dissertation, Playing with America: Parody and Mimesis in Contemporary Japanese Women’s Performance (University of California, 2009). 17. She thus defines the symbolic more narrowly than Lacan, who means by the symbolic the broader system of signification, even the culture in general. Moreover, what she means by the semiotic is not the study of signs (that is, semiotics), but a particular type of practice signifying affects (which do not get signified in the symbolic). 18. This womb is also reminiscent of the “secret tomb” or “crypt” theorized by Nicholas Abraham and Maria Torok where “the objectal correlative of the loss is buried alive” (1994: 130). They propose that this tomb or crypt appears in the psyche of melancholics when “[t]he abrupt loss of a narcissistically indispensable object of love has occurred, yet the loss is of a type that prohibits its being communicated” (1994: 129) and when “the shameful secret is the love object’s doing and when that object also functions for the subject as an ego ideal” (1994: 131). The unspeakable secrets include incestuous desires, for example. Girls’ aesthetics’ idealiza- tion of girlhood is not unspeakable in this sense, but in the sense that such desire does not have a place where it can be realized in the symbolic, it may be “unspeakable.” 19. This is the original title. It is written in capital letters. 20. She also belongs to the so-called third generation of the postwar little theatre movement in Japan. For a discussion of the genealogy of postwar Japanese theatre, see Senda Akihiko’s Contemporary Japanese Theatre (Nihon no gendai engeki) (1995), for example. 21. She changed her stage name from Watanabe Eriko to Watanabe Eri in 2007. Her memoir of Kisaragi cited in this section was published before the name change, but to avoid confusion, I will refer to her as Watanabe Eri in this monograph. 22. For more detailed discussion of the first generation of female theatre lead- ers and the women’s liberation movement in Japan, see Naomi Tonooka’s PhD dissertation, Four Contemporary Japanese Women’s Theatre Groups: Subjectivity-Formation in Performance and Creative Process (University of Hawai‘i, 1990), and my article “Identity Politics in Women’s Performance in Japan” in Theatre Research International (2012). 23. One exception is their production of Caryl Churchill’s Cloud Nine in 1985 and 1986. The production had male guest actors for the cross-dress casting. Notes 185

24. For a discussion of Hasegawa Shigure and the English translation of her play Rain of Ice (Kō ri no ame), see Cody Poulton’s A Beggar’s Art: Scripting Modernity in Japanese Drama, 1900–1930 (2010). 25. Here, I separate women’s liberationists and feminists, as they were seen as different groups in Japan. The former were the activists who worked outside of the institutions, while the latter were seen as “elite” women in the government and academy. There were negative feelings, espe- cially among liberationists, towards feminists. See, for example, Tanaka Mitsu’s essay “The World Is Waiting for the ‘Vulgar’” (“Sekai wa ‘yaban’ o matteiru”) in From Zenkyō tō to the Women’s Liberation Movement (Zenkyō tō kara ribu e), edited by Onna tachi no ima o tou kai (Group Which Questions the Present of Women) (1996). Other essays and roundtable talks included in this book are helpful to understanding the history of the women’s liberation movement and feminism in Japan. 26. I thank Naomi Tonooka for providing me with this valuable information in her email sent to me on 12 August 2014. 27. For more discussion on Hitsujiya’s version, renamed as Passion (Jō netsu), see Tadashi Uchino’s Crucible Bodies: Postwar Japanese Performance from Brecht to the New Millennium (2009). His argument regarding the conflict between the images of girls projected by YUBIWA Hotel’s performers and the material bodies of the actual female high-school students who appeared in the last scene of the show is insightful. 28. The “little theatre” movement emerged in the 1960s as a reaction to shingeki, Japanese modern theatre influenced by Western realism. Little theatre plays tend to valorize the strong presence of performers’ bodies. 29. Naomi Tonooka also discusses the piece briefly in her PhD dissertation, but her discussion focuses more on the shift in Kisaragi’s work from text- based plays to performance arts marked by this play. 30. From theatre critic Nishimura Hiroko’s website, Nishikun. She does not specify when and exactly where the incident happened. However, archival research of newspaper articles suggests that Kisaragi may have been inspired by the group suicide committed by three middle-school students (one of whom survived) in Aichi Prefecture in 1977 (Asahi Shimbun 1977). 31. From Nishikun. 32. It is reported that there were about 800 teenagers’ suicides in 1986. In his website, Tokyo Tama Lifeline (Tokyo Tama inochi no denwa), Saitō Yukio, the director of the Japanese Society for Prevention of Suicide (Nihon jisatsu yobō gakkai), explains that in the previous year there were about 500 cases, and therefore 300 cases were influenced by Okada (Saitō n.d.). However, it is not clear if these were all copycat suicides, as there might have been other factors that existed in 1986, which did not in 1985. 33. From Nishikun. 34. From Nishikun. 35. This is actually odd, as in her other works, including MORAL (1984), non-female youth characters also suffer from “dysfunctional communication as a result of modernization and urbanization of our living environment.” 186 Notes

36. Even though Kisaragi might not have been familiar with the discourses of girls’ studies per se, she probably had some knowledge of girls’ culture in general. Kamakura City is where Yoshiya Nobuko, a leading girls’ nov- elist in the prewar era, spent her later years. Her house in Kamakura is now open to the public as the Yoshiya Nobuko Memorial. As mentioned, Kisaragi was planning on writing a play about the life of Hasegawa Shigure, and it is likely that she was aware of the work of Yoshiya as well, who started her career around the same time as Hasegawa. They were both feminists and supporters of Japan’s military expansion during the war. 37. The school year starts in April in Japan. These girls commit a group suicide in March, the last month of their first school year. 38. For detailed analyses of her Gloria & Léon, see my article “Two-Dimensional Imagination in Contemporary Japanese Women’s Performance” in TDR (2011). 39. Lille was chosen as European Capital of Culture in 2004. Granddaughters was exhibited in a local church as a part of the “Lille 2004 Project.” 40. The quotation is from a bilingual (Japanese and English) catalogue of the exhibit of Granddaughters published by Shiseido Gallery in 2002. In the English translation, the word “string” and not “necklace” is used here, but in Japanese it is written as “necklace” (nekkuresu). Therefore, I use “necklace,” not “string,” in this quotation for clarity. 41. The identification of girls and old women in tandem with the resistance against motherhood is also found in YUBIWA Hotel’s performance Candies Girlish Hardcore (first produced in 2006 and most recently in 2010). In the flyer for the 2007 production, Hitsujiya Shirotama writes a poem or prose on the theme of the show: When I become seventy-five years old or so, … I will have Alzheimer’s and first forget about my husband. Then, I will completely forget about my children and pretend that I have returned to a seventeen-year-old girl. On that night, I will have a dream in which my dead mother has revived. Then, I will definitely tell her, who is sitting in front of me: “I want you to turn down this offer of the arranged marriage.” (2007) Here, the mother is seen as the one who has internalized the gender- biased social convention and drags her daughter into the same misery with her.

2 Girlie Sexuality: When Flat Girls Become Three-dimensional

1. It is not clear who came up with this group name. Many of the members were the frequent visitors to the so-called “Oˉ izumi Salon,” an apartment in Oˉ izumi in Nerima, Tokyo, which Hagio and Takemiya shared from 1970 to 1973 while their income as beginning manga artists was still insecure (Hagio and Yamada 2010: 23–6). In the “salon,” the members helped with each other’s work and discussed their ideas. Notes 187

2. Takemiya and Hagio also teach manga studies at universities. Takemiya, who teaches at Kyoto Seika University, is the first manga artist to be appointed as a full professor. She has been serving as chancellor there since 2014. 3. Musician So Akashi released a music album, Gymnasium (Gimunajiumu), in 2011, inspired by Hagio’s 1971 piece Gymnasium in November (Jū ichi gatsu no gimunajiumu). It is a short piece she published using a similar setting and characters to those of The Heart of Thomas. The illustration on the album jacket was drawn by manga artist Nakamura Asumiko. Hagio’s influence on Nakamura can be seen in her work such as All about J (J no subete) (2004–6). 4. Some of their well-known pieces include Takemiya Keiko’s The Poem of the Wind and the Trees (Kaze to ki no uta) (1976–84), Kihara Toshie’s Mari and Shingo (Mari to Shingo) (1977–84), Aoike Yasuko’s From Eroica with Love (Eroika yori ai o komete) (1976–present), and Yamagishi Ryō ko’s Emperor of the Land of the Rising Sun (Hi izuru tokoro no tenshi) (1980–4). 5. However, Akaeda Kanako’s research suggests that the term ome originally referred to intimate friendships (2011: 110–13). The derivation of the term ome is not clear, but it is likely from the term omedetai (happy or joyous), which celebrates schoolgirls’ relationships. The mass media and intellectuals misunderstood the meaning as “man-woman” (“o” can mean man and “me” can mean woman), and subsequently the term was used to designate a female same-sex couple, one of whom had masculine traits (2011: 110–13). The term has since fallen out of use. 6. Michiko Suzuki discusses this essay in detail in her book Becoming Modern Women: Love and Female Identity in Prewar Japanese Literature and Culture (2010: 36–8). 7. Students did not have to be Christian to study at mission schools, and most of them were not (Inagaki 2007: 189–92). 8. Yearning for the West remains an integral part of girls’ aesthetics to this day. Even during wartime when Anglo-American cultures were criticized as diseased (Robertson 1998: 133), girls did not relinquish their longing for the West. For example, although Yoshiya Nobuko supported Japan’s war effort (as I will discuss more in Chapter 3), she publicly countered critiques of the admiration of Western culture by claiming that it was originally Japanese men who had eagerly tried to learn from the West. See Hitomi Tsuchiya Dollase’s article “Girls on the Homefront: The Examination of Shō jo no tomo 1938–1945” (2008) for more details. 9. The so-called “moga” (“modern girls,” a Japanese equivalent to flappers) overlap with these straightforwardly political schoolgirls. Moga appeared in the mass media in the late 1920s and 1930s and “publicly expressed [their] desires for sex and for work in public places, thereby challenging the assumption that [they] belonged in the home” (Silverberg 2006: 64). 10. In 1955, Girls’ Friend, which survived wartime, discontinued publication, while manga magazines Ribbon (Ribon) and Good Friend (Nakayoshi) were inaugurated (Yonezawa 1980: 55). As of 2015, these magazines are still in circulation. 188 Notes

11. For example, in the case of The Heart of Thomas, even when it was being serialized in a girls’ manga magazine, its readership was older than the magazine’s target audience, which was below 13 years old. In her conversation with philosopher Yoshimoto Takaaki, Hagio mentioned that she had those between 14 and 18 in her mind when working on this piece. Yoshimoto said that he thought the readership would be even older (Hagio 2012: 61–2). This shows that this manga, or many manga under the label of “girls’ manga,” continues to appeal to those with girlie sensibilities in various age groups, not just to female adolescents. The episode also suggests Hagio’s independence from her editors. As Jennifer S. Prough writes, manga pieces are usually co-created by manga artists and magazine editors, even though they are published under the names of the artists (2011: 57–109). However, artists like Hagio maintain their autonomy to a larger extent. 12. Of course, this is not the case with all the manga of this kind. For example, Kihara Toshie’s Mari and Shingo is set in a boarding school in prewar and wartime Japan, and Yamagishi Ryō ko’s Emperor of the Land of the Rising Sun is set in ancient Japan. The point is that, regardless of the loca- tions, these stories were often set in somewhere/sometime faraway from girls’ everyday reality. 13. In the 1980s and 1990s, there were also other critics and researchers who argued that male characters in this type of manga represented heterosexual female youth’s desire for men. However, such arguments are not supported by more recent BL studies, for the reasons I explain in this chapter. For a summary of the arguments in the 1980s and 1990s, see Kaneda Junko’s article “Yaoi Discourses of Tomorrow: Part 2” (“Yaoiron, asu no tame ni sono 2”) in the journal Eureka (2007). 14. Kazumi Nagaike discusses the female audience’s multiple forms of sexual identification by analyzing multiple forms of sexual acts and pleasure experienced by characters. As she writes, although top and bottom are often fixed roles in this genre, there is a subgenre called “ribāshiburu ” (reversible) in which penetration and being penetrated are done by both parties. She also points out that the bottom experiences not only “vagi- nal” (or anal) but also phallic pleasure (2012: 118–19). 15. Satō ’s criticism is not directed at the Year 24 Group, but at artists from younger generations whose works are often explicitly sexual and even pornographic. However, I would argue that this statement of Hagio also explains the sexual nature of these newer works. Male bodies initiate girls into the ideal world where they can experience flexible gender and sexuality. 16. It should be noted that the Year 24 Group artists also publish girls’ manga about heterosexual romance, but still, most of their works are not con- ventional romances. 17. While I consider that all these genres belong to girls’ manga (or more specifically, “girlie manga”) because of their origin and shared visual aesthetics, BL manga is usually not categorized as a genre of girls’ manga, Notes 189

suggesting that a clear distinction has been made between the former, which deals with male homosexual relationships, and the latter, which focuses on heterosexual relationships. As such, publishers often have separate divisions for BL and girls’ manga. 18. For a comparative discussion of yaoi and slash, see Kumiko Saitō ’s article “Desire in Subtext: Gender, Fandom, and Women’s Male-Male Homoerotic Parodies in Contemporary Japan” (2011). 19. However, it is still considered alternative and, as such, the majority of BL manga are published by small specialist publishers. Representative artists include Yoshinaga Fumi, Mizushiro Setona, Nitta Yū ka, Ono Natsume (also known as basso), Nakamura Asumiko, Hidaka Shō ko, Kumota Haruko, and Yoneda Kō , among others. Before BL manga started to be published on a commercial basis at the turn of the 1980s/1990s, they were mainly produced in a self-published form by amateurs and sold at amateur manga markets, with some exceptions such as magazine JUNE (read as “juné”), inaugurated in 1978. It carried not only manga, but also novels about male-male romantic relationships primarily for female readers, and many artists of the Year 24 Group contributed to it. 20. Girls’ manga of this kind existed before the 1990s, although the number was even smaller. They include Yamagishi Ryō ko’s Two in the White Room (Shiroi heya no futari) (1971), Ikeda Riyoko’s Dear My Brother… (Onıˉsama e…) (1974), and Yoshida Akimi’s Cherry Orchard (Sakura no sono) (1985–6), for example. 21. Another example is Nagasawa Satoru’s The Virgin Mary is Watching (Maria sama ga miteru) (2003–10), set in a mission school. This is a manga adaptation of Konno Oyuki’s popular girls’ novel of the same title. Thirty-nine volumes of the novel version have been published since 1998, and the series still continues as of 2015. 22. Saitō Tamaki makes similar points to Mori, Nagaike, and Azuma by draw- ing on his discussion with female manga artist and critic Nobi Nobita (also known as Enomoto Nariko) in his article “Otaku Sexuality” in Robot, Ghost, and Wired Dreams (2007), edited by Christopher Bolton et al. His interview with Nobi is available in her book Adults Don’t Understand (Otona wa wakatte kurenai) (2003). 23. Manga scholar Matt Thorn also sees this incident as rape. See his interview with Hagio in 2004 on his website, matt-thorn.com (Thorn 2007). In this interview, Hagio also suggests that the incident involves rape. 24. The view that these boys are the alter egos of girls is shared by other researchers and manga artists as well. See, for example, Midori Matsui’s “Little Girls Were Little Boys: Displaced Femininity in the Representation of Homosexuality in Japanese Girls’ Comics” in Feminism and the Politics of Difference (1993), edited by Sneja Gunew and Anne Yeatman, and Hagio’s conversation with philosopher Yoshimoto Takaaki in 1981, which is reprinted in her book Language for You, Manga for Me (Kotoba no anata, manga no watashi) (2012). Female manga artists Yamada Naito and Yoshinaga Fumi also relate representations of male-male relationships 190 Notes

and androgynes in girls’ manga to girls’ resistance at being rendered as reproductive tools (Yoshinaga 2007: 27). Their conversation is included in Yoshinaga’s An Intimate Chat with That Person: A Collection of Yoshinaga Fumi’s Conversations (Ano hito to koko dake no oshaberi: Yoshinaga Fumi taidanshū ) (2007). 25. Seifriet’s long hair may look feminine, but it is probably a sign of his delinquency. His appearance is rather similar to that of a rock musician. 26. It should be noted that Rich’s conception of the lesbian continuum has been much contested. Opponents have argued that it essentializes women’s experiences and removes sexual aspects from lesbian experiences. However, more recent scholarship has re-evaluated it as Rich’s strategy in calling for solidarity among women who challenge institutionalized heteronormativity. See, for example, Victoria Hesford’s “Feminism and Its Ghosts: The Spectre of the Feminist-as-Lesbian” (2005) and C. L. Cole and Shannon L. C. Cate’s “Compulsory Gender and Transgender Existence: Adrienne Rich’s Queer Possibility” (2008). 27. The protagonist’s status as the racial/ethnic Other is found in other manga pieces of this genre published by the Year 24 Group. For example, Serge in Takemiya Keiko’s Poem of Wind and Trees is half Roma, and Mari in Kihara Toshie’s Mari and Shingo is half German. While not the racial/ ethnic Other, Umayado no ō ji, the protagonist of Yamagishi Ryō ko’s Emperor of the Land of the Rising Sun, possesses supernatural power. Such “alien” status might reflect girls’ sense of alienation in their everyday reality, although the “Westernness” of some characters symbolizes their longing for the West. 28. Juli’s mother is portrayed as a good person, but her position in the household is weak as she needs to depend on her mother financially. Moreover, when her mother labels her late husband as an Arab, she just responds by saying, “My husband is German” (Hagio 1995: 255), without fundamen- tally challenging her mother’s racism. 29. In many other interviews, she mentions her troubling relationship with her own domineering mother (although she does not bring up the issue of sexuality.) For example, see Yamada Tomoko’s interview with Hagio, “My Manga Life” (“Watashi no manga jinsei”) (2010), Language for You, Manga for Me (2012), which is a collection of Hagio’s conversations with prominent cultural figures, and An Intimate Chat with That Person (2007), a collection of Yoshinaga Fumi’s conversations with various manga artists including Hagio. 30. However, the final inner monologue (probably by Rika, but possibly the author’s voice) reads: “Somewhere, Mother’s tears remain frozen” (Hagio 2002: 52). This prevents the story from achieving a cathartic effect. 31. To be more precise, shingeki was established under the influence of modern Western theatre, and therefore, while realism is dominant in shingeki, its productions also include more “experimental” modern plays such as those by Brecht. Notes 191

32. “Gimunajiumu,” pronounced in a Japanized way, is the Japanese translit- eration of the German term “gymnasium,” meaning a school to prepare students for university entrance. To my knowledge, girls’ manga set in gymnasiums are mostly by Hagio Moto. Therefore, “gimunajiumu mono” may just refer to Hagio’s manga of this kind. Or, this foreign word may be used to include other manga about male-male romance set in boys’ boarding schools in Western countries, such as Poem of Wind and Trees by Takemiya Keiko, which is set in France. 33. Studio Life is not the only theatre company which has adapted Hagio’s manga. Her Half God (Hanshin) (1984) was produced by playwright/ director/actor Noda Hideki in 1986. Hagio scripted the play with Noda. He staged the piece also in 1988, 1990, and 1999. For an examination of Noda’s theatre, which is closely linked to manga, see Yoshiko Fukushima’s Manga Discourse in Japanese Theatre: The Location of Noda Hideki’s Yume no Yū minsha (2003). 34. However, another observation is needed when we discuss these male actors’ performance of female roles. With all-male casts, female roles are played by male actors in the company; in the case of The Heart of Thomas, this means Juli’s grandmother, mother, and Thomas’s mother. They wear female costumes and wigs and employ typically feminine movements and speech style, but they do not overly alter the tone of their voice. Very interestingly, their performance of female characters does not appear as awkward as their performance of Western boys. This may suggest the excessiveness inherent in the “performance of women” per se. 35. The agency was founded in 1962 by American-born Johnny Kitagawa. 36. The benefits a fan can enjoy include a birthday card handwritten by her tantō actor. 37. However, it should be noted that female fans of the male artists belonging to Johnny’s are not always dreaming of their own heterosexual romances with these stars. For example, among them, there are those who produce yaoi novels and manga by fantasizing romance between their favorites in the self-published format or on their personal websites. I would argue that what makes this possible is largely the two-dimensionality of these celebrities. They are images rather than “real” human beings with flesh. 38. There may be female fans who fantasize about homoerotic relationships between the male members of Studio Life, just as some fans of Johnny’s do with their favorites. However, I speculate that there may not be so many. Due to its smaller scale, Studio Life’s actors are more approachable, or “more real” human beings than the celebrities from Johnny’s. For example, as mentioned, the fans can directly interact with the actors at fan club events, while such occasions are extremely rare for fans of Johnny’s. It is probably more difficult to fantasize “bodiless homoeroticism” using “real people.” 39. There are, of course, various types of realistic theatre. Playwrights/directors such as Hirata Oriza and Okada Toshiki have their actors deliver their very colloquial lines in a realistic way as in Euro-American realism. 192 Notes

However, Okada’s works are not always categorized as realist because of the choreographed, dance-like movements he assigns to his performers. 40. I thank Tadashi Uchino for his suggestion for the English translation of the phrase, “hi-zai no watashi.” 41. However, unlike Takarazuka, Studio Life does not have its actors special- ize in either male roles or female roles. In its productions, male actors perform female characters, but this does not mean there are actors who only perform female roles. While there is no gender specialization in Studio Life, in other aspects it seems to consciously replicate Takarazuka’s “educational” structure. For example, in Takarazuka, those who enter the company in the same year are grouped together until they retire. As will be discussed in the next chapter, Takarazuka operates on the principle that it is a girls’ school, and this group system is typically employed at schools in Japan. The same system is used in Studio Life, possibly aim- ing to evoke a boys’ school atmosphere. One ironic similarity between Takarazuka and Studio Life is the amateurishness of their performers. As a “girls’ school,” Takarazuka rather promotes its performers’ amateurish status (as those who are performing on stage just until they get married and retire from the company). On the contrary, Studio Life’s performers are probably unintentionally amateurish. Theatre critic Kawaguchi Ken’ya writes that its performances are like those at a “gorgeous school festival” (gō ka na gakugeikai) (1998: 77). 42. While she was primarily a playwright/director, she wrote several film scripts. She also published a novelized version of Summer Vacation 1999 in 1992. The first theatrical production based on her film script took place in 2011 as a part of the annual Kishida Rio Avant-Garde Festival in Tokyo. Earlier than this, in 1998, lesbian theatre company Pink Triangle adapted the film for its first production. The company dissolved in 2006. 43. However, it was screened at various film festivals in the USA such as the Telluride Film Festival in 1988, Seattle International Film Festival, New Directors/New Film series in New York City, Los Angeles International Gay and Lesbian Film/Video Festival in 1989, and the New Festival’s Downtown Winter Series in New York City in 1991. 44. For example, in 1988, a group of fans started to get together to discuss the film, and in 1993 this developed into a private fan club, “Friends of Summer Vacation 1999” (“‘1999 nen no natsuyasumi’ tomo no kai”). One of its activities was to collect documents about the film. In 1999, there were about 100 members (80 women and 20 men) (Nakamori 1999: 144), but the fan club discontinued its activity that same year. Another group named “Angel House” took over some of the activities and is currently running a website where abundant information about the film is provided and fans can discuss various issues surrounding it (Angel House n.d.). 45. Otakara¯ Tomoko, the actor playing the role of Kazuhiko, is even dubbed by male voice actor Sasaki Nozomu. However, Norio and Yū are not dubbed. Yū (the equivalent to Thomas) and Kaoru (Erich) are played by the same actor, Miyajima Eri, but when she plays the role of Kaoru, she is dubbed by voice actor Takayama Minami. Yū does not appear much in the film because he commits suicide at the beginning of the film. As Notes 193

such, Miyajima mostly appears as Kaoru, dubbed by Takayama. I assume that Mizuhara Rie (now known as Fukatsu Eri), who played Norio, was not dubbed, as her voice was androgynous enough.

3 Citizen Girls

1. This is from the obi (a narrow cover attached to the top of a book for publicity) of his Discourse on War (Sensō ron) (1998). 2. As explained in the previous chapter, it was Tezuka Osamu who brought narrative structure to girls’ manga, but it was not historical narrative. Ikeda was inspired by Marie Antoinette (1932), a biography written by Austrian writer Stefan Zweig. See Anne McKnight’s article “Frenchness and Transformation in Japanese Subculture, 1972–2004” (2010) for a discussion on the ways this biography’s narrative style and portrayal of historical figures influenced The Rose of Versailles. 3. It was renamed the Social Democratic Party (Shakai minshutō ) in 1996. 4. William Marotti (2009) argues that the New Left activists’ violence was largely a reaction to state violence. He details the scenes of the protests in which the riot police exercised brutal violence against protesters, including beating and kicking. They even used water cannons and tear gas. 5. The Asama-Sansō Incident, which slightly preceded the serialization of this manga, also reflected this shift. The police stormed the lodge after a fierce battle with the URA, and this was televised live, with an audience rating at 89.2 percent (Kunō , cited in Igarashi 2007: 119). By the end of the 1960s, 90 percent of households in Japan owned TV sets (Oda, cited in Igarashi 2007: 121), a symbol of consumerism that was the New Left’s ideological enemy. Ironically, the URA’s defeat was presented to the view- ers as a consumable image. 6. The popularity of this manga, serialized in a mass-market magazine, led to its reproduction in other media. In addition to the theatre adaptations by the Takarazuka Revue and the film adaptation by Jacques Demy, it was adapted into another musical production with male and female actors (1975), a televised anime series (1979–80), and anime films (1985, 1990, 2007). Moreover, a “drama CD” series (2003, 2010), which included some scenes performed by voice actors, was released. Most of these adaptations were later released in VHS and DVD format. 7. This law originated in 1948 for the purpose of reducing the physically and mentally challenged population. 8. The bill was discarded in 1974 after resistance from physically and mentally challenged people and the women’s liberationists. 9. Oscar’s androgynous appearance is therefore different from that of the androgynous boys in Hagio’s The Heart of Thomas. As explained in the previous chapter, these boys appear almost like girls as they share the same graphic features, except for their male gender markers such as short hair and male school uniform. 10. In her discussion of this manga, Deborah Shamoon argues that Oscar is chū sei (2012: 131). Literally meaning “middle sex” in Japanese, the term 194 Notes

is similar to, but different from, ryō sei guyū , meaning an androgyne pos- sessing traits of both sexes. As Oscar stands between female and male characters, chū sei as “middle sex” in its literal sense rightly describes her portrayal. However, Shamoon defines chū sei as “someone sexless and genderless” (2012: 46). The crux of Oscar’s characteristics is her unsettling sexual and gender identification, not the static state of sexlessness or gen- derlessness. She appears more feminine or more masculine, depending on the surroundings. To emphasize this point, I use the term androgyne. 11. Many people were disappointed by the realistic adaptation (Futaba 1989: 554; Takahashi 1979: 160), showing their awareness that the two- dimensional sphere of manga is not easily translatable to the “realistic” three-dimensional sphere. 12. In her discussion of The Rose of Versailles, Honda Masuko writes that Marie represents girls as she follows her passion (that is, her love for Fersen), ignoring her social roles of wife, mother, and queen (1982: 155). While my discussion of girls’ aesthetics has been inspired by Honda’s theorization of girls’ culture, I would argue that Marie is not “girlie.” She is portrayed as a loving mother, even though she is neither a good wife nor a good queen. It is Oscar, not Marie, who represents girls. 13. As an example of André’s “unmanly” aspects, Shamoon points out his emotional, stereotypically “womanly,” reaction to Rousseau’s romance, Julie, or the New Heloise (La Nouvelle Héloïse), which is about unrequited love caused by class difference (2012: 125). She writes, “André decides to find out more about the republican politics that have so preoccupied Oscar by reading Rousseau. But rather than one of Rousseau’s philosophi- cal works, he reads the romance La Nouvelle Héloïse and sees himself in the story of forbidden love between a noble lady and a commoner” (2012: 125). However, this is not correct as André actually finds out about the book from the Count of Girodelle, who knows the story mirrors the class differences in Oscar and André’s relation. Furthermore, Oscar also reads the novel and sheds emotional tears in the process of finding her love for André. 14. See her online essay “Longing for Europe” (“Akogare no yō roppa”): http:// web.archive.org/web/20030509131032/http://natmi.coco.co.jp/AM/ berubara.htm (accessed 30 June 2015). 15. Jacques Demy said something similar to this, reported in the evening issue of Asahi on 5 January 1979. He said that Oscar was not so much a French character during the time of the French Revolution as a contemporary person in Japan (Asahi Shimbun 1979). While in this manga the French Revolution is linked to the feminist consciousness of 1970s Japan, early feminist consciousness in France was born during the Revolution. There was a group of women who demanded the right to form a female unit of the national guard, although the request was ignored. In 1793, a group of militant women established their society, the Club des Citoyennes Republicaines, for the purpose of securing food. Olympe de Gouges published a pamphlet, “The Rights of Notes 195

Women,” in 1791, demanding that women should be given equal rights with men (Forrest 1995: 102–3). 16. She has an essay titled “Nagata Hiroko Is Myself” (“Nagata Hiroko wa atashi da”), in which she writes about her thoughts on Nagata’s involvement in the murders of her fellow URA members. The essay is included in her book Wherever I Am, I Am Riburian (Doko ni iyō to, riburian) (1983). 17. Mori clearly detested women, demonstrated in remarks such as “Bleeding during periods is disgusting” (Oˉ tsuka 1996: 16). 18. As Alan Forrest notes, the financial crisis caused by the French involvement in the American War of Independence was the trigger for the Revolution (1995: 13), and this manga explains the process accurately. However, for the readers, such historical facts probably did not matter so much. As pointed out above, Ikeda herself intended the French Revolution here to be the “inner revolution of the Japanese women.” She probably borrowed this dramatic historical event in France simply because the West was admired by girls. Anne McKnight suggests that Ikeda chose the setting of the French Revolution as the universal origin of human rights in order to counter what many felt as American-imposed democracy, and it was indeed an important agendum of the student protests at the time. She writes, “[T]he plot of Rose of Versailles (sic) dram- atized how ‘rights’ were an invention of a popular, anti-imperial, spon- taneous uprising, not the imposition of a foreign occupying power, as in the case of women’s voting and other rights in Japan under the American Occupation” (2010: 124–5). This is an interesting observation, but in this chapter I consider the setting of this manga from the perspective of girls’ aesthetics; the West functions as a girls’ dreamland. In addition, if the West is often imagined as a “site of transvestism” in Japan, as Jennifer Robertson notes (1998: 76), then it is a good setting for a character like Oscar. 19. However, there are pieces dealing with working-class experiences in a genre of manga called gekiga, which is characterized by a realistic graphic style and stories. See Sharon Kinsella’s Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society (2000) for a discussion on gekiga. 20. The language employed in this film is English. 21. The women’s liberation movement in Japan is said to have started on International Anti-war Day, 21 October 1970, and this suggests its close link to the peace movement. 22. For discussions on this issue, see Thoughts for Survival (Ikinobiru tame no shisō ) (2006) by Ueno Chizuko, Military Organizations and Gender: Women in the Self-Defense Forces (Gunji soshiki to jendā: Jieitai no joseitachi) by Satō Fumika, and From Zenkyō tō to the Women’s Liberation Movement (Zenkyō tō kara ribu e) (1996), a volume edited by the Onna tachi no ima o tou kai, for example. 23. Even now, most people seem to believe that Japan is a racially and ethnically homogenous nation, but as Oguma Eiji’s research demonstrates, this is a postwar construction. He speculates that one of the reasons for the 196 Notes

ongoing power of this idea may be the desire of the Japanese to believe that the supposedly homogenous, peace-loving Japanese were led into a disastrous war by outside forces (1995: 363–4). Oguma traces the shift in kokutai fundamentalism over time and explains that, from the 1890s to roughly the 1900s, many theorists of kokutai advocated the idea that Japan was a homogenous nation, consisting of the racially and ethnically “pure” Japanese (1995: 49–71). However, after Japan colonized Taiwan in 1895 and Korea in 1910, it became difficult for these theorists to claim Japan as a homogeneous nation, because Japan forced the colonized to join the category of “the Japanese,” for instance, by encouraging marriage between the colonized and the Japanese and by drafting the colonized into military service. The Japanese government assimilated them into its extended Imperial Household as “adopted children” (1995: 146) or “younger brothers” (1995: 383), claiming that the Japanese, the Taiwanese, and the Koreans shared the same ancestor. By the end of the 1920s, Japan as a racially and ethnically heterogeneous nation was emphasized by kokutai’s advocates in order to mask the crude reality of colonization and the invasion of neighboring Asia with the beautiful family image of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (daitō a kyō ei ken) (1995: 136–51). 24. According to Oguma Eiji, the concept of kokutai originated in the Edo Period (1603–1868), but he does not specify when in the Edo Period it emerged. However, he points out that kokutai in the modern period arose in the 1890s, after the Imperial Rescript on Education (Kyō iku chokugo) was promulgated in 1890 (1995: 50). The rescript is a paean, worship- ping the Imperial Family as the mythic origin of the Japanese nation and swearing its people’s loyalty to the nation and the Emperor. Students were forced to recite it every day at school, thus implanting the idea that each of them was a member of Japan as a family-state. Yumiko Iida dif- ferentiates kokutai in the early phase of modernization from kokutai in the 1930s. She argues that in the 1890s kokutai simply functioned as a tool to link the nation and the people in order for Japan to progress towards the higher condition of a nation-state, since such a link did not exist in the Edo Period, where each feudal lord governed people in his own territory. However, according to Iida, in the 1930s this link had already been exhausted in the public mind, because by then they were confronting various problems, which they thought were caused by the westernization-cum-loss of the “Japanese experience.” In this context, the idea of the Emperor as the manifestation of the universal, “true Japan” could effectively function as a wartime ideology (2002: 18–22). 25. They include prime ministers. In the postwar period, four prime ministers, Miki Takeo, Nakasone Yasuhiro, Koizumi Jun’ichirō , and Abe Shinzō visited the shrine to honor the war dead. 26. He was an illustrator for the magazine Girls’ Friend (Shō jo no tomo). 27. For example, her short story in 1941, “To Become a Kernel of Wheat” (“Hitotsubu no mugi to mo naran”), preaches the importance of “sisterhood” Notes 197

between Japanese and Chinese women. The protagonist, a Japanese girl, determines to become “a kernel of wheat” by selflessly working as a schoolteacher like her Western teachers in order to educate Chinese girls so that they will understand the significance of creating “the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.” As Dollase writes, “A Christian tale of sacrifice is here put into the service of Japanese colonial expansion” (2008: 331). Yoshiya was certainly different from masculinist national- ists in that she always wrote about women and girls in her pieces and sympathized with Chinese female victims of the war in her reports from China. However, her feminism or her desire for “universal sisterhood” was only possible through the suffering of Chinese women who, she fanatically believed, needed Japan’s help in order to fully understand why “friendship” between the two nations was needed (Dollase 2008: 332–4). This short story is also a good example of Yoshiya’s persistent admiration for Western culture, represented here by Western teachers. Even during wartime, she never let go of this important aspect of girls’ aesthetics. 28. The other was Hayashi Fumiko. Male members included Kikuchi Kan, Kume Masao, and Yoshikawa Eiji, for example (Dollase 2008: 330). 29. Many researchers have written about the first-wave feminists’ involvement in the war. See, for example, Ueno Chizuko’s Engendering Nationalism (Nashonarizumu to jendā) (1998) and Vera Mackie’s Feminism in Modern Japan: Citizenship, Embodiment and Sexuality (2003). 30. It should also be noted here that shō nen-ai/BL manga sometimes finds homoeroticism in Nazi images. There are several shō nen-ai/BL manga pieces which feature Nazis as characters. For example, the inaugural number of JUNE (1978), the first magazine to print manga and novels dealing with male same-sex relationships, included an illustration by Kihara Toshie in which two Nazis are dancing romantically under the swastika banner. It comes with the line: “Hey, Rudolf, wouldn’t it be nice if we turn off the light …” (cited in Ishida 2008: 218). One might argue that the homosexualization of Nazis challenges the Nazis’ persecution of homosexuals in some ways, but this does not seem to be the case here. The girls’ manga artists who initiated shō nen-ai/BL often list Luchino Visconti’s films as their source of inspiration (Ishida 2008: 141). For them, his films were “romantic,” and they earnestly observed the details in his films, such as lace attached to dresses. On the contrary, male literati such as Mishima Yukio saw the protest against the Nazi Party in Visconti’s The Damned (La caduta degli Dei) (1969), which is about a family of steel mag- nates manipulated by the party (Ishida 2008: 126–54). Particularly at the early stage of shō nen-ai/BL manga, girls’ manga artists often chose to set their work in Europe, because they thought that Japan was not suitable for their homoerotic fantasies (Ishida 2008: 142–3), even though Japan has a long tradition of homoeroticism, for example, in kabuki theatre. Kihara’s illustration of two Nazis seems to have been inspired by The Damned, and here the image of Nazis represents the homoeroticism and romanticism associated with Europe. 198 Notes

31. Similar opinions are also found in the review section for this film on the website of Amazon Japan. 32. See note 6 of this chapter. 33. More precisely, it started as the Takarazuka Chorus (Takarazuka shō katai) in 1913, and its first performance took place in 1914. In Takarazuka’s official record, its founding year is 1914. 34. However, Takarazuka recruited males in 1919, 1926, and 1945. Although it aimed at having male performers onstage, these recruits ended up as directors and some minor chorus members. Training of male members ended in 1954, due to the resistance of Takarasiennes and fans (Kawasaki 2005: 150). 35. However, Takarazuka sometimes hires composers and choreographers from outside of the company for its productions. 36. Tours abroad started as early as 1938. The company has performed in many parts of the world, including Asia, Europe, and North America. 37. The most famous student activity at the school is the obsessive daily cleaning of the school building, as documented in the film Dream Girls (1994), directed by Kim Longinotto and Jano Williams. This started around 1970 and continues today. However, while sewing was taught as a womanly skill in the early days, it is not offered in the current curriculum (Stickland 2008: 81). Leonie R. Stickland writes that, in terms of traditional Japanese female etiquette, only a tea ceremony class had been offered (2008: 81), but as of 2015 it is not in the curriculum any more, according to the website of the Takarazuka Music School (Takarazuka ongaku gakkō n.d.). 38. The publication includes information such as each Takarasienne’s stage name, hometown, hobby, and so on, but it does not include her age. This is because all the Takarasiennes are supposed to be maidens regardless of their actual age. A Takarasienne stops concealing her age after her retire- ment from the company, but the fans can usually guess from various sources while she is still a member. 39. The assumption that the majority of Takarasiennes and fans are heterosexual risks rendering homosexual ones in the community invisible. There are lesbians surrounding Takarazuka, such as Higashi Koyuki, a former male-role player of the company and currently a lesbian activ- ist, and Emoto Junko, a director/playwright/performer of theatre troupe Kegawa-zoku (Fur Tribe). For Kegawa-zoku’s parody of Takarazuka, see my article “Two-Dimensional Imagination in Contemporary Japanese Women’s Performance” in TDR (2011). 40. However, according to Kawasaki Kenko, the management often determines students’ secondary genders even at the entrance exams of the Takarazuka Music School (1999: 188). 41. There are cases in which male-role players change to female-role players, but the opposite seldom happens (Kawasaki 1999: 189). 42. It must be pointed out that Robertson’s writing is ambiguous in her discussions of the romantic relationships of the “revue performers.” She Notes 199

discusses not only Takarazuka, but also Shō chiku, but she often does not specify which one she is referring to. She mentions one Takarazuka performer and two Shō chiku performers whose same-sex practices became public, but it is not always clear which performers she is discussing. 43. While the motto sounds blatantly patriarchal, Kawasaki Kenko points out that it might have suggested a feminist attitude if we contextualize the discourse of “purity” in the feminist and other liberal movements in the late Meiji (1868–1912) and Taishō (1912–26) Eras (1999: 228). While she does not explain what “purity” meant in this period, Kawamura Kunimitsu does in his research on girls’ culture of that time. He writes that it meant a status untainted by the subjugation of women’s sexuality to the patriarchal economy (1993: 14). Thus, even though the motto was imposed on Takarasiennes by Kobayashi, they might have been able to find a subversive meaning in it. 44. Ever since, Takarazuka has produced various versions of The Rose of Versailles, such as the ones focusing not on Oscar and André but on Fersen and Marie. 45. However, like other girls’ media, Takarazuka did not completely function as a conveyer of state ideology. It kept staging romances even during wartime (Robertson 1998: 130–1). Moreover, it kept evoking a western- ized atmosphere, while simultaneously identifying Western influences as “germs” (Robertson 1998: 133). For example, the Revue’s 1943 production of The Navy (Kaigun) contains a Hawaiian song, which was officially banned by the government (Robertson 1998: 112). As a popular company managed by a business corporation whose goals were not always in alliance with the state, Takarazuka could have been an outlet for the suppressed desires of the audience. From the audience’s perspective, heterosexual romance performed by girls and Hawaiian music might have appeared as covert resistance to militarism. At the very least, such “unhealthiness” probably provided the audience with a momentary res- pite from their tightly regulated everyday reality. 46. Angura theatre started in the 1960s as a protest against dominant shingeki, as discussed in Chapter 2. The angura practitioners associated shingeki’s realism with what they considered the Western form of modernity. They instead used pre-modern Japanese imaginations and combined them with international avant-garde dramaturgy in their work. 47. While the story of The Rose of Versailles and the history of the French Revolution are well known, the audience would probably only have had a vague idea that the conflict was between the royalists and the revolutionary forces, as the historical context is not explained in the play. Moreover, Oscar’s image as a national hero is enhanced even at the cost of narrative consistency. For example, General de Jarjayes is on the side of the royalists, and yet he glorifies Oscar’s departure to fight for the revolutionary forces. 48. Although the Self-Defense Forces were not involved in the activities on the front line, they have helped the US in other ways, such as removing 200 Notes

underwater mines in the Persian Gulf in 1991 and giving rear-guard support in the Indian Ocean from 2001 to 2007 and from 2008 to 2010. 49. This was one of his slogans when he was previously in office from 2006 to 2007. 50. For more detailed discussion on Takarazuka’s Gone With the Wind, see my article “Two-Dimensional Imagination in Contemporary Japanese Women’s Performance” (2011). Another show that clearly demonstrates their anti-American sentiments is Wind in the Dawn: The Challenge of Shirasu Jirō , Samurai Gentleman (Reimei no kaze: samurai jentoruman Shirasu Jirō no chō sen) (2008). For more about this show, see my article “The Takarazuka Revue’s Wind in the Dawn: (De-)nationalization of Japanese Women” in Theatre and National Identity: Re-Imagining Conceptions of the Nation (2014), edited by Nadine Holdsworth. 51. Olalquiaga mentions “the replacement of the organic and human by the technological” (1992: 19) as a cause of this anxiety. 52. From my personal conversation with her on 26 December 2013. 53. By “a multi-gender community,” I assume she means that there are male fans as well. While she may be acknowledging male audience members, she renders invisible the fans whose sexuality is non-normative in her heterosexual reading of the company and its performance. 54. In this scene, Oscar mentions that Bernard has asked her to let him marry Rosalie, but Rosalie does not know about his wish. Here, Rosalie is treated as masculine Oscar’s possession (although Oscar does not force her to marry Bernard). This is reminiscent of a traditional Japanese marriage arrangement. In the original manga, Oscar does not suggest to Rosalie that she marry Bernard. She does marry him, but this is because she has eventually fallen in love with him. 55. One such example, as in the case of the original manga version, is Oscar’s romantic relationship with André, which resembles that of a couple from a BL manga. Takarazuka shows actually feature something like male homoeroticism in the interaction among male-role players. Kawasaki Kenko indicates that popular relationships among characters include “rivalry between male characters” and “male comradeship” (2005: 151), which are indeed BL-like. 56. This is quite different from the original manga in which Oscar rejects Rosalie’s love, saying, “Don’t forget. I’m a woman” (Ikeda 1994 [Vol. 2]: 115). Oscar also gets furious when she is falsely accused of being Marie’s lesbian lover at one point. While the manga abounds in homoeroticism, it treats lesbianism as a dirty word. This may resonate with homophobia in shō nen-ai/BL manga as discussed in Chapter 2. 57. There is a tacit understanding that a female-role player is younger than her male counterpart in the star pair. In the highly stratified Takarazuka apparatus, age, as well as “gender,” is an important constituent of the hierarchy among the performers. Thus, in the star pair, the female-role player needs to portray herself as dependent on the male-role player, pro- ducing stereotypical gendered power dynamics. This convention started Notes 201

at the beginning of the 1980s. Before this, top female-role players did not exist. While this may be another example of “gender” bias in Takarazuka, the lack of top female-role players also made it possible for female-role players to develop their skills without being restricted by the convention of the star pair which requires them to be foils for the male-role players. There used to be popular female-role players who were regarded as “exceptional” (bekkaku) before the 1980s (Matsumoto 2008: 23).

4 “Little Girls” Go West?

1. Etō discusses these points in various parts of his book Maturity and Loss: The Collapse of the “Mother” (Seijuku to sō shitsu: “haha” no hō kai) (1967), but particularly in the section on Kojima Nobuo’s 1965 novel Embracing Family (Hō yō kazoku), in which Etō analyzes the “inverted” power dynamic between a married couple in the age of postwar democracy. 2. He mainly produces paintings and installation art works, which adapt aspects of Japanese otaku (usually male geek or nerd) culture. For example, there is a subculture of making and collecting small eroticized figurines of anime or fantasy characters. Murakami has made versions of these figurines, but larger than human size and with exaggerated features. One figure, Hiropon (1997), is a large naked female figure with large breasts and milk flying out to create a circle around the character, while another figure, My Lonesome Cowboy (1997), is a large naked male character with sperm flying out of his penis like a lasso. For more of Murakami’s works, see collections of his artworks such as DOB in the Strange Forest (Fushigi no mori no DOB kun) (1999), Superflat (2000), and Little Boy (2005), the catalogue of an exhibit of the same name that he organized in New York in 2005. 3. To be precise, Japan surrendered after another atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. This one was called “Fat Man,” but Murakami focuses on “Little Boy” because the name symbolizes what he thinks of as postwar Japanese mentality. 4. I am quoting from his Japanese-English bilingual catalogue, Little Boy (2005). The original English translation is as follows, but this does not convey the meaning of Murakami’s writing in Japanese: Don’t touch me, let me be independent. We don’t need your U.N. or any other help. The image of Kaneda and the others waving a “Great Tokyo Empire Akira” flag, with none of the conviction that accompanied brandishments of the former imperial flag of Japan, seems to mock our current “Japanese Nation of Children.” (emphasis added)

This translation is not correct. As Murakami’s writing in Japanese clearly suggests, he finds in Kaneda and others hope for a revival of the “vigor” that imperialist Japan used to possess in his view. 5. The official withdrawal took place in 1935. 202 Notes

6. In the same public discussion, while not directly related to masculinist nationalism, former diet member Oˉ ta Seiichi praised men who gang-raped women as being “energetic” and hence “close to normal.” For details, see, for example, “Still, It’s Good That They Are Energetic. They Are Close to Normal, Aren’t They?” (Mada genki ga arukara ıˉ. Seijō ni chikain ja nai ka) in Mainichi, “Those Who Gang-Rape Are Energetic” (Shū dan reipu suru hito genki aru) in Asahi, and “Those Who Gang-Rape Are Energetic” (Shū dan reipu suru hito genki aru) (the same title as the piece in Asahi) in Yomiuri, all dated 27 June 2003 (Mainichi Shimbun 2003: 31; Asahi Shimbun 2003: 38; Yomiuri Shimbun 2003: 39). These remarks by Oˉ ta and Mori were widely reported in the mass media, but when I tried to locate articles about them in the major newspapers, I could only find those about Oˉ ta. This may be due to self-censorship by these newspapers or other forms of censorship with regard to the former prime minister’s comments. However, there are sources available online about Mori’s comments – see, for example, Jinmin Shinpō (Jinmin Shinpō 2003). 7. In their booth, they created a room with a TV screen showing Mission/K. In their performance in the room, they did not dance, but simply stood, lay down, or sat on the floor (BT 2002: 156). 8. However, he later modified his theory to include both types of bodies – bodies with loose control over themselves and bodies trained in Western dance traditions – into the category of “children’s bodies,” as long as the latter make “wrong” use of their techniques (2005: 50–1). Bibliography

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Abe, Shinzoˉ, 144, 158, 162, 196 anata, 142, 146, 189 Abraham, Nicholas, 184 androgyne (ryˉosei guyuˉ), 2, 4–7, “absent self” (“hi-zai no watashi”), 15–16, 65–6, 71–4, 78, 80, 82, 104, 192 101, 108, 112–14, 116–19, 120, adolescent, 2, 3, 8, 10–12, 20, 24, 141, 151, 183, 189, 190, 193–4 45, 48, 51, 84, 86, 134, 181, 188 Angel House, 192 adult, 4, 11, 14–17, 20, 21, 26–8, anime, 1, 2, 10, 51, 73, 108, 134, 31, 33, 35, 37, 45, 66, 68, 77, 159, 193, 201 78, 88, 101, 102, 111, 125, 167, Anju, Mira, 145, 146 168, 181, 183, 189, 195 Anna O, 39, 40 Aeschylus, 97 anxiety, 23, 104, 146, 200 aesthetics, 1–17, 20, 22–5, 28–30, Aoi Tori, 41, 42, 43 38, 40, 41, 45, 46, 48, 50, 51, Aoike, Yasuko, 25, 66, 187 53–5, 58, 63–6, 68–71, 73, From Eroica with Love (Eroika yori 74, 77, 78, 80, 87, 90, 92, 95, ai o komete), 187 97–101, 107, 108, 110–13, 116, Aoyama, Tomoko, 7, 11, 12, 182 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 132, applied theatre, 63 134, 136, 142, 145, 147, 152, Aran, Kei, 14 153, 157, 159–61, 169, 176–84, aristocrat, 116, 123, 127, 128, 131, 187, 188, 194, 195, 197 142, 143, 150–1 affect, 54, 59, 63, 64, 86, 104, 131, 184 army, 43, 114, 134, 136, 140, 144, Agamemnon, 97, 98 156, 178 Age of Women, 41 art, 2–4, 7, 9, 13, 16–18, 20, 26, 27, ahistorical, 5, 15, 23, 38, 55, 62, 65, 41, 43, 44, 63, 66, 70, 100, 152, 125, 136 153, 155, 156, 159–61, 172–4, Ahmed, Sara, 53 179, 180, 185, 201 Aihara, Mika, 14 Aryan, 135 Ajase complex, 28 Asama-Sansoˉ Incident, 114, 193 Akaeda, Kanako, 23, 87, 88, 181, 187 Asia, 30, 42, 43, 56, 130, 140, 155, Akashi, So, 187 156, 158, 162, 196–8 Akutagawa, Hiroshi, 99 Aston, Elaine, 7, 63, 64, alienation effects, 111, 155 182 allegory, 146 Athena, 97–8 Allied Powers, 144 atomic bomb, 153, 157, 201 Allison, Anne, 28–9 attachment, 26, 36, 37, 52, 62, 67, 89, 96 alter ego, 66, 73, 82, 108, 189 audience, 2, 7, 12, 14, 27, 28, 64, amateur, 6, 7, 28, 138, 189 81, 82, 84, 100, 103–5, 120, American War of Independence, 195 134, 137, 139, 141, 143–50, Americanization, 17, 153, 155–6, 161, 162, 172, 174–6, 188, 193, 163–5, 167, 169, 171, 174 199–200

215 216 Index

Australian, 3, 10 Breuer, Josef, 39 autoerotic phase, 36 Britain, 42, see also UK avant-garde, 199 Broadway, 138, 155, 162, 164, 166, Azuma, Sonoko, 82, 148, 189 170–2 Brooks, Peter, 104 Baden-Powell, Robert, 7 Buruma, Ian, 135 Bae, Catherine Yoonah, 72–3 Butler, Judith, 62, 95, 96, 164–5 ballet, 154, 160, 164, 165, 168, 170–1 butch-femme, 67 Bardsley, Jan, 10 basso, 189, see also Ono, Natsume camp, 4, 141, 147–8 Bastille, 115, 120, 125, 127–9 capitalism, 20, 22 biological, 28, 38, 74, 89, 92, 111, Captain Tsubasa, 81 119, 120, 124 carnal, 9, 67, 86–8 Birmingham School, 178 carnivalesque, 26, 27, 54 birth, 5, 19, 21, 31, 36, 37, 40, 61, Carroll, Lewis, 50 94, 98, 121, 159 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, 50 birth metaphor, 61 castrated, 16, 153, 158 birth rate, 121, 183 Charisse, Cyd, 170 childbirth, 31, 37, 120, 159 child, 9, 10, 20, 25, 29, 30, 34, 37, 38, rebirth, 39, 51, 52, 113 41, 46, 77, 90, 94–6, 110, 115, bisexual, 80 116, 124, 143, 151, 157–9, 167, Boys’ Love (BL), 6–7, 80–2, 88, 120, 168, 182, 183, 186, 196, 201–2 179–81, 188–9, 197, 200 “child-bearing machine”, 159 boarding school, 7, 8, 15, 68, 78, 82, childhood, 3, 4, 20, 26, 28, 110 89–92, 95, 100, 109–11, 177, “children’s bodies” (“kodomo 188, 191 shintai”), 167, 168, 202 bodiless, 40, 53, 119, 121, 191 China, 13, 30, 43, 134, 184, 197 body, 2–6, 8, 11–16, 19, 20, 22, choreographer, 198 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 33, 35, 37, Christianity, 69, 70, 82, 92, 39–41, 51, 53–5, 61, 62, 65, 66, 187, 197 72, 74, 77, 80–2, 86, 90, 98, chuˉsei, 193, 194 101–3, 105, 107–9, 111, 112, circularity, 38 114, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125, citizen, 5, 13, 15, 21, 24, 25, 57, 63, 129, 131, 132, 135, 147–50, 152, 69, 111–13, 125, 134, 135, 150, 153, 155, 156, 158, 160–78, 152, 193 180–3, 185, 188, 202 citizenship, 15, 16, 112, 113, 134, bond, 9, 29, 52, 81, 82, 84, 86–8, 95–6 145, 197 bourgeois, 22, 57, 119, 123 class, 3, 8, 21, 24, 46–8, 54, 66, boy, 6, 7, 15–17, 21, 66, 68, 72–4, 67, 69, 70, 105, 120, 124, 125, 78, 80–3, 88–90, 95, 101, 102, 127–9, 135, 142, 143, 183, 194, 105, 107–10, 112, 117, 120, 195, 198 153, 155–60, 173, 176, 177, Club des Citoyennes Republicaines, 179, 180, 183, 189, 191–3, 201 194 Boy Scouts, 7 Clytemnestra, 97–8 Brecht, Bertolt, 185, 190 co-education, 5, 24, 72 Brechtian theatre, 174 Cohan, Steven, 170, 171 Index 217

collective, 40–2, 44, 46, 50, 53, 54, disciplinary institution, 37 62, 92, 124, 128, 144 discursive sphere, 57 collective self-defense, 144 double prohibition, 95 colonialism, 6, 14, 140 Dolan, Jill, 175 comfort, 53, 56, 119, 123 Dollase, Hitomi Tsuchiya, 134, 187, comfort women (juˉgun ianfu), 43 197 commodification, 27, 41 Donen, Stanley, 171 communication, 40, 41, 45, 46, 183, 185 Doˉ sei-ai, 8, 9, 67, 150 community, 2, 5–7, 28, 46, 48, 50, Driscoll, Catherine, 3, 7, 11, 178, 56, 64, 66, 84, 89, 91, 177, 179, 181 180, 183, 198, 200 dubbing, 108, 153, 162, 169, 171, Conference for Asian Women and 172, 175 Theatre, 42–3 Duggan, Anne E., 128 confinement, 20, 58, 152, 175–6 conscription duty, 134 Edo Period, 196 constitution, 6, 112, 113, 144, 145, education, 21, 24, 69, 71–3, 183, 157, 158, 181 196 consumerism, 22, 24, 115, 123, 127, ego, 32, 62, 66, 73, 82, 92, 108, 184, 179, 193 189 de-contextualization, 148 ego ideal, 184 corporeal, 31, 38 Electra, 98 cute (kawaii), 1, 4, 11, 24, 25, 30 emotion, 4, 48, 72, 77, 81, 96, 124, 147 dance, 16, 17, 31, 33, 138, 149, 152–5, Emoto, Junko, 198 160, 162–74, 176, 180, 184, 202 emperor, 21, 25, 30, 66, 131, 155, daughter, 21, 29, 30, 94–9, 182, 186 196 death, 16, 22, 25, 29, 32, 39, 40, 43, 45, Eng, David L., 62 46, 48, 52, 68, 90, 91, 94, 95, 97, Enomoto, Nariko, 189 98, 100, 107, 124, 125, 128–31, Equal Employment Opportunity Act 135, 136, 138, 151, 157, 183 (Danjo koyoˉ kikai kintoˉ hoˉ ), 6 deconstruction, 130 equality, 6, 112, 115, 127, 150 de Gouges, Olympe, 194 eroticism, 15, 18, 26, 27, 65, 67, 88, deification, 125, 131 120, 132, 141, 150 democracy, 155, 195, 201 escape, 30, 47, 48, 62, 68, 77, 82, Democratic Party of Japan (Nihon 99, 153 shakaitoˉ ), 114 Etoˉ, Jun, 156 Democratic Youth League of Japan eternity, 3, 26, 38, 151 (Nihon minshu seinen doˉ mei), 123 ethnicity, 13, 14, 54, 89 Demy, Jacques, 16, 113, 115, 127, Eugenic Protection Law (Yuˉsei hogo 147, 193, 194 hoˉ ), 116 Lady Oscar, 16, 113, 117, 129 Euripides, 97 Room in Town, A (Une chambre en Europe, 56, 95, 104, 194, ville), 129 197–8 Umbrellas of Cherbourg (Les everyday lives, 5, 46, 104, 179–80 Parapluies de Cherbourg), 117 excess, 4, 89, 104, 105, 146–7 Diamond, Elin, 61, 174 exoticism, 89 218 Index

Fabre, Jan, 168 flatness, 156, 157, see also failure, 3, 17, 27, 99, 101, 146, 155, two-dimensional 162, 163, 165, 166, 169–71 fluidity, 35, 88 fake, 4, 64 Forrest, Alan, 195 family, 21, 46, 89, 90, 92, 96, 98, Forsythe, William, 168 109, 120, 128, 131, 134, 143, Foucault, Michel, 37 144, 156, 181, 196, 197, 201 fragmentation, 155 family-state, 21, 196 France, 7, 16, 28, 56, 60, 78, 113, fan, 71, 74, 81, 103, 107, 136, 116, 121, 124, 131, 143, 145, 138–41, 145–7, 149, 150, 191, 148, 177, 191, 194–5 192, 198, 200 Fraser, Nancy, 58 fan club, 103, 138, 141, 191–2 freedom, 71, 112, 120, 158 fandom, 10, 13, 189 French Revolution, 7, 16, 25, fantasy, 31, 35, 45, 46, 54, 63, 64, 113–15, 119, 121–5, 127, 128, 92, 97, 98, 175, 180, 201 148, 150, 177, 178, 194, 195, fascist, 71, 135 199 Fat Man, 201 French revue, 107, 137 father, 29, 39, 40, 46, 89, 92, 96–8, Freud, Sigmund, 29, 31–3, 36, 39, 115, 124, 125, 132, 144, 145, 62, 67 155, 156, 183 friendship, 8, 11, 23, 46, 48, 64, 67, Female Learning World (Jogaku sekai), 68, 72, 84, 86, 87, 187, 197 183 Fujimoto, Yukari, 121 female youth, 45, 46, 70, 83, 86, 88, Fukatsu, Eri, 193 183, 188 Fukushima, Yoshiko, 13, 191 female-female love, 68 Fundamental Law of Education female-female relationship, 67, 87 (Kyoˉ iku kihon hoˉ ), 71 female-role player (musumeyaku), furies, 98 139, 150, 198, 200–1 Futaba, Juˉzaburoˉ, 117, 128, 147, 194 femininity, 74, 119, 129, 171, 189 feminism, 10, 41, 53, 70, 174, 178, GEISAI, 159 180, 182, 185, 189, 190, 197 gekiga, 195 feminist, 2, 6, 10, 11, 16, 23, 29, 30, gender, 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 41–3, 53, 54, 61, 63, 69, 70, 99, 16, 20–2, 24, 25, 28, 29, 41, 107, 114, 123, 130, 134, 149, 42, 44, 54, 57, 61, 65, 66, 70, 150, 174, 176, 177, 179, 185, 72–4, 78, 80, 82, 83, 87, 88, 92, 186, 194, 197, 199 97, 108, 111, 114–17, 119, 124, feminist theatre movement, 41, 42 125, 128, 130, 134, 137, 139, feminization, 72, 146 140, 145, 146, 149, 150, 152, feudalism, 104 165, 166, 173, 177, 179, 180, fiction, 4, 23, 115 188–90, 192–5, 198, 200–1 film, 1, 15–18, 24, 55, 65, 66, 73, 77, “secondary genders”, 139, 198 81, 103, 107–11, 115, 117–19, Genet, Jean, 81 127–9, 134, 136, 138, 141, 146, genital phase, 36 147, 152, 153, 157, 161, 162, Germany, 7, 15, 78, 82, 107, 114, 135 164, 165, 169–74, 182, 192, gestus, 174 193, 195, 197–8 Giddens, Anthony, 87 Index 219

gimunajiumu, 100, 101, 187, 191 Gothic-Lolita culture, 26 girl (shoˉ jo), 1–18, 20–38, 40, 41, grassroots movement, 179 44–56, 58, 59, 61–74, 76–8, Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity 80–4, 86–92, 95, 97–101, Sphere (daitoˉ a kyoˉ eiken), 155, 107–16, 119–21, 123–5, 127–9, 196, 197 131–3, 136–8, 140–2, 148, 150, grief, 62 152, 153, 159–61, 169, 172, Guerrilla Girls, 17 174–99, 201 aesthetic category of girls, 1, 3, 5, Habermas, Jürgen, 57 13, 22 Hagen, Jean, 161, 170, 171–3 fictional category of girls, 10, 23, Hagio, Moto, 2, 15, 25, 65, 66, 27, 119–20 77–82, 85, 89, 90, 92–5, 97, 99, girl artist, 1, 2, 17, 64, 180 100, 111, 117, 182, 186–91, “girl of the nation” (“gunkoku 193 shoˉ jo”), 13 After Us the Savage God (Zankoku militant girl, 51 na kami ga shihai suru), 95 old girl, 55, 56, 61, 62, 64 Daughter of Iguana (Iguana no social category of girls, 5, 10, 21, musume), 94, 95 183 Gymnasium in November (Juˉichi Girl Guides, 7 gatsu no gimunajiumu), 187 girlhood, 3, 26, 28, 29, 31–3, 35, Half God (Hanshin), 191 36, 38, 45, 56, 59, 62, 109, 111, Heart of Thomas, The (Toˉ ma no 125, 182, 184 shinzoˉ ), 15, 65, 66, 77–84, 88, girls’ aesthetics, 1–11, 13–17, 20, 90, 92, 95, 96, 99–103, 107, 22–5, 28–30, 38, 40, 41, 45, 46, 108, 117, 124, 187, 188, 191, 48, 51, 53–5, 58, 64–6, 68–71, 193 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 90, 92, 95, Marginal, 94 97–101, 107, 108, 110–13, 116, Snow Child (Yuki no ko), 25, 183 119, 121, 125, 127, 128, 132, Han, Shinhee, 62 136, 142, 152, 153, 160, 161, Hankyuˉ Railway, 137 169, 176–83, 187, 194, 195, 197 hare no shutsujin, 144, 145 Girls’ Club (Shoˉ jo kurabu), 73, 132 Harootunian, Harry, 183 girls’ culture, 1–4, 6, 9, 11–13, 24, Harris, Geraldine, 7, 63, 182 25, 55, 71, 72, 74, 87, 113, 182, Hartley, Barbara, 7, 11, 12, 182 186, 194, 199 Hasegawa, Kazuo, 148 “big bang of girls’ culture”, 6, 9, 24–5 Hasegawa, Shigure, 43, 185, 186 Girls’ Friend (Shoˉ jo no tomo), 71, 72, Women’s Arts (Nyonin geijutsu), 43 132, 133, 187, 196 Hayashi, Fumiko, 197 Girls’ Periodical (Shoˉ jo gahoˉ ), 68, 71 hegemony, 16, 156, 157, 159, 167, girls’ school, 4, 5, 8, 21–3, 37, 38, 47, 168, 173–4 50, 66, 69–71, 81, 86, 138, 192 Hello Kitty, 1 girls’ studies, 9, 11–13, 24, 186 heroism, 131, 143 Good Friend (Nakayoshi), 46, 187 Hesse, Hermann, 81 “good wife, wise mother” (“ryoˉ sai Beneath the Wheel, 81 kenbo”), 5, 21, 22, 24, 68, 87, Demian, 81 130, 131, 138, 140, 145 Narcissus and Goldmund, 81 220 Index

heteronormative, 2, 4, 23, 53, 54, identification, 28, 32, 33, 44, 54, 59, 66, 68, 80, 88, 111, 124, 140, 66, 80, 81, 84, 88, 96, 105, 120, 150, 165, 190 121, 136, 139, 170, 173, 186, heterosexual, 2, 10, 11, 48, 51, 52, 188, 194 56, 67, 68, 70, 71, 78, 80, 81, identity, 11, 17, 46, 53, 58, 62, 69, 83, 86, 88, 92, 103, 120, 137, 74, 80, 83, 84, 88, 121, 123, 139–41, 148, 150, 188, 189, 125, 127, 150, 153, 160, 161, 191, 198–200 169, 184, 187, 200 heterosocial environment, 5, 24, 72 ideology, 2, 5–7, 14, 15, 20, 22, 24, Hidaka, Shoˉko, 189 82, 88, 96, 112, 113, 119, 121, hierarchy, 70, 125, 127, 134, 139, 125, 130, 131, 134, 140, 145, 157, 159, 200 148, 149, 159, 179, 182, 196, Higashi, Koyuki, 198 199 Hirata, Oriza, 191 Igarashi, Yoshikuni, 119, 162 Hiroshima, 153, 157 Iida, Yumiko, 136, 196 historical narrative, 114, 193 Ikeda, Riyoko, 2, 15, 25, 74, 113, historicity, 146 114, 118, 121–3, 126, 127, historicization, 174 129–31, 135, 189, 193, 195 history, 10–12, 39, 62, 84, 86, 87, Dear My Brother… (Onıˉsama e…), 103, 113, 114, 125, 128, 135, 189 148, 156, 167, 173, 183, 185, 199 Rose of Versailles, The (Berusaiyu Hitsujiya, Shirotama, 26, 28–31, no bara), 15, 16, 74, 113–16, 33–5, 44, 185–6 119–21, 123–5, 127, 134, 136, Hollywood, 161 137, 140, 141, 145–8, 150, homefront, 187 193–5, 199 homoeroticism, 56, 66, 100, 103, Imada, Erika, 70 108, 120, 121, 191, 197, 200 image, 1, 3–5, 15, 20, 22, 24–8, 31, homophobia, 80, 200 33, 35, 38–40, 44, 50, 56, 61, homosexuality, 5, 8, 9, 66, 67, 70, 62, 72, 78, 79, 83, 85, 89, 92, 78, 80, 84, 86–7, 92, 100, 189, 112, 116, 117, 120, 121, 123, 197–8 126–9, 131, 132, 135, 136, 140, homosocial, 5, 9, 56, 72, 73, 78, 141, 144, 147–9, 153, 158, 163, 82, 86 171–3, 181, 185, 191, 193, 196, Honda, Masuko, 10, 12, 21, 35, 45, 197, 199, 201 49, 51–3, 64, 69, 132, 182, 194 imaginary, 4, 7, 15, 16, 24, 27, 35, household, 21, 24, 29, 33, 34, 41, 38–40, 51, 53–5, 64, 69, 72, 78, 47, 131, 137, 155, 183, 190, 80, 88, 100, 114, 121, 125, 136, 193, 196 152, 156, 175, 178 Housewive’s Friend (Shufu no tomo), imagination, 4, 5, 23, 30, 40, 54, 63, 134 68, 71–3, 99, 179, 186, 198–200 husband, 21, 25, 31, 34, 35, 41, 68, imagined community, 28, 50, 183 97, 142, 183, 186, 190 immateriality, 3, 15, 112, 119, 149, hysteria, 39 177 immaturity, 11, 56, 156, 159 Ichijoˉ, Yukari, 25 Imperial Household, 131, 155, 196 Index 221

Imperial Japanese Army, 134, 136 Kanai, Keiko, 61 Imperial Rescript on Education Kaneda, Junko, 188 (Kyoˉ iku chokugo), 72, 196 Kaneko, Shuˉsuke, 15, 65, 107–11 imperialism, 6, 14, 140, 155 Summer Vacation 1999 (1999 nen Inagaki, Taruho, 81 no natsuyasumi), 15, 65, 107, incestuous desire, 98, 184 109, 141, 192 inner monologue, 89, 91, 94, 101, Kasugano, Yachiyo, 138 107, 130, 190 KATHY, 16, 17, 152–5, 159–76, 180 innocence, 2, 26, 98, 181 KATHY Cruises in NADiff, 153, 172 International Anti-War Day, 195 Mission/K, 153–5, 159, 163, 173, International Women’s Year, 178 182, 202 intimacy, 9, 78, 86–8, 97, 100 Kawabata, Yasunari, 71 Iphigenia, 98 Kawaguchi, Ken’ya, 192 Iraq Wars, 157, 181 Kawamura, Kunimitsu, 183, 199 Irigaray, Luce, 61 Kawasaki, Kenko, 12, 145, 182, isolation, 7, 46–8, 88, 180 199–200 Itsuwa, Mayumi, 33 Kegawa-zoku, 198 Girl (Shoˉ jo), 33 Kelly, Gene, 161, 163, 169, 170, 172, Ivy, Marilyn, 158 173 Kelly, Gene and Donen, Stanley Jacobs, Amber, 97, 98 Singin’ in the Rain, 17, 152, 153, Japan, 2, 4–6, 8–17, 20–2, 24–30, 161, 162, 169, 171, 173, 175; 35, 43–5, 55, 56, 67, 69–71, 81, Dancing Cavalier, The, 161, 84, 86, 87, 92, 94, 99–104, 107, 170–2, 175; “Good Morning”, 109, 112–14, 116, 123, 124, 152, 162, 163, 171, 173–4; 130–2, 134–7, 140, 144, 145, “Would You”, 170–3 148, 152, 153, 155–62, 164, Kihara, Toshie, 25, 66, 187, 188, 167, 168, 171, 173, 177, 178, 190, 197 180–9, 192–8, 201 Mari and Shingo (Mari to Shingo), Japan-US Security Treaty, 114, 156, 187 162 Kiki, Theatre Company (Gekidan Japanese Communist Party (Nihon Kiki), 44 kyoˉ santoˉ ), 114, 123, 127 Kino, Hana, 43 Japan Romantic School (Nihon Kinsella, Sharon, 181, 195 roˉ manha), 135, 136 Kisaragi, Koharu, 15, 40–6, 51, Japanese Society for Prevention 184–6 of Suicide (Nihon jisatsu yoboˉ DOLL, 14, 15, 20, 25, 26, 40–2, gakkai), 185 44–51, 53, 164, 175, 178 Johnny & Associates, 103 MORAL, 185 jouissance, 38 Kishi, Nobusuke, 162 JUNE, 189, 194, 202 Kishida, Rio, 15, 29, 30, 41–4, 65, 107, 110, 111, 184, 192 Kishida Rio Avant-Garde Festival, kabuki, 148, 183, 197 192 Kamakura City, 46, 49, 81, 186 Lear, 44, 65 Kanoˉ, Mikiyo, 179 222 Index

Kishida, Rio – Continued Little Girls, 16, 17, 152, 174, 176, Summer Vacation 1999 (1999 nen 180, 189, 201 no natsuyasumi), 15, 65, 107, little theatre movement, 99, 100, 109, 141, 192 184 Kitagawa, Johnny, 191 “living crypt”, 40 kitsch, 105 Longinotto, Kim, and Williams, Kobayashi, Ichizoˉ, 137, 138, 140, 199 Jano, 198 Kobayashi, Yoshinori, 113 Dream Girls, 198 Discourse on War (Sensoˉ ron), 193 loss, 31, 32, 39, 40, 62, 88–90, 95, Koizumi, Jun’ichiroˉ, 158, 196 96, 104, 111, 146, 184, 201 Kojiki, 136 love, 4, 6–9, 15, 39, 45, 48, 52, Kojima, Nobuo, 201 54–6, 63, 67, 68, 70, 78–84, kokutai, 131, 134–6, 155, 159, 196 86–8, 90–2, 94–9, 110, 111, 116, Konno, Oyuki, 189 119–21, 128, 143, 149, 150, Virgin Mary Is Watching (Maria 177, 179, 184, 187, 194, 200 sama ga miteru), 189 loved object, 31, 37, 40, 62, 95–6 Konno, Yuˉichi, 182 Korea, 43, 196 Mackie, Vera, 197 Korean, 13, 14, 182, 196 magazine, 5–7, 10, 22–5, 27, 28, 31, zainichi Korean, 182 36, 41, 50, 66, 71–4, 78, 84, 88, Kosawa, Heisaku, 28 132–4, 141, 160, 183, 187 Koyama, Shizuko, 182 male-female love (nyoshoku), 67 Krafft-Ebing, Richard von, 67 male-male love (nanshoku, also Kristeva, Julia, 38, 97 danshoku), 67, 80, 189 Kumota, Haruko, 189 male-role player (otokoyaku), 5, 74, Kurata, Jun, 65, 99–103, 107–8 139, 141, 150, 198, 200–1 Manchukuo, 158 labor, 20, 41, 70, 130, 159 manga, 1, 2, 6–8, 10, 11, 13, 15, Lacan, Jacques, 29, 184 16, 24, 25, 31, 36, 51, 59, 65, language, 8, 12, 38, 49, 69, 100–2, 66, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80–4, 88, 136, 184, 189, 190, 195 91, 94, 95, 100–3, 105, 107, law, 6, 71, 98, 116, 193 108, 110, 113–17, 119–23, 125, League of Nations, 158 127–9, 134, 135, 137, 140–3, leftist, 30, 107, 127, 178 145–8, 150, 157, 159, 179, New Left, 16, 18, 113–15, 119, 181–3, 186–91, 193–5, 197, 200 123, 124, 127, 129, 131, 135, marginalization, 6, 41, 63 150, 178, 193 Marie Antoinette, 114 Old Left, 114 marriage, 31, 32, 52, 68, 74, 89, 120, lesbian, 8, 9, 84, 86, 121, 181, 190, 138, 142, 186, 196, 200 192, 198, 200 Marotti, William, 193 Liberal Democratic Party (Jimintoˉ ), 144 Martin, Carol, 154, 160, 174 lightness, 3, 8 martyrdom, 127 liminality, 3, 12, 37 masculinity, 129, 130, 143 linguistic construct, 103 materiality, 3, 19, 20, 25, 56, 64, 66, Little Boy, 16, 17, 153, 155–60, 173, 80, 96, 99, 101, 103, 108, 112, 176, 180, 189, 201 117, 119, 120, 125, 175 Index 223

materialization, 28, 65, 118–19 modernity, 5, 12, 145, 155, 183, maternal, 36, 38, 61, 89, 96, 119, 142 185, 199 matricide, 88, 90, 93–5, 97–9 American capitalist modernity, Matsui, Midori, 189 155 maturity, 55, 108, 156, 157, 201 modernization, 20, 45, 155, 156, McLelland, Mark, 67 185, 196 Meiji moga, 187 government, 5 monarchy, 114, 130 Period, 66, 182 Mori, Mari, 50 Meiji Women’s School (Meiji Mori, Naoko, 81, 189 jogakkoˉ ), 69, 70 Mori, Tsuneo, 123, 195 McKnight, Anne, 193, 195 Mori, Yoshiroˉ, 159 melancholia, 28, 29, 31–3, 56, 62, mother, 3–5, 21, 22, 24, 29, 31, 34, 95, 99, 184 36–9, 47, 51, 56, 57, 59, 61, 66, melodrama, 16, 103–5, 137, 146–8 68, 82, 87, 89, 90, 92, 94–9, method acting, 103 107, 116, 120, 121, 130, 131, Metis, 97, 98 134, 135, 138, 140, 142, 143, Miki, Takeo, 196 145, 146, 151, 155, 156, 182, military, 21, 48, 113, 114, 124, 130, 186, 190, 191, 194, 201 134, 135, 142, 144, 156, 157, Mother Goose rhymes, 107 162, 186, 195–6 mother-daughter relationship, 95, Miller, Laura, 10 96 mimesis, 61, 184 motherhood, 4, 5, 16, 23, 25, 35, Mitchell, Margaret, 212 42, 67, 95, 97–9, 116, 119, 134, Gone with the Wind, 212 186 Mitchell, Sally, 3 mourning, 28, 29, 31, 62 Mishima, Yukio and Terayama, Murakami, Takashi, 16, 17, 153, Shuˉji, 18–20 156–60, 167, 168, 173, 174, “Can Eros Be the Basis of 176, 180, 201 Resistance?” (Erosu wa teikˉˉo no murder, 29–32, 34, 37, 98, 119, 123, kyoten to nari uru ka?), 18 129, 195 Mishima, Yukio, 18–20, 81, 131, 197 musical, 12, 17, 71, 113, 117, 137, misogyny, 95–9, 177 162, 166, 172, 174, 193 mission school, 69, 70, 92, 187, 189 myth, 35, 61, 97, 98, 119, 175 Miyadai, Shinji, 181 Miyajima, Eri, 192 Nabokov, Vladimir, 26 Mizoguchi, Akiko, 80, 84, 121 Nagai, Ai, 41, 43 Mizuhara, Rie, 193 Nagaike, Kazumi, 81, 188, 189 Mizushiro, Setona, 189 Nagasaki, 201 modern, 3–10, 12, 14, 20, 28, 29, Nagasawa, Satoru, 189 37, 38, 47, 50, 67, 69, 82, 86–9, Virgin Mary Is Watching (Maria 92, 97, 99, 101, 104, 135, 138, sama ga miteru), 189 155, 156, 177, 181, 183, 185, Nagata, Hiroko, 123, 129, 195 187, 190, 196–7 Naitoˉ, Mao, 27 postmodern, 146, 147, 168 Nakahara, Jun’ichi, 74, pre-modern, 20, 199 132, 133 224 Index

Nakamori, Akio, 59 Olalquiaga, Celeste, 146, 200 Nakamura, Asumiko, 187, 189 omae, 142, 146 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 196 ome, 67, 68, 187 narcissism, 22, 36, 37, 40 Ong, Keng Sen, 15, 29, 30, 107, 184 nation, 5, 8, 12–4, 16, 21, 24, 30, Dreamtime in Morishita Studios, 132, 134–6, 140, 144, 145, 148, 29, 184 151, 152, 155, 158, 161, 162, Lear, 44, 65 178, 182, 183, 195–7, 200–1 Ono, Natsume, 189, see also basso nationalism, 12–6, 22, 112, 131–2, Ophelia, 35 134–5, 140, 142–8, 153, 158, oppression, 29, 54, 55, 149 160, 167, 174, 197, 202 Orestes, 97–8 Nazi, 197 Osaki, Midori, 71 neoliberal society, 6 Drifting in the World of the Seventh Nibroll, 44, 167 Sense (Dainana kankai hˉokˉo), 71 Niigata, 23 Oˉ shima, Yumiko, 25, 66 Nishidoˉ, Kojin, 44 Oshiyama, Michiko, 125 Nishimura, Hiroko, 45, 185 Oˉ ta, Seiichi, 202 Nitta, Yuˉka, 189 Oˉ takara, Tomoko, 192 Nobi, Nobita, 189 otaku, 16, 156, 189, 201 Noda, Hideki, 13, 191 otherness, 89, 102 Half God (Hanshin), 191 Oˉ tomo, Katsuhiro, 157 noh, 18, 29 Akira, 157, 158, 201 NOISE, 2, 14, 15, 20, 25, 40, 44, Oˉ tsuka, Eiji, 6, 24, 45, 59, 123 175, 178 Nomizo, Naoko, 50, 71 pacifism, 130 Non-narrative graphics, 77, 78, 100, panel, 13, 77–9, 85, 92 124, 147 parody, 17, 153, 154, 160–2, 165, nostalgia, 2, 26, 28, 30, 109, 137, 172, 173, 184, 189, 198 153 parthenogenesis, 97, 98 Nostradamus, 110 pathology, 62 novel, 1, 3, 5, 12, 26, 50, 59, 68, patriarch, 29, 30, 98, 156 70–3, 80, 81, 100, 189, 191, peacekeeping operations, 113 194, 197, 201 pedophiliac desire, 26 Noyes, Betty, 170, 172–3 pension, 24, 159, 183 performance, 1, 2, 4, 9, 12–17, 20, obaˉchan, 59 24–8, 36, 40, 41, 44, 65, 101, 105– obedience, 138, 165, 170–2 7, 111, 127, 137–9, 141, 146, 147, objectification, 80, 81 149, 152, 153, 155, 159, 160, 163, Occupation (American, US), 5, 6, 24, 165, 167, 171–7, 180, 182, 184–6, 71, 144, 155–7, 161, 164, 195 191, 192, 198, 200, 202 O’Connor, Donald, 161, 163 performance studies, 12, 13, 177 Oedipus complex, 29 performance theory, 13 Oguma, Eiji, 114, 123, 131, 195–6 performative, 17, 100, 160, 164, Oˉ izumi Salon, 186 165, 167, 175 Okada, Toshiki, 191 performativity, 164, 165 Okada, Yukiko, 45, 185 permanent present, 40 Index 225

personal sphere, 112 realism, 99, 100, 103, 104, 108, 185, phallic, 33, 34, 37, 188 190, 191, 199 Phelan, Peggy, 39 reality, 3, 4, 6, 7, 21–4, 27, 30, 35, Pink Triangle, 192 40, 45, 48, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, Plato, 61 64, 68, 69, 72, 78, 80, 92, 99, play, 40, 42–5, 48, 51, 53, 99, 102, 112, 113, 117, 125, 129, 132, 104, 140, 148, 185, 186, 190–1, 136, 146, 152, 153, 161, 170, 199 174–80, 182, 183, 188, 190, Playboy, 27 196, 199 playwright, 29, 40, 43, 65, 107 Red Army Faction, 114 pleasure, 2, 9, 35, 38, 63, 67, 70, 81, refuge, 136, 155 86, 115, 119, 124, 129, 152, 188 relationality, 104 pleasure quarters, 70 religion, 8, 70, 104 politics, 2, 7, 12, 17, 28, 30, 53, 63, representation, 2–4, 10, 12, 28, 61, 70, 115, 123, 124, 134, 156, 102, 113, 128, 149, 150, 155, 158, 178–80, 184, 189, 194 189 polyphony, 78 reproduction, 19, 38, 51, 80, 88, 97, positionality, 42 98, 193 power, 1, 7, 30, 32, 33, 37, 42, 51, auto-reproductive being, 51 54, 100, 101, 128, 129, 144, Reynolds, Debbie, 152, 161, 163, 145, 155–7, 162, 164, 169, 173, 169–73 174, 190, 195, 196, 200–1 Ribbon (Ribon), 73, 187 disciplinary power, 37 Rich, Adrienne, 9, 84, 86, 190 girl power, 7 Riefenstahl, Leni, 135 political power of aesthetics, 145 rightwing, 131 pregnancy, 17–19, 39, 40, 61, 96, Robertson, Jennifer, 12, 139, 140, 159, 182 195, 198 “phantom pregnancy”, 39 Rococo, 25 prime minister, 144, 145, 158, 159, romance, 2, 6, 66, 71, 80, 81, 88, 162, 196, 202 103, 137, 139, 141, 148, 188, private sphere, 21, 23 191, 194, 199 Prock, Stephen, 170, 102 romantic love, 9, 70, 87, 121 productivity, 63 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 124, 194 prohibition, 95, 96 Julie, or the New Héloïse (La propaganda, 112 Nouvelle Héloïse), 194 prostitution, 181, 183 psychoanalysis, 28, 29, 39 S relationship, 9, 67, 68, 70, 71, 78, pure love (jun’ai), 88, 120 86–8 purity, 2, 199 esu, 67 sadistic desire, 51 queer, 9, 16, 80, 81, 121, 190 Sailor Moon, 1 Saitoˉ, Kumiko, 189 race, 54, 89, 102 Saitoˉ, Minako, 134 rape, 42, 83, 85, 88, 90–2, 95, 105, Saitoˉ, Tamaki, 90, 189 189 Saitoˉ, Yukio, 185 readers’ column, 5, 22, 183 Sakurai, Keisuke, 167, 168 226 Index

same-sex, 6, 8–9, 15, 48, 65–6, 78, Shiseido, 56, 57, 61, 115, 129, 186 80–1, 84, 87–8, 120, 132, 140–1, Shˉonen-ai, 78, 80, 81, 84, 88, 100, 150, 187, 197, 199 108, 120, 181, 197, 200 sameness, 98 sign, 56, 65, 83, 99, 104, 105, 107, samurai, 66 116, 117, 147, 149, 150, 184, sanity, 36 190 Sanrio, 1 signified, 4, 16, 104, 146, 148, 184 Sappho, 68 signifier, 104, 105, 107, 146, 148, Sasaki, Nozomu, 192 150 Satoˉ, Barbara, 22 Silverman, Kaja, 170, 175 Satoˉ, Fumika, 195 Sino-Japanese War, 132 Satoˉ, Masaki, 80 sisterhood, 67, 87, 196–7 schoolgirl (jogakusei), 5, 9, 15, 21, slash, 81 22, 24, 44, 47, 56, 59, 66–70, Social Democratic Party of Japan 73, 77, 87, 88, 112, 181, 183, (Nihon shakaitˉo), 114 187 soldier, 112–16, 119, 124, 128–31, “season of politics”, 115, 178 134–6, 142, 143, 148, 151 Sedgwick, Eve, 82 solidarity, 53, 190 self-abasement, 32 son, 29, 96, 98 Self-Defense Forces (Jieitai), 6, 113, Sophocles, 97 135, 144, 181, 195, 199 space, 2–5, 7–9, 11, 14–20, 22–6, Seitˉo, 23 28, 30, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, semiotic, 38, 87, 184 44, 47, 51, 53–9, 61–5, 69, 70, semiotics, 87, 184 77, 78, 84, 87, 88, 90, 109, 111, Senda, Akihiko, 184 112, 121, 123–5, 127, 131, 132, sex, 3, 10, 24, 28, 43, 68, 72–4, 83, 134, 147–9, 151–3, 157, 160, 89, 90, 95, 97, 107, 111, 112, 161, 165, 172–80, 182 115, 117, 120–2, 142, 145, 181, closed space, 7, 17, 23, 54, 65, 70, 183, 187, 193–4 90, 112, 176, 177, 180 sexology, 67, 86 heteroglossic space, 56 sexuality, 4, 9, 12, 13, 15, 16, 22, 25, “unusual space” (“hi-nichijˉo 28, 29, 65–7, 77, 78, 80, 88, 92, kuˉkan”), 131 96, 97, 111, 114, 116, 121, 125, spiritual, 86–8, 96, 97, 119, 131 137, 149, 150, 165, 177, 180, star pair (shuen konbi), 150, 200, 201 181, 186, 188–90, 197, 199–200 Stickland, Leonie R., 13, 198 Shakespeare, William, 15, 29 Studio Life, 15, 65, 99–110, 147, King Lear, 15, 29 191–2 Shamoon, Deborah, 10, 11, 86–8, subaltern counterpublics, 58 193–4 subculture, 7, 24, 156, 193, 201 Shoˉchiku Revue, 140 subjectivity, 11, 70, 77, 104, 111, shelter, 55, 56, 180 123 Shimura, Takako, 81 suffering, 45, 94, 120, 125, 135, 197 Blue Flower (Aoi hana), 81 suffrage, 6, 134, 181 shingeki, 99, 100, 102–4, 185, 190, suicide, 2, 15, 23, 25, 32, 40, 44–6, 199 48, 51, 68, 82, 90, 110, 120, Shiomura, Ayaka, 159 140, 178, 185, 186, 192 Index 227

double suicide, 23, 140 Takayama, Hideo, 117 group suicide, 15, 40, 44–6, 48, Takayama, Minami, 192 178, 185–6 Takemiya, Keiko, 25, 66, 78, 186, Sunagawa, Katsuhiko, 67 187, 190–1 Superflat, 156, 157, 159, 173, 201, Poem of Wind and Trees (Kaze to ki see also two-dimensional no uta), 78, 190, 191 surrogate, 57, 88, 112 Takemura, Kazuko, 95–7, 99 surveillance, 5, 23, 144, 153, 155, talking cure, 39 160, 163, 165, 174–6, 180 Tanaka, Mitsu, 123, 131, 185 Suzuki, Akihiro, 159 tanbi, 100 Suzuki, Michiko, 187 tantˉo, 103, 191 symbol, 69, 92, 125, 146, 193 teenager, 3, 45, 46, 101, 178 symbolic, 30, 34, 38, 125, 145, 146, temporality, 19, 20, 23, 26, 38–40, 184 54–6, 61, 62, 174 syntax, 38 Tenjoˉ Sajiki, 182 Terayama, Shuˉji, 18–20, 182 Taishoˉ Era, 199 Tezuka, Osamu, 73–5, 193 Taiwan, 196 Princess Knight (Ribon no kishi), Takahara, Eiri, 12, 71 73, 75 Takahashi, Macoto, 74, 76 theatre, 13–5, 18, 27, 40–5, 61, 63, Takano, Fumiko, 59 65, 66, 73, 99–101, 103–5, 107, Tanabe Tsuru (Tanabe no Tsuru), 59 135, 137–41, 146, 174, 175, Takarazuka, 2, 6, 12–4, 16, 71, 72, 182–5, 190–3, 197–200 74, 105–7, 113, 135–43, 145–51, Thompson, James, 7, 63, 64 192, 193, 198–201 Thorn, Matt, 189 Takarazuka City, 137 three-dimensional, 13, 15, 25, 64, Takarazuka Grand Theatre 65, 101, 147, 186, 194 (Takarazuka dai gekijˉo), 137 time, 4, 5, 7–9, 14–16, 18–20, 22–6, Takarazuka Maidens (Takarazuka 28, 29, 32, 33, 35–8, 41, 45, Otome), 138 49–51, 55, 59–61, 63, 65, 67, 68, Takarazuka Music School 70–2, 74, 83, 102, 104, 107–11, (Takarazuka ongaku gakkˉo), 138, 113–16, 119–21, 124, 125, 127, 139, 198 129, 132, 138–40, 146, 148, Takarazuka Revue (Takarazuka 158, 161, 163, 171, 177, 178, kagekidan), 2, 6, 12–4, 16, 71, 182–4, 186, 194–6, 199 72, 74, 105, 113, 135–7, 140, cyclical time, 110 193, 200; Wind in the Dawn: developmental time, 59–61, 63 The Challenge of Shirasu Jirˉo, linear time, 38 Samurai Gentleman (Reimei a-temporal maternal time, 38 no kaze: samurai jentoruman Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly, 159 Shirasu Jirˉo no chˉosen), 200; Gone Tokyo Tama Lifeline (Tokyo Tama with the Wind (Kaze to tomo ni inochi no denwa), 185 sarinu), 137, 145, 200; Navy Tonooka, Naomi, 43, 53, 184–5 (Kaigun), 199; Takarasiennes Torok, Maria, 184 (Takarajen’nu), 137–41, 145, tradition, 24, 101, 132, 137, 145, 153, 149, 150, 198–9 160, 164, 168, 174, 197, 202 228 Index

transgressive desire, 139, 180 war, 5, 24, 43, 97, 98, 112, 114, transparency, 102, 104 130–2, 134–6, 144, 153, 155–8, trauma, 29, 39, 83, 95, 111 181, 186, 187, 193, 195–7 Trojan War, 97 Watanabe, Eri, 41–3, 184 two-dimensional, 4, 13, 15, 25, Watanabe, Shuˉko, 183 27, 66, 77, 101, 103, 105, 107, water, 22, 35, 89, 193 108, 117, 134, 147–8, 149, 152, wedding, 30–2, 36, 37, 52, 142 156–7, 159, 175–6, 180, 186, Weekly Girls’ Comics (Shuˉkan shˉojo 191, 194, 198, 200, see also komikku), 66 Superflat Weekly Margaret (Shuˉkan maˉgaretto), 114 Uchino, Tadashi, 101–4, 185, 192 weight, 62, 112, 135, 148 Ueda, Shinji, 145, 146, 148, 150 Welker, James, 67, 84 Ueno, Chizuko, 129, 130, 195, 197 West, 1–3, 8, 11, 12, 16, 26, 28–29, UK, 28, see also Britain 35, 44–5, 67–71, 74, 78, 92, 94, ukiyo-e, 157 88, 100–4, 135–8, 142, 153–6, underground (angura), 47, 141, 199 159–160, 164, 167–8, 171, 183, uniformity, 104 185, 187, 19001, 195, 197, 199, uniqueness, 168, 169, 183 202 United Nations, 14, 178 westernization, 153, 155, 156 United Red Army (Rengˉo sekigun), wifehood, 4, 5, 23 also URA, 114, 115, 119, 123, wing, 14, 49, 83, 91, 92, 131 129, 178, 193, 195 Wollen, Peter, 162, 170 United States of America, 16, 17, 28, womanhood, 3, 4, 6, 14, 15, 21, 22, 56, 100, 153, 157, 164, 184, 192 24, 28–30, 35, 36, 47, 65–7, 86, unity, 161, 162, 170–1 132, 145, 150, 152, 175–7, 179, Uno, Akira, also Uno, Aquirax, 182 182 Ushio (Tide), 18 womb, 19, 20, 38–40, 61, 62, 184 “utopian performative”, 175 imaginary womb, 39, 40 womb-theatre, 61 Venice Biennale, 55 women’s liberation movement, 16, vicious circle, 97, 99 42, 77, 113, 114, 116, 119, 121, Victorian, 25 123, 135, 150, 178, 179, 184, Vietnam War, 114, 156 195 violence, 29–32, 34, 36, 42, 68, 95, World War II, 5, 43, 131, 135, 153, 130, 135, 193 155–6 virginity, 5, 23, 70, 83, 89, 92 Visconti, Luchino, 81, 197 Yagawa, Sumiko, 8, 49–51, 54, 175 Damned, The (La caduta degli Dei), “Great March Forward of All 197 Girls Who Support the Eternal voice, 6, 22, 51, 63, 100, 102, 108, Girl, The” (“Fumetsu no shˉojo 111, 115, 123, 124, 127, 139, o yoˉ ritsu suru shˉojo tachi no 153, 161–5, 169–73, 175, 179, daikˉoshin”), 49 180, 190–3 Yamagishi, Ryoˉko, 25, 66, 187, 188, voice actor, 108, 193 189, 190 Index 229

Emperor of the Land of the Rising Yuˉka, Kanno, 86, 87 Sun (Hi izuru tokoro no tenshi), Yoneda, Koˉ, 189 187, 188, 190 Yonezawa, Yoshihiro, 77 Two in the White Room (Shiroi heya Yoshida, Akimi, 189 no futari), 189 Cherry Orchard (Sakura no sono), Yamanashi, Makiko, 12, 117, 149 189 Yamato, Waki, 25 Yoshimoto, Takaaki, 188, 189 Yanagi, Miwa, 2, 14, 15, 20, 28, Yoshinaga, Fumi, 189, 190 54–6, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64 Yoshiya, Nobuko, 68, 70, 81, 87, 88, Birthday Party, 55 132, 186–7 Fairy Tale, 54, 55 Flower Tales (Hana monogatari), Gloria & Léon, 56, 186 68–71, 81, 87, 132 Granddaughters, 14, 15, 20, 28, 54, “To Become a Kernel of Wheat” 56–64, 186 (“Hitotsubu no mugi to mo Windswept Women: The Old Girls’ naran”), 196 Troupe, 55, 61 YUBIWA Hotel, 2, 14, 15, 20, 26–32, Yanagisawa, Hakuo, 159 35, 41, 43, 44, 47, 50, 51, 61, Yanaihara, Mikuni, 44 62, 65, 107, 185–6 yaoi, 80, 81, 188, 189, 191 Candies Girlish Hardcore, 186 Yasˉo, 182 Passion (Jˉonetsu) 185, 194 Yasuda, Yojuˉroˉ , 136 Lear, 14, 15, 20, 26, 28–32, 34, 35, Yasukuni Shrine, 131, 158 37–40, 44, 47, 51, 61, 62, 107 Year 24 Group (Nijuˉyo nen gumi), 25, 65, 66, 77, 78, 80, 81, 100, 134, Zeus, 98 183, 188–90 Zweig, Stefan, 193