A COMPARATIVE AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF ELITE SPORT PROGRAMS IN AUSTRALIA AND PAKISTAN, 1947-2007 by Mohammad Akh tar Nawaz Ganjera A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Human Movement, Recreation and Performance Faculty of Arts, Education and Human Development Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia December 2007 ii Abstract Despite the fact that a number of academic studies compare the development of sport systems, a formal comparison of the elite sport programs of Pakistan with any other nation has yet to be undertaken. As a response to this gap in the literature, this thesis provides the first detailed comparison of elite sport programs in Australia and Pakistan between 1947 and 2007. In terms of the structure of the thesis, a critical evaluation of relevant sports history literature and other source material is followed by an overview of the historical background, political development, and culture of Australia and Pakistan. A descriptive narrative of different sport policies and programs in both countries is then provided and a number of important issues are subsequently analysed in a more thematic manner. Institutions responsible for the organisation of sport and physical activity in both countries are considered and the distribution of financial resources from the government to elite sporting programs is also investigated. Specific attention is given to programs associated with the Olympic Games and the Commonwealth Games. Finally, an agenda for initiatives and research relevant to the future promotion of elite sport, particularly in Pakistan, is recommended. In broad terms, this research adds considerably to knowledge of the sport systems of both countries, and has the potential to enhance understandings of the history and development of government involvement in the delivery of elite sport programs. In addition, the thesis makes a significant contribution to current debates regarding the complex relationship between sport, culture and society in a cross- cultural and comparative context. iii Declaration I, Mohammad Akhtar Nawaz Ganjera, declare that the PhD thesis entitled 'A Comparative and Historical Analysis of Elite Sport Programs in Australia and Pakistan, 1947-2007', is no more than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work. Signature: Date: 22 November 2007 IV Acknowledgem ents I would firstly like to thank the Australian Sports Commission for sponsoring my initial three-year period of studies. Special appreciation is extended to Mark McElligott of the International Relations Program of the Commission, who took a personal interest in the completion of my studies. I would also like to thank my supervisors,. Dr Rob Hess, and Dr Richard Baka, Senior Lecturers at Victoria University, for their never-ending patience and excellent academic support. Also I would like to acknowledge the important intellectual advice I received from Javaid Ali Khan, a former Director-General of the Pakistan Sports Board. I also express my sincere grartitude to the Head of the School of Human Movement, Recreation and Performance at Victoria University, Professor Terry Roberts, whose kind and prompt support enabled me to complete this project. As well, I am grateful for the generous assistance I received from all the administrative staff of Victoria University, in particular the late Ms Flo Reay, who assisted me financially by providing employment opportunities within the School. In addition, I offer thanks to all the staff of the Pakistan Sports Board, too numerous to mention by name. I especially want to thank the late Dr Javaid Ganjera, who provided me with useful material on the history of the subcontinent. Above all, I want to thank my late mother in Pakistan for the love she extended to me during my studies. Finally, I note the loving support extended to me by my spouse, Sadia Akhtar. The project would not have come to fruition without her, or the inspiration provided by my young sons, Moiz Akhtar Ganjera and Fawaz Akhtar Ganjera. V Dedication For my father, Malik Khan Muhammad Ganjera, and my mother, Aisha Bibi. vi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations AASC Active After-School Communities ACTAS ACT Academy of Sport AIS Australian Institute of Sport AOC Australian Olympic Committee ASC Australian Sports Commission BASA Backing Australia's Sporting Ability: A More Active Australia CARDS Centre for Administrative Research and Development Studies IOC International Olympic Committee MMP Maintain the Momentum Program NCCPF National Co-Ordinating Council for Physical Fitness NESC National Elite Sports Council NSO National Sporting Organization NSP Next Step Program OAP Olympic Athlete Program OCA Olympic Coordinating Authority PAAF Pakistan Amateur Athletic Federation PEMRA Pakistan Electronic Media Regulatory Authority PHF Pakistan Hockey Federation POA Pakistan Olympic Association PSB Pakistan Sports Board PSC Pakistan Sports Complex PSCB Pakistan Sports Control Board PWSB Pakistan Women's Sports Board vii QAS Queensland Academy of Sport SAF South Asian Federation SOCOG Sydney Organising Committee for Olympic Games VIS Victorian Institute of Sport \ Table of Contents Abstract ii Declaration iii Acknowledgements iv Dedication v List of Acronyms and Abbreviations vi Chapter One Infr/wliiptinn lull OUUllIUIl 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Literature Review 8 1.3 Methodology 22 1.4 Conclusions 26 Chapter Two An Overview of Historical and Political Developments in Australia 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Aboriginal Culture and Society 28 2.3 Early European Settlement 30 2.4 Sport in the Early Colonial Period 33 2.5 Impact of Gold and Developments in the Late Colonial Period 35 2.6 The Federation Period 42 2.7 World War I and its Aftermath 43 2.8 Sporting Developments After World War II 46 IX 2.9 The Emergence of Political Parties 48 2.10 Australia and the Olympics Games 50 2.11 Participation in the Commonwealth Games 55 2.12 Sport and Educational Institutions in Australia 58 2.13 Media and Sport in Australia 61 2.14 Conclusions 64 Chapter Three An Overview of Historical and Political Developments in Pakistan 3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Early History 68 3.3 Ancient Religions 69 3.4 Muslim Rulers in India 74 3.5 Downfall of the Delhi Sultanate and the Rise of the Mughal Empire 76 3.6 The Medieval Period: Physical Activities on the Indian Subcontinent 78 3.7 The Arrival of Europeans and the Introduction of British Sports 83 3.8 Aligarh and British Sports 85 3.9 The War of Independence and its Repercussions 87 3.10 Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Birth of Pakistan 90 3.11 The Administrative and Political History of Pakistan 92 3.12 Sports in Pakistan after 1947 99 3.13 Pakistan's Participation in the Olympic Games 101 X 3.14 Pakistan's Participation in the Commonwealth Games, Asian Games and South Asian Games 105 3.15 Sport and Educational Institutions in Pakistan 108 3.16 Sport and Media in Pakistan 114 3.17 Conclusions 121 Chapter Four Sport in Australia: The Government Delivery of Sports Policy, 1947-2007 4.1 Introduction 124 4.2 An Historical Overview of Sport in Australia: The Beginnings 125 4.3 The Whitlam Years, 1972-1975 127 4.4 The Montreal and Moscow Olympic Games: A Nadir in Australian Sport 134 4.5 Momentum Restored, 1983-1988 137 4.6 The Australian Institute of Sport 140 4.7 State Sports Institutes and Academies 142 4.8 The Next Step Program, 1989-1992 144 4.9 Maintain the Momentum Program, 1992-1996 144 4.10 Olympic Athlete Program, 1994-2000 145 4.11 The Sydney Olympic Games 146 4.12 Government Involvement in the Sydney Olympic Games 152 4.13 New Sports Policy 156 4.14 Recent Policy Initiatives in Government Delivery of Sport, 2004-05 162 XI 4.15 Recent Policy Initiatives in Government Delivery of Sport, 2005-06 165 4.16 Recent Policy Initiatives in Government Delivery of Sport, 2006-07 167 4.17 Conclusions 169 Chapter Five Sport in Pakistan: The Government Delivery of Sports Policy, 1947-2007 5.1 Introduction 172 5.2 Historical Overview: The Beginnings of Government Delivery of Sport 173 5.3 The National Sports Committee, 1967 177 5.4 The Government Delivery and Funding of Sport in Pakistan During the 1970s 187 5.5 The Government Delivery and the Funding of Sport in Pakistan During the 1980s 197 5.6 The Government Delivery and the Funding of Sport in Pakistan, 1990-2001 205 5.7 Government Delivery and the Funding of Sport in Pakistan, 2000-2008 214 5.8 The National Sports Policy 219 5.9 Interview Responses from Officials, Administrators, Athletes and Journalists 223 5.10 Conclusions 233 Chapter Six Comparison!i, Analyses, Recommendations and Conclusions 6.1 Introduction 235 6.2 General Comparisons: Political Stability 236 6.3 General Comparisons: Gender and Religion 237 6.4 General Comparisons: Education Systems 238 6.5 General Comparisons: Physical Education 240 6.6 General Comparisons: Government Funding 241 6.7 General Comparisons: Sports System/Structure 245 6.8 General Comparisons: Olympic Games 246 6.9 Recommendations: Educational Institutions 247 6.10 Recommendations: Religious Schools 249 6.11 Recommendations: Physical Education Teachers 250 6.12 Recommendations: Optimal Utilisation of Resources 250 6.13 Recommendations: Media 254 6.14 Recommendations: Women 254 6.15 Recommendations: Coaching 255 6.16