48 Senses & Society DOI: 10.2752/174589311X12893982233713 cultural importanceofthe artofcoloring by thischange,probably becauseofthe ‘white,’ andbweyani‘red’ are notaffected color termsbwabwau‘black,’ pupwakau lexical semantics.ThetraditionalKilivila are produced correctly according toEnglish However, todaynotallEnglishcolorterms been theagentsofthislanguagechange. generation withschooleducationhave Kilivila lexicon.Membersoftheyounger color termshavebeenintegratedintothe collected in2008revealed thatmanyEnglish on colortermsconductedin1983withdata the years.Comparingresults ofresearch taste andwhetherthishaschangedover NewGuineatalkaboutcolorand results onhowtheT perceptual experiences? Abstract Gunter Senft Diachronic Study :A and Taste onthe Talking aboutColor Senses &Society How stableisthelexiconfor PP 48–56 VOLUME 6, ISSUE 1 robriand Islandersof This article presents PUBLISHERS DIRECTLY FROMTHE REPRINTS AVAILABLE LICENSE ONLY PERMITTED BY PHOTOCOPYING [email protected] Cologne, Germany. at theUniversityof of GeneralLinguistics Extraordinary Professor The Netherlands,and for Psycholinguistics, Max PlanckInstitute Research Fellowatthe Gunter SenftisaSenior PRINTED INTHEUK © BERG2011 Introduction categories KEYWORDS: color, taste,languageofperception, Kilivila,semantic refer totasteshaveremained stableovertime. terms usedfortalkingaboutcolorandto lexicon, Kilivilaprovides evidence thattraditional Although Englishcolortermsare integratedintothe displaying andexchangingfoodthaninsavoringit. their palate.Moreover, theyare more interested in vocabulary mayberelated totheconservatismof The conservatismofthe my 2008research revealed nosubstantialchange. the 1983dataontastevocabularywithresults of canoes, bigyamshouses,andbodies.Comparing -Cluster group (Senft1986:6). to thePapuan- Tip belonging language Oceanic Melanesian Western a is Kilivila Kilivila. Muyuw,Budibud, languages the encompasses and language into twelve language ; one of them is labeled Kilivila. The Kilivila Guinea. The Austronesian languages spoken in this area are groupedNew Papua of Province Bay Milne the in spoken languages nesian part ofthePacific.Thesocietyismatrilinearbutvirilocal. exchange of shell valuables that covers a wide area of the Melanesian and carvers, navigators, especially in connection with the ritualized builders, canoe excellent being Moreover, for pigs. famous are raise they and gardens tend They Massim. Northern called Trobriandersgroup The ethnic 1920. the and to 1916 belong between them among research field did who Malinowski, Bronislaw how theTrobriand Islanderstalkaboutcolorandtaste. and taste for on data 2008 lexicon my with results 1983 my flavor. compares article I This Kilivila the at therefore, look closer cooking; a of have to ways decided their to respect with conservative very Trobriandersare the that knew I changes domains. perceptual such other in observe could I whether see to wanted also I and lexicon, color Kilivila the in changes to respect with predictions my very much interested in finding out whether this research could verify was I perception. of Trobrianders’language the researching of aim in 1983. In 2008 I continued my fieldwork on the Trobriands with the with respect to the direction of the language change which I observed an article on color terms (Senft 1987) I made a number of predictions In terms. taste and color Kilivila on data collected I 1982–3 In 1982. + The Trobriand Islanders’ language Kilivila is one of forty Austro­ forty of one is Kilivila language TrobriandIslanders’ The of works the through known best are Islanders Trobriand The lexicon for perceptual experiences? I started my field field my started I research on the Trobriand Islands in Papua experiences? in the perceptual is for stable lexicon how question: the addresses article This robriand Islanders’taste Talking aboutColorandTaste ontheTrobriand Islands Kula , an

49 Senses & Society 50 Senses & Society Gunter Senft 2007). This color kit is a booklet with eighty pages, each page page each pages, eighty with contain­ booklet a is kit color This 2007). Majid see issue; (this Levinson and Majid in described Kit Color the using consultants twelve from data elicited I 2008 in prediction, this Totest colors. to refer to used be longer no probably would terms form loan the supersede will example, for supersede the use of English loan words (that is the term term the is (that words loan English of use the supersede and more would processintegrating this that by lexicon, Kilivila the into terms terms English more color Kilivila of inventory the ing orange. ‘red,’ bweyani noku? ‘What’s the name of this color?’ I worked with five female and manakwa Amyagala is: question this of equivalent Kilivila The this? asked and pages booklet color were the they with then presented blindness; color degrees order. for random tested four first fixed were a at in Consultants hues organized are chips spaced The brightness. equally of twenty samples which producing the English terms terms English the producing from eight (ranging to fourteen years of Schoolchildren age) expanded correctly. their color colors term lexicon these to refer that terms color English used consultants the of majority The consultants. all Kilivila color terms is as follows: The general picture with respect to the 1983 inventory and usage of 4. 2. 1. and violet: white, stimuli color pink orange, blue, azure/skythe brown, blue, yellow,green,red, black, to reaction a as terms of categories four main the findings. of summary brief a is Here (1987). Senft in reported are study this of results and methods, Aims, 343]). [plate 600f. (1979: Scholze and Pheby in plate color the used I terms Toelicit age). of years seventy-five to four from re­ (ranging generations consultants five presenting sixty with terms color on data collected I 1983 In Kilivila ColorTerms in1983and2008 3. In 1983 I predicted that schoolchildren would continue expand­ continue would schoolchildren that predicted I 1983 In The generic term for ‘color’ is is ‘color’ for term generic The English colorterms. ‘yellow,’ digadegila example for etc. fruits, trees, plants, to referring terms Source sense. Abstract terms, i.e. “basic color terms” in Berlin and Kay’s (1969) bulum ‘blue, azure, green,’ and produced in the mold of Kilivila word formation principles like Loan words, i.e. color terms borrowed from English, transformed rarely used. (the malaria against drug and yellow), were tablets a quinine, to refers which ‘yellow,’ ing a single color chip. It uses standardized Munsell colors Munsell standardized uses It chip. color single a ing ‘yellow,’and kwinin ‘pink,’ and source terms like terms source and ‘pink,’ veravera ‘charcoal.’ These terms were terms These ‘charcoal.’ budakola green pepol ‘purple,’ and pupwakau ‘white,’ noku ‘yellow’ were used by used were ‘yellow’ digadegila , , blue . My consultants produced produced consultants My . , , brown ), and that source that and bulum), , , kwegulini ‘green.’ bwabwau ‘black,’ purple What color is is color What , , pink kwinin , and and , blue 2 1 ,

etc.). That means that the terms terms the paintings, that body means houses, That yams etc.). with chiefly painted canoes, are (like that colors culture these material their in objects terms to color refer Kilivila to equivalent the use they that emphasized they and the terms the and use always they whether asked when instead, they produced the equivalent English color terms. However, not did session; elicitation data the during all consultants at terms three these produce younger Three stimuli. color of range broad ‘black,’ and and ‘black,’ is progress. in still 1983 in observed change language are The terms these produced). why incorrectly for semantics explanation any lexical find not English cannot I to far (so according correctly produced are produced to fill such gaps such obviously fill are to terms produced color English presented. stimuli color the for all names produce could consultants twelve the of none lexicon: School. High the at English learned had woman one and man one school; primary at English learned had women two and men Two seven male consultants ranging in age from fifteen to sixty-five years. terms terms as predicted, loan words are superseded by English color terms. The these termsare stillusedto refer tocolors. botova ‘brown,’ and dararugu were: produced Terms consultants. observed all be with still can etc.) flowers, blossoms, trees, to refer (that term English the by ceremonial exchangeknownastheKularing. of round endless the in figure only and purchase for Such not are items exchange. from insulated remains – necklaces and famous the namely – valuables traditional certain of circulation the that way same the in insulated somehow were terms language change in progress. It is as if the utilization of the traditional the by affected not are terms color Kilivila abstract traditional Thus, generation with school education; they are still the agents of the the of agents language change inprogress affectingthe theKilivilalexicon. still are they education; school with generation younger the to belong terms English used who speakers of majority the Englishtermswiththisdifferentiation. may be that the speakers hedge their insecurity about knowledge of to start consultants differentiate colors the adding the modifiers ‘dark’ andof ‘light’; however, it half Moreover, lexicon. Kilivila the into Traditional abstract color terms terms color abstract Traditional The 2008 study revealed that there are gaps in the Kilivila color color Kilivila the in gaps are there that revealed study 2008 The Only two consultants produced the loan word loan the produced consultants two Only The source terms terms source The Consultants were not consistent in the use of color terms. The The terms. color of use the in consistent not were Consultants green ‘purple,’ ‘purple,’ , , bweyani blue white, , , brown gana’ugwa . However, the use of other source terms source other of However,use yellow. the ‘pink.’ Thus, contrary to my prediction,oravera ‘pink.’Thus,contraryto ‘red’ are still produced to refer to a relatively a to refer to produced still are ‘red’ , and black, kwinin , , orange, purple orange, 3 and and ; however, not all English color terms terms color English all not however, ; ‘red,’ ‘red,’ are used in different contexts. different in used are red digadegila pubwakau pupwakau veravera veravera , and and , black are being superseded superseded being are , , semtamata bwabwau ‘white,’ ‘white,’ ‘pink’ ‘pink’ Talking aboutColorandTaste ontheTrobriand Islands pink , , ‘green’; kwegulini white are integrated integrated are armshells Kula soso’u , and and , bwabwau , , ‘green,’ ‘green,’ bweyani ‘red’ ‘red’ red ,

51 Senses & Society 52 Senses & Society Gunter Senft Moreover,words the Terms referring toflavorswere: In 1982–3Icollectedthefollowingtasteterms: Pacific Islanders Talking about Taste ThenandNow between language(change)andculture (change). interdependence strong the illustrates This change. language this stimulating in role important an play dyes) a chemical new (with of skirts variety grass traditional dyeing in and clothes) colorful very (with style clothing in changes years. especially last globalization, the addition, In over changing been has the lexicon why term reason color Kilivila important most the is school at hand, English other the learning On etc. bodies, houses, yams big chiefs’ the Malasi canoes, coloring of art the of importance the mirror to seems pubwakau, and – ‘red’ and ‘white,’ ‘black,’ colors the to refer that terms Kilivila traditional the that fact the hand, one the On lexicon? term basic taste. In the current study these five taste qualities were were Levinson was used (thisissue;seeMajid2007). qualities taste and Majid five in described TasteKit the these data the To elicit investigated. study current the In taste. basic another umami as research recent word more in proposed was Japanese taste’ ‘delicious the out, points 616f.) (2001: Lawless As Aristotle. to back goes which research, taste of beginning very the from role crucial a played have – bitter,sour,salty sweet, – tastes” years ofprimaryschoolexperienceandspokesomeEnglish. in age from twenty -five to seventy-two years. One woman had some language change. by affected also are terms taste whether and documented already had I vocabulary the than taste encoding for vocabulary prehensive com­ more a is there whether know to wanted I experiences. taste encodes Kilivila how of investigation focused the included ception categories. text other and stories, speech, everyday in consultants my by used but elicited, specifically not were terms these All tastes. to refer to gasisi –‘fierce, wild,terrible,bad’ gegeda –‘biting,hurting’ bolova –‘stale,insipid’ yona –‘salt,salty, saltwater’ yayana/yayani –‘bitter, hot,harsh’ payuyu –‘sour, bitter, unripe’ sumakenia –‘sweet,rich,tasty’ Why do we observe stability as well as change in the Kilivila color Bartoshuk (1978: 5) emphasizes that the so the that emphasizes 5) (1978: Bartoshuk I elicited data with four female and eight male consultants ranging per­ of language TrobriandIslanders’ the in interest my 2008 In bweyani – are still produced by all Trobriand Islanders ‘good’ and ‘good’ bwena ‘bad’ were also used also were ‘bad’ gaga 4 - called four “basic “basic four called bwabwau, the biggersouppacket). within glutamate of packet separate a the with Island Kiriwina on stores in sold is (which soup noodle Maggi a to referring – ‘noodles’ wordloan the stimulus umami reactionthe produceda to as word word loan English The rarely. rather though – produced also were taste specific a having fruits to refer that terms source few A study. this during produced not was term this but ‘fierce’), means also (which ‘sour,’ ‘salt water, salt,salty.’ gaga ‘good,’ ‘bitter, salty (?)’; (2) two descriptive generally evaluative terms: insight we get is that the term term the that new is only get The we all. at insight change no almost observe we 1986) (Senft the umamitaste. to refer to use can they that term dedicated no Trobrianders have Ten consultants used the term term the used consultants yayani by two thirds of the consultants to refer to the salty taste. Nine term The taste. sweet six abstract terms – terms abstract six and Avaka kamwenalamakala?‘Whatisthistastelike?’ taste?’ it does ‘How kamwenala? Amakala questions: two following sprayed the solutions onto their tongues I asked my consultants the I after and water.Before with mouth their rinse to had consultants experience, taste every consultant’s percent), After the tongue. onto sprayed (7.5 was solution salty Each (umami). and used were glutamate of percent), granules and (0.05 bitter percent), (5 sour other spices grow in the bush, but only very few women use use the women reached few has very globalization Although only food. but their spice bush, to them the in grow and chilies spices Small way. other same the in of boiled cup are a greens contains water; just that salt water of pot a in boiled and scraped are very potatoes sweet and and taro, Yams, pork. seafood, of piece a other yams, and occasionally cooked fish of greens, consists potatoes, which sweet diet, taro, daily their in very is variety There palate. little their vocabulary of taste conservatism the to Islanders’ related be may Trobriand the of conservatism English. from The influence any hardly with lexicon taste Kilivila the in stability great is there that conclude can we Thus study). 2008 my in consultants by produced not was term latter the flavor; terms spicy a flavor the that out turned gegeda it term Moreover, the taste. with salty the competes to taste, bitter the to refer There is another descriptive term to refer to a hot flavor, hot a to refer to term descriptive another is There Comparing these results with the lexical entries in my dictionary dictionary my in entries lexical the with results these Comparing The term term The The consultants produced the following taste and flavor terms: (1) percent), (10 sweet for one solutions, ml 100 four were There solot sumakenia sumakenia and and was produced by one consultant; and two informants informants two and consultant; one by produced was gasisi sumakenia ‘bad,’ should also be glossed as ‘hot’ (with respect to to respect (with ‘hot’ as glossed be also should ‘sweet,’ and (3) two source terms: source two (3) and bolova was used by all and the term the and all by used was yona was used by all consultants to refer to a to refer to consultants all by used was 6 to refer to the bitter taste. bitter the to refer to yayana/yayani tumwaka gegeda stale,’ ‘tasteless, payuyu to refer to the sour taste. The yayana ‘brackish,’ / yayani ‘salt’ solot , which is used to to used is which , Talking aboutColorandTaste ontheTrobriand Islands 5

yayana/yayani yayana/yayani yona payuyu ‘hot,’ and to refer refer to yayana/ bwena nudusi gasisi gasisi yona

53 Senses & Society 54 Senses & Society Gunter Senft 1. Notes cooperation overalltheseyears. patient and friendship, hospitality, their Tauwema for the of to inhabitants especially Islands, Trobriand the of people the to gratitude assistance with, and permission for, my research. I express my great the Guinea, New Institute for PNG Studies and Papua the National Research in Institute for their Governments Provincial and National the thank to want I Psycholinguistics. for Institute Planck Max the at the within study Perception of Language the of part as out carried was study This Acknowledgments 1992). Islanders’ language and culture over the last twenty-five years (Senft Trobriandthe in observing been have I changes dramatic many the any kind of language change. These results are amazing if we look at by affected been not has it stability; great observe we lexicon taste Kilivila the In colors. to refer to used terms source the of most nor contexts. different in terms color traditional superseded neither have albeit terms color English too, terms, color the use English they terms; respective color Kilivila abstract traditional produce still by terms color speakers But lexicon. Kilivila the of into terms color English integrating inventory Kilivila the expand to education managed school have with generation younger the of Members over time. stable fairly remained have question in vocabularies sensory the that suggests terms taste and color Kilivila of study case This Concluding Remarks vocabulary. taste Islanders’ the in reflected get this of effects any hardly Trobriands, to enjoyingafullbelly(seeHowes2003:Ch.3). than about talked heardand/or being to importance greatercultural ( “noise” or fame to the path is giving because oneself, it eat to than others to food give to kinds. It would appear that for the Trobriander it is considered better all of rituals exchange for component necessary absolutely and ant import­ an as Trobriandersbut The consumption, for not food value Islanders haveaspecific relationship tofoodandeating: need foralimentation. physiological a as thing a such is there that idea no have they of food as a utility recognized and formulated by the natives . value the is regardednor not life, is to Eating indispensable as Trobriand the that out pointed already 371f.) (1929: Malinowski formed into the mold of a Kilivila word by regular word formation wordregular by word Kilivila a of mold the into formed Bulum 8 and and kwegulini project Cognition and Language across Categories 7 are borrowed from English, but trans­ but English, from borrowed are butu ), and Trobrianders generally attach attach generally Trobrianders and ), . . Berlin, Brent and Kay, Paul. 1969. In Research.” Taste of “History 1978. M. Linda Bartoshuk, References Howes, David. 2003. 2003. David. Howes, Lawless, Harry T. 2001. “Taste.” In E. Bruce Goldstein (ed.), Color: and Regier,Terry.Thought, and Kay, “Language, Paul 2006. Senft, Gunter. 1986. 1979. (eds). Werner Scholze, and John Pheby 1929. Bronislaw. Malinowski, Majid, Asifa (ed.). 2007. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. Senft, Gunter. 1987. “Kilivila Color Terms.” Terms.” Color “Kilivila 1987. Gunter. Senft, of Perception Volume VIA: Tasting and Smelling. and Press. Academic Tasting VIA: Volume Perception of (eds), P. Morton Friedman and Carterette C. Edward ality andEvolution.Berkeley, Press. CA:UniversityofCalifornia Recent Developments.” Press. Michigan of Arbor,University Ann MI: . Theory Social and Culture isches Institut. Englisch und Deutsch Bildwörterbuch Western .NewYork: Harcourt, BraceandWorld. Institute forPsycholinguistics. Publishers. Perception of Handbook Berlin: MoutondeGruyter. 11(2): 315–46. earlier draftofthisarticle an on comments insightful for Howes David thank to like would I the noodlesthatare soldinthestores onKiriwnaIsland. despite – “cuisine” their affect not does globalization that add to in the same way that color (and shape) terms are. I also would like school at taught arenot terms taste that out point to like would I out thatnudusi“isnotatastecategory, itisacommodity.” highly are points rightly referees anonymous the of One them. speakers for new are that that things to referring for terms of choice illustrates their in opportunistic nicely neologism This This termescapedmyattentionin1982–3. putting in support together theTaste Kit. professional for Schlotmann Ulrich thank I Further research isneededhere. in laterstudies(seee.g.KayandRegier2006). Munsell color chips were also used by Berlin and Kay (1969) and ‘green,’ whichfollowsKilivilasyllablestructure rules. classifier general the of consists syllabic; be can /m/ that fact the and ($(C)V$) Vowel principles: agrees with the syllable structure (Consonant)- structure syllable the with agrees bulum Kilivila: The Language of the Trobriand Islanders. Sensual Relations. Engaging the Senses in in Senses the Engaging Relations. Sensual Field Manual, Trends in Cognitive Sciences The Sexual Life of Savages in North- in Savages of Life Sexual The pp. , Basic Color Terms: Their Univers­

Vol. 10. Nijmegen: Max Planck 601–35. Oxford: Blackwell Blackwell Oxford: 601–35. kwe- . Mannheim: Biblio Mannheim: . and the loan word for for word loan the and Language in Studies Talking aboutColorandTaste ontheTrobriand Islands Oxford-Duden Oxford-Duden New York: York: New 10(2): 51–4. Handbook Handbook Blackwell kwegulini kwegulini ­graph­

55 Senses & Society 56 Senses & Society Gunter Senft Senft, Gunter. 1992. “‘As Time Goes By Goes Time “‘As Gunter.1992. Senft, Canberra: PacificLinguistics. Melanesia from Studies Case Change: Language (ed.), Dutton Thomas In Guinea.” New Papua Province, Bay Milne Language, and Culture TrobriandIslanders’ . . .’: Changes Observed in Observed Changes .’: Culture Change, Change, Culture , pp. 67–89. 67–89. pp. ,