THE IMPACTS OF SMALL SCALE ARTISANAL DIAMOND MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT by
MELANIE NAIDOO-VERMAAK
MINI DISSERTATION
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER SCIENTIAE ENGINEERING
in
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
in the
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: Dr JM Meeuwis
October 2006
i ABSTRACT
This mini-dissertation establishes the extent to which small scale artisanal diamond mining impacts on the environment. There has, in the past, been research undertaken specifically on the water related impacts of small scale artisanal diamond mining. This study however, looks at the environment holistically, and gauges the total degradation to the receiving environment. Small scale artisanal diamond mining is considered to be a major contributor to the local economy and improved quality of life for the communities participating in this mining and is being actively supported through the National minerals and mining policies.
It is for this reason that it was deemed imperative to understand the nature of the mining and the associated environmental impacts so that the outcome of this report could be used to inform decision makers when considering the licencing and management of artisanal diamond mining operations. In order to achieve the aim of the study, a literature review needed to be conducted focusing on the nature of small scale diamond mining operations, its influence on the social and economic spheres and the known environmental damage induced by such mining activities. However, in order to internalize the impacts, the literature review also drew a comparison with large scale artisanal diamond mining. The problems identified at the four sample sites were evaluated through the OWL Risk Assessment method to gauge the high risks and major impacts.
This study showed that water pollution, biodiversity depletion and waste generation were some of the main problems traversing all four sites. In all cases assessed, artisanal diamond mining impacts on the water regime as mining takes place within the riverine environment. This study also underscored the fact that there is very little, if any rehabilitation, of disturbed areas and this impacts upon fitness for use of the receiving environment in the long term.
ii An urgent need exists for monitoring and regulating artisanal diamond mining so as to reduce the impacts to the receiving environment. More enforced regulation will also ensure that the mining operations practice responsibly with due care for the environment coupled to a legal undertaking for rehabilitation of the mining area.
iii
OPSOMMING
Hierdie kort verhandeling ondersoek die impak wat klein-skaal tradisionele- en bestaans- mynboupraktyke na diamante op die omgewing het. Navorsing oor die water-verwante impakte van klein-skaal en tradisionele bestaansmynbou is ook al gedoen. Hierdie studie benader egter die omgewing meer holisties en meet die totale degradasie van die ontvangsomgewing. Klein skaal tradisionele en bestaansmynbou word geag ‘n hoofbydraer tot plaaslike ekonomieë en verbeterde lewensomstandighede te wees en hierdie vorm van mynbou word aktief deur die nasionale minerale en mynboubeleide ondersteun.
Om hierdie rede is dit uiters belangrik om die aard van hierdie soort mynbou en die verwante omgewingsimpakte te verstaan sodat die resultaat van die verslag gebruik kan word vir besluitneming in die lisensieëringsproses sowel as die bestuur van klein skaal mynbouers. Om hierdie doel te bereik, moes ‘n literatuurstudie, wat fokus op die aard van kleinskaal mynbou, die invloed daarvan op die sosiale en ekonomiese sfere en die bekende omgewingsimpakte veroorsaak deur sulke werksaamhede, voltrek word. Om die omgewingsimpakte egter te kan internaliseer, het die literatuurstudie ook ‘n vergelyk getrek met groter-skaal tradisionele mynbouwerksaamhede. Die probleme wat op die vier toetsareas identifiseer is, is deur die OWL risiko bestuurstelsel analiseer om die hoë risikos en hoof impakte te identifiseer.
‘n Dringede nood bestaan vir monitering en regulasie van tradisionele mynbou sodat ‘n poging gemaak kan word om die impak op die ontvangsomgewing te verminder en om te verseker dat mynbou werksaamhede verantwoordelik en met sorg vir die omgewing, sowel as ‘n regtelike onderneming vir die rehabilitasie van die area, uitgevoer word.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my gratitude to the following people for their contribution to this mini-dissertation:
. My Supervisor Dr J.M Meeuwis for encouraging me to “Stay the Course.” Her dedication and perserverance had been the pivotal to the finalization of this study.
. My parents, brothers, daughter and husband for the support and understanding during the drafting
. To all Government officials I interviewed for their valuable input.
v
vi LIST OF TABLES ...... 3
LIST OF FIGURES...... 5
1. INTRODUCTION...... 7
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 12
2.1 Introduction to artisanal diamond mining...... 12
2.2 Objectives of the mini- dissertation...... 14
3. BACKGROUND TO ARTISANAL DIAMOND MINING ...... 17
3.1 The Diamond Mining Industry in Africa ...... 17
3.2 Comparison of large scale diamond mining and artisanal diamond mining...... 22 3.2.1 General characteristics of large scale diamond mining: ...... 22 3.2.2 General characteristics of artisanal mining...... 31
3.3 The Miller guide on environmental problems and environmental risks:...... 46
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ...... 49
4.1 Occurrence of artisanal diamond mining operations and location of the study area...... 49
4.2. Physical description of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve ...... 52
4.3 Visible impacts occurring in the environment ...... 61
5. DATA COLLECTION AND METHODOLOGY...... 64
5.1 Information required for the study...... 65
5.2 Data Collection ...... 67 5.2.1 Determining a representative site ...... 67
5.3 Methodology for the assessment of the data ...... 68 5.3.1 Phase 1 of the study: problem identification and determination of the types of impacts...... 68 5.3.2 Phase 2: risk analysis using the owl database...... 71
5.4 Shortcomings of the data obtained ...... 78
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 80
1 6.1 Comparative assessment after site visits ...... 80 6.1.1 Scan of site 1: North of the N12 highway between Wolmaranstad and Christiana ...... 80 6.1.2 Scan of Site 2: South of the N12 highway between Wolmaranstad and Christiana...... 86 6.1.3 Scan of Site 3: Longlands –less than 10 km north of Vaalbos National Park...... 92 6.1.4 Scan at Site 4: on the perifery of the Vaalbos National Park...... 97
6.2 Summary of the 4 site assessments ...... 104
6.3 Determining the impacts of artisanal mining through the OWL Risk Assessment...... 108 6.3.1 Water Pollution Problems:...... 109 6.3.2 Biodiversity Depletion: ...... 123 6.3.3 Food Supply problems:...... 126 6.3.4 Waste Generation: ...... 136 6.3.5 Air Pollution: ...... 140
6.4 Other factors affecting artisanal diamond mining in SA ...... 142
7. CONCLUSIONS...... 145
8. REFERENCES...... 152
2
LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Statistics on artisanal mining in Malawi (Dreschler, 2001)...... 19
Table 2: Statistics on artisanal mining in Mozambique (Dreschler, 2001)...... 19
Table 3: Statistics on artisanal mining in South Africa (Dreschler, 2001) ...... 20
Table 4: Problems and impacts associated with a large scale diamond mine...... 26
Table 5: Problems and impacts associated with a small scale artisanal diamond mine...... 36
Table 6: Environmental problems as reported by communities (Small Scale Mining, 2004)...... 38
Table 7: Summary of the water related environmental impacts a result of artisanal diamond mining (Health et al, 2004) ...... ……………………………………….39
Table 8: Tabular representation of the water impacts from artisanal diamond mining (Heath et al, 2004)..... 40
Table 9: Locality of mining operations based on information received from provincial authorities (Heath et al, 2004) ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 10: List of amphibians at the park (SANPARKS, 2004) ...... 53
Table 11: List of reptiles identifed at Vaalbos (SANPARKS, 2004) ...... 54
Table 12: Mammals identified at Vaalbos National Park (SANPARKS, 2004)...... 56
Table 13: Bird list for Vaalbos Nature Reserve (SANPARKS, 2004)...... 57
Table 14a: Water quality results of samples taken in the Vaal River - Barkley West (DWAF, 2005)...... 59
Table 14b: Water quality results of samples taken in the Vaal River - Warrenton, (DWAF, 2005) ...... 59
Table 14c: Water quality results at the mining operations (Heath et al, 2004)...... 60
Figure17: Diamond digging along the Vaal River near Sydney-On-Vaal illustrating impacts such as islands in the river and ponds adjacent to the river. (Heath et al, 2004)...... 62
Table 15: Visual observation form to be completed on site ...... 71
Table 16: The weights associated with the different elements in the owl system...... 73
Table 17: Legal compliance in the Owl System...... 73
Table 18: The nature of the risk...... 75
Table19: The significance of the risk ...... 76
Table 20: Duration of the risks ...... 76
3 Table 21: Likelihood of the risk ...... 77
Table 22: Severity of the impact...... 78
Table 23: Extent of the impact...... 78
Table 26: Site assessment at Longlands ...... 92
Table 27: Site assessment at the sites adjacent to Vaalbos Nature Reserve ...... 97
Table 33: Loss of Riparian Habitat which impacts on land use and land capability ...... 124
Table 34: Impacts on the vegetation...... 128 table 35: Loss of faunal biodiversity...... 132 table 36: Risk to the soil ...... 134 table 37: Impacts on the topography...... 138 table 38: Risk assessment pertaining to air pollution...... 141
4 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 : Deep water mining vessel (Georene, 2004) ...... 24
Figure 2 Kimberley Mines – Anatomy of the mining operations (De Beers, 2004)...... 25
Figure 3: Surface Plant Area showing the water storage tanks (Vermaak et al, 2003)……….……….…….29
Figure 4: Water re-used at cooling towers (Vermaak et al,2003)…………….……..………….… …….…29
Figure 5: Storage of hydrocarbons (Vermaak et al, 2003) ...... 28
Figure 6: Shaft areas which allow for water recharge (Vermaak et al, 2003) ...... 29
Figure 7: Waste rock dump to be vegetated as a final rehabilitation measure (De Beers, 2004)……………30
Figure 8: Rehabilited side wall of the slimes dam (Vermaak et al, 2003)...... 29
Figure 10: Artisanal Mining Site in Sierra Leone. Mounds of earth that is not being rehabilitated. (Georene, 2004).....………………………………………………………………………………………………33
Figure 11a: Mining Site in Sierra Leone. Diggers disturbing the water flow and the river bed in search of diamonds (Georene, 2004)...... 34
Figure 11b: Mining Site in Sierra Leone. Diggers Disturbing The Water Flow And the river bed in search of Diamonds Georene, 2004)...... 34
Figure 12: Artisanal Diamond Mining using a pick and shovel approach (Georene, 2004)...... 35
Figure 13: Some mechanisation in artisanal diamond mining, but the impacts to the environment are no different to the pick and shovel...... 35
Figure 12: Comparison of different instream impacts on the vaal river at different diamond digging operations (Heath et al, 2004)...... 41
Figure 13: Environmental And Resource Problems (Miller, 1998)...... 46
Figure 14: The relationship between population, resources and environmental pollution (Miller, 1998) ...... 48
Figure 15a. Locality of some alluvial diamond mining sites along the Vaal River (Getaway, 2005)...... 50
Figure 15b: Locality map showing the four sites evaluated in this study...... 51
Figure17 . Diamond digging along The Vaal River near Sydney-On-Vaal illustrating impacts such as islands in the river and ponds adjacent to the river. (Heath et al, 2004)...... 62
Figure 18: Heaps and mounds ...... 81
Figure 19: Total surface disturbance , vegetation, soil and heaps of ground that are not rehabilitated ...... 86
5 Figure 20: some mechanisation and waste material deposited very haphazardly...... 91
Figure 22: Disturbances to the natural flow of the river and the development of islands ...... 96
Figure 23: Very limited mechanisation – but the environmental impacts are the same – surface disturbances and loss of land-use and capability...... 96
Figure 24: Artisanal diamond mining that disturbed the natural water flow of the Vaal River...... 100
Figure 25a: Waste deposits on the banks of the Vaal River ...... 101
Figure 25b: Islands in the Vaal River and the historical sites that had not been rehabilitated ...... 101
Figure 26: Historical sites in the Vaalbos Nature Reserve ...... 104
Figure 27: A comparison of the locality of artisanal diamond mining relative to key infrastructural and national sites of significance...... 105
Figure 28: Comparison of the environmental problems associated with the 4 different artisanal sites...... 106
Figure 29: Destabilisation and denuding of the Vaal River banks...... 110
Figure 30: Reedbeds in the Vaal River...... 111
Figure 31: Siltation and turbidity in the river ...... 114
Figure 32: Changes to the river channel ……………………….…………………………… ….118
Figure 33: Changes in the flow ………………… ……………………… …..118
Figure 34: Horses grazing within the mining area...... 129
6
1. INTRODUCTION
Mining is, and has remained, the key foundation industry for the growth and development of the South African economy with the industry contributing a total of R17.8 billion per annum, representing 10.7% of the total investment in the economy (Chamber of Mines, 2003). Taking into consideration the multiplier effect of mining on the rest of the economy, the total contribution to the GDP is 12% (Chamber of Mines, 2003).
Mining in South Africa, much like the rest of the world, is characterized as being either formal large scale mining or artisanal mining. Large scale mining is defined as an operation licenced to move in excess of 600 000 tonnes of ground per annum or an operation which disturbs a total surface area greater that 10 hectares. It is further defined as non-subsistence orientated mining and involves extensive use of mechanical equipment (Heath et al, 2004).
Artisanal mining on the other hand is not well defined, and there is consequently no universal definition for artisanal mining. Nevertheless, this type of mining has been given the following definitions: Small scale mining operations characterized by a lack of capital, haphazard mining methods, environmental damage and health and safety risks; They are often illegal small scale mining operations which are inadequately capitalized and consequently under-utilize the economic potential of the deposit (Chakravorty, 1994);
Mining on a small scale, usually by hand and often without the assistance of machinery or mechanical tools. The term is sometimes extended to describe informal mining by a person or persons outside of a registered commercial organization (Rexmining, 2004);
Small scale types range from artisanal mines to small companies excluding
7 Junior companies (Heath et al, 2004). At the meeting of the international round table in Washington in 1995, artisanal mining was defined for the purposes of discussion as: - the most primitive type of mining, which is characterised by individuals, or groups of individuals exploiting deposits, usually illegally, with the simplest of equipment (Parsons, 2001).
Because artisanal mining is largely poverty driven, it has grown as an economic activity which commonly complements more traditional forms of rural subsistence earnings. In Africa, it is estimated that some 20 million people depend on this activity for their livelihood (Servianov, 2002). The Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development South Africa Report (2002), acknowledges that artisanal mining is “typically practiced in the poorest and most remote rural areas by a largely illiterate, poorly educated populace consisting of men and women with few employment alternatives.
Artisanal miners usually operate far from government control and their activities are typically inefficient, illegal, unsafe, environmentally damaging, and are an actual and potential source of conflict with the major mining companies most countries are trying so hard to attract (Mining Mirror, 1995). The conflict stems from major mining houses aspiring to create a positive environmental “green” image. With the mounting pressures for environmental responsibility and accountability (World Bank, 1995) in order to secure financial security and to improve commodity sales, most companies are focusing on adopting cleaner technology and pollution prevention technologies and are gearing toward heightened environmental legal compliance. In other words, companies are gearing towards being environmentally responsible in so far as most companies are attempting to comply with international Standards such as ISO 14001 (De Beers, 2004). De Beers, for example, as part of their sustainable development strategy, commits to adopting business strategies that meet the needs of the company and its stakeholders today, whilst protecting, sustaining and developing the human, social, economic and natural resources that they may need in the future (De Beers, 2004). With the profound negative impacts associated with artisanal mining, the industry’s new image is being threatened.
8
In spite of this, the value of diamond production is prodigious as artisanal miners account for 20% of the gold, 40% of the diamonds and nearly all the gemstones mined in Africa (Chamber of Mines , 2003). To emphasise this, South Africa’s officially recorded rough diamond production for 2002 amounted to 10.9 million carats. The value of this is estimated to be R3.5 billion. The Minerals Bureau estimates that this figure increases by anything from 0.1 million carats to as much as 0.5 million carats when production from artisanal diamond diggers are included, meaning that artisanal mining contributes 4.58 % of South Africa’s diamond production (Chamber of Mines, 2003). In 2002, artisanal diamond miners produced nearly 10% of South Africa’s 10.7 million carats (Seccombe, 2004). More recent information is not available at present and it is understood that this information will only be available in early 2006.
From an environmental perspective, large scale formal mining is well-regulated both by legislators and by the industries own standards, with many mining houses adopting internal standards, such as ISO 14001, to guide environmental management and performance. Artisanal mining on the other hand is largely unregulated, with detrimental impacts on the receiving environment such as deterioration in water quality due to turbidity from erosion and the increase in salts in the water, to the loss of riparian habitat and riverbed destabilization in the artisanal alluvial diamond mining areas.
There is some literature available highlighting the problems and environmental impacts associated with the artisanal mining of gold and other precious metals, but there is limited literature available on the problems and the impacts associated with artisanal diamond mining, particularly in South Africa. It is for this reason that this dissertation will focus specifically on artisanal diamond mining.
Thus, the main aim of this mini-dissertation is to: identify the problems associated with artisanal diamond mining; identify the types of environmental impacts that can occur conduct a risk analysis of the hazards to the environment
9 suggest possible remedial measures to mitigate the impacts.
There has been very little information documented on the environmental impacts of artisanal mining on the environment and yet the Minerals and Resources Petroleum Development Act, 2002 (Act 28 of 2002) promotes artisanal mining. According to the discussion document on a Minerals and Mining Policy, “The government shall encourage and facilitate the development of the small exploration and mining sectors and of mining activities in the underdeveloped regions and shall provide assistance to this effect based on sound business principles” (Department of Minerals and Energy, 1995). This principle in the South African legislation recognizes that a flourishing small-business sector usually increases competitiveness in an economy and is an efficient vehicle for the creation of jobs. The development of artisanal mining in underdeveloped regions would also increase the portfolio of minerals being produced and could lead to the exploitation of resources that would otherwise have been sterilized. In addition, it could provide a channel for increased access to the mining industry (Jennings, 1995).
This study is important as it recognises the principle to promote artisanal diamond mining in South Africa and it aims to provide guidance to the Regulator of the minerals and mining industry on the impacts of artisanal diamond mining to the receiving environment. The information gained from this study should be used to facilitate decision- making on artisanal diamond mining and to ensure that when applications for artisanal diamond mining operations are approved, the activity’s influence on the environment will be considered. This mini- dissertation should also be used as a guideline document when officials are reviewing the Environmental Management Programmes of these artisanal diamond mining operations to ensure that the applicants have identified and internalised all their environmental impacts and have put the necessary controls or mitigatory measures in place to manage the impacts.
10 Whilst chapter 1 provided an introduction to artisanal diamond mining in general with some detail on artisanal diamond mining, chapter 2 will focus on potential problems in the artisanal diamond mining industry particularly from an environmental perspective. Chapter 3 will set the backdrop to the study on the environmental impacts by providing an overview of the following areas: the influence and significance of mining to the economy ; the similarities and differences between artisanal and large scale mining ; The African perspective to artisanal diamond mining; The environmental issues relating to artisanal diamond mining.
Having set the scene for artisanal diamond mining, chapter 4 will discuss the bio-physical background information to the study area providing the information to be interpreted and analysed in the risk analysis of chapter 6. Chapter 5, however, defines the methodologies and processes that will be used to identify the problems and quantify the impacts associated with artisanal diamond mining. In chapter 6, the author essentially identifies the problems and potential impacts relating to a select representative site and quantifies the risks of the impacts materialising. Remedial measures are proposed providing an alternative to irresponsible artisanal diamond mining.
Having provided a brief introduction and background to artisanal mining and it’s relevance to the South African economy, the next chapter states the problems associated with artisanal diamond mining that will be addressed in the following chapters of this mini-dissertation.
11 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Before the problem is defined, it is important to note that although the intention of this mini- dissertation is to focus on artisanal diamond mining, the artisanal diamond mining sector of the mining industry cannot be viewed in isolation of other artisanal mining sectors across different commodities. This is because there are stark similarities and commonalities that permeate throughout the artisanal mining industry that provides insight into the role of artisanal diamond mining within the mining industry, the economy of the country and the associated problems and environmental impacts that arise. So, although the emphasis will be on artisanal diamond mining, there is substantial reference to other mining and related activities and both large scale mining and small scale artisanal mining.
2.1 Introduction to artisanal diamond mining
The environmental impacts of artisanal mining in the developing world have tended to be ignored. The influence of artisanal diamond mining had received even less attention knowing that the impacts from large scale-diamond mining are well regulated and well managed. Nevertheless, research suggests that the environmental destructiveness is the single most visible aspect of artisanal mining, with problems including acid mine drainage, deforestation, soil erosion, river silting and pollution of river systems with chemicals such as trichloromethylene, diesels and oils (Anonymous, 1995). Although the total area affected is small, the local impact is high.
With South Africa promoting artisanal mining enterprises as a vehicle for employment and improvements to the local economy, there is a dramatic need to quantify the viability of such projects particularly in respect of their environmental impacts and environmental sustainability. Given the large numbers of artisanal diamond mines in the Northern Cape Region, employing some 20 000 workers (Fraser, 2004), there is a growing need to address the problems of pollution and the efficiency of both energy and raw materials that these industries pose so that a balance may be affected between employment creation and environmental protection.
12
Miller (1998) identified 5 major problems associated with mans activities: 1. Air pollution 2. Water pollution 3. Waste production 4. Biodiversity depletion and 5. Food supply problems
It is necessary to investigate whether artisanal and small scale diamond mining induces similar problems. In the recent study by the Water Research Commission (2004), the study team did attempt to qualify some of the artisanal diamond mining operations, having found a total of 19 operations of which 9 were located in the Northern Cape (Heath et al, 2004). In this study, the Water Research Commission focussed the attention on the water pollution problems. There is to date, no comprehensive evaluation of the different problem areas relating to artisanal diamond mining activities and its related impacts on the receiving environment. This includes the waste management, biodiversity depletion, food supply and atmospheric pollution problems. Although the development of the artisanal sector is considered desirable, information regarding the environmental impacts of this sector is currently limited. A limited number of ad hoc research projects were undertaken in South Africa, however, their environmental impacts are not well documented.
Factors further contributing to, and in most cases exacerbating the environmental damage is the lack of finances and the lack of education. At the Environmental Forum of Zimbabwe meeting (Astorga, 1993), delegates noted that large mining operations had the responsibility for setting the example of good environmental management. They also noted that artisanal diamond miners found it incredibly difficult to manage environmental impacts because: these miners did not have the money to execute sound environmental practices and
13 there was also the problem of knowledge. They do not know much about the environment and are illiterate concerning environmental impacts associated with the artisanal mining activity as well as the legislative requirements and consequences of non-compliance to legal requirements (Anonymous, 1995). Environmental legislation in South Africa is governed by the National Environmental Management Act, 1998, the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 and the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989. The Regulations and legislation are unintelligible to artisanal miners who rarely adhere to the standard guidelines nor do they engage in any rehabilitation programmes (Heath et al, 2004).
Where legislation has been enforced, and artisanal miners have been expected to comply with the rehabilitation financial provision requirements, many have tended not to register their activities with the Department of Minerals and Energy and have opted to mine illegally instead (pers. Comms DME, 2004). In the same vein, the expectation to adhere to the requirements of the Environmental Management Programmes have not been honoured by artisanal miners chiefly due to the lack of capacity and knowledge (pers. Comms DME, 2004).
2.2 Objectives of the mini- dissertation
To remind the reader, the main aims of this study are to:
identify the problems associated with artisanal diamond mining; identify the types of environmental impacts that can occur conduct a risk analysis of the hazards to the environment suggest possible remedial measures to mitigate the impacts.
These aims will be met by the following objectives: 1. Determine the background to, and history of artisanal diamond mining in South Africa. The background to the industry provides an overview of the extent of artisanal mining in
14 South Africa and it’s role in the economy. This information is vital for determining the significance of artisanal diamond mining in general and then specifically to South Africa and will also clarify why the trend towards artisanal mining is supported by the DME. 2. Determine the problems associated with the artisanal diamond mining operations through a synopsis of representative artisanal diamond mining sites. This will be achieved by scanning the mining areas and visually determining possible problems associated with the artisanal mining activity. This scan should be able to highlight common problems permeating through all sites. 3. Having already internalised the problems relating to artisanal diamond mining, the next step is to identify the type of impacts associated with the problems and to quantify the significance of the impact. The type of impacts will largely be determined from visual observations with the significance determined analytically using the Our World and Life is (OWL) (Vermaak, 2003) risk assessment database. The OWL database has been specifically designed by Sd’eAfrika, an environmental consultancy, to analytically evaluate the risks of impacts to the environment and to categorise them as either high, moderate or low risks. The database has been used extensively as an environmental management decision-making tool as well as to compile the Environmental Management Programme for the diamond and the gold mining industry. (Erasmus & Naidoo-Vermaak, 2004), (Vermaak & Naidoo-Vermaak, 2003 and Bailie and Naidoo- Vermaak, 2004). 4. The issues related to the impacts identified will be discussed with recommended remedial or mitigatory measures to control and manage the impacts. The Environmental Management Programme Report for artisanal operations also requires that significant impacts are mitigated, managed and controlled. (DME, 2002). This is also echoed in the National Water Act, 1998 where the users or operators must take all reasonable measures to prevent and mitigate pollution to the natural water environment (Cameron Cross, 2004).
15 This chapter has underlined the fact that there is little understanding of the environmental impacts of artisanal mining, yet it is being widely practiced and promoted in South Africa. It is clear that a better understanding of the history of artisanal mining, its influence in developed and developing economies, as well as a full understanding of the environmental impacts is important to guide decision making by the Regulators. The next Chapter therefore explores the history and background to small scale artisanal diamond mining and the known environmental implications of, and the limitations to artisanal diamond mining in a South African context. But in order to glean the above, it is important to draw the distinction between large scale mining and artisanal mining in general to determine the relevance of this sector to society and to draw a comparison of the environmental impacts of artisanal and the large scale diamond mining industry. Since this mini-dissertation focuses on artisanal diamond mining, the following chapter will provide some information on the diamond mining industry in South Africa and internationally and will provide an indication of this significance of this commodity in terms of market requirements.
16 3. BACKGROUND TO ARTISANAL DIAMOND MINING
The focal point of this mini-dissertation is the impacts of artisanal diamond mining on the receiving environment. However, in order to set the scene for discussing artisanal diamond mining, sub-chapter 3.1 will discuss diamond mining in general and chapter 3.2 will discuss the characteristics and environmental problems associated with large scale diamond mining, so that the reader may compare this activity to artisanal diamond mining in chapter 3.3. Chapter 3.2 is also very significant in understanding artisanal mining as it highlights the environmental problems associated with large scale mining. As there is very little literature available on artisanal diamond mining, the reader can anticipate the potential problems to artisanal diamond miners from the experiences and literature available on the environmental problems common to the larger diamond miners. By providing this overview to large scale diamond mining and the artisanal diamond mining industry, the reader would be able to draw a comparison between both the industries and would also be able to gauge the contribution of the artisanal industry to the mining industry as a whole. In chapter 3.3, the author has also looked at the influence of artisanal mining on an African and international level as environmental impacts tend to overlap.
3.1 The Diamond Mining Industry in Africa
Before the author discusses the differences and similarities between large scale and artisanal diamond mining and the environmental problems associated with both, it is necessary to sketch the role of diamond mining in the sustainability and economy of the country that it is taking place in, and the influence of artisanal diamond mining to the diamond mining sector. Diamonds are a rare commodity and this chapter will demonstrate how significant diamond mining is to the African economy.
Botswana has the strongest economy in Africa (Jennings, 1993), with a great economic dependence on diamond mining activities. Debswana (De Beers, Botswana) is a joint company with the Botswana Government. Debswana currently operate three large open cast operations, which produce nearly all of Botswana’s 26.5 Mega carats (Mct) per year (De Beers, 2004).
17 Diamond mining is one of Namibia’s main export products, contributing $US 390 000 per annum. This represents a total of 1.5 Mct, most of which were produced by De Beers, Namibian subsidiary, Namdeb. However, new producers in Namibia are Canadian listed. Namibian Mining Corporation (Namco) has made impressive progress with its marine mining operations. Recent improvements in marine mining methods, led by De Beers Marine, Namco and DFI/Trans Hex (Chamber of Mines, 2003), will make these operations more lucrative. The entire coastline of Namibia is currently being explored for marine diamond deposits. With the rapid influx of diamond exploration companies, in particular marine operators, Namibia has legislated a new Diamond Act, which will further control and regulate the production and sale of rough diamonds (Chamber of Mines, 2003).
Endiama, Angola’s state run company still produces the majority of Angola’s diamonds, although large amounts are still being produced by artisanal miners. Angola produced just over 5.1 Mct in 2001, at an average price of $US 137/ct. Diamond production from the DRC continues with 19.7 Mct being produced in 2001 making the DRC one of Africa's largest producers of diamonds after Botswana. Artisanal production contributes more than half of the DRC's production (Ministry of Mineral Resources, 2004). The last survey of the contribution of artianal diamond mining to the development of the country was in 2001. More recent data is not available
So, of the total diamond production in Africa artisanal diamond mining contributes up to 20% of the African diamond production; and at least 10.7 % of the South African diamond investment as underscored in Chapter 1. It is thus easy to gauge the significance of this sector in terms of the contribution to the world market.
It is also important to understand the role that artisanal mining plays in job creation and sustainable development in order to understand the need to promote this industry. Apart from the 20% direct contribution to the economy, an International Labour Office study (Bugnosen, 2000) estimated that more than 30% of the world's total mining workforce relied on artisanal
18 mining for their livelihoods. About one in 500 Africans and about one in 900 Latin Americans are employed in artisanal mining. In places such as Ghana and Ecuador, as many as 75 percent of those employed directly or indirectly in the sub-sector are woman (Bugnosen, 2000) thereby conforming to one of the fundamental principles of economic empowerment- women empowerment. Tables 1-3 give an indication of the percentage employment in the informal artisanal diamond mining sector in Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa. Malawi employs 40 000 people in artisanal mining as compared to the formal sector which only employs 14 000 meaning that artisanal mining employ three times as many people as formal mining and contributes 90 % of the 0.9% that mining contributes to the GDP of Malawi.
Table 1: Statistics On Artisanal Mining In Malawi (Dreschler, 2001) Area: 118,480 km2 Population : 10,4 mil. GDP/head/y: US$ 132 Mining Contribution: 0,9 % Formal Mining Employment: 14,000 Artisanal-Miners: 40,000 of these informal: 90 %
Table 2: Statistics On Artisanal Mining In Mozambique (Dreschler, 2001)
Ar ea: 801590 km2 Po pulation : 19.1 mil. GD P/head/y: US$ 92 Mi ning Contribution: 2.0 % Formal Mining Em ployment: 87,000 Ar tisanal Miners: 60,000 of these informal: 95 %
19 In Mozambique, as reflected in Table 2, there is an equal number of artisanal miners for every formal miner employed and artisanal mining contributes 95% of the total mining contribution to the GDP. Table 3: Statistics On Artisanal Mining In South Africa(Dreschler, 2001)
Area: 1,219,912 km2 Po pulation : 43.5 mil. GDP/head/y: US$ 3281 Mining Contribution: 8.0 % - 12% Formal Mining Employment 1,350,000 Artisanal Miners: 10,000 of these informal: 10, 5% of diamond production In South Africa, as seen in Table 3, artisanal mining contributes at least 10,5 percent of the diamond production. Recent statistics show that at least 20000 people are employed in artisanal diamond operations in the Northern Cape alone. Recognising this, the South African Regulators of the minerals and mining industry are promoting artisanal diamond mining because part of its mandate is to alleviate poverty, and artisanal miners, although they may be rich in comparison, many of their compatriots are poor (Mining Mirror,1995). According to the discussion document on a Minerals and Mining Policy (Anonymous, 1995), “The government shall encourage and facilitate the development of the small exploration and mining sectors and of mining activities in the underdeveloped regions and shall provide assistance to this effect based on sound business principles.” Although said to be promoting small scale mining, government was recently entangled in a debate with representatives of the artisanal diamond miners. The South African government had disputed claims that the country’s artisanal alluvial diamond mining sector is in deep trouble because of new mining regulations. The Chairman of the South African Diamond Producers Organisation (SADPO), stated that new mining laws to acquire mining rights were proving to be too onerous financially for most small alluvial diamond miners, while the alternative, a permit to mine on just 1.5 hectares was inadequate. Government of the other hand believes that for mining rights, the only new cost for environmental issues would be the impact assessment requirement
20 because miners had to rehabilitate their operations before the promulgation of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act (MPRDA) in May 2004 (Seccombe, 2004). It is refreshing to note that Government is paying closer attention to the artisanal diamond mining sector and taking an environmentally responsible approach to this sector.
So to re-iterate the conclusions of this chapter: Diamond mining plays a pivotal role as a major investment in the economy of South Africa, but this trend is not limited to South Africa, but to other diamondiferous bearing countries like Botswana and Zimbabwe; Of the total investment, artisanal diamond mining contributes anything up to 20% of the African diamond production and at least 10.7% of the South African Diamond production, underlining the fact that artisanal diamond mining has a very strong role to play in building the economies of developing countries; Artisanal diamond mining adds further value through job creation having already introduced 20 000 jobs in the Northern Cape province, and with the multiplier effect of these 20 000 jobs, at least 100 000 peoples livelihoods are sustained or improved;
The ultimate conclusion is that artisanal diamond mining should rightly be supported given the contribution it makes to the communities and the country itself. Therefore, if the South African policies and practices are to support artisanal diamond mining, then it becomes even more critical that such mining is made sustainable with minimal impacts to the receiving environment. This again supports the goals of this mini-dissertation which aims to understand the problems related to artisanal diamond mining, identify and quantify the potential impacts and identify the necessary controls to minimize the influence to the receiving environment, thereby rendering artisanal diamond mining less destructive and more sustainable.
However, before the author discusses the environmental problems associated with artisanal diamond mining, it is essential to understand the similarities and differences between the different types of mining:
21 Large scale diamond mining Artisanal diamond mining Chapter 3.2 looks at the distinction between large scale diamond mining and artisanal diamond mining. This comparison is necessary as this allows us to understand the definition of artisanal diamond mining as described in chapter 1. The descriptions below focus on the mechanization, size of the operation and to some extent the anatomy of the operations. The anatomy of the operation provides an indication as to the activities and possible problems arising from diamond mining. As there is virtually no information available on the spectrum of environmental problems arising from artisanal diamond mining, the anatomy of the large scale diamond mine will highlight potential environmental problems that one could anticipate at artisanal diamond mining operations. These anticipated problems will be verified through the following chapters 5 and 6 of this study.
3.2 Comparison between large scale diamond mining and artisanal diamond mining
It is argued that mining by its nature, is not sustainable. It usually takes place until a resource is depleted or is no longer economically viable to be mined. Achieving a measure of sustainability in diamond mining necessitates making the best use of the resource being mined to prolong its economic life, and ensuring the surrounding area and environment are fit to support other livelihood sustaining activities when mining has finished.
3.2.1 General characteristics of large scale diamond mining:
Diamond mining is generally thought of as a large scale, high technology industry and dominated by a few huge mining houses; much of the South African mining is on a large scale operated by major mining houses such as BHP-Billiton and Anglo American. The formal diamond mining sector in South Africa, being the fourth largest producer of diamonds in the world, produces 7% of the world’s total production. Trans Hex is but one mining house promoting large scale diamond production and operates along the mid and lower Orange River, and off the South African and Namibian coasts. Its output for 2002 amounted to 100 400 carats
22 (Transhex, 2004). BHP-Billiton produced 4 million carats in 2002 (Chamber of Mines, 2003). De Beers Pty Ltd, Transhex Mining Company, BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto are the major diamond mining operations in South Africa. These mining houses exploit the minerals either through surface mining (Open pit) as in the case of De Beers Venetia operations and it’s historical De Beers Mine known as the “Big Hole” in Kimberley. Other operations, like Kimberley Mines and Cullinan Mine produces diamonds from underground mining operations, removing the kimberlitic ore from up to 900 m below surface as is the case at Kimberley Mine. Star Mine for an example, employs an underhand open stope mining method to extract the narrow kimberlite fissure system. Competent host rocks have allowed stopes to remain open with a manageable amount of in-stope support. Even the comparatively weak, horizontally laminated, shales that host the kimberlite fissure stand up well within the near vertical stopes. Sidewall support is provided by timber packs and poles installed across the stope. Timber poles are also used as lagging across packs for travelling ways and for safety against falling material from the open stope above (De Beers Opex, 2002). Transhex and the De Beers Marine operations, on the other hand win the mineral from surface water – alluvial diamonds – or from the sea as seen in Figure 1. It is highly mechanized with evolving and improving technologies constantly brought to light. The Transhex marine Division conducts two distinctly different types of diamond exploration and mining operations in the sea diamond concessions off the West Coasts of South Africa and Namibia. In the deep-water operations (water depths greater than 30 metres), mining is preceded by extensive geological investigations. Both sampling and mining of the diamond bearing gravels is achieved with airlift operated dredging ships and the dredged gravels are treated on board the ship with a dense media separation (DMS) plant. In the shallow water operations (water depths less than 30 m) most of Trans Hex's mining is currently undertaken by contracted diving teams that recover small volumes of diamond bearing gravel from favourable trapsites in the nearshore areas along the coast.
These operations are conducted using 100 to 200 mm suction-pumps mounted on either small seagoing vessels or shore-based tractor units. The former operate in water depths up to 18 m,
23 while the latter concentrate on the shallower inshore and intertidal zones adjacent to beaches and rocky promontories (Transhex, 2004).
Figure 1 : Deep water mining vessel Georene, 2004)
Processing of diamondiferous material is also a highly skilled and technologically intensive process. Kimberley Mines have revolutionized the dense media separation technology designed to separate the dense materials from the diamonds. The Kimberley Mine’sCombined treatment plant was designed to retreat dumps in the area, and is well on its way to reaching its full capacity of 20 000 tons per day, sustainably, or 600 000 tons per month. For Kimberley Mines, the construction of the CTP means that previously marginal or uneconomic resources now become realistic mining opportunities. This has officially extended the life of the mine to 2011 and there is the possibility of extending this to 2030 if all potential opportunities are realised (De Beers, 2004). In addition to this, a major potential environmental impact is removed. In removing the discard dump, the pollution source for salination of the soils and water regimes is removed. Further to this, these deposits have a major impact to the aesthetics and land-use, seeing as they take up a large surface area; in reclaiming the deposits, the aesthetics are improved upon and land is liberated for further alternate use.
The plant employs 200 permanent people directly, most of whom are drawn from the Kimberley area. Many other local suppliers, engineering works and service providers service the CTP, providing significant knock-on effects for the local community.
24 SLIMES DAMS
TAILINGS DAMS
PLANT
Figure 2: Kimberley Mines – Anatomy of the mining operations (De Beers, 2004)
The activities related to large scale diamond mining determines to a large extent the problems associated with the mining activity. Figure 2 depicts slimes dams, tailings dams and of course a processing plant; all of which pose environmental problems. The typical environmental problems associated with any large scale diamond mine is summarised in Table 4.
Waste rock, tailings and slimes are overburden and waste material seen in Figure 6 produced during the mining the and processing for diamonds and is deposited onto well-engineered storage facilities that have been designed to manage and minimize the impact of the disposal on the receiving environment particularly groundwater and surface water pollution. As a final rehabilitation mechanism, these facilities are grassed and vegetated until they are sustainable and blend into the natural environment, thus also improving the aesthetics associated with the presence of these dumps on site. This is seen in Figure 8.
25
Table 4: Problems and impacts associated with a large scale diamond mine PROBLEM IMPACT VISUAL REPRESENTATION AIR POLLUTION Urban air pollution from Potential nuisance dust and Refer to Figures 7 and 8 plant and slimes and tailings visibility impairment show that the controls are well dams in place in large mines to manage this impact. Nuisance noise from the plant Potential nuisance factor to Here again controls have been and shaft areas which are surrounding communities put in place to manage highly mechanised potential impacts.
WATER POLLUTION salts and heavy metals Potential depletion of the surface Larger mines usually strive for discharged to the receiving and groundwater resource zero discharge as an internal water bodies if process water Potential contamination of surface objective, they are well is discharged without and groundwater with sulphates regulated by the Regulatory treatment and heavy metals such as Departments and operate Manganese and Zinc and other according to licence metals characteristic of the requirements and generally do kimberlitic if not treated before not deleteriously impact on the discharge and not contained to receiving waters or the prevent the contamination to the groundwater. Mines also groundwater resources. reuse and recycle water a s far as possible. Refer to Figures 3 and 4. Potential contamination with Oil spillages if no hydrocarbons in the surface and Companies aspiring to containment is in place groundwater pollution prevention and ISO 14001 usually contain storage areas either within bunding or store chemicals on slabbing to prevent pollution. This is seen in Figure 5.
26 WASTE PRODUCTION Solid waste and hazardous This is one of the major problems Figures 7 and 8 show that waste in the large scale diamond mining controls can be put in place to industry, with the generation of prevent the potential impacts slimes and tailings, usually not from occurring. extremely hazardous, but requiring extensive management to prevent pollution to surface waters, groundwaters and generation of fallout dust. Reclamation however, results in the removal of this feature and with it the associated environmental impacts. Companies like De Beers are actively reclaiming the slimes and tailings deposits to minimise the rehabilitation liability and the associated impacts to the people and the environment. FOOD SUPPLY PROBLEMS AND BIODIVERSITY DEPLETION
Loss of biodiversity and loss Loss of vegetation and animal This is usually medium term, of land-use and land habitat in the affected mining area. spanning the life of the Mine capability and concurrent rehabilitation programmes tend to reduce the total effect over time. Companies like De Beers, has started nature conservation areas at most of its operations to attempt to redress this impact.
27 SORTER ORE HOUSE STOCKPILE
WATER DMS STORAGE SEPARATOR CONSUMPTION S
SPILLAGES
Figure 3: Surface plant area showing the water storage tanks store water for re-use (Vermaak et al ,2003)
Figure 4: Water re-used at cooling towers Figure 5: Storage of hydrocarbons (Vermaak et al, 2003) (Vermaak et al, 2003)
28
Figure 6: shaft areas which allow for water recharge and vegetation disturbances (Vermaak et al, 2003)
Figure 7: Waste rock dump to be vegetated Figure 8: Rehabilitated side wall of the slimes dam (De Beers, 2004) (Vermaak et al, 2003)
The important point to note is that large scale diamond mining does in fact impact the receiving environment. However, controls and measures are applied by larger operations, partly due to the fact that these mines operate within legal parameters and also because the majority of these
29 mining houses are international and operate according to international standards and best practices. Therefore many of these impacts are mitigated so that the receiving environment is protected as far as practical from the activities of large scale diamond mining. Companies like BHP Billiton, Transhex and De Beers are operating in South Africa under South African legislation and take their environmental responsibilities beyond just legal compliance to international best practices. These companies operate according to the commitments of their Environmental policies committing to amongst others corporate environmental responsibility and accountability (De Beers sustainability report, 2003). These Companies have adopted ISO 14001 standards which is an international standard prescribing environmental management processes and practices (De Beers Annual report, 2003). De Beers operates according to the highest standards of environmental management and innovation by identifying and managing its environmental impacts and is a critical function within De Beers. Detailed site-specific environmental plans are carefully formulated and implemented at each operation (De Beers, 2004). De Beers carries out environmental impact and risk assessments for new projects such as the Housing projects and the fine residue deposits as well as the Borrow pits Bulk sample plants and waste handling facilities (De Beers, 2004).
Trans Hex is committed to responsible environmental management of all its land as well as marine operations. Environmental management programmes are in place for all marine and land operations. These are being upgraded from time to time in order to comply with changing legal requirements. A dedicated environmental management team conducts regular in-house monitoring and auditing of the status of the environment at the various operations highlighted to date.
A Rehabilitation Trust Fund has been created for the rehabilitation of all mining areas after closure. Ongoing and concurrent rehabilitation is covered by the respective operational budgets. The fund currently stands at R5,5 million, and is topped up annually (Transhex, 2004)
Therefore to summarise, the above chapter essentially accentuates the following points:
30 The characteristics of large scale diamond mining is highly evolved and very mechanised; Does in fact occur on a very large scale moving more than the 600 000 tonnes per annum referred to in the description of artisanal diamond mining in Chapter 1 of this dissertation: Requires skilled personnel; Is technologically intensive; Large scale diamond mining does in fact have environmental problems that might in fact influence the ecological environment negatively. However, controls, whether induced by legislation or self-induced according to corporate policies and standards, are put in place to manage and mitigate the impacts to the receiving environment. These 5 bullets essentially summarise the characteristics of large scale diamond mining. Again this will provide the reader with an understanding of the potential environmental problems and impacts associated with large scale diamond mining. As there is very little literature available on the environmental impacts of artisanal diamond mining operations, it may be assumed that many of these may be superimposed on artisanal diamond mining operations. This will only be concluded in the scanning and risk assessment phase of this study. Chapter 3.2.2 looks at the general characteristics of artisanal diamond mines.
3.2.2 General characteristics of artisanal mining
To re-iterate, the definition of artisanal mining referenced in Chapter 1, has been described as operations moving less than 600 000 tonnes of earth per annum and ranges from formal, technologically sophisticated but small mining operations to artisanal, pick and shovel mining under the most primitive conditions. Usually and by contrast to the large scale diamond miners, artisanal mining is characterised by it’s low technology, labour intensiveness and unskilled operations which in more instances than not is likely to be illegal short term operations.
31 However one describes artisanal mining, it is a complex issue affecting many of the world’s poorest countries and communities. It requires a multi-faceted and co-ordinated approach as it is social, political and economic in nature. It has caused widespread environmental damage, and is often associated with serious health effects for the miners themselves. Its attraction lies in its ability to generate wealth for people who often have no other means of supporting themselves (United Nations, 1996).
Any solutions to the harmful impacts it makes must take into account the health and environmental impacts of poverty, the needs of artisanal miners and their extended families, the needs of future generations, the ability of the authorities to monitor and enforce regulations, and the requirements of the large mining companies that sometimes compete with artisanal miners for minerals and access to land (United Nations, 1996). According to the World Bank the dramatic growth of artisanal mining in Africa is a response to a worsening economic situation. Artisanal mining has been discussed for several years and as the Economic Commission for Africa pointed out, recommended solutions are abundant (IPS, 1996). But many of the solutions are highly dependant on governments and access to financing. Artisanal mining is a fact of life.
Artisanal diamond mining is mainly the recovery of alluvial diamonds found in the riverine environment . Most artisanal diamond mining operations in South Africa may be described as artisanal relying on little more than pick and shovel operations. In some cases such as in diamond panning in the Northern Cape Province simple technologies are used, however the efficiencies of these systems are highly dubious. A study undertaken on pan optimisation for the Northern Cape small scale miners revealed that most were recovering little over 50 to 60% of the potential carats per ton. Other mining methods are equally as unsophisticated. Often, these miners consequently mine under extremely dangerous conditions with the resultant accidents and loss of life (Servianov, 2004). It can be concluded than that the level of technology deployed by the miners is low and that a substantial amount of work is required to raise them up to the level of profitable, properly managed business ventures. Where technology is used it is usually very outdated and either adapted machinery (such as pumps and screens) or else very old equipment.
32
The general characteristics of a typical artisanal diamond mining site is reflected in Figures 10- 13. The site is basically characterized by heaps and mounds of earth having been moved in the search for the mineral, placed haphazardly adjacent to the diggings and voids. Also evident is the high intensity of personnel and the minimal usage of high technology equipment. Another characteristic feature in Figures 11-13 indicate that there are no specific dedicated waste disposal facilities like slimes dams and tailings dams. On the contrary, the material is displaced wherever the plant is located with no consideration for the surface water flow or the impact to the groundwater. High volumes of people working the diggings
Mounds of earth that will not be rehabilitated or backfilled
Figure 10: Artisanal mining site in Sierra Leone. Mounds of earth that is not being rehabilitated. (Georene, 2004)
33 Mounds of earth
taken from the river bed never to be restored
Figure 11a: Mining site in Sierra Leone. Diggers disturbing the water flow and the river bed in search of diamonds (Georene, 2004)
Mounds of earth taken from the river bed never to be restored
Figure 11b: Mining Site in Sierra Leone. Diggers disturbing the water flow and the river bed in search of diamonds (Georene, 2004)
34 Collecting the mineral for processing and Low technology processing recovery plants, grid screens and grease belts
Figure 12: Artisanal diamond mining using a pick and shovel approach (Georene 2004)
Figure 13: Some mechanisation in artisanal diamond mining, but the impacts to the environment are no different to the pick and shovel.
35 If one looks at the environmental problems associated with artisanal diamond mining in terms of the Miller concept (Miller, 1998), then the following will provide some guidance environmental problems and impacts associated with large scale diamond mining. This Table 5 will enable the reader to draw comparisons to the artisanal operations.
Table 5: Problems and impacts associated with a small scale artisanal diamond mine PROBLEM IMPACT VISUAL REPRESENTATION
AIR POLLUTION Outdoor pollutants Potential Nuisance dust and This would be a long term impact as there visibility impairment from the is no rehabilitation of discard dumps to waste discarded on the banks of the alleviate dust and prevent erosion. river bed.
WATER POLLUTION Sedimentation The mining is taking place within The sedimentation, and alteration of the the riverine embankments and on river bed is seen in Figure 11 the bed of the river. A fuller description of the impacts to the receiving water body is described further in this Chapter.
Nutrient overload The mining activity is taking place and infectious agents under very rudimentary conditions in the absence of proper infrastructure including ablution facilities and this could result in water pollution from human excreta.
Oxygen depletion There is evidence of increased turbidity from the disturbances of Figure 12 shows the murky water that the riverine environment and this inhibits oxygenation. influences the dissolved oxygen concentration. Further to this, the denuding of vegetation also reduces
36 the concentration of dissolved oxygen.
WASTE PRODUCTION Solid waste and This is one of the major problems Figure 10 clearly shows the residue that hazardous waste in the artisanal diamond mining remains after mining the rivers and it’s industry, with the generation of banks. discard that is stockpiled and deposited on river banks, within the river and in close proximity if the river banks. It is generally unrehabilitated so posing a source of pollution to the river through erosion and sedimentation. FOOD SUPPLY Although the studies have not PROBLEMS AND concluded this, it stands to reason BIODIVERSITY DEPLETION that should the riverine Soil erosion, environment be affected then the wetland loss and carrying capacity of the river degradation, loss of would also be affected. biodiversity
Habitat destruction Loss of vegetation and animal This is seen in Figure 10. habitat in the affected mining area.
The environmental impacts due to artisanal diamond mining are quite visible and are related to soil erosion, deforestation, diversions of the river from its normal course and increased siltation due to direct panning in the river systems. The mining of these gemstones causes extensive excavations, which are left open and unprotected and lead to the deterioration of the land-use and land capability component of the environment. In Manica and Nampula, rivers are diverted and accumulated in open pools for mineral washing. Table 6 shows the environmental problems resulting from artisanal mining in the Manica, Tete, and Nampula provinces of South America are identical to the problems experienced elsewhere in the world including South Africa as a result of artisanal mining. Table 6 shows that the water contamination, river siltation, soil
37 erosion, destruction of vegetation and health related risks are the main environmental problems as seen by communities affected by the artisanal mining process (Georene, 2004). Table 6, more importantly shows the perceptions of the communities to the environmental impacts of artisanal diamond mining. Although many had identified the impacts to the river environment, most were unable to gauge the significance of the impact. For example, in the case of river siltation, the majority of only two communities deemed the impact as significant with less than 30% seeing this as being very significant. This again alludes to the lack of knowledge regarding environmental issues and protection of the natural resources.
Table 6: Environmental problems as reported by communities (Small Scale Mining, 2004) Environmental None Significant Very Significant Problem (%) (%) (%) N T Nam M N T Nam M N T Nam M Water Contamination 1 71 66.7 72 - - 33.3 27.3 - 28.6 - - 0 .4 .7 0 River - 83 - 50 10 - 100 50 - 16.7 - - Siltation .3 0 Soil Erosion 83 100 66 - - - 33.3 10 16.7 - - .3 .7 0 Destruction of access 1 91 100 66 - - - 33.3 - 9 - - roads 0 .7 0 Destruction of religious - 91 100 75 - 9 - 25 - - - - sites N= Niassa, T=Tete; Nam=Nampula; M= Manica
In 2004, the Water Research Commission had commissioned a study to evaluate the environmental impacts and aspects associated with artisanal diamond mining. The study was limited to evaluating impacts to the water environment only. The study concluded the most important environmental impacts caused by artisanal diamond miners are listed in Table 7.
38
Table 7: Summary of the water related environmental impacts a result of artisanal diamond mining (Health et al, 2004) Activity Impacts Construction or use of materials Accelerated erosion close to workings that have been de-vegetated for construction Increase in suspended solids concentrations in the receiving water bodies Alteration of river banks and flows Altering of the river hydraulics Panning in streams Acid mine draining, increases in mercury concentrations and increase in suspended solids Unprotected tailings and waste rock dumps Air borne dust, fugitive dust influencing water quality Gravel diggings and sand winning operations Destruction of riparian zones and reduced vegetative bank cover
The Water Research Commission Report (Heath et al, 2004) also refers to the cumulative impacts on the receiving water environment from artisanal diamond operations and emphasizes the following impacts: Loss of riparian habitat Riverbank destabilization Soil erosion Increased surface areas of discard Increased mobilization of sediments Increased mobilization of metals Loss of arable land due to the lack of rehabilitation. These impacts are summarised in Table 8. All those crossed with an X implies that those impacts arise from artisanal diamond mining. This table shows that artisanal diamond mining impacts include aesthetics, water quantity and hydrology impacts, but that from a water quality perspective, there is no significant environmental damage.
39 Table 8: Tabular representation of the water impacts from artisanal diamond mining (Heath et al, 2004) Environmental impact Alluvial diamonds Aesthetics X Riparian vegetation loss X Bank destabilisation X Chemical contamination - Increase in sedimentation X River diversion X Water abstraction X River bed and fauna X disturbance Alteration in channel X hydraulics Ponding in floodplain X Loss of river sediments X
The Water Research Commission (Heath et al, 2004) in this report states that artisanal diamond mining operations do not cause major water quality problems but there are areas along the rivers where artisanal diamond mining is causing such problems as altering of the course of the river and disturbing the benthic organisms. Figure 12 indicates the different instream impacts as a result of alluvial diamond mining in the Vaal River. The major instream impacts are solid waste dumps and riverbed modification. If the different sites are compared then it is clear that Amandelshoogte site upstream of Windsorton has the greatest impact on the Vaal River (Figure 12). This is because mining takes place directly into a braided channel in order to mine a sandy island in the river. This resulted in the flow of the Vaal River being forced into the main channel. This has severely impacted the riverbed and channel by altering the river flow patterns, hydrology and biodiversity, and waste dumps are left without any attempt being made by the small-scale miners to rehabilitate the area. The gravel and sand that is removed from the riverbed armours the bed, stabilising banks and bars. Removing this gravel causes excessive scour and sediment movement. Gravel removal not only impacts the extraction site, but may reduce gravel delivery to downstream fish spawning sites (Hill and Kleynhans, 1999).
40 25
20
15
10 lative impact lative
Re 5
0 Sydney Wintersrush Waldecks Windsorton Amandelshoogte
Water abstraction Flow modification Bed modification Channel modification Water quality Inundation Exotic macrophytes Exotic fauna Waste dumping
Figure 12: Comparison of different instream impacts on the Vaal River at different diamond digging operations (Heath et al, 2004).
The report also states that the alluvial diamond mining operations comprise the greatest proportion of artisanal operations in South Africa. It is for this reason that this mini-dissertation is so vital in that it will holistically evaluate the impacts of artisanal diamond mining on the total bio-physical environment and not just the water regime (Heath et al, 2004).
There have been two further case studies on the environmental impacts of artisanal diamond mining in Sierra Leone and Ghana and the reason that the author has referenced them in this chapter is because it re-enforces the results of the Water Research Commission study as many of the impacts are common. Here again the method of production for artisanal mining ranges from very basic artisanal methods of digging earth and washing and sifting to the use of more capital intensive equipment, including water pumps and excavators. The most common method is the highly labour intensive process where large groups of people dig the earth and wash and sift the ore for diamonds (Anonymous, 2004).
The environmental assessment of artisanal diamond mining in Sierra Leone revealed that the environmental impact of the activities is severe, devastating the land by clearing and digging up vegetated areas. After an area is mined, the land is left exposed and degraded, unsuitable for
41 farming or any other activity. When the mining is carried out on hilly areas and slopes, severe erosion takes place and flooding can result. In certain locations miners not only remove vegetation and economically valuable trees but their activities also divert surface drainage. Siltation in river systems is a common problem to be faced by communities living downstream. Water collects and stagnates in the dug-out areas contributing to health hazards, potentially increasing the incidence of malaria and other water borne diseases (Anonymous, 2004). Mining activities expose communities to a wide range of diseases such as tysis, asthma and radioactivity induced cancers. Heavy rains cause dug-out areas to be transformed to stagnant ponds which are breeding grounds for mosquitoes, exacerbating the problem of Malaria. Communities interacting with water sources contaminated by mine wastes are exposed to diarrheal diseases. Mining activities cause heavy siltation in river beds and creeks, which reduces coastal coral and fish populations that feed and breed in it. Toxic wastes in the water sources contaminate marine life making them unfit for human consumption (Anonymous, 2004).
The study by the Ghanaian authorities focusing on alluvial artisanal diamond mining required a study of the impact of the activities of artisanal diamond miners on the environment. The effects of the operations on the vegetation, soil and ecology of 43 concessions had been studied. The results of the study showed that mining took place in river beds, along river banks and on land. Operations have greatly affected the vegetation and the soil, and some areas which have long been abandoned still show a scarified landscape, because rehabilitation is not being carried out (Ghana mining sector management, 1994).
The study concluded the following: a) Excavations along river banks have widened the river bed in some cases and loosened the soil of the embankment. b) The vegetation is severely damaged especially by alluvial mining with the topography and scenery having been badly altered in many places.
42 c) There has been evidence of deep trenches and pits (some down to 30m) disturbing the soil and rock structure. (Ghana mining sector management, 1994). Most significantly, this study, like that in Sierra Leone and The Water Research Commission (2004) study identified that the environmental impacts are permanent due to the lack of reclamation and rehabilitation with the “rape and escape” philosophy prevailing, due to inadequate regulatory controls.
From the a foregoing studies, it is evident that all mining, including artisanal mining, should be subject to the same environmental health and safety laws but recognizing the special circumstances of the informal sector. Education and the communication of information are the keys in making all interested parties, miners, governments, and the local communities aware of the situation and encouraging them to improve it (World Bank, 1994). Furthermore, appropriate organizational structures are necessary to improve accountability and effectively introduce modern technology. Artisanal miners need to be encouraged to become entrepreneurs and look upon mining as a business. The introduction of modern mining and processing techniques and equipment is the key to increasing productivity and mineral recovery, and hence revenues. The establishment of model mines and mining centres for demonstration and training purposes had a role to play (Mining Mirror, 1995).
Therefore, to summarize, this chapter underscored the following points on artisanal diamond mining: the characteristics of artisanal diamond mining is primitive, rudimentary , low technology; does in fact occur on a small scale moving less than the 600 000 tonnes per annum referred to in the description of artisanal diamond mining in Chapter 1 of this dissertation; It is generally labour intensive and unskilled; Is usually illegal and short term
43 The environmental problems are profound and very much so water related and have the following impacts o Accelerated erosion close to workings that have been de-vegetated for construction o Increased mobilization of sediments resulting in increases in suspended solids concentrations in the receiving water bodies o Soil erosion o Altering of the river hydraulics due to riverbank destabilization o Acid mine draining, increases in mercury concentrations and increase in suspended solids o Air borne dust, fugitive dust influencing water quality o Destruction of riparian zones and reduced vegetative bank cover o Increased surface areas of discard o Increased mobilization of metals o Loss of arable land due to the lack of rehabilitation. These impacts are usually long term or permanent as there is no rehabilitation of disturbed areas.
These bullets essentially summarise the characteristics of artisanal diamond mining. Again this will provide the reader with an understanding of the potential environmental problems and impacts associated with artisanal diamond mining and may either be confirmed or differ in the following chapters of this dissertation. As there is very little literature available on the environmental impacts across all media including the air and soil, chapter 6 may identify further environmental problems and impacts
From the foregoing, it can be seen that the most commonly identified impacts relating to artisanal diamond mining, has been the impacts on the water quality of surface water regimes and the alteration of river banks. What has been seen in this background information is that there is very little information on the impacts of artisanal mining on the total environment and the
44 socio-economic environment. Thus this mini-dissertation will focus on the holistic impact of artisanal diamond mining to the bio-physical environment in South Africa.
45
3.3 The Miller (Miller, 1998) guide on environmental problems and environmental risks:
In Chapter 3.2, the author had listed environmental problems and potential impacts that could arise from large scale diamond mining as well as artisanal diamond mining. In the assessment of artisanal diamond mining and its impacts to the environment, the author uses a similar approach to define the problems and the associated impacts and mitigatory measures. This concept is not unique and has been described previously in literature (Miller, 1998). Refer to Figure 13.
Figure 13: Environmental and resource problems (Miller, 1998)
Figure 13 shows that mans activities could in fact result in any one or all of the five major environmental problems. The bullets under each environmental problem depicts and further defines the problem. The root causes of these environmental problems is important to know as they help us understand the problem much better and assist in developing mitigatory measures. The problems associated with artisanal diamond mining is summarized at the end of Chapter 3.2. according to Miller, (1998) some of the potential root causes underpinning the environmental problems could be:
46 o Population growth o Rapid and wasteful use of the resources with too little emphasis on pollution prevention and waste reduction o Simplification and degradation of parts of the earths life support systems o Poverty which drives unsustainable use of resources and exposure to health and environmental o Failure of economic and political systems to encourage earth-sustaining forms of economic development o Failure of economic and political systems to have market prices include the overall environmental costs of an economic good or service o The urge to dominate and manage nature for our use with far too little knowledge of how nature works.
Once these root causes have been identified, one needs to understand how they are connected. Figure 14 shows the relationship between the environmental impact and the three contributing factors : o Number of people o Number of units of resources used per person o The environmental degradation per unit of the resource used. Artisanal diamond mining for example, increases the environmental impact by raising the T factor in the equation. Large scale diamond mining is geared towards minimising the T factor so the overall environmental impact is minimised. Artisanal diamond mining on the other hand, devoid of controls essentially increases the total environmental impact to the receiving environment. In Chapter 6 of this study, the author will scan the artisanal diamond mining sites to determine the associated environmental problems and the underlying root causes. At this synopsis phase of the study the type of impacts will also be identified visually and the significance of each impact will be determined through a risk analysis using the Our World and Life risk analysis database (Vermaak, 2003).
47
A risk is defined as the possibility of suffering harm from a hazard that can cause environmental damage and is expressed in terms of probability (Miller, 1998). A risk assessment involves estimating the probability of harm to the environment from exposure to the potential hazard such as chemical hazards in air or water or physical hazards such as noise and radiation or biological hazards such as bacteria or pathogens.
Figure 14: The Relationship Between Population, Resources And Environmental Pollution (Miller, 1998)
A risk analysis involves identifying hazards, evaluating the associated risks (risk assessment), ranking risks (comparative risk analysis), determining options and making decisions about reducing or eliminating the risk (risk management) (Miller, 1998). Having therefore understood the history and background of artisanal diamond mining and the distinctions between large and artisanal diamond mining, the next chapter (Chapter 4) therefore explores the physical and biological environments where artisanal diamond mining is taking place, and in fact defines the area of study for this mini-dissertation more specifically.
48
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
4.1 Occurrence of artisanal diamond mining operations and location of the study area
Before the author discusses the location of the study area and the reason for selecting the study area, the next two paragraphs will serve to sketch the primary locations of artisanal mining generically. The remaining paragraphs of this Chapter will provide more detail on the Vaalbos Nature Reserve which is the site that had been selected as the representative site to conduct the risk analysis of artisanal diamond mining to the environment. The studies in Chapter 3.2 of this report all identified two significant points: o The environmental impacts are similar and the impacts at one site are representative of the impacts one would find at any site and o Most of the major impacts are water related.
Of the four sites selected, three of them involved mining within the river and one involved the winning of the mineral from a dried riparian environment. Of the three mining activities occurring within the riparian zone, the most sensitive is the Vaal River running on the periphery of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve seen in Figure 15. This is a major river whilst the other two were tributaries of the Vaal River and not the major source of water sustaining the local towns and informal communities. The mining activities along and within the Vaal River passing along the Vaalbos Nature reserve is at most 25 km from the abstraction point for the water supporting Kimberley and Barkley West and surrounding areas. Furthermore, the local informal settlements located adjacent to these mining activities have been abstracting water for consumption from this section of the river less than 2 km from the mining activities. Finally, the Vaalbos Nature reserve is a National Park and lends to tourism so mining in this area will in fact impact on the economical contribution of the Nature Reserve.
49 Artisanal diamond mining in South Africa occurs predominantly in the Northern Cape province, North West Province and the Northern Province seen in Figure 15. Some artisanal diamond mining takes place to a limited extent in Gauteng. This is referenced in Table 9. Alluvial diamond mining has, over the years, proliferated in the Northern Cape and North West provinces especially along the Vaal River and to a lesser extent along the Free State Province’s Orange River. The Diamond Fields, is where diamonds were discovered in Barkley West in 1869 on the Vaal River. The artisanal diamond mining operations in the North West Province is similar to that of the Northern Cape where infield screening (physical separation of ore containing gravel from non-ore gravel) is employed to separate the kimberlitic ore from the sand and gravel for processing in the puddles and recovery on grease belts (mechanical separation of diamonds by passing the processed ore over belts of grease to which the diamonds stick). This implies that since the mining methodology is similar, the environmental impacts might also show some similarities.
N Windsorton *
Delportshoop * * Barkly West
*Artisanal Diamond mining activities taking place within the Vaal River and its tributaries in the Northern Cape Border of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve also often refeered to as the Vaalbos National Park
Figure 15a. Locality of some alluvial diamond mining sites along the Vaal river (Getaway, 2005)
50
Site 2
Site 1
Site 4
Site 5
Figure 15b: Locality map showing the four sites evaluated in this study
DIAMOND DIGGING Northern Along Vaal River between Barkley West and Delportshoop Cape: (Sydney-on-Vaal) (Vallbos and Longlands) Gong-Gong Confluence of the Orange and Vaal Rivers (near Douglas) North West: Vaal River between Bloemhof and Wolmaransstad Bamboesspruit near Wolmaransstad Makwassie Mooi River between Boskop and Klerkskraal Dams Bakerville/Delareyville area Vaal River at weir in Orkney Gauteng: Pienaars River downstream from Cullinan Mine
With regard to small scale formal mining, De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd has established two small mining empowered ventures. However, this mining is conducted under strict regulatory control with due diligence to environmental management and control (South Africa: Diamond Fields, 2004). So this mini-dissertation will focus on the environmental impacts associated with artisanal diamond mining in the Vaalbos National Park in the Northern Cape and will be
51 representative of the impacts of artisanal diamond mining in general (South African National Parks, 2004). The reason that this area was selected was because artisanal diamond mining in this region is both land-based and alluvial so the impacts and cumulative impacts are clearly visible. Furthermore, this is a sensitive environment, being a national park. In order to create a clear understanding of the artisanal diamond mining in South Africa, the study will focus on one particular area, i.e. the Vaalbos National Park in the Northern Cape. Information gleaned from this study can then be applied to similar artisanal diamond mining areas.
4.2. Physical description of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve This National Park is situated on the banks of the Vaal River between Delportshoop and Barkly
West as seen in Figure 15a on page 48.
VEGETATION: This is probably one of the most interesting parks in the country as it covers an important transitional zone between Grassveld, Kalahari and Karoo biomes (SANPARKS, 2004). This can be seen in Figures 25a, 25b and 26 on pages 104-107. The Vaalbos National Park, located in the alluvial diamond diggings near Barkly West was established in 1986, with an area of 23,000 hectares where one is exposed to all facets of its three different ecosystems as they merge together as one along the Vaal River where black rhino, white rhino, buffalo, eland, giraffe, red hartebeest, tsessebe and smaller animals can be seen grazing among the Vaalbos, a prominent plant species in the park, and camel-thorn trees. The largest part of the vegetation of Vaalbos consists of Kalahari thornveld invaded by Karoo vegetation, while a small section along the banks of the Vaal River consists of the false Orange River Broken Veld. The most common tree in the park has been named after Vaalbos, the camphor bush (SANPARKS,
2004).
ANIMALS:
The Vaalbos National Park is the natural habitat to a number of animals supporting a host of reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals. Given the wide spectrum of animals accommodated in the park, it stands to reason that this park should be preserved to maintain these animals in their
52 natural habitats. Table 10 is a comprehensive list of amphibians identified in the area of which there is a total of 15 amphibians (SANPARKS, 2004). Table 11 shows a total of 46 reptile species had been identified at the Park. Common to the area is amongst others, the Southern African python as well as Cape Cobras and Puff Adders. A variety of lizards and geckos have also been identified at the Park. Table 12 lists a variety of mammals accommodated at the Park and in particular, the white and black rhinos, zebras, giraffes and the large and small antelope are the very reason that the tourists frequent the park. There is an impressive number of bird species identified at the Park and this too promotes tourists to the area. Table 10 lists a total of 13 amphibians identified to date at the park. Although there is no red data species among them, they lend to the total bio-diversity of the park.
Table 10: List of amphibians at the park (SANPARKS, 2004)
Table 11 lists a total of 46 species of reptiles some of which are protected species in terms of the Red Data list (SANPARKS, 2004). Table 9 also displays a significant diversity regarding the presence of mammals at the Park. Of particular importance are the hoofed animals that do in fact face a safety and health risk as a result of mining operations taking place. This will be discussed further in chapter 6. The risk to this biodiversity is that the mining activities could influence the survival of these species at the Park. Artisanal diamond mining is land-use intensive, impacting
53 large stretches of land. Should this mining in fact continue in the vicinity of the Park, then the land capability is destroyed and even the carrying capacity of the Park diminishes.
Table 11: List of reptiles identifed at Vaalbos (SANPARKS, 2004)
54
55 Table 12: Mammals identified at Vaalbos National Park (SANPARKS, 2004)
56 Table 13: Bird list for Vaalbos Nature Reserve (SANPARKS, 2004)
57 58 Table 13 shows the list of birds in the National Park which is also home to a number of threatened species making the park a significant sanctuary for these species. Again, should the land and vegetation be destroyed by mining, so too would the presence of myriad of avians attracted to the Park.
WATER:
Rainfall occurs mainly during summer and can vary between 300 mm and 700 mm per annum. Winters are cold with temperatures as low as -4°C. Summer temperatures may be as high as 44°C (South Africa: Diamond Fields, 2004).
The water quality background data pertaining to the Vaal River impacted upon by artisanal diamond mining is represented in Table 11.
Table 14a: Water quality results of samples taken in the Vaal River - Barkley West(DWAF, 2005)
Table 14b: Water quality results of samples taken in the Vaal River - Warrenton, (DWAF, 2005)
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Table 14c: Water quality results at the mining operations (Heath et al, 2004) pH EC(mS/m) T(deg cel) Winters Rush Vaal 8.59 49 15.3 (Sydney-On-Vaal Bridge) _ Vaalbos Winters Rush Old Vaal 8.59 49 16.0 Island Waldeck's Plant Vaal 8.7 47.1 18.7 Island opposite Vaal 8.1 81 15.7 Amandelshoogte
The water quality results reflected in Tables 14a and 14b are representative of water quality data taken in the Vaal River in the vicinity of the mining activities and collected by the DWAF – Northern Cape offices. The data shows that the total dissolved solids (TDS) parameter is constantly high, without seasonal influences. This confirms that the mining activity releases sediments into the receiving environment which invariable increases turbidity of the water. Although this data is available, I believe that further monitoring of the key variables must be implemented so as to fully identify all water related impacts by artisanal diamond mining activities. The variables that must be monitored include:
o turbidity; o bio-monitoring and o electrical conductivity.
Table 14c is the water quality results illustrated in the Water Research Commission report (2002). This is a once-off analysis of a few select parameters and shows that albeit that there is a contribution to the turbidity, there are no other major impacts to the surface water quality other than increasing turbidity. This is re-enforced in Table 11a; the total suspended solids (TSS) concentration is relatively high where instream water quality guidelines suggest concentrations of less than 100 mg/l also that artisanal diamond mining operations do in fact increase the turbidity of the receiving water environments.
60 4.3 Visible impacts occurring in the environment
This is a National Park area, serving as a major tourist attraction and thus contributing to the local economic development. Mining is really the only activity in this area that could and does in fact hamper the integrity of the surrounding environment. Mining within the riverbed and the riparian zone is the major factor deleteriously impacting on the environment. The problem with mining the riverbed itself, is that it area has a profound influence on the aesthetics, and by altering the biophysical environment including the surface disturbances and it does in fact hamper the function of the park. Environmentally disturbed land areas do not encourage tourisms and in fact lower the carrying capacity of the Park.
In terms of the water environment, the alluvial operations impact on the water environment by altering the physical characteristics of the river. These impacts include the: Alteration of flow patterns Creation of islands due to the modification of the riverbed Ponding of water in excavations along the riverbanks Temporary damming of water An increase in the concentration of suspended solids and sedimentation due to disturbance of the riverbed and surrounding habitat and the washing of alluvial sands. The overall effect of these impacts to the receiving environment is that it alters the river and does in fact alter the ability of the river to maintain the aquatic life that the river would under pre-mining conditions have supported. This is seen in Figure 17. Significant impacts on the riverine environment were also observed. All riparian vegetation is removed during mining operations, excavations are not backfilled and topsoil is not replaced. In some cases, backfilling occurs with the placement of topsoil first. Little vegetation is thus able to establish in areas that have been mined. The Vaalbos nature reserve supports a number of herbivores, in fact, this is the function of the Park. Should
61 the vegetation be threatened then so too is the carrying capacity of the park and essentially the ability of the park to function as sanctuary for these herbivores.
Islands in river
Discard dumps
Alien vegetation
River gravels alter channel course
Ponding Figure17 . Diamond digging along the Vaal River near Sydney-On-Vaal illustrating impacts such as islands in the river and ponds adjacent to the river. (Heath et al, 2004)
The lack of rehabilitation of the diggings poses a problem from a visual perspective as well as a safety to animal’s perspective. Waste discard dumps, as seen in Figure 17, lie adjacent to the river and pose the added problem of danger to people and animals as these dumps are essentially undulating masses of rock and earth and are not cordoned off from access by animals. Animals could easily walk on them, slip on the gravel and fall into the rivers and given the depth the river, they might even drown. Apart from the safety issue, the dumps also impinge on the aesthetics of the environment and are not a particularly inviting site to tourists and nature lovers. This could also result in fewer people visiting the site and diminishing the impact that the Park would have on the economy through tourism.
The Vaal River is a major source of surface water to the downstream users – the informal local communities living on the periphery of the Park- who predominantly require the
62 water for irrigation and watering of the cattle. A deterioration of water quality from the panning activities, results in an impingement of the integrity of the natural water resource which in turn influences the fitness for use downstream. Although watering holes are available at the Park for the animals, the animals do depend on the river as well.
Given that this area does attract tourists and overnight guests, the use of heavy machinery does add an element of danger to the safety of the people at the Park. Furthermore, with the activities occurring within the riverbed and the subsequent disturbances to the benthic environment, fishing as a recreational sport is threatened.
This chapter underscored the fact that the Park is integral to the tourism plans for the area and that artisanal diamond mining has had an influence on the receiving environment through the increase in turbidity of the water systems with particular impacts to the aesthetics of the surrounding area. Chapter 5 looks at the methodology employed in the study described in this Chapter in assuaging the environmental impacts associated with artisanal diamond mining.
63 5. DATA COLLECTION AND METHODOLOGY
Although the development of the small-scale diamond mining sector is considered desirable and is already occurring in many areas throughout the country, information regarding the environmental problems and impacts that this sector poses is currently limited. A limited number of ad hoc research projects were recently undertaken in South Africa, Ghana and Sierra Leonne. However, the total environmental impacts associated with artisanal diamond mining are not well documented. The mobility of small-scale miners, the quasi-clandestine nature of their operations and the remote areas in which they carry out their activities make a census of this mining sector extremely difficult. Their activities are difficult to control and monitor and accurate and up to date data are impossible to obtain. According to Miller (1998) and discussed in more detail in Chapter 3, human activities such as artisanal diamond mining could induce a number of environmental problems such as water pollution, air pollution, waste generation, loss of biodiversity and food supply problems and associated with each of these are sub- problems which had been explained in more detail in chapter 3. The authors finding is that the information relating to these environmental problems have been focussed on one problem only: the water pollution. Even the most recent study that was initiated by the Water Research Council (2004) had focussed on the impacts to the riverine environments only. The impacts identified in the study were the following: o Accelerated erosion close to workings that have been de-vegetated for construction o Increased mobilization of sediments resulting in increases in suspended solids concentrations in the receiving water bodies o Soil erosion o Altering of the river hydraulics due to riverbank destabilization o Acid mine draining, increases in mercury concentrations and increase in suspended solids o Air borne dust, fugitive dust influencing water quality o Destruction of riparian zones and reduced vegetative bank cover o Increased surface areas of discard
64 o Increased mobilization of metals o Loss of arable land due to the lack of rehabilitation. These impacts although extensively discussed in Chapter 3, are still very limiting and do not address the other four potential problems and their associated impacts particularly those associated with the other environmental media, such as air and soil. It might be that the above impacts are the most critical but one cannot conclude this without a complete analysis of all the environmental risks associated with artisanal mining and the related impacts. To re-iterate, complete description of the environmental problems and the environmental impacts related to artisanal diamond mining has not been documented to date. It is for this reason that this study is so vital in that it assesses the environmental problems and the risk to the environmental from the artisanal diamond mining activities and does not only relate to water, but to air and soil as well. It is the first study that would look at the impact of artisanal diamond mining on the different environmental media and not focussed exclusively on the impacts to the water environment.
5.1 Information required for the study
In order to meet the objectives of this study (section 2.2 on page 14), it is first necessary that the author is familiar with the methodology of artisanal diamond mining and to confirm the theory that artisanal diamond mining is similar at all sites, so the environmental problems would also be similar. The author had selected 4 sites to scan for environmental problems and environmental impacts. These sites were (Figure 15b on page 43): North of the N12 between Wolmaranstad and Christiana South of the N12 between Wolmaranstad and Christiana Longlands and The Vaalbos Nature reserve The Vaalbos Nature Reserve was selected because it is a sensitive environment accommodating a wide array of plant and animal species, but the other three sites were selected purely as they were convenient to access en-route to the Vaalbos Nature Reserve.
65 In order to determine the problems and types of impacts relating to artisanal diamond mines, these four sites were scanned so as to determine how sensitive the surrounding environment was in relation to the following issues of concern: 1. Locality of the operation in respect of the: Proximity to receiving water bodies (activities within the waterbody or the riparian environment or the 1:100 year floodline would mean that water pollution is one of the major problems); Proximity to sensitive environments (such as wetland, national monuments or heritage sites or sites of archaeological significance or proximity to red data species would mean that associated problems are of food supply shortages or depletion of bio-diversity . 2. Extent of the operations : Total surface area impacted by the operation (if the total surface area impacted is less than 10 hectares, then the operation is confirmed as an artisanal diamond mining operation. Furthermore, the environmental impacts on one mining area may be exacerbated by the presence of a number of these artisanal diamond mining operations in close proximity. The cumulative impact of these could be more profound. This is discussed in further detail in chapter 5.3); 3. A list of the bio-physical problems (air pollution, surface water or groundwater pollution, water resource depletion, non-renewable resource depletion) and socio- economic features (proximity to communities and the impacts from noise and dust) that are impacted upon. Other concerns were loss of land-use and land capability, soil pollution, water pollution (including river bed alteration, deterioration in water quality and quantity, groundwater pollution; vegetation cover, air pollution, aesthetics, animal and community regimes;
The scanning phase is largely dependent on visual observations and is supported by Table 12 that was completed on site at each artisanal diamond mining site. The details of this table are discussed in Chapter 5.3 on page 70.
66 4. Following an identification of the environmental problems associated with the artisanal diamond mining, and having noted the potential environmental impacts in the scanning phase, it is now necessary to determine and quantify these risks to the environment. This is done using the OWL database, of which the mechanism of this database will be discussed in Chapter 5.3. This information gained from the scanning phase and any other supporting information such as the conclusions of the Water Research Commission study (2004) is used to rate the risk to the environment generating high, medium and low risks for impacts occurring and the need for management, mitigation and prioritisation in terms of risk management. This phase of the study focussed only on the Vaalbos Nature Reserve as this is where the impacts are most defined and can be viewed as being representative of the other three sites. Furthermore, some of impacts at Vaalbos Nature Reserve are consistent with those identified through the other studies discussed in Chapter 3.
5.2 Data Collection
5.2.1 Determining a representative site
Site visits were undertaken to the North West Province and the Northern Cape, the two provinces where artisanal diamond mining is relatively prolific, on the 20th – 22nd December 2004. Two sites in each province were visited and these sites were decided upon after communications with The Department of Minerals and Energy who had highlighted areas of concern where artisanal diamond mining was being conducted outside the legal parameters as well as sites where mining was being conducted on artisanal scale legally such as the proclaimed diggings in Longlands.
A walk about the operations provided an indication as to the impacts of artisanal diamond mining on the environment. Photographs were taken for comparative purposes and to be used in the environmental impact assessment using the OWL database. A spreadsheet on the locality shown in Table 12 (refer to 5.1 item 3 on page 68) on the bio-physical and socio-economic impacts had been filled in whilst on site. This information will be used
67 to demonstrate that the environmental impacts of these artisanal diamond mines are similar, if not alike and substantiates choosing the representative site as it is the most sensitive environments of those assessed. This will be further discussed in the in section 5.3.1. The information gathered for the representative site will be captured onto the OWL database to generate the impacts associated with the mining activity and those high impacts that warrant controls to be put in place. The details of the OWL database in discussed in 5.3.2.
5.3 Methodology for the assessment of the data
5.3.1 Phase 1 of the study: problem identification and determination of the types of impacts
This phase of the study was geared toward identifying the various environmental problems and impacts arising from artisanal diamond mining by scanning four artisanal diamond mining sites. The scanning was chiefly a synopsis of the mining operation to confirm that it was artisanal in nature. This was achieved by looking at two things: The size of the mining area which must be less than 10 hectares to be classified as artisanal Minimal use of equipment.
Having confirmed that the site was artisanal, the site was assessed and Table 12 on page 68 was completed for each site. The information in each table provided a site description and whether the mining activity was located in a sensitive environment. It describes the following: Locality to streams and watercourses where activities occurring instream or within the floodline are illegal and highly detrimental to the aquatic and riparian environment. Provision is also made for any activity that occurs less than 10 m , between 10 m and 50 m, 50 m and 100 m and greater than 100 m of the riverine environment. If the activity occurs within the riverine environment, the riparian zone or 1:100 year floodline, there is a strong likelihood that there are impacts to the water such as, but not limited to o Alteration of flow patterns
68
o Creation of islands due to the modification of the riverbed o Ponding of water in excavations along the riverbanks o Temporary damming of water o An increase in the concentration of suspended solids and sedimentation due to disturbance of the riverbed and surrounding habitat and the washing of alluvial sands. This is also a legal requirement, that mining should not take place within the 1:100 yr floodline or at least a 100 m from the riverbanks where the floodline is not known (Cameron Cross, 2005). Although there is no particular ranking system at the visual observation stage, it stands to reason that the closer the mining activity to the river, the greater the potential for environmental damage to the river. Therefore, if the mining activity is less than 10 m away from the watercourse then the potential impact is the highest (greatest disturbance to the riverbed especially the riparian environment in close proximity to the river) as the activity occurs within the riparian habitat. The potential impact is slightly less severe away from the river, but even distances of between 50 and 100 m from the river could still exert an impact. The potential impact to the river is lessened considerably more than 100m from the river and so if the river is located more than a 100 m from the river, the potential for impact is minimal (less likely that the river bed would be disturbed but the probability for run-off sediment silting the river is still high).
In filling out the table, the author would put an “x” in the relevant box If the ‘x” is placed in the red box, then the impact is most severe and the risk for the impact detrimentally affecting the environment is great. This information would then be used to populate the OWL risk analysis by guiding the probability of the impact and legal compliance components of the analysis. This will be explained further on in this chapter. In terms of legal compliance issues, Regulation 704 of the National Water Act prohibits any mining to take place within the riverine environmental or within the 1:100 year floodline. It also provides an indication as to the extent of the problem and whether it is
69 localised or could extend to the regional, national or international levels. So, should the “x”: be placed in the red box, then it is indeed a legal non-compliance. Locality to sensitive environments where grazing land, wetlands, graveyards, national heritage sites and archaeological sites have been identified as sensitive environments. The purpose of this section is to provide an indication as to whether the mining activity and its impacts impose upon any of the surface features and to what extent. Here again, anything less than 10 m constitutes a major concern and is classed as red. Locality to communities or infrastructure such as access roads, railway lines and buildings- certain impacts such as those associated with rail roads and communities must be taken into consideration as these are the relevant stakeholders and could be impacted upon or inconvenienced by the artisanal mining activities. These include visibility, nuisance dust and nuisance noise issues. The environmental impacts that can be gauged through visual observation in the field are listed below: Air pollution – dust and smoke can be observed on site whilst the vapours may be inhaled Surface water and groundwater pollution may also be seen from the spillages that may have occurred or from the activities having occurred within the river bed or from heightened turbidity in the riverine. Water consumption is rather visible as is the use of electricity and diesel Surface disturbances and land degradation is significant a quantification of the total disturbance can also be made on site. This also does to some extent provide an understanding of the impacts to the aesthetics, where widespread degradation does in fact contribute to major visual defects. This can be seen in Figure 19 on page 82. The proximity to communities leads from the previous section and gives an indication as to whether communities are directly and detrimentally impacted upon or whether they are affected through industrial nuisance activities such as nuisance and noise.
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Table 15: Visual observation form to be completed on site
The highest potential for impacts to the receiving environment
After having completed a similar table for each of the sites, the sensitivity of the receiving environment can be discerned from the first column and the potential problems and impacts as highlighted in the second column of the Table 15. A comparative assessment of all sites will be undertaken based on the information above so as to gauge whether the problems and impacts across different sites are similar or not contained in the Table above.
5.3.2 Phase 2: Risk analysis using the OWL database
It had been discussed in Chapter 4 that having identified the environmental problems and potential hazards and ensuing impacts, the next phase would be to determine the risk associated with each potential hazard and the effect of the impact. The risk would be determined analytically and quantified using the OWL database (Vermaak, 2003). The risk is determined by the following elements that will be discussed in more detail further in this chapter: conformance to legal requirements; nature of the risk or hazard;
71 likelihood of the risk occurring; severity of the risk; extent of the impact arising from the hazard/impact.
The OWL database was developed by SD-eAfrika -an environmental and sustainable development consultancy- for the purpose of quantifying environmental impacts. The term OWL is an acronym for “Our World and Life” coined from the concepts of sustainable development of our world resources to sustain life into the future. The OWL risk analysis database is an excel spreadsheet that determines the risk of a particular impact occurring and rates the risk as high, medium or low risk through a ranking system discussed in Table 16 on page 70. A high risk implies a very high probability that the impact does occur with a high negative impact, a medium risk implies that the probably is slightly less meaning that the impact could occur and if it does, then it is slightly less detrimental that the high risk and of course a low risk means that there is only a vague possibility that impact might occur with minimal disturbances to the environment. This database is based upon the weighted average concept, where a particular weight is assigned to a particular variable and the weight itself is based upon the significance of that variable. In terms of the concept of weighted average, Table 13 shows the maximum values attributed to each variable highlighted in blue text below. The weighting in this table is based on experiences in the mining industry and can be seen as an industry norm. From this table, it is evident that the severity of the impact contributes 30% to the weighted average, with the extent of the impact and nature of the risk contributing 25% and 20% respectively. This effectively means that these three elements were deemed most significant in the determination of the risk with the likelihood and the legal compliance being slightly less significant. This will be explained in further detail under each component.
72 Table 16: The weights associated with the different elements in the owl system ELEMENT SCORE CONFORMANCE TO LEGAL AND OTHER REQUIREMENTS 10 %
NATURE OF THE RISK OR HAZARD 20 %
LIKELIHOOD OF RISK OR HAZARD 15 % POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL SEVERITY 30 %
EXTENT OF THE IMPACT OF THE RISK OR HAZARD 25
Legal compliance The compliance to environmental legislation has been identified as a contributing factor to the legality of the Company; its ability to operate into the future and the impact that legal non-compliance could exert on the corporate image. In terms of the environmental impact per se, environmental legal standards and requirements have been put into place to protect the environment so consequently, it can be concluded that in not complying with the legal requirements as a minimum requirement, the non-compliance will exercise some negative impact on the environment. As this component of the database reflects the impacts on the Company’s image and the ability of the Company to operate, and although it qualifies that the legal non-compliance does have a negative effect on the environment, it does not lend significantly to the quantification of the impact and has been allotted only 10% of the total weight of the impact.
Table 17: Legal compliance in the Owl System
The OWL system categorises the legal compliance on the extent of non-compliance, where constant non-compliance is weighted higher than the frequent non-conformance, which is weighted higher than the infrequent non-compliances. From Table 17, it can be seen that where legal requirements are met or exceeded, a zero value or positive value is
73 recorded reducing the overall environmental risk. The “exceeding requirements” refer to the implementation of the Best Practical Environmental Options (BPEO) referred to in the National Environmental Management Act of 1998 (Cameron Cross, 2005). If BPEO is implemented to manage an activity then the rating is positive, where any number below zero is deemed positive. Where legal requirements are met, then a zero (positive) value is ascribed. In the event of meeting most requirements using the concept of “ Best Available Technology not Exceeding Excessive Costs” (BATNEEC), a negative value, albeit 20 % (2 out of a total of 10 points) of that legal compliance contribution. Where there is some degree of compliance – that is where the activity does not meet the legal requirements but has obtained an exemption – then the risk is unchanged but the legal status is legitimised. Here a negative 40 % (4 out of a total of 10 points) is attributed simply because there is an impact to the environment. Minor contraventions- e.g. late submission of monitoring data as per the licence requirements- frequent contraventions – occurring more than twice per month- and major contraventions – operating without an approved EMPR- are ranked from least to most severe and are weighted 6, 8 and 10 respectively based on the fact that the extent of non-compliance exaggerates the impact to the receiving environment. These values are system standards borne out of as number of applications of the database and are often considered risk assessment norms in mining environmental management.
Nature The OWL system also uses the nature of the risk in the weighted average, where cumulative and inherent risks are weighted higher than the latent and residual. From Table 15 on page 70, the nature of the risk amounts to 20 % of the total scoring. The reason that this is a major factor, is that it refers to the inherent capability of an activity to pose a threat by the very nature of the activity (inherent) or due to other influencing factors (residual) or further contributions to the total impact (cumulative). It also takes into account the sub-components that are the significance of the impact and the duration of the impact. The nature of the risk contributes to the quantification of the risk and is therefore rated higher than the legal compliance component.
74 As can be seen from Table 18, the nature of the hazards that evoke the impact is determined by the type of risk where specific risks such as inherent risks are risks associated with an activity and arises as the very nature of the activity and are rated the highest in that category. Cumulative risks have the net effect that they increase the impact to the environment or to the extent of the environment that is impacted. For example, if the surface disturbance of a single diamond concession area amounted to 1 ha, then the total damage is contained as far as possible to the 1ha and remedial measures may be implemented far easily over a small surface area. However, if 10 of these concession areas are located next to each other with the same impacts, the net effect is that 10 ha are now disturbed and the impacts are greater. In the case of water quality, should one concession area contribute 200 mg/l salt into the water course then the receiving water course would have to assimilate just the 200 mg/l, however, if 10 of these mines had to discharge the like, then the riverine environment will be impacted upon 10 fold. Therefore the cumulative risks have also been rated as high as the inherent risk. Residual risks are those risks that remain after all necessary precautions and controls have been put into place and this risk is usually buffered in intensity as compared to if it had not been mitigated. Latent risks are those risks that may or may not occur in the future and cannot be assuaged as to whether it will materialise or not. Both these risks are less destructive that the former and have been rated as four.
Table 18 also denotes that the higher the value / weight, the greater the negative impact such that the five weight is more detrimental than the four weight value. This means that the inherent and cumulative risks are seen as being more detrimental than the residual or latent risks.
Table 18: The nature of the risk
75 The subcomponent lending to the nature of the impact is the significance which is depicted in Table 19. Here again the higher the weight value the more detrimental the impact. The significance component lends a maximum of 35 % of the weight of the nature of the incident (ie. Of the 20% allotted to the nature). Here the major liability to shareholders is given the highest weight of seven meaning that this is the worst case scenario. A weight of one had been allotted to the low impacts meaning that this is the least detriment to the receiving environment and contributing the smallest weight to this subcomponent.
Table19: The significance of the risk
In terms of the duration of the risk, as seen in Table 20, the longer the impact to the environment, the higher the weight. These ties in with the cumulative effect of risks over long periods of time. Consequently, impacts lasting for a period greater than five years are the most severe impacts and are weighted 40 % of the nature of impacts (which contributes a total weight of 20 % to the overall risk (refer to Table 16 on page 68). Medium term impacts carry a weight of six with a gradual decrease in weighting congruent with the reducing duration of the impact. To this end the impacts lasting up to one month is weighted the lowest.
Table 20: Duration of the risks
Likelihood or probability of the risk materialising and manifesting in an impact to the environment Table 16 on page 68 shows that the likelihood of the risk materialising is a very significant component of this risk assessment and carries a total contribution of 15% to the weighted average. From Table 21 it can be seen that if the likelihood of the risk is
76 definite – meaning that the risk is definite and the potential for the impact is significant, then the rating is at the highest scoring 15. If it is only probable that the risk might materialise and it is not 100 % conclusive that it will materialise, then the weight decreases to 10. A value of six is scored when there is a slight possibility that the risk might materialise and a score of one is given to the low possibility that a risk might materialise. This component looks at the inherent risk and does not take cognisance of the controls implemented. The reason for this is that this has already been taken into consideration in the nature component. There is a decreasing sliding scale as the likelihood decreases so that the lowest likelihood has the lowest weighting.
Table 21: Likelihood of the risk
Potential or actual severity of the risk According to Table 16 on page 68, this component carries the highest value of 30 % of the total ratings. Table 22 shows that should the impact materialise, the severity would be deemed as being very high: Complete disruption of operational integrity Complete disruption of the natural systems Loss of company credibility Potential closure of operation (Metago, 2003) A high potential for occurrence is weighted 20 and refers to substantial disruptions but not complete annihilation of ecosystems or operational integrity and slightly less damaging than the very high severity component. Moderate severity refers to impacts that could alter natural systems or present nuisance and discomfort and is weighted less than as it is less detrimental. Low and no effects are more favourable from an environmental impact perspective and are given low weightings of five and zero respectively.
77 . Extent of the impact evoked should the risk realise. The extent of the impact is the final determinant of the weighted average where Table 16 on page 68 shows that it accounts for 25 % of the weighted average. The reason for wielding such a high weight is that the extent of the impact is very significant from an environmental disruption perspective, a legal perspective and a political perspective where trans-boundary or inter and intra continental pollution might occur. International impacts are weighted the highest in Table 23 scoring 25 for the reasons presented above. National or country wide risks, is rated the 20 simply because the risk spans a considerably large surface area. The Mine site area and immediate area is ranked the lowest with the mine site with a weight of six and one respectively.
Table 22: Severity of the impact
Table 23: Extent of the impact
5.4 Shortcomings of the data obtained In order to determine the impacts to the water quality, water quality analyses or actual monitoring data over at least two annual cycles should have been used to determine the
78 impacts. Seeing as the operations do not monitor the impacts on water quality, there was no analytical information to assess. It was also a futile effort to take a once off grab sample as this would not identify trends in water quality as a result of the operational activities. Therefore the risk assessment for this aspect dealt to a large extent on the information available in the report by the Water Research Commission (Heath et al, 2004). The operations did not monitor air quality, specifically fallout dust and the risk assessment was based on visual evidence only. The operations did not make the Environmental Management Programme Report available, if indeed there had been one that existed and it was difficult to gauge whether the Mine was familiar with the environmental risks associated with their operations.
With regard to the OWL database, the major shortcoming is that the information captured is based on a single person’s perception and this could introduce an element of subjectivity. To minimise this, each component of the database is very descriptive. The intention is to ensure that the description guides the risk analysis and to guard against any bias.
This Chapter had served to highlight the methodology and mechanisms used to aquire the data and process the data. Having this information is meaningless unless it can be interpreted and translated into information that could be used in some way or the other. Chapter 6 discusses the findings of the visual inspections and the risk analysis for the Vaalbos National Park and provides recommendations on how to reduce the environmental damage associated with artisanal diamond mining.
79 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Comparative assessment after site visits
As was discussed in Chapter 4 on page 54, site visits were conducted at four artisanal diamond mining sites in December 2004: North of the N12 between Wolmaranstad and Christiana South of the N12 between Wolmaranstad and Christiana Longlands and The Vaalbos Nature reserve
The intention of the visit was to scan the area to confirm that the operations are small scale operations by virtue of the size of the activity and the degree of mechanization. The scan also provided an understanding of the mining operation and its related activities and the sensitivity of the surrounding environment, and from this, one determined the problems associated with artisanal diamond mining and the associated environmental impacts of that particular operation. The method used to scan the four sites have been detailed on pages 50 – 54. The scan also involved completing the descriptive table an example of which was shown on page 60. Chapter 6.1 will focus on the discussion of the four sites focusing on the scanning phase. Chapter 6.2 will look more specifically at the risk analysis and will be based on the weighting system discussed on pages 56-60. Chapter 6.2 will discuss in more detail the impacts and problems highlighted in Chapter 6.1, where the discussion in this Chapter is less detailed. The details follow in the risk analysis phase of this study.
6.1.1 Scan of site 1: North of the N12 highway between Wolmaranstad and Christiana
Site 1 is depicted in Figure 15b on page 52 and is shown to border the N12 highway between Wolmaransstad and Christiana. From the scan of the site, the following was observed: The total surface area disturbed is approximately 6 ha;
80 There is minimal mechanisation This is shown in Figure 18.
TOTAL SURFACE DISTURBANCE AND SURFACE FEATURES THAT WILL NOT TO BE REHABILITATED
Figure 18: Heaps And Mounds
From the definition of artisanal diamond mining in Chapter 1, this operation is therefore classified as an artisanal diamond operation. During the scan, the assessment of the first site was conducted by completing Table 24 on page 84. This table essentially identified that in terms of the sensitivity of the environment, the following is significant: Locality to streams and watercourses o Artisanal diamond mining is taking place less than 10 m of the Vaal River. The significance of this table is that it had highlighted this mining is taking place in a sensitive environment – the Vaal River. It is sensitive because it supports downstream use by farmers for irrigation and cattle watering. The problems associated with mining in a riverine environment is of course water pollution. The impacts identified here are the degradation of the river and destabilization of the banks and changes in the stream flow (hydrology) or water path and the removal of the riparian vegetation as had been noted. From a water quality perspective, there is a visible increase in the turbidity of the surface waters as a result of the silt introduced to the river system. More specifics relating to water pollution follow in Chapter 6.2.
81 Table 24: Site assessment - Christiana – N12 Highway
Locality to streams and other infrastructure o Due to the proximity to the national road, any impacts from the mining activity will certainly impact not only on the river but on road-users. It
82 can be assumed that dust from the surface activities could in fact result in impaired visibility for road –users. o Mining activities are taking place at least 100 m from the nearest neighbour who happens to own a smallholding with limited cattle and some horses grazing on the land. Should there be any impacts in terms of nuisance factors, this would certainly impact on the neighbouring farm. The author notes that apart from some localised dust pollution there was very little noise pollution and this did not permeate to the neighbouring property. The problem however, is that there is a loss of biodiversity as the carrying capacity in the area is reduced given that prime grazing land had been converted into mining land. During the duration of the mine this problem will persist, however, if the post mining rehabilitation is conducted such that the pre-mining land-capability is restored then the problem is a transient environmental problem with medium term impacts (less than five years) to the environment. Should rehabilitation be inadequate to restore the premining land capability then the problem is more profound with a permanent impact on the land capability and the proliferation of the biodiversity. Inferred from this report and knowing that the neighbouring land is used to rear cattle, the mining activity does indeed impact on grazing land. In the light of the concept of responsible environmental practices, should the land be restored to its pre-mining capability, then the mining activity would have been deemed sustainable, however, given that the environmental impacts of historical mining in the area had not been rehabilitated, one may concluded that this grazing land will be impacted upon in the long term (greater than five years). LOCALITY TO OTHER SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS: o There is no substantial impact to the wetlands, graveyards, heritage sites, national parks or sites of archaeological importance as the mining activity is more than a 100 m away.
83 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS o AIR POLLUTION: As there is no evidence of dust or environmental noise or fumes at this site, it was recorded in Table 24 on page 84 that there was no visible air pollution impacts at this site. o SURFACE WATER OR GROUNDWATER POLLUTION: In terms of water pollution there is a definite impact to the surface water from the disturbance of the riparian environment which does in fact impact on the receiving water body through soil erosion and subsequent sedimentation, increases in suspended solids with water quality data showing that the suspended solids concentration is approximately 600 mg/l, and of course the loss of vegetation along the riverbed. The site along the riverbank itself showed evidence of soil erosion into the river. Again there was a complete lack of proper containment measures by way of cement slabbing and bunding is not implemented, this is a very pertinent risk for groundwater pollution. This can be seen
in Figure 18 on page 77. o Use of water and non-renewable resources As with all mining operations using some degree of mechanisation, there is consumption of non-renewable resources like diesel and electricity and given that there are employees and that this operation takes place in a built environment, there is use of potable water. The significance of this impact will be determined in chapter 6.2 on page 119. o Potential impact on land The destruction to the riparian environment results in much biodiversity depletion due to the loss of habitat. This relationship is seen in Figure 13 on page 48.
84 o Visual impact, light pollution One of the problems that has not been expressed in Miller (1998) is the problems associated with the loss of appreciation for the aesthetical environment as a result of mans activity. Waste production is linked to this impact. This is seen very clearly in Figure 19 on page 85, where there are mounds of waste material that is distributed through the mining area and this in fact decreases the visual appeal of an area. o Social impacts including noise and nuisance The site generated very little noise and apart from the mine traffic running past the neighbouring plots, there is no major negative impact to the communities. The author has highlighted noise as a concern given that there is some mechanisation and it does create some noise but it is not very offensive. In terms of the socio- economic impacts, this operation employs 11 people from the local communities and therefore does have a positive impact on the economy and community development. In Table 24 on page 84, the author had claimed no visible negative impact but there is in fact a positive spin off from this activity.
To summarise, this operation is an artisanal diamond mining operation occurring within the 1:100 year flood-line and has associated impacts on the water environment. The main problems associated with artisanal diamond mining at this site are biodiversity depletion, the water pollution problems, food supply problems and waste production.
85 EQUIPMENT
Figure 19: Total surface disturbance , vegetation, soil and heaps of ground that are not rehabilitated or backfilled
6.1.2 Scan of Site 2: South of the N12 highway between Wolmaransstad and Christiana The scan of Site 2 is depicted in Table 25 and is shown to border the N12 highway between Wolmaransstad and Christiana and lies across the road from site 1 (Refer to figure 15b on page 52) . From the scan of the site, the following was observed: The total surface area disturbed is approximately 3 ha; There was 1 tipper on site, implying low mechanisation. From the definition of artisanal diamond mining in Chapter 1, this operation is therefore classified as an artisanal operation. Here again, during the scan, the assessment of the first site was conducted by completing Table 25. This table essentially identified that in terms of the sensitivity of the environment, the following is significant: Locality to streams and watercourses o Artisanal diamond mining is taking place instream of the Vaal River and less than 10 m of the nearest national road. The significance of this table is that here again, it had highlighted that this mining is taking place in a sensitive environment – the Vaal River - and that any impacts from the mining activity will again certainly impact on the river health. o It is sensitive because it supports downstream use by farmers for irrigation and cattle watering Water pollution is again one of the problems associated with mining in a riverine environment. The impacts identified here are the degradation of the river and destabilization of the banks and
86 changes in the stream flow or water path and the removal of the riparian vegetation as had been noted at site 1. These impacts are almost identical to site 1 with the exception that there is profound sedimentation in this section of the river through which the mining activities run. There is also a visible increase in the turbidity of the surface waters as a result of the silt introduced to the river system. Once again more detail on the specific impacts relating to water pollution follows in Chapter 6.2 on page 115.
Table 25: Site assessment - Christiana – Adjacent To The Service Road
Locality to streams and other infrastructure o This artisanal operation is located less than 10 m from the road with no buffer preventing the road users from viewing the site or any dust that may be generated. One of the problems is atmospheric pollution. Any impacts from the mining activity will certainly impact not only on the river but on
87 road-users through impaired vision due to the halo of dust blowing off of the site. It can be assumed that dust from the surface activities could in fact result in impaired visibility for road. An old discard dump located in close proximity to the road had been – even in the still weather- blowing some dust off of the discard. It was a very light, but was indeed an impact. o Mining activities are taking place at least 50 m from the nearest neighbour. The neighbour owns a smallholding with limited cattle and some horses grazing on the land. The problem however, is that there is biodiversity depletion as the carrying capacity in the area is reduced given that prime grazing land had been converted into mining land. Being so close to the river itself, prime farming land is also lost. During the duration of the life of the mine this problem will persist, however, if the post mining activity is conducted such that the pre-mining land-capability is restored then the problem is a transient environmental problem with medium term impacts to the environment. Again, as discussed for site 1, should effective rehabilitation not be undertaken, then the land-use and land capability would be permanently wasted. Locality to other sensitive environments: o The mining activity is taking place at least 10 m from the wetlands. The wetlands are indeed a pollution sink and functions by improving water quality emerging from the wetland (DWAF, 1992 ). As a result wetlands should be preserved as far as possible. They are also a natural habitat sustaining an array of birdlife and should consequently not be degraded. If the continued sustainability of that habitat is infringed upon, it would result in yet another environmental problem – food supply to the aquatic and avian species it is meant to sustain. Environmental impacts o Air pollution: . It was observed that where mining is taking place in the river itself, there is no duct generated as the mining process is a wet process.
88 However, unused discard dumps dry out on the top surface due to there being no further water introduced and has been noted to generate dust albeit a very small light dust on the day of the site visit. There can be no doubt that during heavy winds, there is a substantial amount of dust generated and it is unfortunate that on the day of the visit, the prevailing direction of the dust was towards the road. o Surface water or groundwater pollution: . In terms of water pollution there is a definite impact to the surface water from the disturbance of the river itself with the the following impacts being noted: Intense sedimentation of the riverbed Changing the river path and the river hydraulics with the flow being slower than upstream of the sedimentation. The path of the river is clearly altered especially if one looks at the river upstream. The width of the river has been extended so that it bulges at the mining area and restores itself downstream. The river bank shows significant degradation and destabilisation. There is subsequent sedimentation, increases in suspended solids and of course the loss of vegetation along the riverbed. . Again there was a complete lack of proper containment measures by way of cement slabbing and bunding is not implemented, this is a very pertinent risk for groundwater pollution. This can be seen in Figures 19 on page 82. There is also evidence from Figure 19 of the removal of the riparian vegetation. It can be inferred that during major rainstorm events, siltation of the riverbed is inevitable given the run-off from the waste discard on the banks of the river.
89 o Use of water and non-renewable resources . There is some mechanisation at this site and subsequently there will be consumption of non-renewable resources like diesel and electricity and given that there are employees and that this operation takes place in a built environment, there is use of potable water. The significance of this impact will be determined in Chapter 6.2 on page 122. o Potential impact on land . The destruction to the riparian environment results in a major problem biodiversity depletion due to the loss of habitat. This has been described under the “locality to wetlands and other sensitive areas” above. o Visual impact, light pollution . There is a substantial amount of water generated and this problem manifests as visual impacts, loss of land use and land capability as these spoils are permanent features and will not be removed post mining. This is seen very clearly in Figure 20 on page 93 where there are mounds of waste material that is distributed through the mining area and this in fact decreases the visual appeal of an area. These spoils have actually bordered the river such that the river is now meant to meander around the spoils thus altering the flow path of the river. The National Water Act, defines “an alteration in the flow of a river” as a form of pollution.
90 Mounds of earth forming unnatural features destroying suitable grazing land and destroying the aesthetics
Figure 20: Some mechanisation and waste material deposited very haphazardly
o Social impacts including noise and nuisance . The author has highlighted noise as a concern given that there is some mechanisation and it does create some noise but it is not very offensive. It was, however, audible along the road and this could be seen as a nuisance factor. In terms of the socio-economic impacts, this operation employs an undisclosed number of people from the local communities and therefore does have a positive impact on the economy and community development. Here again in Table 25 on page 83, the author had claimed no visible negative impact, but there is in fact a positive spin off from this activity.
To summarise, this artisanal diamond mining operation occurs within the river itself and has associated impacts on the water environment. The main problems associated with artisanal diamond mining at this site are the biodiversity depletion, the water pollution problems, food supply problems and waste production. Similar problems had been identified at site 1, however certain water related impacts and nuisance impacts are more profound for site 2, due to the activity taking place within the river and due to it being located less than 10 m from the N12 freeway. These are the nuisance factors, some air pollution and the alteration of the river flow, the destruction of the wetland and the increased suspended solids in the water (turbidity).
91 6.1.3 Scan of Site 3: Longlands –less than 10 km north of Vaalbos National Park
Site 3 is depicted in Figure 15b on page 54 and is located in the Northern Cape about 20 km from Barkley West. Longlands is a diamond diggings proclaimed area, meaning that certain artisanal and small scale miners have been authorised to exploit and mine the mineral in that area. However, the Department of Minerals and Energy have concentrated much energy and effort into this area as there had been an influx of illegal artisanal miners that have mined on an ad hoc short term basis with no consideration for environmental degradation or rehabilitation of environmental impacts (DME personal comms, 2005). From the scan of the site, the following was observed: The total surface area disturbed is approximately 2-3 ha; There was almost no mechanisation on site. From the definition of artisanal diamond mining in Chapter 1 on page 6, this operation is therefore classified as an artisanal operation. Here again, during the scan, the assessment of the site was conducted by completing Table 26. This table essentially identified that in terms of the sensitivity of the environment, the following is significant: Table 26: Site assessment at Longlands
92 Locality to streams and watercourses o Mining is taking place instream of the Vaal River. This river is significant in that it is the major source of water for the local informal community in Warrenton and is abstracted 20 km downstream to supply potable water to the whole of the Northern Cape. The significance of this table is that here again, it had highlighted that this mining is taking place in a sensitive environment – the Vaal River - and that any impacts from the mining activity will again certainly impact on the river health and the fitness for use by the local communities and the animals that use it as a source of water. It is also a source of water for farmers for irrigation and cattle watering. Water pollution is again one of the problems associated with mining in a riverine environment is of course water pollution. The impacts here are mainly related to the formation of islands and alteration of the river hydraulics. Again there is some turbidity of the surface waters as a result of the silt introduced to the river system. Once again more detail on the specific impacts relating to water pollution follows in Chapter 6.2. LOCALITY TO OTHER SENSITIVE ENVIRONMENTS o Site 3 is located less than 10 m from the wetland and the associated environmental problem is biodiversity depletion for the reasons discussed under site 2. It is also located at least 10 m from a mine access road and there is not much traffic along this thoroughfare other than mine related vehicles. LOCALITY TO OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE o There should be very little an impact to the community seeing as the community is located some 100 m away from the activity. This buffer zone ensures that the nuisance factors have a diluted impact on the surrounding communities.
93 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS o AIR POLLUTION: . There was no visible air pollution not even from the discard, possibly because the discard dumps were still being used. o SURFACE WATER OR GROUNDWATER POLLUTION: . There is a definite impact to the surface water from the disturbance of the river itself with the following impacts being noted: Intense sedimentation of the riverbed with the formation of islands as seen in figure 21 There is a notable degradation of the river bank with visible erosion channels and denuded areas where vegetation is not prolific. There is subsequent sedimentation and loss of vegetation along the riverbed. . Groundwater pollution is minimal given that there is very little mechanisation and no visible oils, chemicals or diesels on site. MANNER
Unrehabilitated mining area and mining having taken place within the river
Figure 21: Surface water disturbances as mining often occurs within the riverine environment
o Use of water and non-renewable resources . There is some mechanisation at this site and subsequently there will be a minor consumption of non-renewable resources like diesel and electricity and given that there are employees, there is
94 use of potable water. The significance of this impact will be determined in chapter 6.2. o Potential impact on land . The destruction to the riparian environment results in a major problem of biodiversity depletion due to the loss of habitat. This has been described under the “locality to wetlands and other sensitive areas” in site 1 and will not be described again as it is repetitive. . Once again, this is arable land and the mining activity has reduced the land capability of 2 ha of land and probably infringed on the communities being able to subsistence farm in this area. Being so close the river itself, prime farming land is also lost. During the duration of the mine this problem will persist, however, if the post mining activity is conducted such that the pre-mining land- capability is restored then the problem is a transient environmental problem with medium term impacts to the environment. Should rehabilitation be inadequate to restore the pre-mining land capability then the problem is more profound with a permanent impact on the land capability and the proliferation of the biodiversity.
o Visual impact, light pollution There are two very small discard dumps on the periphery of the river as most of the waste is returned to the river where it forms islands as seen in figure 22. o the aesthetics are impacted but being small dumps the impact is not as pronounced as at the other 2 sites. So waste generation albeit that it is a problem has further intensified the destruction to the riverine environment by the introduction of the micro-niches formed by the islands in the river. This will again be discussed in further detail in chapter 6.2. o There is no light pollution problem as the mining takes place during daylight hours only.
95 o The noise and nuisance factors are diluted as the site is situated away from the communities
To summarise, this artisanal diamond mining operation is seen as an artisanal diamond mining operation occurring within the river itself and has associated impacts on the water environment. The main problems associated with artisanal diamond mining at this site are biodiversity depletion, the water pollution problems, food supply problems and waste production.
Mining taking place within the riverine environment with a substantial disturbance to the water flow and the development of artificial islands
Figure 22: Disturbances to the natural flow of the river and the development of islands as a result of mining
Mechanisation and mounds of earth having been left unrehablitated
Figure 23: Very limited mechanisation – but the environmental impacts are the same – surface disturbances and loss of land-use and capability
96 6.1.4 Scan at Site 4: on the periphery of the Vaalbos National Park This site has been highlighted as a very sensitive area for the reasons discussed on page 54. To reiterate, the Vaalbos Nature Reserve is a national park and plays a role in attracting tourists to the Northern Cape. Given its role in the economy of the country, the fact that it supports a plethora of fauna and flora underlined in Chapter 4, the viability and sustainability of the park is vital. Site 4 is depicted in Figure 15b on page 43 and is located in the Northern Cape also about 20 km north of Barkley West. From the scan of the site, the following was observed: The total surface area disturbed is approximately seven ha; There were more machines on site than at the other three sites, albeit that there is a high level of mechanisation. From the definition of artisanal diamond mining in Chapter 1, this operation is therefore classified as an artisanal operation. Here again, during the scan, the assessment of the site was conducted by completing Table 27. This table essentially identified that in terms of the sensitivity of the environment, the following is significant: Table 27: Site assessment at the sites adjacent to Vaalbos Nature Reserve
97 Locality to streams and watercourses Artisanal diamond mining is occurring, o The mining activity is taking place instream of the Vaal river. This river is significant as: . It is the major source of water for the local informal community in Warrenton and is used to supply potable water to the whole of the northern cape 20 km downstream in Barkley West. . It is a source of water for downstream farm is consumed by some of the hoofed animals in the national park . The national park is promoting this stretch of the river as a serene and tranquil vacation spot . The national park is advertising the river as a fishing destination . It is a source of water for the neighbouring communities o The significance of Table 27 is that here again, it had highlighted that this mining is taking place in a sensitive environment – the Vaal river - and that any impacts from the mining activity will again certainly impact on the river health (integrity of the river to support the aquatic habitats) and the fitness for use by the local communities and the animals that use it as a source of water. It is also a source of water for farmers for irrigation and cattle watering. Water pollution is again one of the problems associated with mining in a riverine environment. The related impacts will be highlighted under the section of environmental impacts. Locality to other sensitive environments o Mining is taking place on the periphery of the national park – a park that supports the conservation of fauna and flora. As the river is one of the sources of water for the animals and as there is irrigation of the farm taking place through abstraction from the river at the park, it is vital that the environmental impacts particularly pertaining to the water conservation is aptly managed. The biodiversity depletion may be one of the most significant problems second to water pollution that artisanal
98 diamond mining may exert at this site. This is particularly true if there is a threat to the safety and health of the animals supported in the park. o The proximity to the wetlands poses another problem – potential food supply shortages. Please refer to the discussion under site 2 for a description of how artisanal diamond mining in wetlands could influence food shortages. Locality to other infrastructure o It is less than 50 m from railway lines and 10 m from the road, both accessed by the public. Environmental nuisance factors could impact on both these infrastructure facilities.
Environmental impacts o Air pollution, light pollution and nuisance factors: . There was no visible air pollution not even from the discard, possibly because the discard dumps were still being used. . Mining takes place within daylight hours and there is no other lighting in place during nights. Apart from noise, there was no other visible nuisance factors noted. o Surface water or groundwater pollution: . There is a definite impact to the surface water from the disturbance of the river itself with the following impacts being noted: . Intense sedimentation of the riverbed with the formation of islands as seen in figure 24. There is a notable degradation of the river bank – erosion and vegetation removal; There is subsequent sedimentation and loss of vegetation along the riverbed. . Groundwater pollution is minimal given that there is very little mechanisation and no visible oils, chemicals or diesels on site.
99 . Impact on the river health and figures 24, 25a and 25b re-enforces this by showing that the mining activities do in fact hamper the integrity of the receiving environment by altering the flow of the river and the increase in stream sedimentation. There is a definite change in the morphology of the river due to the introduction of
unnatural islands in the river system.
Islands in the river due to rock deposition within the river channel
Figure 24: Artisanal diamond mining that disturbed the natural water flow of the vaal river
o Use of water and non-renewable resources There is some mechanisation at this site and subsequently there will be a minor consumption of non-renewable resources like diesel and electricity and given that there are employees, there is use of potable water. The significance of this impact will be determined in chapter 6.2.
100 Discard deposits within the 1:100 yr floodline
Figure 25a: Waste deposits on the banks of the vaal river – this photo was taken from the picnic spot in Vaalbos Nature Reserve
ISLAND S
Figure 25b: Islands in the Vaal River and the Historical sites that had not been rehabilitated once mining had ceased
101
o Potential impact on land . The destruction to the riparian environment results in a major problem biodiversity depletion due to the loss of habitat. This has been described under the “locality to wetlands and other sensitive areas” in site 2 and will not be described again as it is repetitive. . The only other material difference between the previous sites is that this site is made further sensitive by the fact that mining is taking place adjacent to the national park and less than 10 m from the wetlands area supporting a diverse avian population (South African National Parks, 2004). The significant issue is that the Vaalbos nature reserve is the most sensitive environment hosting over 200 different fauna and a very sensitive flora environment so the impacts and because it has a pronounced influence on the socio-economics of the northern cape due to the tourist element, it is deemed more sensitive than the other sites and will be used as the reference site to assess the impacts analytically. . Once again, this is arable land and the mining activity has reduced the land capability of 2 ha of land and probably infringed on the communities being able to subsistence farm in this area. Being so close to the river itself, prime farming land is also lost. During the duration of the mine this problem will persist, however, if the post mining activity is conducted such that the pre-mining land- capability is restored then the problem is a transient environmental problem with medium term impacts to the environment. Should rehabilitation be inadequate to restore the pre-mining land capability then the problem is more profound with a permanent impact on the land capability and the proliferation of the biodiversity.
102
o Visual impact, light pollution . There are two very small discard dumps on the periphery of the river as most of the waste is returned to the river where it forms islands as seen in figure 26. . The aesthetics are impinged but being small dumps the impact is not as pronounced as at the other 2 sites. So waste generation is a problem but has further intensified the destruction to the riverine environment by the introduction of the micro-niches formed by the islands in the river. This will again be discussed in further detail in chapter 6.2. . There is no light pollution problem as the mining takes place during daylight hours only. . The noise and nuisance factors are diluted as the site is situated away from the communities
To summarise, this artisanal diamond mining operation occurs within the river itself and has associated impacts on the water environment. The main problems associated with artisanal diamond mining at this site are biodiversity depletion, the water pollution problems, food supply problems and waste production.
103 HISTORICAL IMPACTS THAT WERE NOT REHABILITATED
Figure 26: Historical Sites In The Vaalbos Nature Reserve – Over 100 Years Old – That Have Not Been Rehabilited
6.2 Summary of the 4 site assessments As the scanning of the 4 sites has been concluded and the comparative assessments compiled for each site, a number of conclusions may be drawn from this exercise. These conclusions are significant given that one of the key aims of the study had been to identify the problems associated with artisanal diamond mining; Figure 27 is a graphical representation of the similarities and differences regarding the locality of the operations. The site assessments highlighted the following commonalities:
Artisanal mining does indeed take place on a very small scale with the total surface area disturbed being less than 10 ha; The mining methodology is very rudimentary with a minimal usage of high technology equipment; Artisanal diamond mining takes place predominantly within watercourses as the operation targets alluvial diamonds. Alluvial diamond mining has been described as mining taking place on the surface and within the riparian environment
104 (Georene, 2004). To this end, all four sites have been highlighted as having taken place within the watercourse. Although fortunately not located close to graveyards, and national heritage or archaeological sites, mining activities at all four sites does occur close to national or provincial and access roads with the impacts from mining activities potentially impinging on road users. This also implies that the artisanal miners are highly dependent on existing infrastructure, especially as access roads can be difficult to develop and have associated costs.
LOCALITY OF ARTISANAL DIAMOND MINING SITES
4 3.5 3 2.5 NO. OF SITES 2 site 4 1.5 1 site 3 0.5 0 site 2 within national parks site of site 1 watercourse archaeological significance
Figure 27: A comparison of the locality of artisanal diamond mining relative to key infrastructural and national sites of significance.
As seen in Figure 27, two of the four sites had been located less than 100 m from the nearest communities with the impacts from mining permeating to the local communities. Also significant, is the fact that the communities living in the vicinity of the area practice subsistence agriculture and mining impacts on grazing potential, soil integrity and water quality which could adversely impact the community’s ability to sustain itself. Of the four sites, the mining activities in the vicinity of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve is the most sensitive for the following reasons: o Mining adjacent to a tourist attraction could affect the economics by retarding tourism.
105 o The mining activities are separated from a National Park by the Vaal river and the activity does in fact destroy much of the natural vegetation and impinges on the animal biodiversity as well. o The park accommodates a wide array of animal species and the carrying capacity of the area is threatened by the removal of the vegetation. o Mining within the watercourse has altered the hydrology and river flow and in fact altered the river dynamics and the aquatic biodiversity.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
4 3.5 3 2.5 NO. OF 2 site 4 SITES 1.5 site 3 1 site 2 0.5 site 1 0 Biodiversity water food supply depletion pollution IMPACTS
Figure 28: Comparison of the environmental problems associated with the 4 different artisanal diamond mining sites
In terms of the problems and potential impacts, Figure 28 shows the following: Air Pollution Problems: o DUST: There had been some localised dust coming off of the processing plants but seeing as the mining and processing systems is a wet process, the dust is very minimal. However, given adverse conditions such as high winds, there is a strong likelihood that fallout dust will migrate off the old discard dumps and could present a nuisance factor to the neighbouring communities or road users. It had not however been recorded as a major impact simply because very dust was observed on the site visit.
106 o NOISE: Nuisance noise had indeed been observed at all sites and this could be particularly detrimental in the Vaalbos nature reserve especially due to the presence of the animals and the tourists visiting. Water Pollution: o FITNESS FOR USE: In the case of the Vaal River, the surrounding communities are dependent on the river for consumptive purposes. Downstream of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve, the local service providers are abstracting the water for treatment and use as potable water. The alteration in the water quality and the river morphology could impact on the fitness for use by downstream users. o All sites showed the likelihood for surface and groundwater contamination Biodiversity Depletion and food supply problems: o HABITAT DEGRADATION: In all cases, the presence of some degree of mechanisation and discard dumps have led to a deterioration in the aesthetic quality especially at the Nature Reserve where the mining activities are visible from the picnic and accommodation areas. The land capability and land-use is also altered permanently as the waste deposits at all sites showed significant land disturbances and loss of faunal and floral diversity. The alteration of the hydrology and chemistry of the watercourse does present challenges to the survival of the aquatic fauna and flora.
In summary, the environmental PROBLEMS associated with the mining activities are similar if not the same at all sites with the Vaalbos Nature reserve being a slightly more sensitive environment, from a biodiversity and tourism perspective. It is for this reason that the mining activities in the vicinity of the Vaalbos nature reserve will be used as the reference site where the ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS will be assessed analytically using the OWL database.
107 6.3 Determining the impacts of artisanal mining through the OWL Risk Assessment
The second phase of this exercise is to analytically quantify the risks of impacts occurring as a result of with artisanal diamond mining in the representative area, that being the Vaalbos Nature Reserve and the tool used to conduct the analysis is the OWL database. The baseline information recorded in Table 15 on page 74 and the supporting photographs will assist in completing each component of the database. The OWL database a simple environmental risk assessment tool used in the mining industry and has been developed taking into considerations factors influencing the risks of associated impacts arising from mining activities. After running the OWL database, risks of associated impacts ranging from high to moderate to low will be generated through the database. All impacts that have been identified as major will be discussed in detail with suggested remedial measures to mitigate and manage this impact. The OWL system suggests that o all high risk impacts occurring are those with final score in excess of 60, o medium impacts ranging in scoring from 30 to 59 and o anything less than 30 but not equal to zero is a minor /negligible impact.
This has been a standard adopted in the use of the OWL database and has been based on many tests and trial runs and permutations (Vermaak G and Naidoo-Vermaak, 2003). Zero and less reflects a positive impact with the lower the negative value the higher the positive impact to the environment. The risk assessment will be approached by first identifying the possible impacts pertaining to each environmental problem noted during the scan. A quantification of the potential for the impacts to materialise would be conducted using the OWL database system
The data informing the OWL Risk assessment is essentially summarised in Table 29. This Table shows that the problems associated with artisanal diamond mining are predominantly water pollution, biodiversity depletion, food supply and waste generation. Associated with each problem are a number of impacts that will be discussed in further detail following the risk assessment process.
108
Table 29: List of the environmental problems and associated impacts emanating from artisanal diamond mining activities
6.3.1 Water Pollution Problems: Soil erosion (90% rating in the Risk assessment – highest risk)
Risk analysis Artisanal diamond mining is alluvial and takes place within the riparian environment - meaning within the river itself or the river beds where rivers have ceased to flow. The impacts associated with the riparian environment had been well documented by the Water Research Council and this study basically re-iterated those impacts discussed in Chapter 3. In terms of surface water quality, the impacts from soil erosion are summarised in Table 29 and are:
109 Surface water quality and quantity impacts: There is subsequent sedimentation, increases in suspended solids and of course the loss of vegetation along the riverbed. Accelerated erosion close to workings that have been de-vegetated for construction Increased mobilization of sediments resulting in increases in suspended solids concentrations in the receiving water bodies. Soil erosion and associated bank destabilisations. This is represented in Figure 29
Figure 29: Destabilisation and denuding of the Vaal River banks
The root causes of the sedimentation is in fact the activity of mining taking place within the river and riparian environment resulting in backfilling of the waste (non-mineral value) back into the river itself. From the above bullets, sedimentation and erosion manifests in a host of related impacts. It has been documented in previous studies already documented in Chapter 3.2.2 that there is widespread turbulence arising from mining within the riverine environment. The suspended solids concentrations increases resulting in hampered oxygenation of the river and the retardation of photosynthesis due to inhibition of light and warmth penetration. Water temperatures also drop threatening the survival of the aquatic organisms. The results of the monitoring of artisanal miners, provided by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry also demonstrates a high concentration of suspended solids in the vicinity of and downstream of artisanal
110 operations. This is re-iterated in the data supplied by the Water Research Commission (Heath et al, 2004). In the Ghanaian study (Ghana mining sector management, 1994) and the study in Sierra Leone (Anon, 2004), the sedimentation of the rivers was seen to be one of the most significant impacts to the environment. The Water Research Commission, in its study showed that sedimentation is a distinct problem emanating from artisanal diamond mining and does influence the integrity of the river and fitness for use, deleteriously.
The loss of the rooting system and surface basal cover encourages erosion into the river environment through the destabilization of the river banks. The rooting system is responsible for soil aggregation and the basal cover provides a barrier to the natural elements such as wind and water that contributes to soil erosion. In the absence of these stabilising forces – the vegetation is removed to access the soils for processing to acquire the mineral – the water and wind carries much of the soils down gradient ending up in the river itself. The other causal element for increased turbidity is in fact the introduction of residue (discards) into the river. Studies have shown that the mining activities migrate along the river length and with it the legacy of environmental damage, so as the mining advances forward, a stream of waste is discharged behind it especially if the make-shift processing plant is operating within the river or on the banks. At Vaalbos, there is a large proportion of basal cover approximated at 60% removed during mining activities. Figure
29 shows that unvegetated banks and even destroyed rooting systems. At Vaalbos, there is substantial evidence of sedimentation and deposition of the discards into the river. This is seen in Figure 30.
Figure 30: Reedbeds in the Vaal River
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Table 30: The Risk Assessment related to sedimentation and erosion
112 Legal compliance From Table 30, the risk has been rated as 90%, implying that the surface water pollution is a very high risk and that the ensuing impacts are very serious (major) impacts. Lending to the 90% is the fact that artisanal diamond mining taking place within the riverine environment or within the flood-line, and this is a major legal non-compliance seeing as Regulation 704 regulating mining activities promulgated in terms of the National Water Act, 1998 strictly prohibits mining from taking place within a watercourse. At the Vaalbos Nature reserve as was noted at all three other sites, mining does indeed take place outside the legal parameters and in fact is taking place within the riverine and 1:100 year floodline – essentially then, this mining activity takes place within the watercourse. This is a common occurrence and confirmed at the other 3 sites as well and such an activity obviously occurs outside the parameters of legal compliance.
Nature of the risk The fact that the mineral is embedded in the river bed, forces mining of the riverbed and the deterioration in terms of the water quality and quantity of the watercourse is invariably an inherent risk. Seeing as this type of mining must take place within a natural water-body, the impacts associated with uncontrolled situations will permeate. However, under controlled, guarded and legitimate operations, these impacts could be minimised and the risks of the impacts occurring reduced substantially through the introduction of controls. However, at Vaalbos, mining within the watercourse, was an uncontrolled activity and the impacts were starkly obvious. The impacts have been seen as long term impacts notably taking place during the life of the mining operation and beyond. There were examples of the permanence of the impacts at Vaalbos where the sedimentation had resulted in the formation of islands within the river. This is seen in Figure 30 on page 114 and Figure 31. The significance of surface water impacts is such that it could have major liability to the company given that a legal precedent had been set with the Goldfields having paid downstream water users for pollution to the surface water. Section 16 of the National Water Act states that anybody committing an offence in terms of the Act can be imprisoned for a period of five years or would have to pay a fine or both depending on the circumstances of the offence. This therefore re-enforces
113 the fact that should the risk materialize there would substantial pecuniary punitive implications to the miners.
Likelihood The likelihood of the impact is great with as artisanal diamond mining does indeed take place in the river bed. The major impact to the riparian zone is the extensive amount of vegetation that is removed from the river banks and often the rivers themselves. This in turn disturbs the benthic environment and the aquatic habitat in the impacted zone due to less shading and increasing temperatures. The possibility of sedimentation and erosion is a definite as had been noted at Vaalbos and the other sites as well.
The erosion resulting from the destabilization of the banks and runoff with surface water from the operational areas has also resulted in the siltation of the rivers and may also induce bank collapse. Looking at figure 29, bank collapse will result in all of the discard ending up in the Vaal river altering the riverine habitat even further. In instances along the river bank, reeds have developed due to increased deposition and siltation as is seen in Figure 30 on page 107.
Figure 31: Siltation and turbidity in the river bed
Extent of the impact The impact is deemed local as the river is not a fast moving river and the sediment is not carried far downstream. The evidence of sedimentation is localised often within proximity of two kilometres from the mining site. This is evident in Figures 30-32 is a historical environmental legacy and at least 400m from the historical mining site.
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Remedial measures Artisanal diamond mining should be conducted in accordance with the requirements of the National Water Act, 1998 and proper river diversions put in place. There should be recognition of the 1:100 year flood-line, the impacts to the receiving water environment would be less detrimental. If the river-bed must be access, then using proper diversions may protect the quality of water for downstream water use. Surface water quality monitoring must be conducted routinely to assuage whether there is an impact or not and whether the impact should be managed. From an institutional perspective, seeing as these operations might not always be legal operations, the regulator should undertake heightened patrolling of hotspots to ensure that the illegal activities are identified and regulated. Monitoring and auditing of the water quality and quantity would guide regulators to operations as the deterioration in the turbidity of the environment would be noted in the monitoring results. Artisanal miners need to be guided in terms of responsible environmental practices and regulators should put processes and institutions in place to promote environmental awareness in artisanal diamond miners.
Figure 32: Changes to the river channel Figure 33: Changes in the flow
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Water quantity: (75% risk implying that this is a high risk)
Risk analysis Artisanal diamond mining occurs within the riverine environment and accordingly involves water usage in the process of recovering the diamonds from the earth. Water consumption is two fold- for human consumption by the workforce and for operational processes. From Table 29 on page 112, the impacts associated with water quantity are: . water consumption in the diamond processing process . The path of the river is clearly altered especially if one looks at the river upstream. The width of the river has been extended so that it bulges at the mining area and restores itself downstream. . lowered dissolved oxygen concentration and subsequently loss of aquatic biodiversity . groundwater pollution plumes through contaminants that will hamper the fitness for use of the water and The concern now is whether the usage of water does in fact impact on the quantity and linked to the quantity of water is in fact the hydraulics of the river system. From Table 31 the risks associated with water consumption and alteration of the river hydraulics is water quantity related impacting on water consumption an driver hydraulics – this risk of impacts occurring is high scoring 75%.
Legal compliance Water use is strictly regulated by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) as the water resource in South Africa is a very limited resource. Given the historical inequalities, there is a major emphasis to govern the water use more prudently so that everybody has equal access to water (White Paper, 1990). The water use is therefore regulated through licencing processes and inter alia, every major industrial user of water must be issued with and managed through the licencing system. However, the majority of the artisanal diamond miners operate far from legal controls and are therefore accessing a national resource illegally for self-enrichment purposes. Regarding the
116 alteration of the river hydraulics, Regulation 704 also prohibits any person from altering the river hydraulics or river flow without the prior consent of the Department, consequently concluding that these activities are again illegal. It is for this reason, that it had been classified as a major non-compliance.
Table 31: Water quantity and related impacts
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Nature of the risk The mining activity requires water use particularly in the washing process; at least 90% of the water is returned to the riverine environment. The remaining 10% is discarded with the waste deposits usually adjacent to the river or within the river itself, meaning that most of the water is returned to the watercourse. So from a water quantity perspective, there is a minimal impact to the receiving environment. The problem however, arises with the influence on the hydraulics. Usually returning with the water is a high concentration of discards resulting in sedimentation (discussed above) and Artisanal resulting in the alteration of the flow river hydrology due to the introduction of sediments and waste rock and also changes the river path due to mining of the river bed.
This is seen in Figure 32 and 33 on page 118. However, under controlled, guarded and legitimate operations, these impacts could be minimised and the risks of the impacts occurring reduced substantially through the introduction of controls. Nevertheless, at Vaalbos, there is a high degree of hydraulic changes and this is seen in Figures 32 and 33 on page 118. The impacts have been seen as long term impacts notably taking place during the life of the mining operation and beyond. There were examples of the permanence of the impacts at Vaalbos where the sedimentation had resulted in the formation of islands within the river and impacted on the flow rates of the river. This has been a visual observation as there is no conclusive data to support this as the nearest flow gauging station is far removed from the mining activities to give a meaningful result.
Likelihood The likelihood of the impact is high as artisanal diamond mining necessitates water consumption for the diamond recovery process. This water is drawn from the watercourse inducing a change in the river hydraulics through the sedimentation and the fact that the natural bed is disturbed and not remediated to its pre-mining state. There is evidence at all three sites that the river hydrology had been adversely impinged upon through mining activities. In the report by the Sierra Leone (Anonymous, 2004), discussed in more detail in chapter 3.2.2 that re-enforces the fact that the impacts to the river hydrology is one of the major impacts arising from artisanal diamond mining.
118
Severity The severity of the impact has been scored very high. It is important to remember that most of the water consumed is returned to the natural system, but the flow and hydraulics of the system is altered by artisanal diamond mining. The velocity decreases as a result of the pooling and ponding of water and the islands that have formed in the path of the river. The river diversions in essence force the river flow out of it’s natural meander and could either accelerate or decelerate the flow rate of the river. The adverse effects are that pollution plumes either form and localise if the flow is slow or migrate downstream if the flow is high. Slow flows do not encourage oxygenation and the real problems are that the aquatic life is impacted upon.
Extent of the impact The extent of the impact is local with the impact not extending greater than 20 km downstream. Even if there were cumulative impacts, this would not be carried further than the 20 km radius. Again this could not be verified as there is no data available to support this.
Remedial Measures As was mentioned above, the real mitigation would result if the artisanal miners were regulated more stringently and proper river diversions instituted with formalised remedial measures ensuring that the impact to the hydraulics are minimised. Where discard dumps are deposited, bunding and berm walls must be erected to prevent the run-off and erosion from the dams entering the river systems.
119 Ground water management (65% - high risk of occurrence)
Risk analysis From Table 29 on page 112, the impacts associated with hydrocarbon pollution (groundwater pollution) are: . lowered dissolved oxygen concentration and subsequently loss of aquatic biodiversity . groundwater pollution plumes through contaminants that will hamper the fitness for use of the water and There is some degree of mechanisation, albeit very limited at all four operations, and at Vaalbos particularly there is the use of excavation vehicles that require the use of oils and diesels. There was evidence of oil spillages and diesel spillages on the soil and the lack of containment measures on site. As seen in Table 29 on page 112, this could impact deleteriously on the receiving waterbody.
LEGAL COMPLIANCE From Table 32, it is evident that the potential impact to the groundwater is regarded as a high risk with a definite negative impact. With regard to the legal compliance, it has been highlighted as a major contravention seeing as protected controls are not in place and the groundwater regime is exposed to the potential hazard. The risk is a latent risk and could arise in the future. There is no data available to verify the impact to the groundwater regime and the lack of information in itself is a hazard to the environment. As groundwater pollution is a legal contravention, this again could impact on the management in that a fine or prosecution by the authorities could be imposed.
120 Table 32: Risk Assessment For Groundwater Pollution
121 Nature of the risk This could demonstrate a latent risk as the groundwater migration is very slow and essentially shows that many years after mining had commenced and often after it had ceased. With mining operations taking place within the riparian environment where groundwater levels are at their closest to surface and any impacts on the surface that could infiltrate to the groundwater regime will impact negatively on the water quality. Although there is no analytical data to support this, should there be surface spills of hydrocarbons or high hazard chemicals, this will depending on the permeability of the bedrock, reach the groundwater. As groundwater migrates much slower than surface water, pollution plumes are not detected early and the rate of migration is slow. Should the plume migrate to other groundwater users, the impact may be seen a few years down the line, which is why it is deemed to be long term and latent.
Likelihood International best practices require the containment of hazardous substances on impervious material and within closed and controlled environments. In most cases, bundwalls have been known to control spillages and prevent pollution provided they have been designed adequately. However, in the case of artisanal diamond mining, there is a lack of proper containment measures and efficient storage mechanisms so the likelihood of the impact occurring is possible.
Severity With mining taking place in the riverine environment, there is a possibility that the rate of recharge of the groundwater system is altered due to openings and contact with the groundwater regime. The potential impact would be high due to the nature of the chemicals being used, including diesels and oils – a very hazardous substance. If this chemical had infiltrated to groundwater, then there would be a detrimental impact on the integrity of the groundwater and the duration would be long term due to the rate of movement of groundwater, the chemicals would be in the groundwater for a very long time unless active amelioration is conducted.
122 Remedial measures: Remedial measures should entail containing the high hazard chemicals and oils within bunded facilities on lined ground to prevent ingress into the groundwater environment. Groundwater quality monitoring must be done routinely to ensure that there is no impact to the groundwater. If indeed there was an impact, then remedial measures must be undertaken so as to manage that impact.
6.3.2 Biodiversity Depletion: Riparian Habitat Destruction (90% rating in the Risk assessment – highest risk)
Biodiversity depletion manifests itself as habitat destruction and degradation and unfortunately artisanal diamond mining is indeed a contributor to this problem. Table 29 on page 112 reflects that the impacts imposed to the receiving environment include: . loss of land use and land capability According to the problems identified by Miller (1997), biodiversity could be impacted upon the loss of land use and land capability. The problems associated with mans activities was given more attention in Chapter 3. But from an artisanal diamond mining perspective, environmental impacts on land use and land capability are in the authors opinion one of the most critical impacts arising from artisanal diamond mining. In the case of site 1, site 2 and site 3, grazing occurs on the periphery of the mining area indicating that the impacted area has grazing capability and may even have application as subsistence farming and grazing for the adjoining communities. A temporary loss in land capability in view of mining being a transient land use might have been acceptable, but with the alteration of the topography, the impeachment of the integrity of the soil and the loss of topsoil, the land capability cannot be restored unless proper environmental management of the natural elements are maintained during the mining operation. Given that this does not occur, in artisanal operations, the land capability will never be restored and the land use will not be grazing in the future. If indeed the mining area had to have an alternate land use, it would cost a substantial amount of money by any developer to undo the environmental damage to a state that the land might be used again.
123 Table 33: Loss of Riparian Habitat which impacts on land use and land capability
124
LAND USE AND LAND CAPABILITY Risk analysis Legal compliance The risk assessment in Table 33 shows that this is a major impact scoring 79%. Although there is little governance over land use and land capability issues, there is no legal contravention and it is seen as meeting the requirements and having a 0 score. The Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 (Cameron Cross et al, 2005) and supporting agricultural legislation guards against the use of prime agricultural land for alternate uses such as mining. However, there has never been a stringent application of the act and the repercussion for non-compliance is not evident in case law. Therefore, it has been seen as having no illegal impact should artisanal diamond mining infringe on alternate land use and the inherent capability of the land.
Nature of the risk The risk is again cumulative as the more land disturbed without rehabilitation to its natural state the greater the total loss of land capability and consequently future land- use. The artisanal mining operations generally span a total surface disturbance of less than 10 ha to be characterised as artisanal diamond mining operations, however, there is usually a number of these 10 ha units that increase the total disturbance quite dramatically. In Barkley West, there were a number of artisanal operations adjacent to each other with the total disturbance exceeding 30 ha. South Africa is faced with a number of critical socio- economic challenges and hunger and poverty are two that persist. Artisanal mining on the short term is indeed assisting to overcome these two problems, but subsistence agriculture could certainly feed the community and if sustainably practiced might even generate a small income for the community or individual households. Should the land then be rehabilitated to it’s pre-mining capability and this is very easily achieved seeing as artisanal diamond mining is not chemically intensive and the land rehabilitation requires the levelling of the discard deposits and proper management of topsoil, the post artisanal mining activity could well revert to agriculture and remediating the social ills in the communities. The duration of the risk is long term with the impact being permanent
125 as rehabilitation is never undertaken. There are historical deposits in the Vaalbos reserve that are as old as 80 years that have never been actively rehabilitated. This has been noted on the periphery of the Vaalbos National Park and by virtue of it having occurred, it has been determined as a very definite impact
6.3.3 Food Supply problems: Loss of biodiversity (Floral) (66% rating in the Risk assessment – high risk)
The single most crucial impact to the environment arising from the mismanagement of the vegetation / floral component is that there could be threatened loss to diversity which, amongst others, could culminate in food supply problems as seen in the Table 29 on page 112. From all the sites evaluated denuding of the riverbanks and alteration of the aquatic floral ecosystem had been noted. In many instances especially at Vaalbos Nature reserve, the formation of islands had resulted in the development of wetlands with a large population of Phragmites Australis, a species that did not frequent upstream water environments and certainly did not occur well downstream of the mining activities. This further disadvantaged the ecosystem by altering the hydraulics and retarding the movement of water in the river.
Risk analysis Legal compliance Table 34 identified the risks to the environment relating to the loss of diversity as being high with a rating of 66%. The Vaalbos Nature Reserve is home to inter alia, the Vaalbos, a prominent plant species in the park, as well as camel-thorn trees. Artisanal diamond mining has had the effect that the vegetation is destroyed especially along the banks of the Vaal River which consists of the false Orange River Broken Veld. Artisanal diamond mining predominantly occurs in the riverine environment so the activity itself had been known to impact on the riparian vegetation along the river banks and within the river itself. The report by the WRC, (Heath, 2004) re- iterated that artisanal diamond mining does indeed disturb the riparian environment deleteriously. At the Vaalbos Nature Reserve the entire bank had been denuded and with absolutely no vegetation visible on the riverbank. Table 29
126 on page 112 shows that in terms of legal compliance, this is a major contravention of the National Environmental Management Act and therefore does not meet legal requirements.
Nature of the risk It has been identified as an inherent risk simply as surface mining does indeed require the removal of the surface vegetation. Again it can be debated that this surface vegetation disruption be seen as transient given that mining in the area would cease and with proper rehabilitation, the vegetation could be established again post mining. However and especially re-enforced by the evidence at Vaalbos, rehabilitation never occurs and the post mining site is representative of all the impacts accrued during the mining operation. The significance is that it does have a minor liability especially seeing that the riparian environment is disturbed and there is a cost associated with the rehabilitation of that area. Regulation 704 of the national water Act, 1991 also prohibits mining from taking place within the riverine environment provided a river diversion controlling the activity has been allowed. All these activities have been done in the absence of river diversions (Personal Comms with the DWAF). The duration is medium term as the mining activities continue until the resource has been depleted and artisanal diamond mines usually have life of Mines of 2-5 years depending on the extent of the resource.
Severity It has a very high severity in that the lack of remediation does not conform to the principle of sustainable development by impinging on the ability to use that land in the future for alternate land uses such as cattle / horse grazing or residential use.
127 Table 34 Impacts On The Vegetation
128
Figure 34: Horses Grazing Within The Mining Area
Likelihood The likehood is definite and Figures 20-23 (pages 94, 97 and 99 respectively) confirms that the vegetation particularly the riverine vegetation is destroyed and altered by artisanal diamond mining activities. The severity of the impact is very high. Apart from the denuding of the land and the river banks from being aesthetically unappealing, the denuded area is subject to high levels of soil erosion which is washed down into the river increasing the sedimentation and lifting the river bed. The vegetation on the riverbank is responsible for amongst others, oxygenating the water and providing food to the aquatic animals. Therefore the removal of the vegetation impacts on the aquatic life as well. The extent of the impact is localised especially since the river flow does carry some sediment downstream.
129
Remedial measures If the impacts to the topography are remediated, the land may be restored so that it could support a land use. Effectively then, concurrent rehabilitation of the affected mining area will restore the land to its natural or pre-determined state. Once the topography has been restored, the land –capability may be restored by ameliorating the land and vegetating it to grazing standards. Figure 34 clearly depicts the surrounding area being used for grazing and the mining activities having impinged that grazing land. Sustainable development effectively means that post-mining land should be restored to a state that it can sustain the cattle and horses again.
A river diversion must be constructed temporarily isolating the riverine environment from the mining activities and preventing the impacts alluded to above. Post rehabilitation should entail restoring the pre-mining vegetation and the management of aliens and invasive plants. If the artisanal miner is subjected to the same environmental regulations as other mining houses, then the Environmental Management Programme would address these environmental concerns together with proper management mechanisms. The land disturbed must be rehabilitated to it’s predetermined state so that the river diversion may be corrected once mining had ceased. The Water monitoring must be conducted routinely to determine the levels of dissolved oxygen which dictates the availability of oxygen for the aquatic fauna and stream sediment assessments must be conducted together with bio- monitoring to gauge the impact of the mining activity on the receiving stream.
Fauna (moderate risk, 48%)
The Vaalbos National Park is home to at least 100 different animal species many are grazing animals. Apart from the mining activity destroying the vegetation and infringing in the carrying capacity of the area, there is also a safety hazard inherent with mining.
130 The changing topography and the introduction of surface voids, ditches and residue deposits pose dangers such as drowning in the pools of water or the opencast features and falling off the residue deposits.
Risk analysis Legal compliance Table 35 shows that artisanal diamond mining has a potentially moderate risk to the fauna. In terms of legal compliance, this is a major contravention of the Environmental Conservation Act, 1989 which requires the conservation of fauna and therefore does not meet legal requirements. In section 2(a), the Act requires the protection of ecological processes, natural systems and the natural beauty, as well as the preservation of biotic diversity (Cameron Cross, 2005). Section 2(c) requires the protection of the environment against disturbances, deterioration, defacement, poisoning, pollution or destruction as a result of man-made structures, installations, processes or other human activities.
Nature of the risk It has been identified as an inherent risk simply as surface mining does indeed required and therefore infringes on the surface habitat. Furthermore, as these are grazing animals, the loss of vegetation reduces the carrying capacity of the land. Mining also has an inherent impact from a safety perspective as discussed above. Artisanal diamond mining has the further disadvantage in that mining takes place within the riverine environment disturbing the habitat of aquatic fauna. The turbidity in the river reduces the availability of oxygen and light to the faunal inhabitants. This is a significant impact that influences managerial decisions, especially since this the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry does not permit mining within the riverine environment. This is a legal transgression and the management team could be fined or prosecuted. The duration is short term as with much of the terrestrial animals returning to the area post mining.
131
Table 35 Loss Of Faunal Biodiversity
132 Likelihood: The likelihood is definite as arable and grazing land is denuded for mining to take place.
Remedial measures: A rehabilitation plan must be put into place to ensure that the impacts to the surface environment are identified and remedial measures committed to. After mining had ceased, the residue deposits must be contoured with slope angles of less than 20 degrees to ensure the safety of animals. Following grading, these deposits must be ameliorated and vegetated to ensure that the original land – use is restored and the carrying capacity restored.
Food Supply problems as related to the impacts on soils (40%- medium risk)
As identified in Table 29 on page 105, artisanal diamond mining activity does not preserve or conserve the topsoil so that it may be used in the final rehabilitation of disturbed areas. In fact, as is seen in the in Figures 17, 18 and 19 (pages 58, 77, 82 respectively) mining entails excavating the soil and bedrock together and heaping into discard dumps which will not be rehabilitated. Figure 22 (page 92) shows the mining equipment and plant placed on soil with the potential for soil pollution should the equipment leak oils or other hydrocarbons.
Risk analysis Legal compliance Table 36 on page 131 has quantified this impact as a medium risk scoring 40% with impacts that could affect the environment but not degrade it or annihilate the soils completely. From the above table, the legal compliance element has being rated as not meeting the requirements some of the time. This was selected as the operations did not always show protection of the topsoil either through removing the topsoil or bunding the hazard facilities. This does not comply with the requirements of the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act.
133 Table 36: Risk To The Soil
134 Nature of the impact In terms of the nature of the impact, it is an inherent risk as alluvial mining does in fact take place on the surface and soil disturbances are a consequence of surface mining so this in effect means that the impact will occur. The issue of concern is the lack of conservation and preservation of the topsoil. Earlier discussions have alluded to the value of the land in promoting sustainable artisanal diamond mining but pivotal to the concept is the acceptability of the soil and it’s ability to sustain growth. This can be achieved provided the topsoil is managed adequately during the mining activity through stripping the soils and ameliorating and seeding it through the life of the mine. In the event that this does not occur, the fundamental of sustainable use of the land is shattered. In the evidence at Vaalbos, there has been no preservation and protection of the topsoil neither now nor historically and the surface soils are mainly overburden interspersed with soils and clays and supports limited growth. What is obvious is that the impacted land will not be able to support extensive and long term subsistence agriculture. The significance of the impact is not detrimental and could only impact on the company’s decision making ability.
Likelihood The likelihood for the risk is such that the risk could occur and should it occur, it would have a moderate impact. Furthermore, as the extent of the impact will remain at the site or point of impact, artisanal diamond mining does not prove to have a detrimental impact on the soil regime. This impact occurs as a result of the lack of controls and this is seen in the figure 18 on page 77. The significance of managing this impact is that the soil allows for the growth of vegetation and ultimately the restoration of the impacts to the environment. With proper management controls and mitigatory measures in place, the impact could be managed to acceptable levels.
Severity This is of moderate severity in that it does exert a measurable impact to the receiving environment.
135 Extent The extent of the impact is very localised with the impact affecting the mine site only.
Remedial measures Excavate the topsoil and where topsoil cannot be identified then remove the first 30 cm of soil and stockpile for final rehabilitation. The soil must be seeded and conditioned routinely to prevent the sterilization of the soil. All chemicals and hydrocarbon storage facilities should be placed on cemented slabs with high bund walls around the facility to ensure that spillages do not overflow onto the surrounding soils.
6.3.4 Waste Generation: Aesthetic degradation (75% rating in the Risk assessment – high risk)
Another area of concern is that artisanal diamond mining tends to generate waste or discard that although not hazardous, does in fact pose problems in terms of the manner in which it is discarded. The impacts range from visual unappealing to alteration in the topography of the land.
The impact to the topography has been rated as a major impact, with the impact being rated at 75%. Artisanal diamond mining results in the deposition of waste rock material and debris forming huge unsightly additions to the topography altering it permanently as the waste material is never reclaimed. There is evidence of this in the Vaalbos nature reserve where historical dumps have not been rehabilitated. Figure 26 on page 100 demonstrates the physical disturbances to the surrounding environment. From the pictures in subchapter 6.1, it clearly evident that there is a major impact to the topography with it being altered by the presence of discard dumps, tailings and slimes dams as well as processing stockpiles. Historical evidence pictured in Figure 26 on page 100 suggests that this is a permanent imprint to the environment and that the topography will never be
136 restored unless artisanal diamond miners are made to rehabilitate the land in accordance with an Environmental Management Programme.
Risk analysis Legal compliance
The risk assessment in Table 37 re-enforces the fact that the impacts on the topography is a high impact rating 75% on the OWL database and does indeed warrant that mitigatory measures be put in place as this impact disrupts the ecosystem deleteriously. In terms of the legal compliance component, artisanal diamond mining does not meet the requirements all of the time and the historical mining discard remnants attests to this. Furthermore, there is no evidence of concurrent rehabilitation at the site and no attempt to consolidate and contain the discard to single dump thus minimising the area of impact as is the requirements of the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2003.
Nature of the risk The nature of the risk underscores that a cumulative effect is noted and the more unrehabilitated deposits in vicinity, the higher the increase of the damage to the topography of the land. It is seen as having a major impact to shareholders in that should the Regulator enforce rehabilitation, given the backlog of rehabilitation, the costs would be excessive. Should there be an environmental failure of the deposit, there would be excessive costs to shareholders. The duration of the impact is permanent with the deposit remaining within the mining area permanently. Larger operations as was discussed in Chapter 3.2.1 on page 22 is bound to act responsibly in terms of the management of these deposits and endure exorbitant costs to manage and rehabilitated such discard deposits. The artisanal diamond miners are however, escaping the firm hand of the law and are indeed getting away without rehabilitation and restoration of the land.
137 Table 37 : Impacts On The Topography
.
138
Likelihood and severity The likelihood of the risk is definite and Figures 20 and 21 on page 94 substantiates this. The potential severity is that it is very high especially in this sensitive environment and could pose a danger to the safety of the animals in the park. The surface coal mining methodology is a prime example of restoring the topography whilst advancing in terms of the mining plan. This mining methodology basically results in concurrent rehabilitation through backfilling of disturbed areas as the mining operation progresses forward. Artisanal diamond mining is no different and concurrent backfilling of the discard and the tailings as the backactor progresses forward. Backfilling should be followed with the topdressing using topsoil so that the vegetation may propagate itself. This effectively reduces the total disturbance, improves the aesthetic and restores land use and land capability during the mining and processing operation. This means the rehabilitation is conducted concurrent with operations reducing the final environmental liability as well as the costs for rehabilitation as it is done through operational costs.
Remedial measures: If the impacts to the topography are remediated, the land may be restored so that it could support a land use. Effectively then, concurrent rehabilitation of the affected mining area will restore the land to its natural or pre-determined state. Once the topography has been restored, the land – capability may be restored by ameliorating the land and vegetating it to grazing standards. Figure 34 on page 132 clearly depicts the surrounding area being used for cattle farming and the mining activities having impinged that grazing land. Sustainable development effectively means that post-mining land should be restored to a state that it can sustain the cattle and horses again.
139 6.3.5 Air Pollution: Aesthetic degradation (27% rating in the Risk assessment – low risk)
Risk analysis Legal compliance The impacts to the atmospheric environment arising from dust as reflected in Table 29 on page 112 and are: . Dust generation . Nuisance noise The risk assessment in Table 38 shows that this is of a low risk scoring 27% on the OWL database. The operation tends to meet most of the legal requirements although data was not available at the operations to confirm this. However the visual assessment revealed that the dust arising from mining activities is minimal with the fallout occurring on site.
Nature of the risk Seeing as artisanal diamond mining is a wet process using water in the extraction and processing phase and knowing that this mining occurs within the riverine environment, the advantage is that there is substantial dust suppression. The type however is inherent even though the mining and processing is a wet process as dust is liberated from the discard tailings and slimes dams which if unrehabilitated can generate fallout dust. Although the dust does not contain hazardous compounds such as silica, it is a nuisance factor more than a health risk and could impact on management depending on the complaints from affected parties. The duration of the impact is intermediate occurring only during the dry windy seasons. However if rehabilitation of the discards are not effected, the impact will be seasonal but for long durations.
Likelihood The risk was deemed possible as the use drying out of deposits could generate the potential for dust; however, as there are virtually no complaints, the potential was seen as being possible.
140 Table 38. Risk Assessment Pertaining To Air Pollution
141 Severity The severity of the impact is low and does not alter the receiving environment deleteriously. The extent of the impact remains the site with the worst case being adjacent neighbours and the road- users being affected. The impact remains at a very local level.
Extent The extent is within a 100 m radius as deemed from site observations.
Remedial measures Ensure the grassing and vegetation of the waste residue deposits.
6.4 Other factors affecting artisanal diamond mining in SA Governmental structures & mining laws
Government mining ministries and departments in many of the countries must create the capacity and resources to address the needs of hundreds of thousands of artisanal miners and to implement and monitor regulations. There is a need for mining authorities to build grassroots structures fitting into existing artisanal mining communities to co-operate with the miners, instead of ignoring the sector. Examples of this include the National Small Scale mining Development Framework which provides the guidance on the following issues:
Access to funding;
Including the artisanal and small scale mining into the local economic development plans;
Improving the capacities of the Department of Minerals and Energy so that the organisation may effectively facilitate the artisanal and small scale mining support on the broad spectrum of activities involved in such endeavours. The support should include training of sound environmental practices and the monitoring and auditing of the contamination to the environmental media and the compliance to the environmental management criteria.
142 This will not only help to improve the sector but it will also make it a meaningful contributor to sustainable development.
Capacity building
The artisanal mining sector in South Africa consists of several kinds of groups, syndicates, associations, co-operatives etc. Miners with common goals and needs are increasingly realising the need to work together and jointly find solutions to common problems. It is therefore essential that collaboration is widespread on such issues such as environmental management, health and safety and technology and this might be obtained from the larger mining houses supporting and adopting artisanal operations into their mainstream business. This would also facilitate skills transfer and build awareness on legal obligations and compliance.
Mining Support Structure
It is unfortunate that the large mining groups play a limited role in the promotion of small scale mining, but only under conditions that do not compromise their position or inconvenience them in any substantial manner. It is recommended that the larger mining houses joint ventures arrangements or equity stakes as larger mining groups make resources such as information or business advice available to the sector. In addition, the small mining counterpart is forced to comply with the standards and norms associated with the larger company particularly the environmental management components.
The impacts associated with the specific environmental problems are: Water pollution resulting in surface water quality and quantity impacts, sedimentation, increases in suspended solids, losses of vegetation, accelerated erosion and destabilising of the river banks and increased mobilisation of the sediments resulting in the increases in suspended solids concentrations; There is a distinct impact on the hydraulics of the river with extensions in the width of the river, changes in river flows velocity; Potential hydrocarbon pollution;
143 From a biodiversity perspective the impacts are essentially focussed on the loss of land use and land capability; The food supply problems are linked to threatened survival of the aquatic species and the loss of aquatic and terrestrial floral diversity; Waste generation manifests as impaired aesthetics and the alteration in topography; Air pollution is mainly nuisance noise and dust
The discussions stemming from the risk assessment shows that specific controls and mitigatory measures can be put in place to manage the specific impacts arising from artisanal diamond mining so that these impacts have a minimal influence on the receiving environment. However, from a strategic perspective, there are a host of other controls that must be implemented to manage this impact. The following areas must be addressed: Governmental structures and mining laws Capacity building Environmental regulation
144
7. CONCLUSIONS
The introduction to this study demonstrated that mining in South Africa is vital to the economic stability of the country through it’s 12% contribution to the GDP. Although the contribution of diamond mining to the GDP has not been determined at a local scale, it suffices to note that on a global scale, Africa is one of the major diamond producers in the world, with artisanal diamond mining producing 40% of the total continents production. It is therefore important to note that artisanal diamond mining plays a critical role in the socio-economic development and will remain entrenched as a fundamental process to achieving social reform in South Africa and this has been entrenched in the South African legislation. However, for artisanal diamond mining to be truly sustainable, the environmental impacts must be internalised and managed.
Chapter 1 also established that the large scale diamond mining industry in South Africa is a formal industry and well regulated both internally and by the external regulators, whilst the artisanal diamond mining is less formalised and often operates outside the parameters of legal constraints. This in effect is one the root causes for environmental degradation arising from such activities.
In chapter 2 of this mini-dissertation, it was expounded that there is a significant lack of information available on the environmental impacts of artisanal diamond mining in South Africa, In fact a few studies have been conducted but the research had been concentrated on mainly the water-related impacts. To regulate this industry, one needs to understand the associated environmental problems and the ensuing impacts.
Chapter 3 looked at the history of and background to diamond mining and then artisanal diamond mining in order to broaden the understanding of artisanal diamond mining. Chapter 3.1 was more holistic looking at diamond mining and it’s influence in the South African sustainable development arena. The conclusions were that:
145 The diamond mining plays a pivotal role as a major investment in the economy of South Africa, but this trend is not limited to South Africa, but to other diamondiferous bearing countries like Botswana and Zimbabwe; Artisanal diamond mining is a key contributor currently to the socio-economics of South Africa and that there is a further emphasis by the leaders of the country to use this as a vehicle for creating sustainable livelihoods. Of the total investment artisanal diamond mining contributes anything up to 20% of the African diamond production and at least 10.7% of the South African diamond production, underlining the fact that artisanal diamond mining has a very strong role to play in building the economies of developing countries; Artisanal diamond mining adds further value through job creation having already introduced 20 000 jobs in the Northern Cape province, and with the multiplier effect of these 20 000 jobs, at least 100 000 peoples livelihoods are sustained or improved; In South Africa artisanal diamond mining had increased diamond production in by up to 4.58%. It is for this reason that the White Paper on the Minerals and Petroleum Resources Development Act of 2002 supports artisanal mining in South Africa.
Chapter 3.2 compared large scale diamond mining with artisanal diamond mining. This comparison reflected the following
Large scale diamond mining is highly evolved and very mechanised taking place on a very large scale moving more than the 600 000 tonnes per annum. It makes use of highly skilled personnel and is technologically intensive Large scale diamond mining does in fact have environmental problems that might in fact influence the ecological environment negatively. But controls, whether induced by legislation or self-induced are in place to manage and mitigate the impacts to the receiving environment. The major environmental impacts of large scale mining range from intensive renewable and non-renewable resource consumption, the generation of large
146 waste discards that impact permanently on land use and land capability and could impact on groundwater and surface water quality had it not been rehabilitated adequately. By comparison , artisanal diamond mining is rather primitive, rudimentary , low technology orientated and occurs on a small scale disturbing less than the 600 000 tonnes per annum . It is generally labour intensive and unskilled; Is usually illegal and short term The environmental problems determined by the studies described in Chapter 3.2 are profound and are very much water related and so have the following impacts : o Accelerated erosion close to workings that have been de-vegetated for construction o Increased mobilization of sediments resulting in increases in suspended solids concentrations in the receiving water bodies o Soil erosion o Altering of the river hydraulics due to riverbank destabilization o Acid mine draining, increases in mercury concentrations and increase in suspended solids o Air borne dust, fugitive dust influencing water quality o Destruction of riparian zones and reduced vegetative bank cover o Increased surface areas of discard o Increased mobilization of metals o Loss of arable land due to the lack of rehabilitation. These impacts are usually long term or permanent as there is no rehabilitation of disturbed areas. This research concludes that unbridled artisanal diamond mining occurring outside of the parameters of legal control or corporate environmental responsibility, has damaging effects on the receiving environment and although contributing to the socio-economic elements, it is not sustainable. However, these impacts have been identified through previous studies warranting this dissertation which looks at all elements of the natural environment.
147
The results of the scan of four artisanal diamond mining sites were captured in chapter 4. A site visit to four operations, two in the North West Province and two in the Northern Cape Province had shown that the certain characteristics of artisanal diamond mining common to all operations . The mining is characteristic of limited mechanisation, very small scale and often not impacting surface areas greater than 10 ha; . Artisanal diamond mining is predominantly alluvial and mining takes place within the riparian zone and often within the watercourse itself; . There is no evidence of concurrent rehabilitation taking place and mining operations are usually illegal with mining taking place in the absence of proper impact assessment and environmental management programmes; . Two of the four sites had been located less than 100 m from the nearest communities with the impacts from mining permeating to the local communities. Also significant, is the fact that the communities living in the vicinity of the area practice subsistence agriculture and mining impacts on grazing potential, soil integrity and water quality could adversely impact the community’s ability to sustain itself. Of the four sites, the mining activities in the vicinity of the Vaalbos Nature Reserve is the most sensitive for the following reasons:
o Mining adjacent to a tourist attraction could affect the economics by retarding tourism. o The mining activities are separated from a National Park by the Vaal River and the activity does in fact destroy much of the natural vegetation and impinges on the animal biodiversity as well. o The park accommodates a wide array of animal species and the carrying capacity of the area is threatened by the removal of the vegetation.
148 o Mining within the watercourse has altered the hydrology and river flow and in fact altered the river dynamics and the aquatic biodiversity.
A synopsis of the environmental problems and impacts relating to artisanal diamond mining at all four sites showed the following commonalities: Air Pollution Problems: o Localised dust emissions from the processing plants but seeing as the mining and processing systems is a wet process, the dust is very minimal. o Nuisance noise had indeed been observed at all sites Water Pollution Problems: o The artisanal mining activities had impacted on the fitness for use of the water through the deterioration in water quality arising from the sedimentation and erosion induced by the unstable river banks. The alteration in the water quality and the river morphology could impact on the fitness for use by downstream users. o Other water pollution impacts included alteration in the hydraulics of the river and Biodiversity Depletion and food supply problems: o Habitat degradation is the key impact with all four sites showing the presence of some degree of mechanisation and discard dumps have led to deterioration in the aesthetic quality especially at the Nature Reserve where the mining activities are visible from the picnic and accommodation areas. The land capability and land- use is also altered permanently as the waste deposits at all sites showed significant land disturbances and loss of faunal and floral diversity. The alteration of the hydrology and chemistry of the watercourse does present challenges to the survival of the aquatic fauna and flora.
In pages 106-146 of this mini-dissertation, the results of the comprehensive risk assessment on an artisanal diamond mine on the banks of the Vaal River on the periphery of the Vaalbos nature reserve were discussed. The discussion centred around the The following were the major risks to the environment:
149 Water related impacts have been seen as high risk, particularly the water quality impacts, impacts associated with sedimentation and alteration in the river dynamics; Groundwater pollution is a is also a high risk given the high water table close to and within the river environment. Alteration in the topography as there is a permanent feature given that artisanal diamond miners do not rehabilitate the surface areas of the mining operations post mining; Loss of land use and loss of land capability is another major risk given the permanence of artisanal diamond mining operations; Floral biodiversity is seen as a high risk seeing as the deliberate destruction of the riparian floral environment during mining activities is a permanent feature given the inertia to rehabilitate. Soil erosion and the loss of topsoil is seen as a medium risk to the environment as is the loss of the faunal biodiversity Air pollution and environmental noise are low risk
From an assessment of the risks it is clearly evident that operational controls can be put into place to manage the high risks that emanate as major impacts. For the management of the visual aesthetics component, concurrent rehabilitation of the waste and residue disposal facilities is absolutely imperative. To prevent the cumulative impacts to the aesthetics, the number of deposits should be minimized and consolidated into a single dump.
In terms of the land use and land capability impacts, land clearing and clean-up and the rehabilitation of the surface area will ensure the land is restored to it’s natural environment as far as possible thus ensuring minimal impact to the land-use and carrying capacity of the land. In order to manage and remediate the impacts to the vegetation, the land must be re-vegetated with indigenous vegetation. This will also improve the aesthetics as the local environment will blend in with the previous
150 mining environment and the remnants of mining which in essence are the waste disposal facilities.
The controls for managing the soils include establishing bundwalls for the storage of hazardous chemicals and hydrocarbons. This ensures that spillages are contained within the bunded areas to minimise contamination to the soils. The added advantage is that the groundwater is also protected from contamination, as the spillages are contained within the bunded areas. The impacts to the surface water environment can be averted by implementing a temporary river diversion prior to mining taking place and the removal of the river diversion post mining.
There is very little that can be done to manage the impact to the topography and apart from sound engineering and design of the deposits so that they blends in with the natural environment, but the most significant management measure is to minimise the cumulative impact by reducing the number of deposits within the mining area and adjacent mining areas.
The recommended mitigatory measures are that concurrent rehabilitation be undertaken and that this must be done in accordance with the prevailing legislation. This means that the Department of Minerals and Energy must make certain that they have the necessary resources to enforce the legislation more stringently and to provide the necessary training to ensure the miners are equipped to practice responsibly.
151
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