One of the Most Striking Aspects of the Clovis Period Is the Enigmatic Caches That Occur Throughout the Western United States

J. David Kilby Candidate Anthropology Department This dissertation is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm: Approved by the Dissertation Committee: , Chairperson Accepted: Dean, Graduate School Date AN INVESTIGATION OF CLOVIS CACHES: CONTENT, FUNCTION, AND TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION BY J. DAVID KILBY B.A., Anthropology, Appalachian State University, 1992 M.A., Anthropology, Eastern New Mexico University, 1998 DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Anthropology The University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico July, 2008 ©2008, David Kilby iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Bruce Huckell, who provided focus, support, and guidance throughout the pursuit of my doctorate, along with dissertation co-chair, Dr. Lawrence Straus, and committee members Drs. Chip Wills and David Meltzer (Southern Methodist University). This research would not have been possible without the access to collections, sites, and information provided by both archaeological professionals and non- archaeologists. I wish to thank Michael Collins (University of Texas) for access to the Keven Davis and de Graffenried collections, as well information and guidance along the way; Joanne Dickenson and John Montgomery (Eastern New Mexico University) for access to assemblages from Blackwater Draw; Dan Busse (Bird City, Kansas) and Jack Hofman (University of Kansas) for access to the Busse assemblage; Dennis Stanford and Peggi Jodry (Smithsonian Institution) for access to the Drake and Anzick assemblages; Mel Franey and family (Crawford, Nebraska) for access to the Franey assemblage; Marjory Duncan, Laura Moffett, and Don Wyckoff (University of Oklahoma) for access to the Garland assemblage; Lynette Miller (Washington State Historical Society) and Laura Philips (Burke Museum) for access to the East Wenatchee assemblage; Mark Mullins (Colorado) for access to the Crook County, Fenn, de Graffenried and Bastrop County assemblages; Michael Waters (Texas A&M) for access to the Bastrop County assemblage; Eileen Johnson (Texas Tech University) for access to the Green cache; C. Vance Haynes, Jr. (University of Arizona) for access to the Murray Springs collection; Ross Pelland and family (International Falls, Minnesota) for access to the Pelland assemblage; Ima June Helton (McPherson, Kansas) and Jack Conover (Satanta, Kansas) iv for access to the Sailor-Helton assemblage; Marcel Kornfeld and George Frison (University of Wyoming) for access to the Sheaman assemblage; Jim Woods and Phyllis Oppenheim (College of Southern Idaho), Lynn Murdock (Idaho Museum of Natural History), and Don Simon (Fairfield, Idaho) for access to the Simon assemblage; and Brenda Martin (Fort Collins Museum) and Bob Patten for access to the Watts assemblage. Many of these people not only provided access to archaeological information, but also generously shared their workspaces, families, ranches, and homes with me during my research. Financial support for this research was provided by a National Science Foundation Dissertation Improvement Grant, with further support from a University of Wyoming George C. Frison Institute Junior Paleoindian Grant, a Smithsonian Institution Visitorship, a UNM Department of Anthropology Hibben Senior Fellowship, and a UNM Maxwell Museum of Anthropology Ethel-Jane Westfeldt Bunting Research Fellowship. The aid of these institutions is gratefully acknowledged. I am particularly thankful for and indebted to Larry and Cheryl Kilby, Ben Kilby, and Anacarmen Guambana for their strong and unending support, patience, and belief in me. v AN INVESTIGATION OF CLOVIS CACHES: CONTENT, FUNCTION, AND TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION BY J. DAVID KILBY ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Anthropology The University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico July, 2008 AN INVESTIGATION OF CLOVIS CACHES: CONTENT, FUNCTION, AND TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION by J. David Kilby B.A., Anthropology, Appalachian State University, 1992 M.A., Anthropology, Eastern New Mexico University, 1998 Ph.D., Anthropology, University of New Mexico, 2008 ABSTRACT One of the most striking aspects of the Clovis period is the enigmatic caches that occur throughout the western United States. Clovis caches clearly convey an impressive degree of skill and artistry that often seems to set them apart from other Clovis assemblages, despite the fact that they reflect the same general technology. The fundamental characteristic that differentiates cache assemblages from other Clovis assemblages is that the artifacts from caches do not appear to have been abandoned because they were worn out or broken, but instead appear to have been removed from the system at earlier stages in their potential use-lives. For this reason, Clovis caches have more than aesthetic value; they provide a unique window into Clovis economy and lithic technology. Despite decades of research that incorporates cached Clovis material, little has been done toward systematically comparing these assemblages to one another and to other Clovis sites. The fundamental goals of this dissertation are to undertake such vii comparisons in order to ascertain the function(s) of caches and to develop a more complete understanding of their role in the organization of Clovis technology. This dissertation investigates 22 assemblages proposed to be Clovis caches. Sixteen assemblages are identified as meeting both the criteria set forth to define a cache and to assign Clovis affiliation. These 16 Clovis caches are analyzed with regard to artifact form, remnant utility, evidence of use, lithic raw materials, cache context, and associated materials for comparison with specific expectations derived for cache functions identified through ethnographic and archaeological research. Comparable data from Clovis kill and camp sites are integrated with those from caches to determine the forms in which raw materials were transported and to estimate the relative economic value of individual Clovis caches. The results of this dissertation indicate that no single function is sufficient to explain the existence of assemblages identified as Clovis caches. Clovis caches appear to have served a number of functions for those that placed them. The results do argue for a clear distinction between two primary functional classes: ritual and utilitarian caches. The afterlife cache is the single variety of ritual cache identified here. Utilitarian caches compare favorably to insurance, load exchange, and seasonal/passive gear. Geographic patterning in caches and cache functions further suggests that caching was adapted to meet regionally specific conditions, and was not utilized at all in some regions. Regional variation in cache function, along with trends in the movement of lithic raw material, are used to argue that Clovis caches are not associated with the process of colonization, but instead represent solutions to known environmental conditions. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. XII LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. XIV CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE ....................................................................................... 1 CLOVIS CACHES AND THE STUDY OF TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION ..................................................... 3 ORGANIZATION OF THIS DISSERTATION ...................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2: CLOVIS SUBSISTENCE, MOBILITY, ORGANIZATION, AND TECHNOLOGY .. 8 SUBSISTENCE .............................................................................................................................................. 8 MOBILITY AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION .................................................................................................... 10 CLOVIS LITHIC TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 12 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS UPON ORGANIZATION AND MOBILITY: RESOURCE INCONGRUITY ......... 15 CLOVIS SITES ............................................................................................................................................ 16 Kill Sites ............................................................................................................................................... 16 Camp Sites ........................................................................................................................................... 19 Quarry Sites ......................................................................................................................................... 20 Cache Sites........................................................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER 3: CACHES AND CACHING IN THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD ...................... 26 PREVIOUS INTERPRETATIONS OF CLOVIS CACHE FUNCTION ..................................................................... 26 ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO CACHING ......................................................................................... 30 EXPECTATIONS FOR INTERPRETING THE FUNCTION OF CLOVIS CACHES

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