THE CONSERVATION OF GREEN SEA
TURTLES (Cheloniidae: Chelonia mydas) AT
SETIU, TERENGGANU, MALAYSIA
AINI HASANAH BINTI ABD MUTALIB
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
2014 THE CONSERVATION OF GREEN SEA
TURTLES (Cheloniidae: Chelonia mydas) AT
SETIU, TERENGGANU, MALAYSIA
by
AINI HASANAH BINTI ABD MUTALIB
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
FEBRUARY 2014
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah, the most beneficent, the most merciful.
As I compose this, I am truly indebted to several people that help me throughout the publication of this thesis. Millions of thanks to the Department of
Fisheries (DOF) Malaysia and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Malaysia for permission to obtain data collection and to collaborate their research at Setiu,
Terengganu. It is an honourable experience to have worked with these two organizations that are prominent in the conservation of marine turtles in Malaysia.
I would like to extend my gratitude to my main supervisor, Dr Nik Fadzly bin
Nik Rosely for his tremendous support and guidance throughout the whole project. I would also like to thank my co-supervisor, Dr Amirrudin Ahmad for his advice and guidance. Thank you to Miss Rahayu Zulkifli, Miss Nurolhuda Nasir, Mr River Foo,
Mr Allim Jamaluddin, and Mr Ooi Ying Cheing from WWF Malaysia for their help and support. The success of this project is also made possible with the help of volunteers, interns, hatchery personnel rangers from WWF Malaysia, as well as villagers of Setiu and for this I am truly grateful for their help.
This research is financially supported by Universiti Sains Malaysia through a short term grant entitled “Nesting Ecology and Behaviour of Green Marine Turtles in Setiu Terengganu” 304/PBIOLOGI/6313018.The thesis was improved by suggestions and comments from anonymous reviewers. Also, thank you to Majlis
Amanah Rakyat (MARA) for providing financial support for my study.
ii
I would like to dedicate this thesis to my beloved family for their endless support. I am truly thankful for having such a strong ‘back-up system’ that keeps me going all the way, especially to my mother. Thanks are also due to my best friends,
Siti Nor Asikin Kamalzaman, Nurul Afiqah Shamsuddin, Nur Syamimi Suhaimi and
Najihah Ibrahim for their encouragement and kind words.
“Unless someone like you cares a whole lot, nothing is going to get better. It’s not.”
-Dr Seuss, The Lorax
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iv
LIST OF TABLES ...... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...... x
ABSTRAK ...... xiii
ABSTRACT ...... xv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1
1.1 Introduction to Chelonian: General Insight on Taxonomy, Distribution, Dietary and Threats ...... 1
1.2 Conservation Efforts for the Survival of Green Sea Turtles ...... 3
1.3 Aims of Study ...... 6
1.4 Organization of Thesis ...... 7
CHAPTER 2: GENERAL LITERATURE REVIEW………………………….. 10
2.1 Study Areas ...... 10
2.1.1 Nesting Beaches ...... 11
2.1.2 Demographic Structures ...... 13
2.1.3 Rainfall and Temperature ...... 13
2.2 Closer Look on Species: Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) ...... 16
2.2.1 Taxonomy and Physical Description of Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas)17
2.2.2 Growth and Life Stages ...... 20
2.2.3 Reproduction and Breeding ...... 23
2.2.4 Distribution and Habitat ...... 26
2.2.5 Food and Dietary ...... 26
iv
2.2.6 Green Turtle Products ...... 28
2.2.7 Threats to Green Sea Turtles ...... 30
CHAPTER 3: NESTING ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF GREEN SEA
TURTLES ...... 33
3.1 Introduction ...... 33
3.2 Methodology ...... 34
3.2.1 Study Site Description ...... 34
3.2.2 Plots Marking and Mapping ...... 37
3.2.3 Intensive Nocturnal Survey ...... 37
3.2.4 Measurement of Female Green Sea Turtles and Egg Collection ...... 38
3.2.5 Statistical Analysis and Geographical Integrating Service (GIS) Mapping39
3.3 Result ...... 40
3.3.1 Distribution Nesting Records in Setiu from 2007 until 2012 ...... 40
3.3.2 Correlation of clutch size with curved carapace length (CCL)...... 46
3.3.3 Emergence Hour ...... 46
3.3.4 False Crawls Attempt and Successive Nesting Activities ...... 47
3.4 Discussion ...... 49
3.4.1 Overall Evaluation of Nesting Records in Setiu from 2007 until 2012 .. 49
3.4.2 Clutch Size Relationship to Curved Carapace Length ...... 52
3.4.3 Emergence Hour ...... 53
3.4.4 False Crawls Attempt and Successive Nesting Activities ...... 54
CHAPTER 4: HATCHERY IMPLEMENTATION AS CONSERVATION
TOOL FOR GREEN SEA TURTLES ...... 60
4.1 Introduction ...... 60
v
4.2 Method ...... 63
4.2.1 Study Sites of Relocation ...... 63
4.2.2 Incubation at the Hatchery and in Styrofoam Boxes ...... 65
4.2.3 Emergence of the Hatchlings ...... 66
4.2.4 Release of the Hatchlings to the Sea ...... 67
4.2.5 Excavation of the Nests ...... 68
4.2.6 Statistical Analysis ...... 68
4.3 Result ...... 69
4.4 Discussion ...... 73
CHAPTER 5: GROWTH AND CARAPACIAL SCUTE VARIATION OF
HATCHLING: A REFLECTION ON ITS SURVIVAL RATE ...... 80
5.1 Introduction ...... 80
5.2 Methodology ...... 84
5.2.1 Study Site ...... 84
5.2.2 Hatchling’s Management at the Hatchery ...... 87
5.2.3 Carapacial Scute Variation on Hatchling’s Carapace ...... 88
5.2.4 Releasing the Hatchlings and Excavation of the Nests ...... 89
5.2.5 Statistical Analysis of Data ...... 90
5.3 Result ...... 91
5.3.1 Size of Hatchlings by Using Straight Curve Length (SCL), Straight
Curve Width (SCW) and Body Weight ...... 91
5.3.2 Comparison of Measurement of Normal Hatchlings with Hatchlings with
Carapacial Scute Variation ...... 91
5.3.3 Carapacial Scute Variation on Hatchlings’ Carapace ...... 93
5.4 Discussion ...... 96
vi
CHAPTER 6: GENERAL PERCEPTIONS AND AWARENESS LEVEL OF
LOCAL COMMUNITY REGARDING TURTLE CONSERVATION
EFFORTS BASED ON AGE FACTORS AND GENDER ...... 100
6.1 Introduction ...... 100
6.2 Materials and Method ...... 103
6.3 Result ...... 106
6.3.1 Demographic Studies ...... 106
6.3.2 Assessment Based on Gender ...... 106
6.3.3 Assessment Based on Age Groups ...... 108
6.3.4 Trends of Egg Turtle Consumption ...... 109
6.4 Discussion ...... 115
6.4.1 Assessment on Age Groups and Gender ...... 115
6.4.2 Consumption Trends of Local Citizens ...... 117
6.4.3 On-Going Turtle Conservation Measures in Setiu ...... 120
6.4.4 Recommendation ...... 122
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………... 126
REFERENCE ...... 130
APPENDICES ...... 142
Appendix A: Data Sheet during Intensive Nocturnal Field Observation ...... 143
Appendix B: Observation of Vegetation and Human Land-Use and Activities throughout Every Plot...... 144
Appendix C: Description and Classification Nest Sites ...... 146
Appendix D: Data Sheet on Successive Hatching Rate in the Hatchery ...... 147
Appendix E: Datasheet on Excavation Activity ...... 148
vii
Appendix F: Data Sheet on Hatchling’s Growth and Variation Carapacial Scute .. 149
Appendix G: Marking Scheme of Survey Integration ...... 150
Appendix H: Official letter from Department of Fisheries, Malaysia ...... 153
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ...... 154
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Length of nesting beaches in Setiu ...... 12
Table 5.1: SCL, SCW and body weight of the hatchlings from all locations (The different letter in supernumerary denotes significant difference between the means).
...... 91
Table 5.2: SCL, SCW and body weight of hatchlings based on categories of carapacial scute variation...... 92
Table 5.3: Summary of carapacial scute variation on hatchlings’ carapace ...... 93
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Total rainfall from March 2012- October 2012 (mm) ...... 14
Figure 2.2: Daily maximum temperature (°C) from March 2012- October 2012...... 14
Figure 2.3: Daily minimum temperature (°C) from March 2012- October 2012...... 15
Figure 2.4: Classification of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) (Rebel, 1974) ...... 18
Figure 2.5: a) Structure of carapace of green turtles, showing the costal scutes and vertebral scutes. b) Head of green turtle, showing prefrontal scale and postorbital scale, c) Anteriorly rounded head, d) Plastron of green turtle, which is usually white in colour. (Eckert et al., 1999c) ...... 19
Figure 2.6: Type 2 of life history patterns of sea turtles (Bolten, 2003a) ...... 20
Figure 3.1: Map of the study site at Setiu, Terengganu ...... 36
Figure 3.2: Nesting distribution according to the beaches in six years (2007-2012).
Abbreviations are defined as followed: “KBS” = Kuala Baharu Selatan, “MSK”=
Mengabang Sekepeng, “KBU” = Kuala Baharu Utara, “KTC” = Kuala Tok Cha,
“N/A”= Not Available, “TP”= Telaga Papan...... 40
Figure 3.3: Distribution of successful nesting activities based on months ...... 41
Figure 3.4: Spatial distribution in Setiu in 2012 ...... 42
Figure 3.5: Distribution of successful nesting activities in Telaga Papan Beach
(2012)...... 43
Figure 3.6: One way analysis of successful nesting activities based on plots in TP beaches recorded in 2012...... 44
Figure 3.7: Coastal areas and sites of successful nesting activities in Setiu in 2012. 45
Figure 3.8: Clutch size (n) versus curved carapace length (cm)...... 46
Figure 3.9: Mean percentage of emergence hour ...... 47
x
Figure 3.10: False crawls (n) against successive nesting activities (n) ...... 48
Figure 3.11: Beach pollution along the Telaga Papan beach ...... 56
Figure 3.12: Example of tar ball observed in Telaga Papan beach ...... 57
Figure 4.1: Location of the beach ...... 64
Figure 4.2: Successive hatching rate based on beaches ...... 70
Figure 4.3: Successive hatching rate based on year ...... 70
Figure 4.4: Successive hatching rate based on beaches (2012) ...... 71
Figure 4.5 : Egg conditions...... 72
Figure 4.6 : Duration of incubation based on type of hatchery ...... 73
Figure 4.7 : Successive hatching rate based on type of hatchery ...... 73
Figure 5.1: The scute on the carapace of green sea turtles...... 82
Figure 5.2: Map of the study site in Setiu ...... 86
Figure 5.3: Measurement of SCL and SCW of the hatchlings (Wyneken &
Witherington, 2001) ...... 88
Figure 5.4: Number of hatchlings with variation carapacial scutes against the relocation time (minutes)...... 95
Figure 6.1: Study sites of survey collection in Setiu, Terengganu, Malaysia...... 104
Figure 6.2: Mean marks of the respondents based on gender...... 107
Figure 6.3: Mean marks of the respondents based on age factors...... 108
Figure 6.4: Trend of egg consumption...... 110
Figure 6.5: Consumption trends based on age factors and gender. The red colour shows respondents that never consumed turtle eggs, the green indicates the respondents that used to consume but have stopped, and the blue colour shows the respondents that are still consuming turtle eggs...... 111
Figure 6.6: Reasons on consuming marine turtle eggs...... 113
xi
Figure 6.7: Reasons on stopping to consume turtle eggs...... 114
Figure 6.8: Turtle eggs being sold in the market ...... 119
xii
PEMULIHARAAN PENYU AGAR, (Cheloniidae: Chelonia mydas) DI SETIU, TERENGGANU, MALAYSIA
ABSTRAK
Kajian tentang ekologi sarang dan perlakuan penyu agar (Chelonia mydas) telah dijalankan di Setiu. Kajian ini meliputi taburan, sifat sarang, saiz sarang, morfologi penyu bertelur, percubaan membuat sarang palsu, aktiviti bertelur yang berjaya dan waktu kemunculan. Kedua, pengurusan tapak penetasan di Setiu dinilai melalui nilai penetasan berjaya, tempoh pengeraman dan keadaan telur. Seterusnya, kajian ini menilai tumbesaran dan variasi skut karapas anak penyu berdasarkan tempoh pemindahan dari pantai ke tapak penetasan. Kajian terakhir menentukan tahap kesedaran orang awam di Setiu tentang pemuliharaan penyu berdasarkan kumpulan umur dan jantina orang awam yang meliputi tahap pemakanan telur penyu, dan trend pemakanan telur penyu dan pembahagiannya serta justifikasi yang mendorong ke arah trend pemakanan telur penyu tersebut. Data ekologi dan perlakuan dikutip sejak 2007 hingga 2012. Salah satu pantai (Telaga Papan) telah diberi fokus berdasarkan data yang dikutip pada 2012. Telaga Papan secara signifikannya mencatatkan taburan yang paling tinggi berbanding lima pantai yang lain (ANOVA, F 5, 42 = 8.87, p < 0.0001, mean = 36.75 ± 3.73). Tahun 2012 mencatatkan rekod sarang yang paling tinggi (min = 28.71 ± 6.58). Tiada korelasi antara saiz penyu bertelur dengan saiz sarang (rs = 0.23, p = 0.14, p > 0.05). Majoriti individu mendarat pada pukul 12.00 hingga 12.59 pagi (23%). Terdapat korelasi yang kuat antara aktiviti bertelur yang berjaya dengan percubaan membuat sarang palsu (rs= 0.8827, p= 0.0198). Kajian menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan signifikan terhadap jumlah penetasan yang berjaya antara tahun 2009 hingga 2012 (F3, 618 =
5.05, P = 0.002). Tiada perbezaan signifikan untuk jumlah penetasan yang berjaya
xiii
antara lokasi pantai daripada tahun 2009 hingga 2012 (F4, 618= 1.06, P = 0.39).
Majoriti daripada telur yang dieram berjaya ditetaskan (73.9%) dan secara keseluruhan, paling sedikit peratusan telur yang dimusnahkan oleh pemangsa semulajadi (0.5%). Jumlah penetasan berjaya paling tinggi dan signifikan dalam hatcheri tertutup (mean = 86. 84 ± 2.74, F2, 202 = 7.75, p = 0.0006). Tempoh pengeraman paling rendah secara signifikan dalam hatcheri terbuka (min = 47.24 ±
0.62, F 2, 202 = 27.81, p < 0.0001). Dalam kajian tentang tumbesaran anak penyu, anak penyu dari Kuala Baharu Utara (KBU) dan Mengabang Sekepeng (MSK) lebih besar secara signifikan dalam ukuran panjang lengkung lurus, lebar lengkung lurus, dan berat (F= 40.07, p<0.05). Saiz anak penyu yang normal lebih besar daripada anak penyu yang mempunyai kepelbagaian skut atas karapas (χ2 = 37.75, p < 0.05).
Kajian terakhir menilai tahap kesedaran tentang penyu agar berdasarkan kumpulan umur dan jantina antara penduduk di Setiu, Terengganu (yang juga merupakan lokasi eko-perlancongan popular di Malaysia). Responden lelaki mempunyai tahap kesedaran lebih tinggi secara signifikan berbanding wanita (min = 28.86 ± 0.49,
(F1,770= 16.69, p < 0.001)). Penilaian berdasarkan kumpulan umur menunjukkan responden lebih tua mempunyai tahap kesedaran lebih rendah berbanding kumpulan umur yang lain (min = 21.19 ±1.06, (F1, 770= 8.97, p <0.001)). Hasil kajian tentang pemakanan telur penyu menunjukkan kebanyakan rakyat tempatan sudah pun berhenti makan telur penyu. Pengurusan dan perancangan yang berintegrasi tentang pemuliharaan penyu agar perlu diadakan di Setiu. Hal ini termasuklah kajian biologi dan pemantauan, kelas kemahiran dan latihan intensif, program pendidikan dan kesedaran, perlaksanaan polisi dan undang undang, kerjasama antara agensi kerajaan dengan badan bukan kerajaan dan lain lain lagi.
xiv
THE CONSERVATION OF GREEN SEA TURTLES, (Cheloniidae: Chelonia mydas) AT SETIU, TERENGGANU, MALAYSIA
ABSTRACT
This study conservation of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) at Setiu was studied by determining their distribution, nest characteristics, clutch size, nesting morphology of the nesting green turtles, false crawl attempts, successful nesting attempts and emergence hour. Hatchery management was also facilitated by measuring the successive hatching rate, duration of incubation, egg condition, hatchlings’ growth and hatchlings’ carapacial scutes variation. This study also assessed socio-demographic aspect on the trends of consuming turtle eggs.
Secondary data on nesting ecology and behaviour were collected from 2007 to 2012.
Data on successful hatching rate and days of incubation were collected from 2009 to
2012. Hatchlings’ growth and carapacial scute variation were determined in the year
2012. Survey forms were collected from the communities in Setiu to assess their level of awareness regarding green sea turtle conservation. Telaga Papan has significantly the highest distribution of green marine turtle nesting than the other five beaches (ANOVA, F 5, 42 = 8.87, p< 0.0001). The highest number of successful nesting attempts was in 2012 (mean = 28.71 ± 6.58). There was no correlation between size of the female turtles and the number of eggs (rs = 0.23, p = 0.14). The majority of the turtles landed between 1200h and 0159h (23%). There was a strong correlation between successful nesting attempts with false crawls (rs= 0.88, p= 0.02).
Results show that there was a significant difference in successive hatching rate between the years (F3, 618 = 5.05, P = 0.002). There was no significant difference for successive hatching rates among the beaches over the four years (F4, 618= 1.06, P =
0.39). The majority of the eggs were successively hatched in 2012 (73.9%), with the
xv
least number of eggs consumed by natural predators (0.5%). Successive hatching rate was significantly higher in shaded hatchery (mean = 86. 84 ± 2.741, F2,202 = 7.75, p =
0.0006). Duration of the incubation is significantly was shorter in open hatcheries (F
2, 202 = 27.81, p < 0.0001). In the study of hatchling’s growth, hatchlings from Kuala
Baharu Utara (KBU) and Mengabang Sekepeng (MSK) were significantly larger in straight curve length (SCL), straight curve width (SCW) and body weight (F= 40.07, p<0.05). Normal hatchlings were significantly larger than those with carapacial scute variation (χ2 = 37.75, p < 0.05). The awareness level among male respondents was significantly higher level of awareness compared to female (F1, 770= 16.69, p <
0.001). On the age factor, older respondents scored significantly lowest than other age groups (F1, 770= 8.97, p < 0.001). Results on turtle eggs consumption showed that most of the locals had stopped consuming. In conclusion, it is suggested that an integrated planning and management on conservation of green sea turtles to be done in Setiu. More progressive biological research and monitoring, with intensive trainings and classes, community development programs, stricter law implementation, with strong collaboration of government and non-government organization must be continuously done in order to conserve green turtles.
xvi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to Chelonian: General Insight on Taxonomy, Distribution,
Dietary and Threats
The order Testudines comprises terrapins, tortoises, sea turtles and soft-shell turtles (System, 2013). Turtles are ancient reptile that survived the evolutionary years, and almost considered as living dinosaurs (Frazier et al., 2003). Members of the order Testudines have bony plates of the outer surface of the body, except for soft-shell turtles that have rubbery or leathery skin covering their small bones
(Scheyer et al., 2007). Turtles have shell (also known as carapace) that may or may not be covered with horny shields. The ventral part of the turtle’s body is called plastron (Eckert et al., 1999c).
The turtles’ common names are usually associated with their habitat.
Terrapins and soft-shell turtles are turtles that inhabit brackish and freshwater, while tortoises live on land. Sea turtles on the other hand, are described as turtles that inhabit the marine ecosystem. These members of Testudines require a longer maturity period, do not provide parental care and produce large amounts of eggs to compensate the high mortality rate during the egg and juvenile phase (Cox, 1998;
Rebel, 1974; Hendrickson, 1980).
Sea turtles are Cryptodirans (a suborder of Testudines, although they have lost the ability to conceal their head) and are found in tropical and subtropical oceans of the world. Overall, there are seven species of sea turtles, which are the leatherback
1
turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), loggerhead
(Caretta caretta), Kemp’s ridley turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), and flatback turtle
(Natator depressus). Only the first four of the aforementioned species are found in the coastal areas of Malaysia.
It appears that sea turtles face more challenges than the other two chelonians.
The ocean environment requires its inhabitant to have a more efficient system of mobility. Adaptations such as elongated front flippers ensure a more efficient swimming speed, helping the sea turtles to survive in the raging ocean environment.
However, this limb modification seems to cause awkwardness for the sea turtles whenever they are on the land (especially female sea turtles that land for nesting purposes).
Green turtle is widely distributed within 35° north latitude and 35° south latitude (Spotila et al., 2000; Spotila, 2004; Rebel, 1974). Despite its expanded distribution, this species is globally classified as ‘endangered’ (IUCN, 2012). Green turtle is aptly named due to the fat under its carapace is green in colour. Green turtles’ have various coloration (such as greenish black or brown to grey), while the plastron’s colour is always white (Eckert et al., 1999c; Hendrickson, 1980). It is highly migratory and has an approximately 3-year interval of nesting activity. Green turtles return to their natal sea/ beach after reaching maturity (45-50 years old) (Allen
& Edwards, 1995). The body parts such as meat are usually exploited for food (Cox,
1998).
2
1.2 Conservation Efforts for the Survival of Green Sea Turtles
Conservation, as defined by Adams (2004), is defined as ‘preservations and protection of living nature; species, habitats and ecosystem’. According to IUCN
(2009) conservation is ‘the management of human use of organisms or ecosystems to ensure such use is sustainable. Besides sustainable use, conservation includes protection, maintenance, rehabilitation, restoration and enhancement of populations and ecosystems. In a work related to sustainable fisheries in Canada, conservation is listed as one of the aspects besides social and economic values that determine the fate of the natural resource (Olver et al., 1995).
This study was part of a conservation effort of green sea turtles at Setiu,
Terengganu. Prior to realizing this effort, the role of green sea turtles need to be understood in the functions and structure of ecosystems (Center et al., 1984). The importance of sustaining this species can be seen from its ecological roles. Firstly, feeding activities of green sea turtles can ensure stability in the marine and coral reef ecosystem. Green sea turtles are commonly found in shallow waters, feeding exclusively on sea grass (Wilson et al., 2010). Adult green sea turtles are more selective than the juveniles, in which that the latter are more omnivorous than the former (Arthur et al., 2008). Sea turtles constantly feed on the middle sections of the seagrass, causing the oldest and upper part of the vegetation to drift away. This action will improve the productivity and nutrient cycling in the coral reef ecosystem.
As the blades of the seagrass are removed, the shading effect at the bottom of ocean bed is reduced, which in turn hinders the growth of microbes (fungi and algae). In addition, the constant grazing guarantees that the ocean currents will not be clogged
(Spotila, 2004; Bjorndal, 1980).
3
Nesting activities of sea turtles can also improve the nutrient contents of dunes on of the beach, especially by the unhatched sea turtle eggs and natural predation (Wilson et al., 2010). This supply of nutrients (such as phosphorus and nitrogen) will enhance the beach vegetation, therefore, reducing beach erosion, and improve their own nesting habitats (Wilson et al., 2010). For example, flow of nutrients, such as organic matter, energy, lipids, nitrogen, phosphorus along a 21-km nesting area in Melbourne Beach were due to nesting activities (Bouchard &
Bjorndal, 2000). Nutrients are recycled through four phases: (1) through hatched eggs (remaining of embryonic fluid and eggshell), (2) unhatched eggs (entering the detrital food chain), (3) natural predation, and (4) root penetration (absorbance of nutrients by the plant through the unhatched eggs) (Bouchard & Bjorndal, 2000;
Wilson et al., 2010). Increase of community dynamics can be accomplished by having sea turtles to nest at the beach, which expands the egg matter and nest organism to the dunes (Wilson et al., 2010).
Conserving green sea turtles could help maintain a healthy food web interaction in the coral ecosystem. In general, barnacles or epibionts will latch onto sea turtles while drifting in the sea. This will attract bigger organisms (e.g. fish and shrimp) to feed on these barnacles and epibionts. Sea turtles are also described as
‘feeding station’ for them (Wilson et al., 2010; Sazima et al., 2004). Not only does it provide food for the fish, this activity would clean the body parts of sea turtles and reduce the load that is carried by the sea turtles. Another example of sea turtles’ contribution towards maintaining the food web interaction is natural predation.
Natural predation of sea turtles usually occurs during the egg and hatchling phases, returning the nutrient flow back to the beach. Eggs usually predated by land
4
predators, such as monitor lizards, ants, and ghost crabs, while hatchlings are predated by bigger fish (Wetterer & Lombard, 2010; Bouchard & Bjorndal, 2000).
Male and female green sea turtles have been reported to bask on the beach, but this activity was observed at certain coastal regions especially in Hawaiian Island
(Whittow & Balazs, 1982; Balazs, 1976). Sea turtles allow seabirds to perch on their carapace while basking. These seabirds seek protection from the attack of the sharks, and gain food from the school of fish that are formed underneath the turtle’s carapace
(Spotila et al., 2000).
Sea turtles are a significant might be an immense cultural asset to society in certain regions. In China, sea turtles are an epitome of longevity due to its migratory nature and long lifespan. Hunting and exploitation of turtles are required to improve one’s social status in some countries, such as Mexico, Kenya, Nicaragua and Tahiti
(Frazier, 1999). The turtle hunting is also being culturally practiced by locals in
Indonesia, as part of their traditional belief. Body parts of turtles such as meat and eggs are consumed by the locals in Malaysia, Indonesia, China and Mexico among others as part of their diet routine (Senko et al., 2009; Chan & Shepherd, 2002).
Globally, sea turtles contribute huge economic impact in terms of tourism industry (Tisdell & Wilson, 2002; Wilson & Tisdell, 2001; Tisdell & Wilson, 2001).
Ecotourism that involves sea turtles has been practised in several parts of the globe, such as at Mon Repos (Australia) (Tisdell & Wilson, 2001), Setiu, Terengganu
(Malaysia) (Abd Mutalib et al., 2013; WWF, 2007, 2009), Tortugeuro (Costa Rica) and others. However, this industry could negatively affect the population of sea turtles without control, proper planning and sound management. Strong light and noise pollution at the beach front hotels and resorts could deter nesting female
5
marine turtles from landing and affect the emergence of hatchlings to the sea. Thus, the term ecotourism is introduced as part of non-consumptive tourism activity based on wildlife (Wilson & Tisdell, 2001; Tisdell & Wilson, 2001).
1.3 Aims of Study
Conservation of sea turtles is crucial in sustaining the population and maintaining their role in the marine ecosystem. At this moment, leatherback turtles are perilously making their way towards extinction since it is classified as globally critically endangered by the Red List of International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN). Conservation efforts need to be improved, especially on our dearth of information regarding its current status. Consequently, a proper set of effective and efficient strategies needs to be implemented to ensure the sustainability of this species.
This study provides initial information and evaluation of green sea turtles conservation at Setiu, Terengganu. Apart from being an important nesting site in the
East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, conservation of green sea turtles in this area is hatchery-related and focuses on protection of its beaches. We described these two aspects in this study. Community-based conservation and ecotourism are emphasized, and their importance in striking a balance and socioeconomic growths between sustaining natural resources (specifically green sea turtles). The objectives of the study are as follow:
(i) To determine the nesting ecology and behaviour of green sea turtles at Setiu
by determining their distribution, nest characteristics, clutch size,
6
morphology of the nesting green turtles, false crawl attempts, successful
nesting attempts and emergence hour.
(ii) To facilitate the management of the hatchery by measuring the successive
hatching rate, duration of incubation, egg condition, hatchlings’ growth and
hatchlings’ carapacial scutes variation.
(iii) To determine whether if there was any significant effect of age groups and
gender on the consumption of turtle eggs.
(iv) To determine the consumption trends of the respondents and the proportion
as well as their justifications for consuming turtle eggs.
1.4 Organization of Thesis
Chapter 1 provides the introduction and the objectives of the study. A general look on Chelonia mydas is also presented in this chapter to give some insights, basically on its taxonomy, distribution, dietary, threats and others.
Chapter 2 consists of several sections. The first section discusses the study site, divided into sub-sections, such as nesting beaches, demographic structures and rainfall and daily temperature. The second section reviews the species, including from the aspects of taxonomy and physical description, growth and lifespan, reproduction and breeding, distribution and habitat, food and dietary, products and threats.
Chapter 3 focuses on the nesting ecology and behaviour of green sea turtles at Setiu. Sections of this chapter are: the distribution of successful nesting activities, measurements of curved carapace length, curve carapace width and clutch size,
7
correlation between clutch size and mean of curved carapace length, emergence hour of nesting activities, and correlation between false crawls and successful nesting activities.
Chapter 4 evaluates the hatchery management in the Setiu. The chapter will determine the significant difference of successive hatching rates (i) among years
(from 2009 until 2012), (ii) among beaches in Setiu, and (iii) among beaches at Setiu for the year 2012. The percentage of eggs’ condition after they were hatched and excavated was also evaluated as well as successive hatching rates, and duration of incubation, both based on type of hatcheries (shaded, open, Styrofoam) were determined.
Chapter 5 consists of the morphological study of the hatchlings. The distributions of basic measurements of the hatchlings, which are straight carapace length (SCL), straight carapace width (SCW), and weight based on the location and type of hatchlings (normal hatchlings or hatchlings with carapacial scute variation) are determined. The effect of degree of carapacial scute variation towards the measurement of the hatchlings (SCL, SCW and body weight) was also determined.
Finally, the carapacial scute variation based on the relocation time (minute) is evaluated.
Chapter 6 presented the level of awareness of the locals at Setiu regarding the conservation efforts that have been done in there. This chapter assesses the level of awareness based on age and gender of the respondents. The aspect of consumption trends was also taken into account in this chapter.
8
Chapter 7 concludes the thesis by summarizing the whole findings of the study and emphasizing on several recommendations for a better conservation and management effort of marine turtles.
Chapter 3 to Chapter 6 are written as stand-alone. There are repetitions in the information that might appear in some chapters.
9
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Study Areas
This study was carried out at Setiu, (5°35’-5°41’ N, 102°43’-102°50’ E)
Terengganu, Malaysia. This district is the latest inaugurated district in Terengganu, established by Modernisation Administrative and Management Planning Unit
(MAMPU) on the 1st January 1985. Setiu comprises 10.5% of Terengganu state, and is adjacent to Kuala Terengganu district, Hulu Terengganu district, and Besut district
(Setiu, 2013).
Setiu is the largest district in Terengganu covering approximately 1,304 km2.
The district consists of 7 sub-districts, which are Mukim Hulu Nerus, Mukim Calok,
Mukim Hulu Setiu, Mukim Guntung, Mukim Tashik, Mukim Pantai, and Mukim
Merang. The coastal part of Setiu faces the South China Sea. This means that the coastal areas of this district are heavily affected by Northeast Monsoon from
November until March every year (Setiu, 2013; WWF, 2007).
Three of the working chapters in the study are generally carried out in five beaches of Setiu which are Telaga Papan, Kuala Tok Cha, Mengabang Sekepeng,
Kuala Baharu Selatan and Kuala Baharu Utara. Two of these beaches are reserved areas, which are Telaga Papan and Kuala Baharu Selatan. The rest is privately owned and tendered by licensed egg collectors. The last working chapter, which determines the level of awareness of the locals at Setiu regarding the conservation of green sea turtles, was done in the villages along these beaches in this district.
10
The following sub- topics provide an important overview of the study. These sub topics provide information regarding the nesting beaches and demographic structures.
2.1.1 Nesting Beaches
Setiu comprises lagoons, mangrove forests, peat swamps, freshwater marshes, Melaleuca swamp forest, lowland dry forest, estuaries, and sandy beaches.
These areas are the habitat for approximately 29 species of wildlife, 112 species of birds and 28 species of reptiles. Some of the species that frequent the habitats are; painted terrapin (Callagur borneoensis), river terrapin (Batagur baska), plain pouched hornbill (Aceros subruficollis), macaques (Macaca fascicularis), wild pigs
(Sus scrofa), and monitor lizards (Varanus salvator). The beach comprises dunes and slope, colonized by littoral spinegrass (Spinifex littoreus), Beach morning glory
(Ipomea pes-caprae), and Screw pine (Pandanus odoratissimus). There are scattered populations of blanket grass (Axonopus compressus) and stands of she-oak trees
(Casuarina equisetifolia) at some parts of the beach (WWF, 2007).
Setiu is a prominent nesting ground for green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas), and this species is the most abundant sea turtle species found here. Based on the personal communications with the locals (especially rangers and licensed collectors), common sightings or other species were found previously (approximately around
1970s). These species were hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and Olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea).
11
The beaches are sandy and wide (approximately from 10m until 60 meter).
The width and vegetation of the nesting beaches are varied along the beaches. The length of the beaches is shown in the table below.
Table 2.1: Length of nesting beaches in Setiu
Beaches Length (KM)
Kuala Baharu Utara 8.94
Kuala Baharu Selatan 7.04
Mengabang Sekepeng 7.18
Telaga Papan 10.20
Kuala Tok Cha 3.20
Generally, data were collected from all of these beaches, given emphasis to
Telaga Papan Beach in 2012. This beach was chosen since it is one of the reserved areas and there is more manpower (rangers and volunteers) that could assist during the collection of data. Telaga Papan has wide, long and connected geographical conditions. The beach is accessible by land since it is connected to the main road.
Also, the location provides less time constraint for beach patrollers to send the eggs to the hatchery.
12
2.1.2 Demographic Structures
Setiu is populated by Malay, Chinese, Indian, aboriginals, immigrants and others. Malay locals (97.8%) are predominant at Setiu, followed by immigrants
(2.0%), Chinese (0.02%), and Indians (0.01%) (Setiu, 2013). Based on a report in
2007, more than half of the 600 respondents in Setiu earned less than RM500 per month (WWF, 2007). The highest number of respondents are working in fisheries or aquaculture sector (27.0%), followed closely by services sector (25.0%). A large proportion of the respondents received only up to primary education level (47.3%), secondary education level (38.8%), no formal education (11.2%), higher education
(0.1%) and others (0.01%) (WWF, 2007).
2.1.3 Rainfall and Temperature
The data is collected by the Meteorological Department of Malaysia (MET) in 2012. The point of data collection was at Kuala Terengganu for 8 months in 2012, which is the nearest point to Setiu. The highest rainfall was in March 2012, at 370.6 mm. Starting from April, the number of rainfall started to decline until its lowest point, which was in June (86.0 mm). The next month, the rainfall started to increase gradually until the end of nesting season, which was in October (353.6 mm) (Figure
2.1). The north-east monsoon started after the nesting season ended, which was in early October. Daily maximum temperature is the highest on average in May (32.6
°C) (Figure 2.2), and the minimum temperature was the lowest in September
(24.9°C) (Figure 2.3).
13
Total rainfall (mm) 400.0 350.0 300.0 250.0 200.0 150.0 Total rainfall (mm) 100.0 50.0 0.0
Figure 2.1: Total rainfall from March 2012- October 2012 (mm)
Daily maximum temperature (°C) 33.0
32.5
32.0
31.5
31.0
30.5 Daily Maximum temperature (°C) 30.0
29.5
Figure 2.2: Daily maximum temperature (°C) from March 2012- October 2012.
14
Daily minimum temperature (°C) 25.0
24.8
24.6
24.4
24.2 Daily minimum temperature (°C) 24.0
23.8
23.6
Figure 2.3: Daily minimum temperature (°C) from March 2012- October 2012.
15
2.2 Closer Look on Species: Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas)
Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) is briefly described in Chapter 1. Overall, sea turtles possess a variety of diversity and ecological characteristics, depending on its species and habitat. For instance, most of the sea turtles (including green turtles) carry out reproduction in solitary nesting, whereas two other species (Kemp’s and
Olive ridley) perform mass nesting (also known as arribada) (Eckert et al., 1999a).
Green turtle is obliged to its herbivore diet, while leatherback turtles consume mainly jelly fish (Bjorndal, 1980; Bjorndal, 1985). In this chapter, we take a closer look on aspects such as taxonomy and physical description, growth and life stages, habitat and distribution, turtle’s products and threats to green turtles.
16
2.2.1 Taxonomy and Physical Description of Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas)
In general, sea turtles are derived from a common ancestor that has not given rise to other living turtles (monophyletic group) of the suborder Crytodira. The members of this suborder close their jaw by contracting the muscle over a cartilage on the otic chamber. Contrary to other living species of crytodites, sea turtles are incapable of retracting their heads (Cox, 1998). Sea turtles show some significant features such as paddle-shaped limbs, which enable them to swim well in the sea.
Their mobility in the sea is also accelerated by the enlarged shoulder girdled with a markedly elongate coracoid attached to the well-developed pectoral muscles.
Although these flippers could also be propelled on land, movement of sea turtles tend to be slow, vulnerable and awkward. Removal of excess salts from the sea water is assisted by the lacrimal gland (Cox, 1998).
There are seven species of sea turtles roaming in the ocean, globally. Only four out of these seven species are found in the coastal area of Malaysia. These are green turtles (Chelonia mydas), leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) and Olive Ridley turtle (Lepidochelys coriacea) (Ali et al., 2006; Sukarno et al., 2007). These species can be differentiated by their external morphological structures and anatomical features such as the number of prefrontal and postorbital scales and the type of scutes on the carapace. For instance, hawksbill turtles possess two pair of prefrontal scale and three pair of postorbital scales, while green turtles have one pair of prefrontal scales and four postorbital scales (Eckert et al., 1999c). Both of these species possess four pair of costal scutes, while Olive Ridley turtles have six costal pair of costal scutes. Adult leatherback turtles have no scales at all (Eckert et al., 1999c; Hendrickson, 1980), and have a skin-covered carapace with seven ridges (Cox, 1998), instead of scutes.
17
Green turtle (Chelonia mydas) originates from the family of Cheloniidae
(Genus: Chelonia, Type: mydas). Classification of green sea turtles is shown in the figure below (Figure 2.4).
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Superclass : Sauropsida Class : Reptilia
Order : Testudines
Suborder : Crytodira Superfamily : Chelonioidea
Family : Cheloniidae
Genus: Chelonia
Species: Chelonia mydas
Figure 2.4: Classification of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) (Rebel, 1974)
An adult green turtle’s head is anteriorly blunt and small, with four pairs of postorbital scales and one pair of prefrontal scales. The carapace is hard, smooth, and almost forming a heart shape. This carapace is not posteriously pointed and usually its length is less than 120 cm, usually not so wide but broadly oval (Eckert et al.,
1999c). The colour of the carapace varies from greenish black or brown to grey. The plastron is always white or yellowish white (Eckert et al., 1999c; Cox, 1998). A green turtle usually has four pairs of non-overlapping costal scutes, five vertebral scutes and all of them are placed side by side (Cox, 1998) (Figure 2.5). It also has a single claw on each flipper. Certain features might differ in comparison between adult and hatchling green sea turtles. In general, the sexual dimorphism can only be
18
seen in during adult phase of a sea turtle, of which a male turtle has a very long tail.
Hatchlings of green sea turtles have carapace that are distinctively black with white and smooth margin, that serves as an adaptation feature when they return to the sea
(Bustard, 1970). Although there is typically a claw on each flipper (similar to adult), two claws are found in a rare condition in some hatchlings (Eckert et al., 1999c).
Figure 2.5: a) Structure of carapace of green turtles, showing the costal scutes and vertebral scutes. b) Head of green turtle, showing prefrontal scale and postorbital scale, c) Anteriorly rounded head, d) Plastron of green turtle, which is usually white in colour. (Eckert et al., 1999c)
19
2.2.2 Growth and Life Stages
NERITIC ZONE OCEANIC ZONE
Hatchling Swim Frenzy Stage & Post-Hatchling Transitional Stage TERRESTRIAL Oceanic Juvenile ZONE Stage Neritic Juvenile Egg, Embryo, Hatchling
Neritic Adult Stage Oceanic Adult Stage
Internesting Habitat
Figure 2.6: Type 2 of life history patterns of sea turtles (Bolten, 2003a)
Bolten (2003a) described patterns of life history of seven sea turtles. In this review, green turtle is classified in the Type 2 of life history patterns, in which development occurs in both neritic and oceanic zones. This life history pattern is also similar to loggerhead and hawksbill turtles (Figure 2.6).
Generally, an adult female turtle will lay eggs at the natal beach when it is sexually matured. The eggs will undergo embryonic development for 50-60 days from the date they are laid (Bolten, 2003a). Heppell et al. (2003) described that even though this phase is mostly studied, they agree that conservation on this phase alone is not adequate. This is supported by Crowder et al. (1994) who indicated that the population of loggerhead turtle was still declining, although the hatching rate had increased. Nevertheless, it is clear, however that this phase is important in recruiting
20
hatchlings to the sub-adult and juvenile phase. Thus, although this phase is not to be neglected, optimal recovery in population of sea turtles comprises other stages too.
Hatchlings will emerge from the nest in a group and leave the terrestrial zone.
Common observation indicated that these hatchlings leave in association and will start to swim separately after they enter the sea (Gyuris, 1993; Gyuris, 2000; Spotila,
2004). Hatchlings often emerge at dusk or nearing night time, to avoid hot temperature upon crawling to the sea, and to reduce the risk of predation (Spotila,
2004). Navigating at sea requires the hatchlings to use mainly their visual sense
(Mrosovsky & Kingsmiix, 1985; Mrosovsky, 1978; Ehrenfeld, 1968). Since they are very sensitive to light intensities, moonlight assists their navigation to the sea.
Hatchling’s path may be interrupted should there be any artificial light source from the frontal beach, such as from resorts, restaurants, torch light and so on. This may lead hatchlings away from the edge of the sea, risking them to the end of their brief life (Gyuris, 1993; Wyneken & Witherington, 2001; Wyneken & Salmon, 1992;
Mann, 1977; Salmon et al., 1992).
Hatchlings are also equipped with magnetic imprinting ability, in which they use to navigate their way in the open ocean. This trait is driven by an iron compound called magnetite that facilitates hatchlings in sensing the Earth’s magnetic field. This compound acts as though as a compass pointing towards the North Pole. Other than helping the hatchlings find their way, this trait helps the female hatchlings to return to their natal beach to lay eggs after several decades (Lohmann & Lohmann, 1994;
Lohmann et al., 2008).
Spotila (2004) describes the swimming pattern of the hatchlings such as ‘a bird flight in the sky’; with its flipper frantically moving up and down. Upon
21
returning to the sea (neritic zone), hatchlings will undergo this phase known as the
‘swimming frenzy’. During this time, survival rates of the hatchlings are hard to quantify (Gyuris, 2000). Based on a study at Heron Island Reef, Australia, the majority of the hatchlings was predated by fish (93.6%) (Gyuris, 2000). This phase is also called pre-feeding phase, in which the hatchlings are exclusively depending on the yolk as their source of food (Rebel, 1974; Bolten, 2003b) . The hatchlings may also be opportunistic feeder as they feed on ctenophores, small larval crabs and shrimps (Spotila, 2004) .
Bolten (2003a) explains that hatchlings undergo a transitional period from the pre-feeding to the post-feeding phase. The hatchlings start to feed on other food from the neritic zone, and depending on the stochasticity of the currents, they will slowly move to the oceanic zone (Bolten, 2003a). This zone is poorly studied by researchers, since it is difficult to observe the sea turtles in the ocean at this stage.
This stage is described as ‘the lost year’; since presence and dispersal of marine turtle are limited for observation for several years (Carr & Ogren, 1960) .
Type 2 marine turtle will basically undergo their juvenile development in the oceanic stage and will fully return to the neritic phase to complete their juvenile stage (Kamezaki, 1998; Bolten, 2003a). At this point, green marine turtles may have changed their feeding habit to exclusive herbivory, and feed on algae and seagrass.
The adult marine turtles will undergo the reproductive phase. Age of sexual maturity may be different for green turtles that undergo different growth condition. It may also be based on its diet, of which captive green turtle reaches sexual maturity faster than wild green turtles (Bjorndal et al., 2012) . Upon reaching this stage, both male and female turtles show differentiation and development in their physical traits.
22
Female marine turtles will generally grow bigger and produce more testosterone and oestrogen. Meanwhile, male marine turtles will undergo the same development, with some additions such as longer tail, soften plastron, and growth and hardened nail on the flipper. The longer tail will differentiate a male marine turtle from the female
(Eckert et al., 1999c).
2.2.3 Reproduction and Breeding
The initial mating season will be indicated by the changes of hormones produced by female marine turtles. It is commonly showed that during this phase, they produce less oestrogen and more testosterone (Spotila, 2004; Jessop et al., 2000;
Jessop et al., 2002) and this directs the male turtles to move towards mating ground.
Hormonal changes in female turtles also cause the size of the ovary to be bigger and its structures to be transformed in such a way that the stroma is expanded and the convoluted oviduct is suspended in the body cavity (Hamann et al., 2002).
Male turtles’ reproductive organs comprise functional paired testes and associated ducts. Male turtles breed seasonally, in promiscuous manner and implement scramble - mate finding tactic as their reproduction strategy. Higher rate of reproduction will depend on the density, as low density courtship will encourage scramble behaviour and vice versa. Besides, reproduction status will be elevated by male turtles if more somatic energy is kept, and level of testosterone is raised. All of these conditions will benefit in terms of searching the mate for male turtles, and expose them to more female turtles (Hamann et al., 2002; Jessop et al., 2000; Spotila,
2004).
23
Meanwhile, female reproductive organs are listed as ovary, oviducts, vitellogenic follicles, ovarian scars, atretic follicles, and oviducal eggs. Both of female and male turtles are described as capital breeder, which means they possess energy that can be mobilized later throughout their reproduction (Chaloupka et al.,
2004). Also, viable sperms are kept in the female’s oviduct for long lifespan. One female turtle mates with multiple male turtles, and usually competition begins as soon as the female turtle appears at the mating ground. The male turtle will climb on the female and hold to her carapace by using his claws. The male will insert the sperm into the female’s cloaca by using his long tail, and bite her on the flippers, neck and head. Simultaneously, other potential mating mates will come to surround them and compete the spot for mating. Often, this mating ground is situated near the nesting beaches or along the migration route prior to nesting season (Hamann et al.,
2002; Jessop et al., 2000; Spotila, 2004).
At the Great Barrier Reef, Australia, it has been reported that a female green turtle can be expected to live from 55 to 60 years, and reproduce approximately 2000 eggs throughout her 19 years of reproduction (Chaloupka et al., 2004). Since it takes them decades to reach reproductive maturity stage, only a small number of marine turtle could survive until they reach adulthood. Hamann et al. (2002) listed two types of factors that affect the reproductive output of female marine turtles in general, which are endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous comprises internal aspects, such as genetic, body size, health condition and others. Meanwhile, migratory distance and latitude can be among the examples of exogenous factors.
Three patterns of nesting behaviours are categorized in three ways, which are arribadas, year-round nesting, and seasonal nesting (Hamann et al., 2002). However,
24
since arribada is exclusively for Lepidochelys genus, this section will discuss only on year-round nesting and seasonal nesting.
Year round nesting season occurs in a number of rookeries, such as in
Philippine, Gulf of Thailand, Hon Tre Lon in Vietnam, Sabah’s Turtles Island and
Kerachut Rookeries in Malaysia (Ekanayake et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2004). This pattern has shown nesting all year round undisturbed, only constrained at certain months. This could be due to the success rate of mating, and beach’s capability to restore nests and to accommodate the number of hatchlings returning to the sea
(Ekanayake et al., 2010). Location of the nesting beach also plays an important role as certain beaches might be strategically positioned to allocate foraging sea turtles in both hemisphere, thus receiving year-round nesting (Ekanayake et al., 2010).
During seasonal observation, female marine turtle gain body weight at the beginning of the season. This might due to water intake and lipid storage. This functions as reserve throughout the entire reproductive season and migration. The clutch size might be lower for young breeder, rather than experienced breeder. This might be due to fewer follicle produce by the former group rather than the latter.
Surrounding environmental condition such as thermal condition, late arrival to the foraging area and sporadic exogenous condition inhibit seasonal nesting. Seasonal nesting beaches occur in rookeries in Brunei, Cambodia, Pahang, Johor, Perak,
Terengganu in Malaysia, Pengumbahan West Java in Indonesia, Andaman Sea in
Thailand and so on (Ekanayake et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2004)
25
2.2.4 Distribution and Habitat
Marine green turtles are widely distributed, within 35° N latitude and 35° S latitude. They generally inhabit tropical and subtropical waters in Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Ocean (Spotila, 2004; Lutz et al., 2002). In the western hemisphere, these turtles once occurred in relative abundance from North Carolina to Gulf of Mexico.
It is recorded that the highest number of nesting marine green turtle is recorded at
Tortuguero, Costa Rica, with more than 20,000 female marine turtles recorded on average per year (Spotila, 2004). There are at least 4900 female marine turtles in
Sabah, 2000 in Sarawak and 690 in Peninsular Malaysia per year (Spotila, 2004).
Plotkin (2002) provided insight on the navigational mechanism of green marine turtles in Ascesion Island. These female marine turtles have migrated from the island as far to the coastal hunting ground in Brazil. Although the migration route might be long and crossing borders, sea turtles can sustain their navigation directly in the open ocean (Luschi et al., 1998). However, their routes can be changed by environmental factors such as wind and currents (Luschi et al., 1998).
2.2.5 Food and Dietary
Hatchlings and juvenile of green turtles do not feed selectively, as compared to adults green turtles that feed predominantly as herbivore. Mainly, their first pick would be sea grasses. It is emphasized as their main constituent with few additions of marine algae (Lopez-Mendilaharsu et al., 2005). Examples of seagrasses include
Cymodocea, Thalassia, Halophila, Zostera, Posidinia, and others (Rebel, 1974;
Spotila, 2004). A study in Bahia Magdalena shows that P. torreyi is the most significant diet for green sea turtles, as compared to other food items, and is the least
26
favoured (Lopez-Mendilaharsu et al., 2005). Thalassia, also known as ‘turtle grass’, is described as the main seagrass being favoured by green turtles in a study near
Union Creek, as it has high fibre, nitrogen and protein content (Bjorndal, 1980).
More than half of its compound comprises Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF), which are majorly cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. It is also indicated that in higher temperature, cellulose digestion can be effectively consistent for all sizes of this plant
(Bjorndal, 1980).
Other food diets include various species of algae. Sargassum, Caetomorpha and Hyphea are among the examples of marine algae that are usually fed by marine turtles. Additionally, they feed on green or red algae on rare occasion. It is also observed that in the East Pacific ocean, green turtles prey upon small animals such as mollusc, jelly fish and others (Spotila, 2004; Rebel, 1974).
Bjorndal (1980) also described the grazing behaviour of green sea turtles at
Union Creek, Bahamas. As the green sea turtles feed on the blades of seagrasses, they will preferably target the lower part of the leaves, so that the upper stem will be floating away in the water. This will create a cropped patch. As feeding usually starts a couple of hours after dawn, sea turtles are observed to move in a random manner from their resting ground, only to lift themselves on the surface or the ground, uniformly (Bjorndal, 1980; Bjorndal, 1985). Pattern of feeding is seen to be at the most dramatic peak at both during morning and afternoon, most frequently during day time. Occasional feeding and breathing at the night time also occur, but only for a few times as usually the wee hours are being spent to rest at a specific spot
(Bjorndal, 1980).
27
A study on heavy metal concentration effect on sea grasses and sea weeds in
Bahia Magdalena reveals that high level of heavy metals could have reached lethal toxicity level. These heavy metals include Cd, Zn, Fe and others. The sources of heavy metals are generally hard to be pinpoint, but it could be from natural or originated from man-made activities. Possibilities of these heavy metals that assimilated into the sea grasses and sea weeds do exist, causing them to deteriorate the health of green turtles that are dependent upon on these food items as their sources of food (Aguirre et al., 2006; Senko et al., 2009).
2.2.6 Green Turtle Products
Products of green turtle can be classified into two categories; which are consumptive and non-consumptive products (Frazier, 1999). Consumptive products include the body parts of green turtles which are meat, fat and eggs (Rebel, 1974;
Senko et al., 2009). In one of the earliest notes by Hendrickson (1958), it is stated that these body parts are consumed as a source of protein for the locals. Thus, harvesting of turtles is being widely done and provides a source of economy since the demand is high. For instance, beach patrollers at nights (also locally known as veladors) in Central US are responsible to wait and walk along the beaches every night so that they can hunt for turtles that come for landing, and later sell it to the market. Turtle meat is one of the prominent food in Eastern Nicaragua (Spotila,
2004).
Flesh of turtles comprises muscles of body and flippers. In regions such as
Mexico, China and Indonesia, meat of green turtles are widely consumed as local delicacy (Chan & Shepherd, 2002; Senko et al., 2011; Senko et al., 2009). Despite a
28
large number of reports indicating that consuming turtle meat can negatively affect their health, it is still widely consumed and harvested by the locals (Senko et al.,
2009). In markets around Europe and North US, the meat is canned to produce soups and meat extract (Rebel, 1974).
Fats are also being exploited from green turtles. The gelatinous fat of green turtles, known as exoskeleton, is used to cook soups. The carapace is described as an excellent ingredient to make soups. Almost all of the body parts of green turtle are being prepared as turtle curry in Ceylon. These body parts include plastron, flippers, neck and its dorsal fat (Rebel, 1974).
Eggs of green turtles are one of the most sought-after local delicacies in many places, such as in Malaysia, Indonesia, China, and India (Spotila, 2004; Chan &
Shepherd, 2002; Chan, 2006). The compounds of turtle eggs comprise egg’s white, yolk and shell. Yolk is the major compound of the egg, of which consists of protein, lipid, phosphorus, lipid phosphorus, lechitin, cholesterol and water. Egg’s white consists of water and its shell consists of protein. The structure of the egg is rubbery and fragile even after it is boiled (Rebel, 1974). Consuming turtle eggs might be detrimental to human’s health due to the accumulation of toxic material from the ocean (Aguirre et al., 2006; Senko et al., 2009). Researches have shown that turtle eggs contain heavy metals, such as mercury, lead and cadmium. There are also organochlorines, such as DDT and DET found in the turtle eggs (Aguirre et al., 2006;
Senko et al., 2009). As marine turtles have long lifespan and are highly migratory, it is possible that this animal plays an important role in tropic level, causing these toxic materials to gather in the food chain (Senko et al., 2009).
29
As for non-consumptive purposes, green turtles serve as one of many cultural icons, globally. In Mexico, Nicaragua and Tahiti, hunters of sea turtles are acknowledged as strong and respectful (Wilson & Tisdell, 2001; Frazier et al., 2003;
Frazier, 1999). Monks in Vietnam, Taiwan and Indonesia consider sea turtles as a symbol of prosperity and consider the animals to be prominent in the religious context (Spotila, 2004). People in China consider sea turtles as a sacred symbol of longevity (Frazier et al., 2003).
Having sea turtles as an important symbol to the culture, it opens up the door for tourism and research activities in these areas (Frazier, 1999). Eco-tourism is widely carried out to promote sustainable tourism activities (Wilson & Tisdell,
2001). As a vital nesting area for green sea turtles, ecotourism programmes are being progressively carried out at Setiu to sustain nature resources, and simultaneously support social growth. By providing monetary gain and skill-based training, this programme encourages local participation to improve their livelihood and monthly income. At the same time, education and awareness can be provided to the locals regarding conservation of sea turtles.
2.2.7 Threats to Green Sea Turtles
Threats to sea turtle could occur in two ways, which are natural or by anthropogenic means. Natural threats include global warming, predation and beach erosion. Increase in temperature causes the sexual determination during egg incubation at the nests to change. Temperature higher than 29.5 C results in more female hatchlings to be produced. Consequently, an imbalanced ratio between male and female hatchlings could occur, causing a decline in the population of green sea
30
turtles. Beach erosion is also negatively affecting the nesting grounds and hatchling emergence. Animals, such as feral pigs, monitor lizards, ants, and others are the examples of predators that prey upon hatchlings and turtle eggs. When hatchlings are in the sea, they are exposed to the predation from larger fish and ghost crab.
However, these natural threats cause little effects compared to the threats caused by human activities (Chan & Shepherd, 2002) .
Anthropogenic threats could be varied and widely affecting the population of sea turtles. Excessive harvesting of sea turtles, in general can cause the number of turtles to plummet. As marine turtles takes a long time to reach maturity, higher rate of mortality is negatively affecting the population status. Another issue that is related to this threat is illegal mass poaching. Although turtle eggs are produced in abundance, the survival rates of eggs and hatchlings are low. Illegal and mass poaching reduce the number of eggs that can develop to hatchlings, causing the possibilities of survival rate to be reduced.
Development, especially at the beach front can cause disturbance to the green turtle. With excessive construction of hotels and resorts, noise pollution and light intensities will be increased. This condition will hinder the female marine turtles from landing to the beach to nest. Uncontrolled and excessive numbers of visitors with noise, camera and flash lights disturb the female marine turtles from nesting.
Light intensities will cause the hatchlings to disperse to the wrong direction, instead of directly to the sea. This situation can cause hatchlings’ mortality due to dehydration and predation.
Detrimental fishing gears are widely being used by the fisherman in the coastal area. In Terengganu, sting rays are widely caught due to its high demand and
31
price. This activity requires the usage of ray nets, which comprise large mesh and are indicated as detrimental to sea turtles. This is because sea turtles can be trapped within the large mesh of the ray nets and it would be difficult to release them. In a survey collected in 2007, it is reported that fishermen will just leave the sea turtles at the bottom of the ocean since it would be too much hassle to release them from the mesh. This lethal action will eventually cause the death of sea turtles. Although it is officially banned, there are still fishermen who used this ray nets to capture sting rays. Longlines too can be detrimental and can cause injury or death to sea turtles since the ends of longlines are sharp and pointed.
Pollution can cause damage to the sea turtles since it hinders the movement of female marine turtles to land and nest at the beach. Studies in Coastal Florida and
Western Mediterranean also show that the majority of marine turtles were affected by ingestion of marine debris. This can be threatening to the digestive track and gut of sea turtles, which will eventually causes mortality.
32
CHAPTER 3
NESTING ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF GREEN SEA TURTLES
3.1 Introduction
Although conservation efforts of sea turtles initially started in Malaysia in the
1950s (Ibrahim, 2006; Liew, 2006), the number of marine turtle keeps on plummeting (Chan, 2006). It is agreed that on-ground research and monitoring of green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas are an important part of an integrated conservation and management efforts (Ibrahim, 2006). There is a need to address the whole conservation operating procedures and management of sea turtles based on scientific knowledge and political awareness (Liew, 2006). Nesting behaviour characteristics of marine turtle (among others, long and global distribution, return to natal beach, reproductive fitness) need to be taken into account in order to improve management and policy implementation.
Carr and Ogren (1960) recognised several stages of the nesting process that include selecting the nest site, clearing and digging to make a nest hole and finally returning to the sea. Oviposition occurs afterwards before the nest hole is covered.
The nest hole is camouflaged to avoid predators before the body pit is filled up, and the sea turtles will start moving back to the sea. A simpler classification divides these stages into three. which are pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition (Welsh
& Tucker, 2009). Pre-oviposition can be referred as the period when the sea turtle approaches the beach, and performs body-pitting and nest cavity. After that, oviposition takes place, and post-oviposition includes camouflaging the nest and the sea turtle returns to the sea (Welsh & Tucker, 2009).
33
In this study, the ecology and nesting behaviour of green sea turtles at Setiu were determined. ‘Nesting ecology’ is described as the distribution of the successive nesting activities, nests characteristics, clutch size and morphology of the nesting green sea turtle. The nesting behaviour of green sea turtles was also studied by assessing the number of false crawls, successive nesting attempts, and emergence hour of the nesting sea turtles. The objectives are as follows:
(i) To determine the distribution of green sea turtles by analysing the abundance
during nesting, the nests characteristics, clutch size and the morphology of
the nesting green sea turtles.
(ii) To assess the nesting behaviour by the number of successive nesting attempts,
false crawl attempts and emergence hour occurs during the nesting activity.
3.2 Methodology
3.2.1 Study Site Description
In general, nesting activities of green sea turtles at Setiu is seasonal and begins from February until September. There are five beaches that have been designated as frequent nesting sites at Setiu, namely Telaga Papan, Mengabang
Sekepeng, Kuala Tok Cha, Kuala Baharu Selatan and Kuala Baharu Utara. Two of these beaches are reserved areas (Telaga Papan and Kuala Baharu Selatan), and protected by Department of Fisheries (DoF) Malaysia and World Wide Fund of
Nature (WWF) Malaysia. Rangers are hired by DoF Malaysia to patrol along the two beaches every night during nesting season, from 2000h until 0800h. The others
(Kuala Baharu Utara, Kuala Tok Cha, and Mengabang Sekepeng) are privately owned by the locals, and patrolled by licensed egg collectors.
34
Secondary data were obtained from 2007 to 2011 from DoF Malaysia and
WWF Malaysia on the distribution of successful nesting attempts in the previous years. These data comprise the number of successful nesting activities at the six beaches every month in all those years. The majority of the data are from Telaga
Papan beaches in 2012. As the beaches are distant from each other (Figure 3.1) and disconnected, it is impossible to simultaneously patrol all the beaches. Access to some beaches is only by boat. Consequently, it would cost a huge amount of money, manpower and equipment to complete all monitoring sessions. Telaga Papan beach was chosen as the main study site because it was connected to the main road, and thus easily accessible. Rangers and interns (from WWF Malaysia) were involved in collecting data during nesting season. Based on field observation and previous nesting records, Telaga Papan had the highest nest density. Factors (such as accessibility, assistance from rangers, and high number of nest density) allowed for effective beach surveys in Telaga Papan beach.
35
Figure 3.1: Map of the study site at Setiu, Terengganu
36
3.2.2 Plots Marking and Mapping
Telaga Papan beach is approximately 10.2 km in length (Figure 3.1). Every kilometre was marked transect perpendicular to the shore to form 10 plots. These plots are marked by using Global Positioning System (GPS) device (Garmin
GPSMAP 62 Series). From these plots, the distribution and abundance of nesting activities, and condition of the surroundings (i.e., vegetation, human land-use and activities) are determined.
3.2.3 Intensive Nocturnal Survey
The nocturnal field surveys were carried out from March until September
2012. DoF and WWF Malaysia had allocated rangers to patrol the Telaga Papan beach from 2000h until 0800h every night. During these surveys, two activities
(nesting emergence and non-nesting emergence) of green sea turtles were observed and recorded. Non-nesting emergence refers to nests that have been abandoned by sea turtles without any eggs deposition occurring (Schroeder & Murphy, 1999).
The nesting points and false crawls were recorded by using GPS. Marks were made at a particular point after the sea turtles completed the nesting attempt and returned back to the sea. In this study, the following data were collected:
(i) The distribution of nesting activities of sea green turtles
(ii) The measurement of clutch size, carapace curved length (CCL) and carapace
curved width (CCW).
(iii) The emergence hour of nesting sea turtles
(iv) The number of nesting and non-nesting (false crawl) sea turtles
37
During the survey, a number of strict procedures were required to be followed to avoid distraction to the nesting sea turtles. For example, it was required to wear dark and long-sleeve attire during the survey for camouflage purpose. Any noise and reduce any incidental light needed to be avoided, especially from torch light. The number of visitors must be minimized to avoid disturbance and habitat destruction.
Any flash lights from cameras, smoking cigarettes, littering, and poaching of eggs were strictly prohibited (Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2006).
It is somehow difficult to determine specific characteristic of the beach profile due to the width variability. Due to the variations, one plot could have multiple site characteristics. To simplify the classification, the nesting sites are firstly identified to be located in open or shaded areas. Secondly, the nesting site is classified at either dune, under slope, on slope or backshore.
3.2.4 Measurement of Female Green Sea Turtles and Egg Collection
Curve carapace length (CCL) and curve carapace width (CCW) were chosen rather than straight carapace length (SCL) and straight carapace width (SCW) due to several factors. Measuring SCL and SCW would require the use of caliper as the tool, making it difficult especially during the peak season (many individuals landing simultaneously). The CCL of the sea turtles was measured starting from the closest point of the shell that is adjacent to the skin, to the posterior point through the midline of the carapace. Next, measurement was taken of the CCW from the widest point of the carapace (Ali et al., 2006; Sukarno et al., 2007).
There were several precautionary steps to minimize error during measurement. A measurement could only be done after the sea turtles have finished
38
its nesting activities. Before measurement was taken, the barnacles were removed to ensure accuracy. A long measurement tape was used, exceeding the length of an average sea turtle so that the measurement can be done all at once, instead of partially measured a few times(Ali et al., 2006). One person was designated to take the measurements in order to reduce measurement error.
The eggs were relocated to the hatcheries within less than 2 hour after it is collected. Proper methods were needed to ensure that all the relocated eggs will achieve high hatching success rate. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) of Turtle
Management in Peninsular Malaysia emphasizes for egg collectors to carefully reduce concussion (Sukarno et al., 2007). The eggs were required to be filled in a pail and we prohibited any usage of plastic bags. For hygiene purpose, hand gloves were worn while collecting the eggs. Any unnecessary rotation of the eggs was avoided and only three eggs maximum is allowed to be handled while relocating the eggs from the nest to the pail (Sukarno et al., 2007).
3.2.5 Statistical Analysis and Geographical Integrating Service (GIS) Mapping
Data was recorded on a specific data sheet prepared by the DoF (Appendix
A). Graph and statistical analysis were done using JMP Pro 10. After the points and plots were mapped in the GPS, the data was transferred and plotted by using ARC-
GIS software
39
3.3 Result
3.3.1 Distribution Nesting Records in Setiu from 2007 until 2012
A total of 747 nesting records was recorded from 2007 until 2012 (mean =
17.79 ± 2.79). The number of nesting activities in the six areas was significantly highest at Telaga Papan (ANOVA, F5, 42 = 8.87, p < 0.0001) compared to those at other areas, such as Kuala Baru Selatan, Mengabang Sekepeng Kuala Baharu Utara,
Kuala Tok Cha and areas that are designated as ‘Not Available’ (Figure 3.2). ‘Not
Available’ areas refer to scattered locations that were not within the confines of our target beach. The highest number of successful nesting attempts at Setiu were recorded in 2012 (mean = 28.71 ± 6.59). The lowest number of nesting were recorded in 2008 (mean = 6.88 ±6.16), but there was no significant difference between the years. The peak season of nesting activities was significantly highest in
May and June (ANOVA, F6,42 = 7.36, P < 0.0001), compared to August, March, and
September in six years (2007 until 2012) (Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2: Nesting distribution according to the beaches in six years (2007-2012).
Abbreviations are defined as followed: “KBS” = Kuala Baharu Selatan, “MSK”=
40
Mengabang Sekepeng, “KBU” = Kuala Baharu Utara, “KTC” = Kuala Tok Cha,
“N/A”= Not Available, “TP”= Telaga Papan.
Figure 3.3: Distribution of successful nesting activities based on months
This study recorded that 51.3% of nesting activities at Setiu occurred at
Telaga Papan beach in 2012 (Figure 3.4). The second highest percentage of nesting activities occurred at Kuala Tok Cha (21.9%) and the third was at Mengabang
Sekepeng (18.4%). Only 4.5% nesting activities was located at Kuala Baharu
Selatan. The least number of successive nesting activities occurred at Kuala Baharu
Utara (4.0%).
41
5% 4%
TP 18% KTC MSK 51% KBU KBS 22%
Figure 3.4: Spatial distribution in Setiu in 2012
A closer observation was taken at Telaga Papan in 2012 and there was a total
98 successful nesting activities there (Figure 3.5). The nests were tagged by using
Global Positioning System (GPS) device and mapped by using ARC-GIS software.
Figure 3.6 shows that the highest number of successful nesting activities occurred in
Plot 4 (n = 25, mean 4.17 ± 0.837, p < 0.05). Plot 1 and Plot 2 recorded the least number of successful nesting activities (n = 2, mean = 0.37 ± 0.84, p < 0.05). The vegetation were observed and recorded, human activities and built environment along the plots in Telaga Papan. The result is compiled in Appendix B.
42
Figure 3.5: Distribution of successful nesting activities in Telaga Papan Beach (2012).
43
Figure 3.6: One way analysis of successful nesting activities based on plots in TP beaches recorded in 2012.
The habitat and sites of successful nesting activities at Telaga Papan in the same year (2012) were observed and recorded. Two types of observations were made; nesting sites and nesting habitat. ‘Nesting sites’ is categorized open areas and shaded areas. Nesting habitat is categorized into four types: are backshore, on slope, under slope and dunes (Appendix C).
The highest percentage was recorded at dunes in open areas (53.1%), followed by dunes in shaded area (20.4%). The lowest proportion of habitat and nesting sites were at backshores in shaded area (1.0%). Also, backshores in open areas are the least with only 2.0%. (Figure 3.7).
44
Figure 3.7: Coastal areas and sites of successful nesting activities in Setiu in 2012.
45
3.3.2 Correlation of clutch size with curved carapace length (CCL).
During the intensive nocturnal survey in Telaga Papan (2012), the CCL and
CCW of the nesting sea turtles were measured. The CCL (mean = 98.37 ± 1.18) and
CCW (mean = 86.60 ± 0.94) of 42 individuals were managed to be recorded.
Clutch size (n = 42, mean = 86.21 ± 3.83) is the number of eggs per clutch deposited during the oviposition period. There was no significant correlation between the clutch size and CCL (Spearman’s rank, rs = 0.23, p = 0.14, p > 0.05) (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.8: Clutch size (n) versus curved carapace length (cm).
3.3.3 Emergence Hour
In general, the emergence hour of nesting sea turtles started as early as 2030h.
The latest time recorded is 0723h. The nesting frequency increased from 2030h onwards until 0200h. The peak hours occurred between 0000h until 0159h (23%).
However, the nesting frequency starts to decrease from 0200h (10%), increasing
46
slightly after 0400h. Most of the sea turtles emerged for nesting during high tide
(68%) and the rest was during low tide phase (32%) (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9: Mean percentage of emergence hour
3.3.4 False Crawls Attempt and Successive Nesting Activities
The number of false crawls attempts were recorded (mean= 8.83, sd= 4.96) and tested for correlation with the number of successful nesting activities (mean=
16.33, sd= 7.31). There was a significant and strong positive correlation between false crawls attempts and successive nesting attempts (Spearman’s rank, rs= 0.88, p=
0.02) (Figure 3.10).
47
Figure 3.10: False crawls (n) against successive nesting activities (n)
48
3.4 Discussion
3.4.1 Overall Evaluation of Nesting Records in Setiu from 2007 until 2012
There are certain regions where sea turtles frequently visit throughout the year. Nesting season of sea turtles at Setiu starts from February until September every year, usually after the monsoon season ends. For 2012, the peak season was recorded in April, and ended in August. Other seasonal nesting sites in the world are
Andaman Island, Costa Rica, Surinam and Caymen Island (Ekanayake et al., 2010).
Based on the results, the temporal distribution of nesting sea turtles may possibly be affected by the north-east monsoon. The monsoon occurs from November until
February yearly and causes erosive waves and altered habitats. Several factors explain the seasonality of nesting period, such as beach conditions, which have to be appropriate for nesting and hatchling’s emergence activity (Hamann et al., 2002).
Dry and warm climate also affects the reproductive fitness of sea turtles (Ekanayake et al., 2002). It has also been suggested that rainfall affects the frequency of the nesting sea turtles, in a way that damper sand encourages nesting (Mortimer & Carr,
1987). However, previous studies in Ascesion Island emphasized close relationship between the air temperature and nest temperature (Godley et al., 2001; Hays et al.,
1999).
Data of nesting seasons from the year 2007 to 2012 were recorded. Results from this study show a yearly improvement on the number of successful nesting attempts that could be attributed to several factors. First, previous data collection management was not standardized and was not accurate. Since 2005, DoF
(government agency) and WWF Malaysia (non-government organisation (NGO)) have collaborated in managing conservation effort at Setiu, by providing basic
49
training skills to the hatchery personnel and rangers, managing and recording data on research findings, providing support in terms of financial implementation and research tools. With this collaboration, reserved areas such as Telaga Papan beaches and Kuala Baharu Selatan beach are exclusively demarcated as restricted area. Over the years, more trained and experienced personnel are available; to ensure a thorough monitoring session from 2000h to 0800h for the prevention of illegal poaching and trespassing of reserved areas. These rangers also make sure to avoid excessive light and noise is controlled during patrol. Rangers are also well trained to handle nesting sea turtles with proper procedures and best hatchery practices.
Telaga Papan beaches are connected and easily accessible on land. With assistance from rangers, the beach are managed to be patrolled. 98 nests are mapped by using GPS. Focus on Telaga Papan is given due to 1) the wide, long and accessibility of land travel between the beaches; 2) high numbers of rangers to patrol the beach compared to Kuala Baharu Selatan; 3) less travel time between hatcheries and nesting sites. The high number of nesting sites at Telaga Papan could be attributed to the area being designated as a protected area with scheduled night patrols. KBU is located quite far from the other sites and privately owned by licensed collectors with limited access to rangers. The low number of nesting at Kuala Baharu
Selatan could also be attributed by a beach alteration project to construct a shorter path for boats to go through.
The relationship between the frequency of nesting within the plots mapped on the beach with human activities and structures are examined. The lowest number of nesting in Plot 1 and Plot 2 could be due to light incidence and noise. Excessive light incidence can discourage the sea turtles from the nesting sites (Witherington et al.,
50
2011; Taylor & Cozens, 2010). The sources of disturbances come from nearby man- made structures (i.e. camping site, hut/shed, resort). There is a main road connecting the areas enabling public access by land transport. Although it is prohibited to drive through the reserved areas from 2000h to 0800h, trespassers using cars with high- beam light are causing disturbance to the sea turtles. During our weekend patrols, we encountered some trespassers at the hut or shed, most probably taking a break after fishing activities. These trespassers also left the lights on their fishing boats causing more incidental lights. Their presence also caused sound disturbances further deterring the turtles from nesting. Plot 4 was populated with shrubs, Catappa trees
(Terminalia catappa), coconut trees (Cocos nucifera) and others. High foliage cover reduces disturbances in terms of noise and light incidence, leading more sea turtles to nest in the area (Witherington et al., 2011). The area was also disconnected from main roads, hindering trespassers and poachers.
Result shows that majority of nesting sites was at open areas and dunes. Open areas might be convenient for nesting turtles to land providing less hindrance from the vegetation and grassy zone. Roots from the Casuarina equisetifolia and Spinifex litorale might slow down the digging process while nesting (Burger & Montevecchi,
1975). Grain characteristic in dune is positively skewed in general (Friedman, 1961) with dry condition and finer sand (Wang et al., 2003). This will ease the sea green turtle to make any digging attempt in dune as compared to the backshore, which is closer to the tideline. The dune is usually located at the flat area making it a convenience to the green sea turtle to make body pits. Due to the large body size, sea green turtles need to extend their front flipper at a wider angle in order to lower down their body during the body pit’s process. This also might be the reason that only a small proportion of nesting attempts occurred on slopes or under slope. Steep
51
condition of slopes might cause erosion (Friedman, 1961; Burger & Montevecchi,
1975) and it is difficult for the sea turtles to maintain a stable position during digging attempts.
3.4.2 Clutch Size Relationship to Curved Carapace Length
During the field nocturnal survey, several measurements of CCL and CCW were missing due to the high number of sea green turtles landing simultaneously and there is not enough manpower to record them altogether before the turtles head back to the sea. There is no significant difference in the correlation between clutch sizes with CCL of female sea turtles. Despite that length is the closest variable to determine the clutch size (Bjorndal et al., 2012), correlations might not explain that the size of the clutch is caused by length, per se. Other factors that might be contributing to the reduced number of clutch of eggs are environmental conditions such as thermal constraints and erosive wave. This affects the sea turtles that arrive for nesting towards the end of the season (Hamann et al., 2002; Miller et al., 2003).
Previous research has also suggested a more accurate finding could be obtained by considering the mean volume of a clutch, rather than just by using clutch size (Hays,
2001).
Size and age explain the reproductive fitness at certain maturity threshold in reptiles (Bjorndal et al., 2012; Roff, 2000; Stearns, 2000). Late maturity is an evolutionary advantage as to enhance body size and facilitate size-mediated process such as reproduction (Bjorndal et al., 2012). Researches in Ascension Island (Hays et al., 1993), French Frigate Shoals (Balazs & Center, 1980) and Taiwan (Wang &
Cheng, 1999; Chen & Cheng, 1995) showed positive correlation between mean of
52
carapace curved length (CCL) and clutch size. In general, larger individuals (sea turtles) tend to possess greater reproductive output (Van Buskirk & Crowder, 1994).
Age affects reproductive output in a way that first-breeders may possess smaller amount of follicles for their first breeding season (Hamann et al., 2002). In this study, there is no proof to this statement since it requires a long-term study
(Bjorndal et al., 2012) relating to age, reproductive outputs, maturity and population trends. It is suggested that tagging is also included in further studies to identify each individual. Bjorndal (1985) rejects the notion that age relates to the length, since sea turtles shows high variation in length at the same age due to nutrition.
3.4.3 Emergence Hour
The data on emergence hour of sea turtles is fundamental to increase conservation and monitoring effort on the beach (Welsh & Tucker, 2009; Law,
2010). Other than anthropogenic pressures, it is important to consider tidal amplitude as one of the factors affecting successful nesting attempts (Welsh & Tucker, 2009).
Safeguarding the nesting beach from human threats, especially during the crucial hour of emergence could increase the number of nesting attempts.
Our results show that the most frequent nesting attempts occurred during high tide similar to a research in China (Chen & Cheng, 1995). During high tide, nesting attempts can be facilitated as it is easier for the sea turtles to land on the beach at a reduced distance (Burger & Montevecchi, 1975). High tide could assist the sea turtles by having a carrier effect, especially to those large size individuals. It was previously suggested that lunar phase could also have an effect. Highest high tide
53
(spring tide) and lowest low tide (neap tide) are caused by the position of the moon
(Garrison, 2004). Vertical distances between high and low tide might determine the probability of turtle emergence. It might be metabolically inefficient for a sea turtle to emerge during lowest tide, especially since its movement on land is slow due to its large size. However, there are some disagreements on this theory as some researchers found no correlation between moon and tide with nesting frequency. The emphasis was on other physical factors, such as nest location and type of sand (Mortimer,
1982; Caldwell, 1959).
Emerging hours might be related to anthropogenic pressures in terms of human presence and disturbance. Based on our observation and personal communication with the locals, illegal poaching has indeed become a common problem along the beaches at Setiu. In fact, it is becoming a trend in Terengganu where eggs are being overly exploited and openly traded in the market
(RM3.50/USD 1.70) (Chan & Liew, 1996; Chan et al., 1988; Chan, 2006; Chan &
Shepherd, 2002; Abd Mutalib et al., 2013). Emergence hour might be related to the trespassers during dusk and before dawn.
3.4.4 False Crawls Attempt and Successive Nesting Activities
There is strong positive correlation between false crawl attempts and nesting activities. Result suggests that nesting activities possibly occurred after false crawls attempts. As suggested by previous researches, there is a close relationship between these two variables (Ekanayake et al., 2010; Provancha & Ehrhart, 1987). As the number of false crawl increased, the number of successful nesting attempts might also increase. A sea turtle might be selecting or scouting the area before emerging to
54
the nest sites, and the level of disturbance at the area will determine the success of the nesting attempts (Provancha & Ehrhart, 1987).
False crawls are generally caused by several reasons, such as high light incidence, excessive noise and human disturbance (Witherington et al., 2011; Taylor
& Cozens, 2010). While landing to nest, a sea turtle needs to face natural and anthropogenic obstructions. Natural obstructions from the roots (coming from beach vegetation), will hinder its pathway to emerge and build a nest. Anthropogenic obstructions include the presence of pollutions caused by human along the beach.
Figure 3.11 shows the image of bottles, food containers and plastics seen to be scattered along the nesting areas. Based on the observation, the garbage might not been originate from the locals, but was washed ashore by currents from across the regions. Figure 3.12 shows the image of tar balls that are found along the beach. Tar ball is described as a form of low-level exposures of oil spills and sea debris (Milton et al., 2003), and crossing the tar balls during emergence might cause external oiling and direct physical contact. This disruption might cause non-nesting emergences.
Also, presence of tar balls gives us some insight on pollution that occurs in the ocean and its effect on sea turtles’ feeding activities (Milton et al., 2003; Yender & Mearns,
2003). Government agencies, such Department of Environment (DOE) Malaysia should look upon this matter so that monitoring and proper beach clean-up can be done regularly in order to sustain the number of emerging sea turtles.
55
Figure 3.11: Beach pollution along the Telaga Papan beach
56
Figure 3.12: Example of tar ball observed in Telaga Papan beach
57
Understanding nesting behaviour and ecology of sea turtles is important in order to sustain the recent conservation efforts and plan for a better management.
Nest selection is a crucial aspect for sea turtles as it determines their survival and their hatchling’s survival. Deterioration of nesting activities is caused by anthropogenic pressures, thus, several measures need to be taken efficiently and proactively. Success stories from Sabah, St Croix in Caribbean, and Oaxaca in
Mexico prove that the population of this endangered species can be restored by protecting the nesting beaches (Dutton & Dutton, 2006). It is suggested an integrated and continuous effort of conservation comprises awareness programs, research and monitoring, policy implementation, capacity building, and improvised management and best practices. Extensive trainings (theory and practical) are currently provided to the locals. This effort supports their participation, raises their awareness, and increases their monetary gain. Since two of the beaches in Setiu (Kuala Baharu
Selatan and Telaga Papan) have already been gazetted as reserved areas in
Terengganu, it is suggested that DoF provides more manpower and financial support to allow stricter monitoring along the beach. This action will eliminate illegal poaching and reduce sales of the eggs in the market. Collaborative beach clean-ups must be regularly done to avoid beach pollution, especially to properly dispose tar balls. Understanding nesting ecology is crucial, thus coastal tourism and development can be properly managed. Promotion of tourism activities must prioritize the safety of sea turtles, not to attract visitors and gain profits per se.
Effectiveness of technical and research procedures must be often reviewed, by garnering ideas and opinions from experts and also the community. Most importantly, as anthropogenic pressure is recognized as the main threat to this issue,
58
DoF and WWF must work collaboratively in educating the locals in importance of protecting the nesting areas.
59
CHAPTER 4
HATCHERY IMPLEMENTATION AS CONSERVATION TOOL FOR
GREEN SEA TURTLES
4.1 Introduction
Sea turtles have been facing various threats at every life stage (Spotila et al.,
2000). These threats are collectively affecting their survival, and threatening them towards extinction. In general, sea turtles face threats from natural factors and anthropogenic activities. Among natural factors that negatively affect the survival of sea turtle are predation, erosive wave, flooding and others (Cornelius, 1986; Wetterer
& Lombard, 2010). However, anthropogenic pressures are described as a major issue that affect the population of this wildlife, rather than natural factors (Chan et al.,
1988; Chan & Shepherd, 2002; Chan, 1989). The examples of anthropogenic pressures are detrimental fishing gear, illegal poaching for turtles’ body parts (i.e. meat, carapace, eggs and others), various types of pollution, and others (Chan et al.,
1988; Chan & Shepherd, 2002; Chan, 1989; Yender & Mearns, 2003; Ibrahim,
2006). Due to these continuous pressures, four of the sea turtles found in Malaysia are facing possibilities of extinction. Leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is considered to be critically endangered after its population had plummeted dramatically in Malaysia since recent decades. Green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are categorized as endangered species, alongside hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata). In addition, Olive Ridley turtle (Dermochelys olivacea) is classified as vulnerable (IUCN, 2012).
60
Tackling the issues of conservation required a combination of integrated plans and management (Ibrahim, 2006; Troeng & Rankin, 2005). One of the conservation strategies puts emphasis on protecting the nesting beaches (Garcia et al., 2003; Dutton & Dutton, 2006) by establishment of reserved areas and extensive monitoring, to reduce harvesting of turtle eggs’ harvest in illegal trade. However, despite having legislation implemented, clashes of policies seem uncontrollable since certain state laws are still allowing turtle eggs market (Chan & Liew, 1996; WWF,
2009). Only leatherback turtle’s eggs are banned from the open trade, while eggs from other species are still widely sold, especially in Terengganu, Malaysia (Chan &
Liew, 1996; Chan & Shepherd, 2002; Chan, 2004; Quilter & Azmin, 2010). The inconsistency in implementing the policy and legislation makes it necessary for the implementation of eggs relocation and incubation at the hatchery. These two measures are considered as excellent approaches to enhance the hatchling production and curb the illegal poaching activities (Hays, 2004; Garcia et al., 2003).
There are several reasons why hatcheries are considered as an important ex situ conservation method. Nests might be inappropriately located at the beach, whether it will be too near the tide line or it is overlapped by other nesting clutch.
Nests that are too near to the tide line might be affected should there be erosive waves or flooding, causing the eggs to be deteriorated by the salty sea water. In addition, natural predators such as ghost crabs, ants, feral pigs and monitor lizards might consume the eggs (Ekanayake et al., 2002; Ali et al., 2004).
Another major factor leading to hatchery application is that clutches are devastatingly poached by the public, even in reserved areas. This activity is influenced by the traditional consumption habit since turtle egg is a rather renowned
61
local delicacy. As it can be simply prepared (raw or boiled), turtle egg is described as tasty and provides medicinal value, especially as an aphrodisiac for male consumers
(Abd Mutalib et al., 2013; Aguirre et al., 2006; Senko et al., 2011; Senko et al.,
2009). The expensive price and exclusivity might be the reasons that attract the illegal poachers. Recent report has found that a minimum 20, 255 sea turtle parts had been seized in Malaysia for the past 4 years (2004 - 2012). Ninety-nine per cent of the seized parts was sea turtle eggs (Shepherd & Sharma, 2013). In June 2013, smugglers were convicted in the coastal area of Sabah with more than 5,000 turtle eggs were smuggled, indicating a massive loss of potential hatchling (Shepherd &
Sharma, 2013) .
There are conflicting opinions between the implementation of hatchery (ex situ conservation) and leaving the nests at the beach (in situ conservation) (Garcia et al., 2003; Ekanayake et al., 2002). Relocating the eggs to the hatcheries might result in a lower hatching success (Chan & Liew, 1996; Chan, 1989). This study will investigate whether any improvements/changes are needed on the hatchery management based on successive hatching rates over years and hatching location.
The effects of shading on duration of incubation and successive hatching rates are also evaluated.
62
4.2 Method
4.2.1 Study Sites of Relocation
Eggs are collected from five beaches at Setiu, Terengganu, Malaysia: Kuala
Baharu Utara, Kuala Baharu Selatan, Mengabang Sekepeng, Telaga Papan, and
Kuala Tok Cha. The hatchery is located at Kampung Penarik, which is approximately in the middle point of the five beaches. The location of each point is shown in Figure 4.1. Two out of these beaches are regulated by the Department of
Fisheries (DoF) and have been gazetted as reserved areas. These are Kuala Baharu
Selatan and Telaga Papan. General public population are prohibited from entering these reserved areas starting from 2000h to 0800h. The rest of the beaches (Kuala
Tok Cha, Mengabang Sekepeng and Kuala Baharu Utara) is privately owned by egg collectors.
Rangers are required to relocate the eggs within two hours after oviposition occurred (Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2004). Any relocation later than 5 hours after the eggs are deposited is prohibited (Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2004). The eggs are avoided from excessively rotated by putting them into a pail onto its hard side (Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2004). Any usage of plastic or cloth to carry the eggs is prevented, because of its vulnerability (Ali et al., 2004; Sukarno et al., 2007).
The eggs were also not allowed to be washed in sea water. Handling the eggs must be done by clean and dry hands to optimize successive hatching rates.
63
Figure 4.1: Location of the beach
64
4.2.2 Incubation at the Hatchery and in Styrofoam Boxes
Ideally, the incubation nests should be similar to the natural nests. At the natural beach condition, nests originated from shaded (covered by trees or near the bushes) or open areas were recorded. Eggs from open beach were incubated at the open hatchery, while eggs from shaded nests were incubated at the shaded hatchery.
Hatchery personnel constructed the nests using a specific round-bottom flask shape.
The incubated nest should be narrow at its mouth-hole (about 20 cm), and the neck of the hole should be slightly enlarged until the bottom edge (30 cm). The eggs near the clutch were rearranged for recounting purposes before incubating them. Different species of sea turtles requires different nest depth, due to its different egg size
(Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2004; WWF, 2010). The appropriate nest depth indicated for green sea turtles is between 50 cm to 60 cm. Every nest was labelled with information such as the nesting date, name of the beach, number of nest, and the clutch size. Every nest was spaced one metre from each other. This distance would allow hatchery personnel to walk without stepping onto the nests. Hatchery was closely monitored daily for the threats of natural predators especially monitor lizards, ghost crabs and human disturbance. Plastic cups are put between the clutches to avoid ghost crabs from deteriorating the nests. The nests are encircled with plastic mesh for protection from ghost crab. Small mesh size is used to avoid emerged hatchlings from getting caught in the mesh. Most importantly, to the hatchery was kept constantly clean to avoid attracting natural predators (Ali et al., 2006; Ali et al.,
2004; Sukarno et al., 2007).
Since the same spot could not be re-used for another nest, eventually the hatchery will run out of space for incubation. This usually occurs at the end of the season, which necessitates us to use a custom-ordered Styrofoam boxes (36 cm X
65
21cm X 23 cm). In a few rare cases, flooding occurred and it was necessary to relocate the eggs to these boxes. Sand was placed at the bottom of the box approximately at 2 centimetre depth, and the eggs were placed on top of it. The box was filled with sand until near the top. A nylon mesh was put over the top to prevent hatchlings from accidently falling out. The sand should be carefully moisturized (by water spraying). Over-moisturized sand will attract fungi interaction, whereas over- dried sand can cause egg deterioration from dehydration. The hatchlings were left in the Styrofoam boxes after they emerged to ensure the yolk sac was properly absorb.
Above all, the hatchlings were handled with extra care to optimize the hatching rate.
Incubation in Styrofoam box is clearly not recommended as hatchlings might be weak, but is helpful in tackling the issue of spatial constraint in the hatchery, flooding, or the long distance from beach to the hatchery (Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2004).
4.2.3 Emergence of the Hatchlings
The emergence date of hatchlings is estimated by (1) estimation from the incubation date, and (2) slight yielding of the sand surface. The second condition is caused by the movement of the hatchlings in the nests. The hatchling will start making their way to the surface after they pip (break out from their egg shells), by group. The whole process takes up approximately 2-5 days, before hatchlings emerged to the surface. This process would also allow the yolk sac to be absorbed.
These hatchlings will form an air chamber in the sand and scrape down the sand to the bottom of the nests, which explains the yielding of the sand (Ali et al., 2004).
High sand temperature will cease their progress, especially when near the sand
66
surface. The emergence of the hatchlings often occurs at night (preferably during dusk) since the temperature decreases during that period (Ali et al., 2004).
The number of hatchlings, emergence date, and type of shading were recorded (open or shaded). The enclosed plastic mesh was retained after collecting the hatchlings was finished. There is a possibility of some late hatchlings in the nest.
4.2.4 Release of the Hatchlings to the Sea
The hatchlings were released immediately after emergence, to their natal beach. Every hatchling release was done at night. The immediate release was to ensure that the hatchlings would still be energetic to swim in the ocean. Typically, in the natural nests, hatchlings will emerged and move towards the sea at night to avoid predation (i.e. fish, ghost crab) and fatal heat during the day (Glen et al., 2005). The release of the hatchlings could not be delayed as they would lose their ‘swimming frenzy’ and become more lethargic in prolonged captivity (Ali et al., 2004). Different spots on the beach must be chosen to avoid predators from targeting the same release area. Hatchling’s disorientation can be avoided by releasing them at a dark spot, without any light source, and reducing any hindrance (i.e. wood, predators). The hatchlings were allowed to travel slowly through a distance on the beach, preferably an average distance of 100 m from a natural nest. This procedure is to allow
‘imprinting’, so that hatchling can return to its natal beach to nest.
67
4.2.5 Excavation of the Nests
After a week of the hatchling emergence, each of the nest was excavated to check on any remaining hatchlings or eggs. All egg shells were removed from the nest and arranged according to its conditions (egg shell, eggs that failed to hatch, predated hatchlings). Eggs that failed to hatch were examined for embryo development. All egg shells were later buried far from the hatchery to avoid attracting the predators (i.e. monitor lizard) at a depth of 30-40 cm. Any hatchlings that were found alive are released at night. The number of successive hatching rates was calculated once excavating the nests is finished. The successive hatching rates percentage was calculated as:
Successive hatching rate = Number of alive hatchling X 100 Number of eggs incubated
4.2.6 Statistical Analysis
All successive hatching data collected were recorded on a specific data sheet
(Appendix D), while the excavation data was recorded in a specific data sheet
(Appendix E). The field data collection was carried out in 2012, while data from
2009 until 2011 were collaborated from Department of Fisheries. For data of successive hatching rate, compilation of data from 2009 until 2012 was obtained.
However, data for type of hatchery, incubation days and egg condition in 2009 until
2011 were not available. Statistical analysis was carried out by using Microsoft Excel
2010 and JMP Pro10.
68
4.3 Result
Result shows that Kuala Baharu Utara had the highest mean of hatching success rate (mean = 84.64 ± 4.75). Figure 4.2 shows that there was no significant difference of hatching rates between the beaches at Setiu (F4, 618= 1.06, p = 0.39).
Year 2011 had the highest mean of hatching success rate compared to other years
(mean = 82.84 ± 1.81). Mean hatching rate in 2011 was significantly higher (F3, 618=
5.0478, p = 0.002) compared with 2009 (mean = 72.41 ± 2.41) and 2010 (mean = 74.
70 ± 2.02) (Figure 4.3). Figure 4.4 shows that in 2012, Kuala Baharu Utara had the highest mean of success hatching rate compared with other beaches (mean= 92.84 ±
7.83), while the lowest was from Kuala Baharu Selatan (mean= 61. 81 ± 7.38). There was significant difference of mean successful hatching rates between these two beaches (F= 4,203= 2.47, P = 0.05).
69
Figure 4.2: Successive hatching rate based on beaches
Figure 4.3: Successive hatching rate based on year
70
Figure 4.4: Successive hatching rate based on beaches (2012)
71
Figure 4.5 shows that majority of the eggs incubated were successfully hatched (73.9%). A quarter proportion of the eggs was not hatched, with 19.7% of them had no embryonic development, and 5.8% of them did have embryonic development. Less than 1% of the eggs was predated.
Figure 4.5 : Egg conditions.
Our result indicated that the duration for hatchlings to hatch in open hatchery was significantly shorter (mean = 47.236 ± 0.6248, F 2, 202 = 27.808, p < 0.0001) than shaded hatchery (mean = 53.651 ± 0.887) and Styrofoam (mean= 58.539 ± 1.953)
(Figure 4.6). The successive hatching rate was assessed according to the type of hatchery. The shaded hatchery had significantly higher successive hatching rate
(mean = 86. 842 ± 2.741, F2,202 = 7.750, p = 0.0006), compared to open hatchery
(73.804 ± 1.9304) (Figure 4.7).
72
Figure 4.6 : Duration of incubation based on type of hatchery
Figure 4.7 : Successive hatching rate based on type of hatchery
4.4 Discussion
This simple and initial evaluation of hatchery management at Setiu is related to several issues. (1) As green sea turtle conservation at Setiu is fully carried out in hatchery (ex situ), it is important to evaluate the effectiveness of hatchery management and how to suggest improvement continuously. (2) Hatchery functions as part of an integrated conservation effort, which involves technical part of
73
management, building capacity among locals, and raising education /awareness among locals. (3) It can be suggested that eggs relocation can avoid human disturbance and control natural predation, therefore optimizing the number of successive hatching rate.
A significant improvement was observed on successive hatching rate within four years of eggs relocation. This is due to the extensive number of trainings and classes that were provided to the rangers, licensed collectors and hatchery personnel.
Both DoF and WWF Malaysia collaborated to provide free classes that emphasize on hatchery management based on the Standard Operation of Procedure (SOP) of
Marine Turtle Management in Peninsular Malaysia (Sukarno et al., 2007). Experts and researchers are invited to teach relevant personnel about the Best Hatchery
Practices (BHP), which involves procedures starting from egg collection to the final hatchling release. Throughout this program, reviews will be made based on feedbacks, comments, and questions from the participants.
There are issues pertaining to natural nests when compared to incubation in the hatcheries (Garcia et al., 2003). Without proper care and handlings, possibilities of low success incubation will be increased when relocating the eggs (Basintal, 2002;
Ali et al., 2004; Chan, 1989). The texture of the eggs shell is subtle and fragile, therefore exposing them for extensive duration will cause breakage or damage.
Frequent movements (especially rotation and bumping) of the eggs from the nests to the pail, beach to the hatcheries, and during the incubation process can be lethal during the early embryonic development (Chan, 1989; Miller, 1985; Ali et al., 2004).
The disruption occurs when the membrane that attaches the yolk to eggshell is torn due to the massive movements. This membrane is described as ‘small, white spot’
74
that can be seen in the shell and is the centre of the hatchlings’ growth (Chan, 1989).
Thus, the implementation of SOP and BHP, the importance of efficiency (especially during the relocation of eggs from the beach to the hatchery), and effectiveness of hatcheries need to be considered. Rangers and licensed collectors are required to efficiently relocate the eggs as soon as possible, at least within two hours after oviposition occurs (Chan, 1989).
When designing a hatchery, a number of factors must be considered. A hatchery should be built at a certain elevation away from being drained by the erosive salty wave or by fresh water (Ali et al., 2004). The risk of mortality in turtle eggs is higher if the eggs came into contact with salty sea water (Ali et al., 2004;
Whitmore & Dutton, 1985). On the other hand, if the hatchery was located too high; it would be too far from the sea for the hatchlings to emerge and escape the hatchery
(Caut et al., 2006). However, this rarely happened as every nest is surrounded by plastic mesh, until the nests are excavated and the success rates are fully recorded.
Also, the beach morphology at Penarik hatchery is a flat region.
Shading at the hatchery affects the temperature of the nests, and in turn affects survival of the hatchlings and duration of incubation. However, only evaluation of successive hatching rate between shading type was carried out in this study. The result shows that the hatching success was significantly higher in shaded hatchery. This study found that it took shorter duration for eggs that were incubated in open hatchery to hatch. Previous research postulated that lowered temperature increased the duration of incubation (Chan, 1989; Mrosovsky & Yntema, 1980). It is estimated that for every degree of Celcius (°C) that plummets, 5 days of incubation will be increased (Mrosovsky & Yntema, 1980). Prior studies also showed a linear
75
relationship between duration of incubation (days) against temperature (°C), despite that temperature effects are usually nonlinear (Ackerman, 1997). Constant temperature is not determined to describe the growth of eggs since beach temperature might be changing analytically (Ackerman, 1997; Miller et al., 2003). It is indicated that hatching rates can plummet if the temperature was higher than 33°C (Miller et al., 2003; Limpus et al., 1985). Nesting beach is described as an ‘incubator’ for turtle eggs during its embryonic development. Previous studies reported that optimized rate of successive hatching activities can be optimised with suitable conditions
(Whitmore & Dutton, 1985; Ackerman, 1997; Chan, 1989). Example of these conditions are; optimum temperature, humidity, water potential, salinity and level of respiratory gases (Ackerman, 1997).
The hatchery should be distant from any vegetation due to the plant roots’ growth that could disturb the egg clutch (Whitmore & Dutton, 1985), and far from high light intensities to avoid hatchlings being disoriented by the light (Ali et al.,
2004). The small percentage of predated eggs was recorded (less than 1%) which reflects the success of this hatchery to protect the eggs from natural predators. The predators are usually ghost grabs, and sometimes red ants (Wetterer & Lombard,
2010). Ghost crabs (Ocypode spp.) are commonly known to prey upon turtle eggs where no bigger predators exist (Cornelius, 1986). Also, the same clutch or nest area to be reused is prohibited in order to decrease contamination by microbes (i.e. fungi, bacteria) which can reduce the oxygen for hatchlings for respiratory exchange purposes (Phillott & Parmenter, 2001a, b).
Incubation in hatcheries provides a number of advantages. Surely, a certain amounts of egg are safely incubated in guarded areas, free from disturbance of
76
human, natural predators, flooding, beach erosion and others (Garcia et al., 2003).
The number of hatching rates can be properly documented and recorded, thus leading to a more accurate evaluation on the hatchery’s performance. From the data collection, the hatching time can be estimated, thus hatchlings might be available for awareness programs and education purposes.
Implementation of hatchery conservation can assure the involvement of the locals as the manpower (Abd Mutalib et al., 2013; Senko et al., 2011) . This effort is a great initiative to spread the awareness among the locals and emphasize the importance of marine turtle conservation. In addition, hatcheries may help to contribute to the economic capacity among the local people, while at the same time conserve turtles (Leisher et al., 2011).
As aforementioned, there are arguable issues involving two conservation tools which are ex situ and in situ conservation. Suffice to say, the hatchery at Setiu has improved over years, proving the effectiveness of the hatcheries. Other hatcheries are also showing remarkable recovery of hatchling production rates, such as hawksbill and green turtle hatcheries of Sabah Parks (Basintal, 2002), leatherback turtle hatchery at St Croix, United States Virgin Island in the Caribbean (Dutton &
Dutton, 2006), green turtle hatchery at Jalisco, Western Mexico (Garcia et al., 2003).
Illegal poaching is one of the main threats in the conservation of sea turtles at
Setiu. Despite the restrictions that have been made clear, the threat still exists due to the limited number of rangers during the data collection in 2012, only four rangers were assigned to cover the whole area of Telaga Papan coastal beach (about 10.2 km).
77
It is suggested that legislations and policies be reviewed to take into account, market trends and current situations. In general, sea turtles are highly migratory and not bounded by any region (Papi et al., 1995). Thus, it raises the issue that equal protection should be given to every state in Malaysia regarding policy and legal implementation. Although the green turtle is an endangered species (IUCN, 2012), the legislations are inconsistent across the states. In Sabah, Wildlife Conservation
Enactment of 1997 prohibits any collection or possession of any marine turtle egg without permission. Upon conviction, a maximum penalty of RM50, 000 or five-year imprisonment (or both) will be charged. All the marine turtles in Sarawak are totally protected (WWF, 2009). On the other hand, two states in Peninsular Malaysia which are Perlis and Selangor do not have any specific laws to protect marine turtles. In
Terengganu, only trading of leatherback turtles is banned, while eggs of other species are still allowed to be traded (Chan & Liew, 1996).
Turtle egg smuggling can hardly be tackled since trading is reported to be happening from and to other neighbouring regions (Chan & Liew, 1996; Chan &
Shepherd, 2002). Illegal harvesting of eggs does not only occur in Malaysia, but also globally. Countries such as Philippines (Shepherd & Sharma, 2013), Costa Rica,
Mexico, and India are among others that have to face the declining number of sea turtle population (Spotila, 2004). Extensive cooperation from local and international agencies needs to be emphasized to halt the illegal poaching chain from the nesting beach to the market.
In summary, it can be suggested that hatchery implementation is able to increase the successive hatching rate of green sea turtles. This condition is supported by intensive careful handling by the rangers and hatchery personnel during relocation
78
of the eggs and incubation process. In this paper, only the qualitative factor was focused (type of hatchery) instead of quantitative factors (humidity and temperature).
Hence, it is suggested combining both quantitative and qualitative factors should there be any prospect of future studies to get more thorough and accurate findings.
Implementation of hatchery is proven to reduce anthropogenic pressures and natural predation, leading to increasing number of hatchling production. Hence, implementing hatchery can be considered as one of effective conservation tools of green sea turtles.
79
CHAPTER 5
GROWTH AND CARAPACIAL SCUTE VARIATION OF HATCHLING: A
REFLECTION ON ITS SURVIVAL RATE
5.1 Introduction
Study on external morphology and growth of hatchlings are important to predict the survival rate of the hatchlings (Gyuris, 2000). Turtles, in general have a complicated survival strategy due to their migratory behaviour, and long lifespan
(Cox, 1998). Hatchlings, however require a longer growth period to reach sexual maturity (Bolten, 2003a). This situation is compensated by its regular and abundant reproduction activities (Bolten, 2003a; Cox, 1998). However, anthropogenic ativities have put a lot of pressure on the population’s growth (Chan & Shepherd, 2002;
Chan, 2004). The combination of anthropogenic pressures and its late sexual maturity are threatening turtle’s population under conservation efforts are stepped up to ease the pressure.
Hatchlings of green sea turtles are generally black on its dorsal part (head, flippers and carapace (Spotila, 2004; Wyneken & Witherington, 2001; Eckert et al.,
1999c). In general, coloration provides taxonomic information and distinguishes conspecifics of the species (Bolten, 2003a; Wyneken & Witherington, 2001). This coloration helps hatchling to adapt to the vigorous predation in the ocean, especially during their early exposure to the sea (Wyneken & Witherington, 2001; Spotila,
2004). The ventral part (plastron and flippers) are generally white (Cox, 1998).
However, the hatchling colour changes throughout ontogeny. In mature green turtles,
80
their body evolved with characteristics that can assist migration and provide efficient movement. Example of these characteristics are: fusiform body, minimal head, and limb pockets that can optimize their energy and reduce drag (Wyneken &
Witherington, 2001; Van Buskirk & Crowder, 1994). Flippers that are elongated at the front help to generate thrust and effective movement (Wyneken & Witherington,
2001; Cox, 1998).
External anatomy of a species is prominent for identification purposes. Scutes are one of external anatomies of sea turtles. Comprising of keratinous plate, scutes can be seen on both carapace and plastron of the green sea turtles (Wyneken &
Witherington, 2001). Also, it is reported that scutes have been exploited as ornamental in Isla Cerritos, when a burned turtle shell is evidently found to be roasted at that time (Carr, 1989).
Fossils of green sea turtles in Abu Dhabi were identified by edges of the scute, and this provides the taxonomic information about the presence of green sea turtles (Uerpmann, 2001). Scute on the carapace can be identified such as costal, vertebral, nuchal, marginal and supracaudal. Scutes can also be seen on the plastron and between the carapace and plastron (also known as inframarginal) (Wyneken &
Witherington, 2001). Usually, the number of costal scutes on the carapace of green turtle is four on both sides (left and right) and five on the vertebral scute (Figure 5.1).
81
Figure 5.1: The scute on the carapace of green sea turtles
However, in a number of cases, the occurrences of carapacial scute variation are addressed. The term ‘carapacial scute variation’ is coined as the abnormalities of number of scutes on the carapace of hatchlings (Mast & Carr, 1989). In earlier years,
Deraniyagala (1939) refers the term of ‘chelonian carapacial scutation’ as the abnormalities of number and arrangement of scutes on the chelonian’s carapace. As early as 1899, it was proposed that carapacial scute variation is seen greater on the hatchlings compared to adult loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) (Gadow, 1899).
Gadow (1899) proposed that the cause of the carapacial scute variation is said to be
‘orthogenetic variation’, where the hatchlings that possess abnormal number of scutes will go through fusion of scute during ontogeny, resulting mature turtles to have normal (low) numbers of scute. Carapacial scute variation is linked to low fitness, which explains why healthy adults have less scute variation (Newman, 1906;
Ozdemir et al., 2007). In contradiction, it is proposed that carapacial scute variation happened because of ‘atavistic reappearance’ that has been lost during ontogeny.
82
Newman (1906) proposed this theory after an observation of the scute abnormalities in Graptemys geographica and Chrysenmys marginata in Alaska. Carapacial scute variation was also studied in a Kemp’s Ridley rookery in Mexico, and it was suggested that the cause for the occurrence is improper handlings(Mast & Carr,
1989). Other causes suggested are environmental factors, such as overcrowded clutches, oxygen deficiencies during incubation (Coker, 1910), temperature changes during incubation (Hildebrend, 1930) and disturbance during development stage
(Hill, 1971).
This study determined the growth and carapacial scute variation in green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) that were incubated in the hatchery. Growth of the hatchlings that originated from Setiu beaches such as from Telaga Papan (TP), Kuala Baharu
Selatan (KBS), Kuala Baharu Utara (KBU), Mengabang Sekepeng (MSK) and Kuala
Tok Cha (KTC) were also observed. Effect of egg relocation time (from the beach to the hatchery) for carapacial scute variation was also determined. At Setiu, turtle eggs conservation is ex-situ, meaning that all the eggs are brought to the hatchery at
Penarik for incubation. Efficiency is crucial in relocating the eggs, as the embryonic development starts from the first hour after oviposition. A part of this study tested whether there was any significant effect on variation of scutes in relation to the qualitative factor of efficiency in relocating the eggs. The objectives of the study were:
(i) To determine the growth of hatchlings by measuring the Straight Curve
Length (SCL), Straight Curve Width (SCW) and body weight of the
hatchlings based on the location of the beaches at Setiu.
(ii) To determine the effect of the relocation time with regard to the hatchlings’
variation carapacial scutes and growth of hatchlings.
83
5.2 Methodology
5.2.1 Study Site
The study was conducted at beaches of Setiu, Terengganu, Malaysia. Setiu
(5°35’-5°41’ N, 102°43’-102°50’ E) is located at the east coast of Peninsular
Malaysia. Part of this district comprises Setiu Wetland, which places several habitats and endangered species. There are lagoon, mangrove forest, coastal beaches, rivers, and peat swamps. Besides Chelonia mydas, Setiu used to be a nesting ground in the early 1970s for other species of sea turtles such as Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) (pers. communication). Other rare species seen at Setiu are river terrapin (Batagur baska), painted terrapin (Callagur borneoensis) (WWF, 2007).
For growth studies of the hatchlings, the hatchlings were measured from the five beaches which are Telaga Papan (TP) (N 05ᵒ34.275' E 102ᵒ50.883'), Kuala
Baharu Selatan (KBS)(5°38'7.62"N 102°47'6.39"E), Kuala Baharu Utara (KBU)
(5°42'31.47"N 102°41'1.86"E), Mengabang Sekepeng (MSK) (5°37'20.19"N
102°48'1.49"E) and Kuala Tok Cha (KTC)(5°32'20.13"N 102°54'48.21"E). The hatchery is situated in the middle of every beach, which is in Penarik (5°36'35.26"N
102°48'46.56"E). Two out of these beaches are being protected by the Department of
Fisheries (DOF) which are TP and KBS, while the others are privately owned.
For studies of carapacial scute variation, the relocation time was only recorded only from TP. This is because TP is routinely surveyed by the rangers and this beach is easily accessible (compared to KBS) due to its geographical condition
84
and protection status. Since there are constraints on manpower and accessibilities to other beaches, we decided to focus on hatchlings from TP (Figure 5.2).
85
Figure 5.2: Map of the study site in Setiu
86
5.2.2 Hatchling’s Management at the Hatchery
Emergence of hatchlings can be predicted from the date the eggs were laid at the beach. Usually, the eggs of green turtles will need 54 until 76 days to be incubated at the hatchery (Sukarno et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2004). A number of items were prepared to properly handle the hatchlings before being released to the sea.
These materials are Styrofoam box or pail to collect the hatchlings, hand glove and hand sanitizer for hygienic purposes (WWF, 2010).
Hatchlings often emerge at night. Since the nests are surrounded by mesh, the hatchlings are secured from wandering around and the hatchery personnel will inspect the nests for a number of times for signs of emergence. There are some rare occurrences that hatchlings emerge during the day. In this case, we collected the hatchlings and kept them in a cool place before releasing them.
During collection of the hatchlings, the bottom of the box must be covered with damp sand to avoid dehydration among the hatchlings before they are released at night (Sukarno et al., 2007). During collection, the number of hatchlings, the date and hour of emergence were counted.
A total of 20% of the overall number of hatchlings were chosen randomly in each nest for measurement. Overall, 1921 hatchlings were measured from the five beaches of Setiu. The parameters measured were the Straight Curved Length (SCL) and Straight Curved Width (SCW) using a vernier caliper. SCL is the measurement of the carapace in a straight line, starting from the most anterior point of the vertebral scute to the most posterior point of the vertebral scute (Wyneken & Witherington,
2001; Sukarno et al., 2007). SCW is the measurement of the midline of the vertebral
87
scute. Hatchlings were weighed by using electronic weigh scale (KERN 440,
German Excellence Group) (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: Measurement of SCL and SCW of the hatchlings (Wyneken & Witherington, 2001)
5.2.3 Carapacial Scute Variation on Hatchling’s Carapace
The carapacial scute variations on the hatchling’s carapace were observed.
Observations on carapacial scute variation were only done on nests from Telaga
Papan Beach due to its strategic location and easy access compared to the other beaches. Overall, we observed and recorded 4874 hatchlings from 80 nests at Telaga
Papan Beach.
A normal hatchling of green sea turtle possesses four costal scutes for both right and left costal scute. Also a normal hatchling will possess five vertebral scutes.
Above the vertebral scute is nuchal scute, while surrounding the posterior carapace is the marginal scute, and on the anterior part was the supercaudal scute (Eckert et al.,
1999c; Wyneken & Witherington, 2001). Since marginal, nuchal and supracaudal are small and less visible, the observation is done thoroughly by the hatchery personnel
88
to avoid error. Each of the hatchlings’ carapaces was observed and compared the number of scutes on the right costal scute (RCS), vertebral scute (VS), left costal scute (LCS). Only these three parts of scutes were observed since the other parts are not clearly visible and small. Each of the carapacial scute variation is recorded. We counted every hatchling in a manner from the posterior part of carapace to the anterior of the carapace. In this study, we only consider ‘carapacial scute variation’ as the abnormalities number of the scutes, regardless of any dislocation or non- symmetrical state of the scutes (Mast & Carr, 1989). The number of hatchlings whose carapace is various and different from normal hatchlings are counted and recorded, with their measurement of SCL, SCW and body weight (Mast & Carr,
1989).
5.2.4 Releasing the Hatchlings and Excavation of the Nests
Releasing the hatchlings must be done immediately to prevent them from being dehydration, exhaustion and to allow imprinting of their natural beach. One batch of hatchlings must be release at different spot from the previous nests to avoid predation by fishes and ghost crabs (Sukarno et al., 2007; WWF, 2010).
Styrofoam boxes were used to keep the hatchlings. Releasing the hatchlings needs to be done at a location with low light intensities, low noise pollution, and with lack of hindrance such as garbage, bottles, roots and stem from the trees along the beach. The location of the release at the dune was approximately 100 m from the water edge (WWF, 2010; Sukarno et al., 2007). The hatchlings were slowly and carefully released to the sea. Hatchlings were not released directly from the boat, as it was proven in a study in Bermuda that hatchlings became more ‘disoriented and
89
frantic’ (Frick, 1976) and to encourage imprinting process to occur (Ali et al., 2004;
Sukarno et al., 2007; WWF, 2010).
Excavation of the nests was carried out at the earliest of one week after most of the hatchlings emerged. Excavation is necessary to ensure all eggs are inspected, and no hatchlings are left stranded in the nest. All the egg shells and eggs from the nests were taken out, arranged, and counted. The egg shells from the successful hatched eggs were separated from the unsuccessful hatched eggs, dead hatchlings and weak hatchlings (WWF, 2010; Sukarno et al., 2007). All weak hatchlings that managed to survive were observed, measured and recorded for any carapacial scute variation. Weak hatchlings were still released to the sea later, just like the normal hatchlings. The remains from the excavation will be buried, in a certain location far away from the beaches at 1 foot deep to avoid monitor lizards and other predators scavenging on the remains (Sukarno et al., 2007).
5.2.5 Statistical Analysis of Data
The data were recorded on a specific data sheet (Appendix F) and analysed by using JMP Pro 10 and Microsoft Excel (2010). Graphs were generated by using
Origin 6.1 software. For study of growth of the hatchlings, ANOVA test was chosen to see whether there is any significant difference of the measurement size between the hatchlings among different locations. In the study of degree of variation of the hatchlings against the measurement size, ANOVA test was conducted. For carapacial scute variation versus the relocation time, the data was not normally distributed and multiple attempts of data transformation (log, arcine) failed to achieve normality. To analyse for patterns, the relocation time were categorized by intervals of 30 minutes.
The carapacial scute variation were then plotted based on the time intervals.
90
5.3 Result
5.3.1 Size of Hatchlings by Using Straight Curve Length (SCL), Straight
Curve Width (SCW) and Body Weight
The SCL, SCW and body weight of the hatchlings shows significant difference when compared by location (F= 40.07, df= 4, p < 0.0001), (F = 53.27, df =
4, p < 0.0001), (F = 14.198, df= 4, p < 0.0001), respectively. In all categories, hatchlings from KBU recorded the highest SCL (mean = 4.86 ± 0.0209), SCW (mean
= 3.83 ± 0.02) and body weight (mean = 22.10 ± 0.23). The mean of the hatchlings’ measurement in every location and its post hoc result for all statistic tests (SCL,
SCW and body weight) are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: SCL, SCW and body weight of the hatchlings from all locations (The different letter in supernumerary denotes significant difference between the means).
Location mean of SCL (cm) mean of SCW (cm) mean of body
Weight (g)
KBU 4.86a 3.83 a 22.10 a
MSK 4.76b 3.72 b 21.92 a
TP 4.66c 3.60 c 21/15b
KTC 4.67c 3.57 c 21.10b
KBS 4.64c 3.55 c 20.92b
5.3.2 Comparison of Measurement of Normal Hatchlings with Hatchlings with
Carapacial Scute Variation
Since there is not enough evidence to assume normality (p < 0.001), Chi
Square test was conducted to see the difference of measurement between normal hatchlings with hatchlings with carapacial scute variation. Normal hatchling has 91
higher significant difference of SCL (mean= 4.66, χ2 = 37.75, df =1, p < 0.0001),
SCW (mean = 3.61, χ2 = 114.231, df =1, p < 0.0001) and body weight (mean =
21.03, χ2 = 12.82, df =1, p = 0.0003) compared to hatchlings with carapacial scute variation.
Table 5.2: SCL, SCW and body weight of hatchlings based on categories of carapacial scute variation.
Degree of mean SCL (cm) mean SCW (cm) mean body weight carapacial scute (g) variation
Single 4.56 ± 0.03 3.45 ± 0.10 20.21 ± 0.21
Double 4.59 ± 0.01 3.50 ± 0.47 20.78 ± 0.11
Triple 4.57 ± 0.02 3.56 ± 0.07 20.42 ± 0.13
There is no significant difference between these three groups (single, double and triple variation) for SCL and SCW, but there is significant difference for body weight of hatchlings. Hatchlings that have single variation (F = 3.96, df = 2, p = 0.02, mean = 20.78) is significantly heavier than those that have double variation (mean =
20.206).
Since there is no significant difference between the two parameters (SCL and
SCW), the effect of degree of carapacial scute variation on the growth of hatchlings remains unclear. There are possibilities that 1) All hatchlings with carapacial scute variation are equally small, weak and will be vulnerable when exposed, or 2) No
92
significant evidence can be seen since the degree of carapacial scute is only up to three levels.
5.3.3 Carapacial Scute Variation on Hatchlings’ Carapace
Table 5.3: Summary of carapacial scute variation on hatchlings’ carapace
No of No of No of hatchlings hatchlings No of hatchlings with No of No. of with with normal abnormalities hatchlings abnormalities abnormalities abnormalities hatchling at Vertebral at Right at Left Costal Scute Costal Scutes Scute 4894 870 4024 373 694 378
The hatchlings’ scute from Telaga Papan were mostly varied at vertebral scute (n = 694). There were four sub-categories for ‘right costal scutes’: (1) 3 right costal scutes, (2) 5 right costal scutes, (3) 6 right costal scutes, and (4) 7 right costal scutes. Vertebral scute comprises sub- categories of 4 vertebral scute, 6 vertebral scute, 7 vertebral scute, 8 vertebral scute, 9 vertebral scute, 10 vertebral scute. Left costal scute comprises sub-categories of 4 left costal scute, 5 left costal scute, 6 left costal scute, 7 left costal scute, and 8 left costal scute. Most hatchlings have 6 vertebral scutes (n = 460), and least hatchlings have 1 vertebral scutes (n = 1), and 8 costal scutes (n =1).
Figure 5.4 shows the number of hatchlings (according to their carapacial scute variation’s categories) against the relocation time. The highest number of carapacial scute variation occurred at 121 until 180 minutes (n = 502, 41.97%), followed by groups that were relocated between 61 until 120 minutes (n=416,
34.78%). Least number of hatchlings possess carapacial scute variation that were
93
relocated between 0 and 30 minutes (n = 36, 3.01%). Type of carapacial scute variation that was most frequently occurred is ‘VS_6’ (n = 382, 31.94%), followed by ‘LCS_5’ (n =321, = 26.84%).
94
Figure 5.4: Number of hatchlings with variation carapacial scutes against the relocation time (minutes).
95
5.4 Discussion
In this study, hatchlings from Kuala Baharu Utara were recorded to be significantly larger than hatchlings from other beaches. Larger hatchlings have more advantages to survive after they were released to the sea (Burgess et al., 2006;
Ozdemir et al., 2007). It is suggested that larger hatchling have more capabilities in swimming (Burgess et al., 2006). It is also suggested that hatchlings that are more capable and can swim faster can escape from predators and able to prey larger items
(Gyuris, 2000).
Carapacial scute variation might possibly decreased level of fitness of the hatchlings. Since it has been recorded in this study that the former group is significantly smaller and lighter than the latter, they are probably more vulnerable to predators and are weaker swimmers. This is deducted in previous studies of loggerhead hatchlings (Janzen et al., 2000). Since they are more vulnerable and possessed less survival rate, they have higher possibilities to be removed from the population. Hence, there are more normal adults than adults with carapacial scute variation (Turkozan & Yilmaz, 2007).
The data indicate that longer relocation time resulted in more scute variation.
This could be due to improper handling. However, ‘improper handling’ might be subjective and cannot be quantitatively proven (Mast & Carr, 1989). The carapacial scute variation can be categorized as supernumerary or subnumerary. Firstly, supernumerary scutations have higher number of scutations that it is supposed to be.
On contrary, subnumerary scutations refer to the number of scutations that is lower than it should (Turkozan et al., 2001). In this study, hatchlings that were relocated between 121 and 180 minutes after oviposition were mostly affected with variation
96
carapacial scutes. Hatchlings with variation carapacial scute mostly possessed supernumerary number of scutes on their carapace (‘VS_6’ followed by ‘LCS_5’).
There are numbers of other environmental factors (i.e. temperature and humidity) that can affect the carapacial scute variation (Mast & Carr, 1989). In fact, the combination of improper handling and environmental factors will significantly affect the carapacial scute variation. This is due to environmental factors that have significant effect on the development of embryo in green sea turtle (Mast & Carr,
1989; Glen et al., 2003).
In this study, there is no embryonic development in the hatchlings being observed. Climatic factors were not significantly effecting the carapacial scute variation of green turtle hatchlings in a study originated in Turkey (Turkozan &
Yilmaz, 2007). In a study of embryonic development in Mediterranean also showed that carapace development in the embryo do not occur at the earliest days of incubation, thus it decreases the possibility that embryonic development will be able to affect the carapacial scute variation (Kaska & Downie, 1999). A number of studies reflected the theory of natural selection that in contradiction of extreme supernumerary or subnumerary of scutes, indicating that survival rates is higher in normal hatchling rather than hatchlings with carapacial scute variation (Hill, 1971;
Mast & Carr, 1989).
Result shows that the number of carapacial scute variation is increasing as relocation time increases. This pattern might reflect that the eggs need to be relocated as soon as possible to avoid variation carapacial scute. The number of hatchlings with variation carapacial scute increased dramatically in the group of 61st until 120th minutes. Starting from 181th minutes, the number of hatchlings with variation
97
carapacial scutes decreases. There are two possibilities that might occur; 1) eggs need to remain at the nest for a long time before getting relocated, or 2) Few number of hatchlings survived (normal or with variation carapacial scute) after a long relocation time. Previous research suggested that eggs of Chelonia mydas must be incubated within 3 hours of its oviposition time (Parmenter, 1980).
In conclusion, the combination of genetic and maternally-derived factors might cause significant difference in the measurements of hatchlings based on locations. There is possibility that survival rate of normal hatchlings is higher than hatchling with carapacial scute variation, since the former showed higher significant difference in all SCL, SCW and body weight measurement.
It can be suggested that more intensive and proper handling of egg relocation can be done, to increase the number of hatchlings. Hence, higher survival rate can be achieved and more hatchlings can act against natural selection in the population.
However, the causes of carapacial scute variation remain unclear in this study since the pattern shows that earliest and longest duration taken are both causing few numbers of hatchlings with variation carapacial scute.
In the future, it can be suggested that in-depth studies will involve observation on embryonic development to prove whether it affect the carapacial scute variation. Also, measurement of microclimatic factors can be carried out to see the effect of the combination of qualitative (improper handling) and quantitative factors (climatic factors) towards the variation of scutes. In addition, a comparison of carapacial scute variation between hatchlings in natural nests with relocated hatchlings is proposed, to significantly justify the effect of improper handling toward the carapacial scute variation. Finally, improvement on this study can be made by
98
experimentally testing the energy level between normal hatchlings and hatchling with carapacial scutes variation.
99
CHAPTER 6
GENERAL PERCEPTIONS AND AWARENESS LEVEL OF LOCAL
COMMUNITY REGARDING TURTLE CONSERVATION EFFORTS
BASED ON AGE FACTORS AND GENDER
6.1 Introduction
Marine turtles’ populations have been decreasing mainly because of anthropogenic factors such as incidental captures by dangerous fishing gears, excessive tourism activities, and illegal poaching activities (Chan & Liew, 1996;
Chan et al., 1988; Chan, 2006; Chan & Shepherd, 2002; Senko et al., 2011). Body parts of marine turtles such as meat, oil, flesh and shell are being massively exploited in trade and business activities. Environmental problems such as climate change, beach pollutions, beach erosion and sedimentation have affected the growth and population of this reptile, regardless of species (Chan, 2004). Thus, humans have contributed to the direct and indirect effect of the declining numbers of marine turtles
(Eckert et al., 1999a; Eckert et al., 1999b).
In Mexico, overexploitation of meat and eggs, fisheries by-catch, and degradation marine ecosystem and nesting habitats have been taking places, not only by locals, but also foreigners. The products from these activities are later sold, publicly or in the black market (Senko et al., 2011; Senko et al., 2009). In Taiwan, problems are similar, thus forcing stricter and more systematic field monitoring
(Wang & Cheng, 1999). Marine turtles might be a symbol of prosperity and longevity in Chinese tradition, but wrongly exploited as they are kept in captivity after being captured by the fishermen and would only be release during a special
100
event (Chan & Shepherd, 2002). In Thailand, locals also keep hatchlings and raised them in captivity, only releasing them during special occasion (Chan & Shepherd,
2002). Monitoring marine turtles in Turkey considers the same anthropogenic issues, such as excessive tourist developments, marine pollution, incidental captures, and maritime traffic (Maktav et al., 2000). Meanwhile in countries around Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden, marine turtles are captured for their carapace and sold in local market and exported, while turtle eggs are collected for trades by locals. Due to the low fish stock, lack of safe fishing gears, and especially the high monetary profit (gained from tourists), the numbers of marine turtle keep on decreasing (Gladstone et al., 1999).
Marine turtle conservation efforts should not only focus on monitoring the turtle’s nesting activities and population status. As human activities cause more destructive impact than natural effect, conservation efforts must be increased especially on marine turtles since their habitats are greatly disturbed by these activities (Frazier, 1999). Education is essential to instil awareness among people, creating a better standard of living (Marcovaldi, 1999) while at the same time, securing a well-planned management of the green turtles (Frazier, 1999).
Subsequently, a ‘community-based conservation’ effort has been initiated locally and globally in many protected areas to fulfil this objective.
Creating a community-based conservation program is not an easy task.
Continuous assessment should be made so that appropriate action and sufficient improvements could be done to fit the main purpose of conservation (Ressurreição,
2011). Thorough planning needs to be made to ensure the acceptance and suits the customs and tradition of the natives in the area (Frazier, 1999). At the same time, the main objective of educating the community in conservation issue needs to be
101
emphasized. Local culture, customs and demographic structure are also taken into consideration to ensure the program’s suitability. For example, researchers should consider that consuming eggs of exotic species has been a norm or tradition among the locals and also a source of income for some of them. The challenge is not only to assimilate both of these aspects, but to provide sufficient training and financial assistance (Frazier, 1999). In addition, there is the dilemma of economic progress or sustaining the natural resources.
This study revolves around turtle conservation awareness among local citizens. The study was conducted in Setiu, Terengganu, Malaysia. Known for its richness in biodiversity, Setiu Wetland in Setiu district of Terengganu holds many natural resources in need of conservation and protection. Setiu has varieties of natural habitats such as coastal, river, mangroves, peat swamps and lagoons. There are two species of freshwater turtles; marine terrapins (Batagur borneoensis)
(Dunson & Moll, 1980) and river terrapin (Batagur affinis) that are recorded to be found in Setiu (Chan & Chen, 2011). The marine green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is the most common species of marine turtles that has been found nesting in Setiu.
There are also a small number of marine hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) and Olive-ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea) observed to be nesting in Setiu approximately in middle 1980s (Chan, 2006; Quilter & Azmin, 2010). The severely- threatened Gelam forest that within Setiu has also made this area special and classified as Environmentally Sensitive Area Rank 1 in Terengganu’s National Plan of Development (Sharma, 2010).
Demographic values such as age groups and gender are important to be considered in increasing the level of awareness and environmental behaviour among
102
the local communities. Due to workforce constraints, this study only evaluated the level of awareness based on age groups and gender. Age group is the most prominent factor compared to other demographic variables, linking its possibility on level of education (Buttel, 1979). The objectives of this study are: (1) to determine whether if there is significant effect of age groups and gender on the consumption of turtle eggs,
(2) to determine consumption trends of the respondents and its proportion as well as their justifications for consuming turtle eggs.
6.2 Materials and Method
A general social survey was conducted in four villages within Setiu,
Terengganu. The villages were: Kampung Mangkuk ( N 5° 37.086’, E 102° 48.306'),
Kampung Penarik ( N 5° 36.594', E 102° 48.800') , Kampung Bari Kecil ( N 5°
33.785’, E 102° 51.554') and Kampung Bari Besar ( N 5° 33.005', E 102° 52.863').
All of these villages comprise the coastal communities in Setiu. The data is secondarily collaborated with World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Malaysia to obtain additional data in this study. Assigned enumerators have covered additional six main areas in Setiu which are: Gong Batu (N 5° 38.965’, E 102° 44.902'), Merang (N 5°
31.982’, E 102° 57.296'), Penarik (N 5° 36.346’, E 102° 49.866'), Permaisuri (N 5°
35.021', E 102° 47.147'), Rhu Sepuluh (N 5° 35.536',E 102° 49.443'E), and Telaga
Papan (N 5° 31.797’, E 102° 54.663') in the second set of data (Figure 6.1).
103
Figure 6.1: Study sites of survey collection in Setiu, Terengganu, Malaysia.
104
A total of 770 randomly selected respondents from these areas were interviewed based on the questionnaires prepared. The respondents were randomly selected (Bernard, 2012) and native to the aforementioned areas. Questionnaires and marking scheme were designed accordingly with the assistance of a World Wildlife
Fund for Nature (WWF) officer. During the survey, the enumerator would write down the answers to avoid technical fault or bias (WWF, 2007). The data collection was ensured to be confidential and no personal data of the respondents were recorded and enclosed. Surveys were conducted in Malay language as the locals were predominantly Malay. The survey was conducted session in a casual but guided manner, aptly to make the respondents comfortable and understand the objectives of the survey.
The survey was constructed that covered two parts; 1) level of awareness of turtle conservation in the areas of Setiu, and 2) the consumption trends of the locals in the areas of Setiu. The demographic data of the locals was also gathered, to see the differences of responses between genders, and between age groups. Questions on level awareness comprise closed-end questions, and respondents were required to choose only one best answer that suits them. Meanwhile, questions on consumption trends consist of both close-ended and open-ended questions, of which the respondents are required to give reasons on each option they made earlier.
Questions on level of awareness assessed respondents on how much they were aware of marine turtle’s existence in their localities and their involvements in the conservation efforts. This study also evaluated their willingness to participate in future activities, and suggested some choices of activities preferences. Questions on consumption trends directly asked respondents on their consumption activities of turtle eggs. All of the questions were arranged in simple and direct sentences to
105
provide convenience to the respondents and enumerators. About 10-15 minutes per respondents was taken to finish survey given.
Evaluation was conducted by integrating responses from similar type of questions from both studies using a specific answer scheme. The answer scheme is attached in Appendix G. Both datasets were analysed by using Microsoft Excel 2007 and JMP Pro 10. All datasets were tested for normality and log transformation was applied to achieve normal distribution pattern when necessary.
6.3 Result
6.3.1 Demographic Studies
In this study, the respondents were evaluated based on two main parameters which are age group and gender. The sample covered a high percentage of female: male ratios, of which female respondents were 51% of the overall participants. Age groups of the respondents are categorized in six groups: below 20 years old (21.0%),
20- 29 years old (23.7%), 30-39 years old (18.31%), 40-49 years old (15.19%), 50-59 years old (11.56%) and above 60 years old (10.26%).
6.3.2 Assessment Based on Gender
Figure 6.2 shows that male respondents have a higher score compared to female (mean= 28.862 ± 0.494, p< 0.05). There was a statistically significant difference between genders as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(1, 770) = 16.688, p < 0.001).
106
Figure 6.2: Mean marks of the respondents based on gender.
107
6.3.3 Assessment Based on Age Groups
Based on Figure 6.3, highest marks is scored by respondents aged below than
20 years old, while respondents above 60 years old obtained the lowest score. There
was a statistically significant difference between age groups as determined by one-
way ANOVA (F(5, 770) = 8.967, p < 0.0001). Tukey post hoc test has revealed that
respondents at the aged above 60 years old have the lowest score compared to other
age groups (mean= 21.1899 ± 1.0595).
Figure 6.3: Mean marks of the respondents based on age factors.
108
6.3.4 Trends of Egg Turtle Consumption
In general, 40% of the respondents used to consume turtle eggs, but had
stopped the habit, while 34% of them had never consumed turtle eggs. Lowest
number of respondents is indicated as still consuming turtle eggs (26%) (Figure
6.4). Respondents were later categorised into different age groups and genders,
according to their preferences of consumption of turtle eggs (Figure 6.5). Female
between the ages of 20-29 years old were the largest group that had never
consumed turtle eggs. The highest number of male respondents in the same age
group had stopped consuming turtle eggs. Most of the respondents who consumed
turtle eggs were male respondents (15.5%) compared to female respondents
(10.5%). From this percentage, male respondents at the age of 50-59 years old were
the highest group age who are still consuming turtle eggs (3.3%)
109
Figure 6.4: Trend of egg consumption.
110
Figure 6.5: Consumption trends based on age factors and gender. The red colour shows respondents that never consumed turtle eggs, the green indicates the respondents that used to consume but have stopped, and the blue colour shows the respondents that are still consuming turtle eggs.
111
A majority (79 %) of the respondents who consumed turtle eggs claimed that the habit was driven by the delicious taste of the eggs (Figure 6.6). Six per cent agree that the supply of the eggs, whether it was too exclusive or too easy to be obtained may have contributed to the consumption. Five per cent of the consumers believed that this habit will help to improve their health. Meanwhile, 2% suggested that they only consumed turtle eggs out of curiosity, and only a few assumed that consuming turtle eggs was normal (1%). Other reasons include the combination of tastiness and health, tastiness and supply, family factors (7%). More than half (55 %) of the respondents had stopped consuming turtle eggs due to its exclusivity such as overpricing and limited supply (refer to Figure 6.7). Ten per cent suggested that due to the awareness about turtles, they had stopped consuming turtle eggs. Another 10% stopped due to preferences and lack of taste. Meanwhile, 8% of the respondents suggested that restriction had also caused respondents to stop consuming turtle eggs, while 17% of the respondents agreed on other reasons such as cravings, curiosity, and easy supply and so on.
112
7% 1% 2% 6% Tasty 5% Health Curiosity Normality Supply Others 79%
Figure 6.6: Reasons on consuming marine turtle eggs.
113
10%
Exclusivity 17% Awareness Restriction 55% Others 8% Preferences
10%
Figure 6.7: Reasons on stopping to consume turtle eggs.
114
6.4 Discussion
6.4.1 Assessment on Age Groups and Gender
Both parameters had shown significant differences in respondents’ score of awareness regarding marine turtle conservation. Assessment of age group factor indicated that respondents aged at 50-59 years old had the lowest score, compared to the other five groups. Older generation of respondents admitted that consuming turtle egg had already become a norm and part of their culture. Although they were aware that marine turtles are declining, they also believed that since turtle eggs are produced in a large number, consuming them will not cause any negative effect. This
‘belief’, if not rectified will be passed down to the next generation, and this is where education is important. The youngest group age seemed to be mostly aware of the turtle conservation effort (Figure 6.3) in accordance with other studies describing younger people as more environmentally concerned (Buttel, 1979; Dunlap et al.,
2002).
Male respondents gained higher score in the social survey compared to female respondents in this study. However, it was observed that women played a more important role, as most of them were housewives at Setiu (Figure 6.5). Most women at Setiu were responsible in preparing daily meal preparation for their family.
Other than that, being the person spending most of the time at home, women at Setiu are responsible to instil the conservation awareness amongst their children.
Comparatively, other studies suggested that women are more concerned in regards to conserving the natural resources (Dietz et al., 1998; Zelezny et al., 2000).
The association of gender and environmentalism concern could be discussed from two perspectives, which are socialization/ structural theories and existing
115
research models. Socialization and structural theories theorize that females supposedly show more concern regarding environmental issues based on their nurturing and passionate characteristic, while men are obligated to manage monetary affair and expenses, making them more likely to over utilize the natural resources
(Dietz et al., 1998). Female is described to have more social responsibilities and
‘more social responsibilities to alleviate problems in the world’, thus explaining why this group significantly scores compared to male respondents in showing environmentalism behaviour (Zelezny et al., 2000). From the perspective of existing research models, hypotheses regarding gender and environmentalism from several studies are combined in five specific aspects: parental status, concerns on health and safety, economic growth orientation, environmental knowledge and faith in science and technology. The first two specific aspects which are parental status and concerns on health and safety support the idea that females tend to be more nurturing, and seldom take matters on health for granted, making them more aware on environment.
Women are expected to be more responsible regarding their family’s health, and wanting only the best, which encourage them to opt for natural and sustainable method in any possible way they can. Also, they are more cautious on science and technology making them more concerned on environmental issues. Meanwhile, men are focused more on increasing living qualities and materials, making them less aware on environmental issue and knowledge. Somehow, monetary gain is a priority for men to support themselves and family (Blocker & Eckberg, 1997; Zelezny et al.,
2000). This is somehow related to the situation in Setiu, as men are obliged to support their household and one of the means of income is fishing. However, it is indicated that male respondents gained significantly higher score than female, which is rather contrary to the aforementioned findings. This result is similar to studies in
116
earlier years that suggested more female tend to concern on environmentalism rather than male, but restricted by social constraints thus limit their participation in environmental organisation (Mohai, 1997). Women in Setiu might have been unemployed and majorly housewives, but are hampered by their commitments to their family needs. When asked, female respondents that hesitated in joining in awareness programs mostly have given time constraints as excuse. However, given proactive and creative approach, women could bring impact in conserving biodiversity as they tend to consider environment in consumer decision making (e.g. buying more environmental-friendly products, decrease of plastic usage, domestic waste management, recycling goods at home) (Ozanne et al., 1999).
6.4.2 Consumption Trends of Local Citizens
Result shows a majority of the respondents in the study have stopped consuming turtle eggs (Figure 6.4). Many agreed that turtle eggs are considered to be exclusive (Figure 6.7). Consequently, only fewer eggs can be sold to the public, causing its market price to be astoundingly expensive (RM3 to RM5/ USD 1 to USD
1.70 per egg) (Chan & Liew, 1996). The expensive price tag is stopping them from consuming turtle eggs. However, there is possibility, (when asked) that the respondents will return to their habit if the market price drops. Older generation shows a reluctance in stopping the turtle egg consumption habit, whereas the younger generation is more supportive of banning turtle eggs consumption.
Throughout the survey, the interviewers have tried to emphasize on the hazardous effect of turtle eggs consumption. However some of the respondents argued that this habit has become a norm. Despite numerous studies showing that
117
turtle eggs are contaminated with heavy metals such as coplanar PCBs, cadmium, mercury and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (Aguirre et al., 2006; van de
Merwe et al., 2009), some of the respondents in this study insisted otherwise. Male respondents have claimed that turtle eggs are beneficial for men’s health, and presumably as aphrodisiac. Older respondents have admitted that consuming turtle eggs have becoming a part of culture in the area. Furthermore, this habit started in the early years before independence (1930s-1950s), where turtle eggs were one of the available food sources to survive during the war. Many have preferred turtle eggs as they are simple to be prepared just by boiling, half-cooked, fully done or made into pickled to be kept for long period.
Only a small proportion of the respondents have never eaten turtle eggs. This is because they feel disgusted by the turtle eggs’ physical feature. The eggs are described as “sticky, soft and flabby”. They are also aware of the turtle eggs’ harmful effect towards human health. A majority of respondents in the study did not state their reasons on why they have never consumed turtle eggs. Less male respondents have never eaten turtle eggs, compared to female, indicating that turtle eggs have become a favourite delicacy among men in Setiu. Younger generations have also admitted that in school, they have been taught that consuming turtle eggs is harmful to the turtle’s population. Also, students claimed that they had participated in the education programs carried out in the area. These awareness programs are more focused on youngsters, providing fun activities and at the same time, instilling awareness among them.
As previously stated before, people around the globe are exploiting marine turtles, in several ways. Marine turtles are an epitome of prosperity in some parts of the world’s region. Due to its existence since a long period, locals in Fiji and Gulf of
118
California relate marine turtles to the origin of the world and seen the animal as a symbol of marvel (Wilson & Tisdell, 2001). With these folklores getting around, it encourages the tourism in the localities (Wilson & Tisdell, 2001). Locals in countries around Caribbean sea exploited marine turtle from its carapace to its oil, leather, meat and eggs (Marcovaldi, 1999). In Southeast Asia regions such as Vietnam and
Indonesia, also others such as China and Korea, tortoiseshell industry is being well- promoted even in public, even though some of them do not directly consume turtle’s meat (Shanker & Pilcher, 2003). Malaysia itself is facing issue of turtle’s eggs being openly traded in certain states (Figure 6.8) without proper implementation of law and legislation (Shanker & Pilcher, 2003).
Figure 6.8: Turtle eggs being sold in the market
119
6.4.3 On-Going Turtle Conservation Measures in Setiu
(i) Community-based conservation project in Setiu
A community-based conservation effort is being initiated since mid-2005 in order to conserve the natural resource and at the same time, providing monetary assistance and increasing the socioeconomic status of the locals (WWF, 2007, 2009).
This project provides turtle and terrapin eggs hatcheries in Kuala Baharu Selatan and
Penarik. This project also includes awareness campaign and education programs regularly conducted in the areas of Kampung Mangkok and Kampung Penarik.
Collaborators include DOF Malaysia, WWF Malaysia, and major companies as part of the corporate social responsibilities (CSR). Also, with collaborators’ effort and assistance, the womenfolk of Kampung Mangkok started and manage their own registered society of Persatuan Wanita Setiu (PEWANIS). This group is responsible in handling visitors (local and foreign) in low impact eco-tourism activities such as home-stays, fireflies watching, mangrove replanting programs, talks and others.
PEWANIS is also involved in small industry of making banana chips and getting
PEWANIS brand recognized and marketed among the visitors and local citizens
(WWF, 2007).
(ii) Involvement of locals in Egg- Buy- Back (EBB) Scheme
Hatcheries benefits conservation efforts by providing insight on success hatching and nesting rates assessment, providing protection to the turtle eggs from being poached by feral animals, and human. Most importantly, the establishment of hatcheries spread awareness to the locals. Hatcheries in Setiu is built and managed collaboratively by Department of Fisheries (DOF) Malaysia and WWF Malaysia.
This encourages the involvement from the locals as hatcheries personnel are hired among the locals. The hatchery is located near Penarik Beach, which required
120
pathway access from a tourist chalet, Penarik Inn. With certain guidelines and procedures, hatcheries personnel would be able to brief tourists on turtle conservation efforts and awareness being done in Setiu. This is an example how ecotourism could be implemented in the turtle conservation program.
The two main collaborators (DOF and WWF Malaysia) are also responsible in managing and implementing a scheme aptly named Egg-Buy-Back Scheme
(Quilter & Azmin, 2010). With this effort, licensed egg collectors are tendered to certain private beaches, and according to licensing conditions stated to the egg collectors, all eggs collected must be relocated to the hatcheries and sold according to its species. The price of every green turtle egg sold is standardized to RM2.50 and for every clutch of eggs that has a 70% success hatching rate, licenced collectors will receive RM1.00 for every emerged hatchling. This scheme encourages more locals to send the turtle eggs to hatcheries instead of trading them to the local markets for consumption.
(iii) Legislation and regulation
Knowing that human consumption of turtle eggs can cause negative impact on survival of marine turtles, many laws and regulations/acts have been outlined to control this situation. In Malaysia, its Constitution has outlined two sets of legislations to be followed, which are Federal Law and State Law. Three sets of acts and order is set out under Federal Law pertaining turtle protection, such as Fisheries
Act of 1985, Customs (Prohibition of Imports) Order (1988) and Customs
(Prohibition of Exports) Order (1988). In Fisheries Act of 1985, the government emphasizes the conservation of turtles and its objectives, management and development, also prohibits all types of harassments towards turtles, including illegal poaching and trading, capturing and killing, disturbance while nesting, and usage of
121
detrimental fishing gears. On the other hand, both of the orders ban the import and export activities of turtles (Wagiman et al., 2006).
In West Malaysia (Borneo), Sabah and Sarawak protect its turtle heritage with the implementation of Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 and Sarawak
Wildlife protection Ordinance 1998, respectively. This act bans open consumption and marketing of turtle eggs. In Terengganu, Terengganu Turtle Enactment 1951
(Amended) 1987 is supposed to protect marine turtles (WWF, 2009). However, open turtle egg trading and consumption are still rampant. Consumption of eggs is still allowed, which encourages trading and demand to raise, both in public or in black market. Every state law is not necessarily strict and centralized, especially with the
Federal Law to ban the consumption of turtle eggs.
6.4.4 Recommendation
(i) Holistic and stricter law implementation
Terengganu attracts visitors from local and abroad, especially the coastal areas and islands. It is possible that with poor management, tourism activities could lead to many damaging effect towards balancing population of marine turtles.
Demands for turtle eggs are rising as it is introduced to the tourists by the tourist agents or restaurant owners as exotic local delicacy. Also, more chalets and hotels are needed to accommodate the growing numbers of visitors to Terengganu, which might encourage more coastal development. Consequently, habitat of nesting activities will be destroyed and these premises might cause excessive brightly lit areas (Wilson & Tisdell, 2001; Davenport & Davenport, 2006). Thus, top-down management, including government agencies and non- government organization
122
(NGO) should be managing and monitoring the problem efficiently. A well-planned management or policy needs to be constructed, proportionate to development and tourism activities.
Detrimental fishing gears caused the turtles to be incidentally caught and strangled (Chan & Liew, 1996; Chan et al., 1988). In most cases, marine turtles will not survive from drowning in fishing gears, such as ray nets, longlines, fish traps and others (Yeo et al., 2007). Calling for a ban on these fishing gears are necessary to reduce the risk of incidental capture. Not only that frequent monitoring and legal implementation should be done, communication and education is also important to educate the fishing community.
(ii) Coastal Community Development Programmes
The locals’ perception on the importance of turtle conservation needs to be highlighted as it shows that 1) locals are unperturbed by the declining number of turtle population in recent years; 2) locals are not aware of the importance of turtle in the marine ecosystem and 3) locals could not differentiate between marine turtles and freshwater turtles. A large number of young respondents stated that education has increased their awareness on the importance of turtle conservation, but not so among older respondents. In the future, more efforts and communication channels can be utilized to spread awareness. Religious approach can be used to encourage conservation and environmental behaviour through public preach and distribution of books, posters and brochures. For example, awareness sermons in mosque can be conducted during Friday prayers as it had been carried out in Kerteh (Foo, 2008).
From this approach, the efforts and importance of protecting species and natural
123
resources can be introduced through Islam’s perspectives (Kula, 2001; Clements,
2009; Mat Yamin & Yang, 2012). The issues and problems relating to the species conservation, especially those that occur in Malaysia can be thoroughly explained.
Eating turtles is considered as haram or strictly prohibited in Islam, but egg consumption is still allowed. Through Friday sermons, information on how eating turtle eggs might lead to the species extinction and also the toxicity levels in the egg can discourage the Muslim population from consuming the eggs. Multiple mass media channels such as newspapers and television can also be used to spread awareness campaign. Both types of media are readily available and affordable to the locals. The internet might be a good media, but based on the income status and the available internet infrastructure in Setiu, this option is quite limited.
(iii) Sustainable and comprehensive approach of fishing activities
Fishing activities using detrimental fishing gears caused by-catch and incidental capture is a classic example of human-animal conflict. Marine fishing activity is an important activity in Terengganu, since marine fishing contributed more than half of total fishery production in 2005 (Yeo et al., 2007). Fishing activities should be conducted in a more sustainable manner, to avoid overfishing and reduce turtle by-catch, while optimizing the number of sea harvest.
Implementation of classes and trainings can be done to provide awareness on the importance of sea turtles to marine ecosystem for the fishermen community (Chan,
2006; Chan & Shepherd, 2002; Chan, 2004). Strict law must be implemented regarding fishing activities and how it can help in reducing the human-animal conflict (Yeo et al., 2007). The fishermen must know the right approach to resuscitate strangled turtles from their nets (Yeo et al., 2007). In general, not only the
124
number of turtle deaths can be reduced, such effort would contribute in improving the behaviour and perception of the fishermen regarding turtle conservation effort.
Several innovations need to be improvised to ensure that fishing sectors will not be affected and at the same time to sustain natural resources wisely. A number of aspects in order to implement safer gears to be used can be suggested in fishing activities; which are 1) size selectivity, 2) species selectivity 3) cost- effective. Turtle
Excluder Device (TED) has been promoted to be used to help fishermen exclude trapped sea turtles and reduce the number of sea turtles by-catch (Fugazzotto &
Behera, 1999; Brewer et al., 2006). However, it might not promote practicality to local fishers as it is expensive.
In the United States of America (USA), a programme aptly named Smart
Gear program has allowed researchers from around the globe to implement ideas into practical devices. Interested researchers must follow several criteria which are: 1) decrease the number of by-catch and non-target fish and other species, 2) innovative and original, 3) raise profits among fishermen 4) cost effective and 5) ideas can be actually developed (MRAG., 2010). In local coastal areas, alternatives to gill nets, ray nets and longlines are such as circular hooks are appropriate to be used, cost-wise
(Yeo et al., 2007) . With certain innovations and approaches that are being introduced, governmental agencies and non-governmental agencies (NGO) should collaborate in terms of physical workload, skills and funding. In fact, it is imperative to ensure trust and confidence among the locals, especially from the fishermen.
125
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conservation of green sea turtles at Setiu requires an integration of biological and social aspects. It is imperative to recognize the issues that affect the reproduction activities of green sea turtles by doing comprehensive research on this species. The issues concerning conservation and management of green sea turtles can be tackled; hence effective decisions can be made. In this thesis, it is emphasized that understanding nesting ecology and behaviour of green sea turtles are crucial to ensure that the number of successful nesting attempts can be optimized at the beaches of Setiu.
In this context, nesting ecology refers to the distribution of nesting, nest characteristic, clutch size and measurement of nesting green sea turtles, while nesting behaviour is referring to false crawl attempts, successful nesting attempts, and emergence hour of nesting green sea turtles. It is indicated that the population of green sea turtles at Setiu was seasonally distributed and highest at Telaga Papan.
Specifically, green sea turtles prefer to nest in the least disturbed area in Telaga
Papan in 2012. False crawl attempts were significantly correlated with successful nesting attempts in 2012.
Every year, hatchery and beach patrolling are carried out extensively during the nesting season. It can be suggested that during the season (especially during the peak season), more intensive beach protection to be carried out. Protection of the beach can be done by several measures. More manpower or rangers should be added to control the protected areas. Since a majority of the beaches are located near the main road and providing open access for the public, extra manpower is needed to
126
ensure that the beach are not trespassed during the night time. Light intensities and noise pollution need to be reduced, thus rangers need to prevent any transportations to trespass the areas, and other human activities (such as fishing, camping, fire- burning) that expose light to the sea. More rangers also are needed to ensure the relocation of the eggs from the beach to the hatchery to be efficient and effective.
Should there be adequate number of rangers, some can instantly relocate the eggs while the others can monitor the beach. This action will also reduce illegal poaching from occurring.
The collaboration of government agencies with non-government organizations (NGO) have resulted fruitful outcome, with proper record and documentation, as well as providing trainings to the licenced egg collectors, hatchery personnel and rangers. Efficiency in relocating the turtle eggs and hatchery management can be improved by increasing the successive hatching rates of the incubated eggs. Hatchery implementation is one of the examples of ex-situ conservation, as in situ conservation are seen as almost impossible due to anthropogenic pressures, especially from illegal poaching. By relocating the eggs to the hatchery, smuggling of turtle eggs can be ceased.
Since the successive hatching rate is improvised over the years, it is possibly due to the trainings and skill-based classes that are handled accordingly to the
Standard Operation of Procedure (SOP). The success hatching rate for the incubated eggs from Kuala Baharu Utara is the highest, though the percentage is not significantly different from other locations. The success hatching rate is recorded to be increasing over the years (from 2009 until 2012), and the highest success hatching rate is significantly highest on 2011. Duration of incubation is highest at the open hatchery, however the success hatching rate is highest at the open hatchery. Mostly
127
the eggs are successfully hatched and only a few are harmed by natural predators.
This could be due to the proper hatchery management, such as protecting the nests with mesh, plastic cups that trap the ghost crabs, and regular monitoring from the hatchery personnel.
In the following chapter, the growth and the carapacial scute variation of the hatchlings are recorded. Previous studies proved that larger hatchlings possess more energy and has higher survival rates. Combination of genetic traits in a certain mating location can determine the size of the hatchlings. Hatchlings from Kuala
Baharu Utara have the largest size measurement. The carapacial scute variation are observed to occur on the right costal scute, vertebral scute, and left costal scute. In this chapter, relocation time (from beach to the hatchery) is tested as the factor contributing to the carapacial scute variation. However, there is no significant difference between these two variables. There is significant difference of the size measurement between the normal hatchling with the hatchling with carapacial scute variation. In the future studies, it can be suggested that rather than testing the qualitative factors (such as relocating time), combining both qualitative and quantitative factors (microclimatic factors such as humidity and nest temperature).
The final working chapter discusses on striking a balance between the tradition and conservation efforts of green sea turtles. This study involves survey collection among the residents in the village along the coastal area of Setiu. The first section of this study determined the consumption of turtle eggs based on age groups and gender. The next section determines the consumption trends of the turtle eggs and its justification. Level of awareness is distinctively lower among the older respondents, compared to other age groups. Male respondents scored significant higher score, compared to female respondents. Highest proportion of respondents has
128
stopped consuming turtle eggs, due to its exclusivity. However, consuming turtle eggs have been considered as a norm, especially among the older respondents, regardless on how this delicacy is affecting the health of the consumer.
On-going measures in Setiu include community-based conservation projects in Setiu, involvement of locals in Egg-Buy-Back (EBB) scheme, legislation and regulation. It can be suggested that holistic and stricter law restriction, education and awareness programs, and sustainable and comprehensive fishing activities.
Population of green sea turtles will continuously to plummet, should there be no efficient and effective ways to reduce human disturbance. Monitoring on nesting ecology and behaviour of nesting green sea turtles, hatchery management, and observations on growth and morphology of hatchlings can help in improving the conservation efforts of green sea turtles. However, these measures are not adequate.
Since the anthropogenic pressures are rampantly disturbing the population of green sea turtles, engaging human with the conservation efforts is most apt to tackle this issue.
It is undeniably that in general, the biology of sea turtles is complex.
Conservation of sea turtles might come with multiple threats and conflicting needs.
Success stories from other rookeries such as in St. Croix (Caribbean) and Oaxaca
(Mexico) can be set as examples to be learned, in order to recover the dying status of population. Survival of sea turtles can be increased should there be integrated and implemented effectively, both biologically and socially. Collaboration between both government agency and non-governmental organization is successfully improved the output over the years, and can be progressively enhanced with better efforts and momentum. More in-depth research can be done in the future to develop the conservation efforts of green sea turtles.
129
REFERENCE
Abd Mutalib AH, Fadzly N, Foo R, 2013. Striking a balance between tradition and conservation: General perceptions and awareness level of local citizens regarding turtle conservation efforts based on age factors and gender. Ocean & Coastal Management 78:56-63.
Ackerman RA, 1997. The nest environment and the embryonic development of sea turtles. The biology of sea turtles 1:83-106.
Adams WM, 2004. Against extinction: the story of conservation. London: Earthscan.
Aguirre AA, Gardner SC, Marsh JC, Delgado SG, Limpus CJ, Nichols WJ, 2006. Hazards associated with the consumption of sea turtle meat and eggs: a review for health care workers and the general public. EcoHealth 3:141-53.
Ali A, Talib Z, Isa MM, Razak SA, Zakaria NA, 2004. A Guide to Set-up and Manage Sea Turtles Hatcheries in the Southeast Asian Region. Kuala Terengganu: Marine Fishery Resources, Development and Management Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre.
Ali A, Yaacob KKK, Talib Z, Isa MM, Razak SA, 2006. A Guide For Tagging of Sea Turtle In The Southeast Asian Region. Kuala Terengganu: Marine Fishery Resources Development and Management Department Southeast Asian Fisheries Deveopment Center.
Allen CM, Edwards SR, 1995. The sustainable-use debate: observations from IUCN. Oryx 29:92-8.
Arthur KE, Boyle MC, Limpus CJ, 2008. Ontogenetic changes in diet and habitat use in green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) life history. Marine Ecology Progress Series 362:303-11.
Balazs GH, 1976. Green turtle migrations in the Hawaiian Archipelago. Biological Conservation 9:125-40.
Balazs GH, Center SF, 1980. Synopsis of biological data on the green turtle in the Hawaiian Islands. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center.
Basintal P. Sea turtles conservation at the Sabah's Turtle Island Park, Malaysia. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the Western Pacific Sea Turtle Cooperative Research & Management Workshop, 2002: Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council, 151-60.
Bernard HR, 2012. Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. California: Sage Publications.
Bjorndal K, 1980. Nutrition and grazing behavior of the green turtle Chelonia mydas. Marine Biology 56:147-54.
130
Bjorndal KA, 1985. Nutritional ecology of sea turtles. Copeia 736-51.
Bjorndal KA, Parsons J, Mustin W, Bolten AB, 2012. Threshold to maturity in a long-lived reptile: interactions of age, size, and growth. Marine Biology 1-10.
Blocker TJ, Eckberg DL, 1997. Gender and environmentalism: Results from the 1993 general social survey. SOCIAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY-AUSTIN- 78:841- 58.
Bolten AB, 2003a. Variation in sea turtle life history patterns: neritic vs. oceanic developmental stages. California: CRC Press.
Bolten AB, 2003b. Variation in sea turtle life history patterns: neritic vs. oceanic developmental stages. The biology of sea turtles 2:243-57.
Bouchard SS, Bjorndal KA, 2000. Sea turtles as biological transporters of nutrients and energy from marine to terresterial ecosystems. Ecology 81:2305-13.
Brewer D, Heales D, Milton D, et al., 2006. The impact of turtle excluder devices and bycatch reduction devices on diverse tropical marine communities in Australia's northern prawn trawl fishery. Fisheries Research 81:176-88.
Burger J, Montevecchi WA, 1975. Nest site selection in the terrapin Malaclemys terrapin. Copeia 113-9.
Burgess EA, Booth DT, Lanyon JM, 2006. Swimming performance of hatchling green turtles is affected by incubation temperature. Coral Reefs 25:341-9.
Bustard HR, 1970. The adaptive significance of coloration in hatchling green sea turtles. Herpetologica 224-7.
Buttel FH, 1979. Age and environmental concern: a multivariate analysis. Youth & Society 10:237-56.
Caldwell DK, 1959. The loggerhead turtles of Cape Romain, South Carolina. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum Biological Series 4:319-48.
Carr A, Ogren L, 1960. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles, 4. New York: Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History.
Carr HS, 1989. Non-molluscan faunal remains (of Isla Cerritos, Yucatan). In. Manuscript submitted to Isla Cerritos Project. Caut S, Guirlet E, Jouquet P, Girondot M, 2006. Influence of nest location and yolkless eggs on the hatching success of leatherback turtle clutches in French Guiana. Canadian Journal of Zoology 84:908-15.
Center SF, Bay T, Christiansted SC, 1984. Role of Larger Herbivores in Seagrass Cornmunities. Estuaries 7:351-76.
131
Chaloupka M, Limpus C, Miller J, 2004. Green turtle somatic growth dynamics in a spatially disjunct Great Barrier Reef metapopulation. Coral Reefs 23:325-35.
Chan E-H, 1989. White spot development, incubation and hatching success of leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) eggs from Rantau Abang, Malaysia. Copeia 42-7.
Chan E, 2004. Turtles in Trouble. In. Inaugural Lecture of Prof. Chan Eng Heng, PhD. Kolej Universiti Sains dan Teknologi Malaysia (KUSTEM) (7.)
Chan E, Liew H, Mazlan A, 1988. The incidental capture of sea turtles in fishing gear in Terengganu, Malaysia. Biological Conservation 43:1-7.
Chan E, Shepherd C, 2002. Marine Turtles: The Scenario in Southeast Asia. Tropical Coasts 9:38-43.
Chan EH, 2006. Marine turtles in Malaysia: On the verge of extinction? Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management 9:175-84.
Chan EH, Chen PN, 2011. Nesting Activity and Clutch Size of Batagur affinis edwardmolli from the Setiu River, Terengganu, Malaysia. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 10:129-32.
Chan EH, Liew HC, 1996. Decline of the leatherback population in Terengganu, Malaysia, 1956-1995. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2:196-203.
Chen T-H, Cheng I-J, 1995. Breeding biology of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas, (Reptilia: Cheloniidae) on Wan-an Island, Peng-Hu Archipelago, Taiwan. I. nesting ecology. Marine Biology 124:9-15.
Clements R, R., Othman, S., Rahman, Mustafa, S.R.S., Zulkifli, R., 2009. Islam, turtle conservation and coastal communities. . Conservation Biology 23:516-7.
Coker RE, 1910. Diversity in the scutes of Chelonia. Journal of Morphology 21:1-75.
Cornelius SE, 1986. The sea turtles of Santa Rosa National Park. Costa Rica: San José: Fundación de Parques Nacionales.
Cox MJ, 1998. A Photographic Guide to the Snakes and Other Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. New Holland Publishers (UK).
Crowder LB, Crouse DT, Heppell SS, Martin TH, 1994. Predicting the impact of turtle excluder devices on loggerhead sea turtle populations. Ecological Applications 4:437-45.
Davenport J, Davenport JL, 2006. The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 67:280-92.
132
Deraniyagala PEP, 1939. The tetrapod reptiles of Ceylon. England: Dulau and Co.
Dietz T, Stern PC, Guagnano GA, 1998. Social structural and social psychological bases of environmental concern. Environment and Behavior 30:450-71.
Dunlap RE, Van Liere KD, Mertig AG, Jones RE, 2002. New trends in measuring environmental attitudes: measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: a revised NEP scale. Journal of social issues 56:425-42.
Dunson WA, Moll EO, 1980. Osmoregulation in sea water of hatchling emydid turtles, Callagur borneoensis, from a Malaysian sea beach. Journal of Herpetology 31-6.
Dutton HP, Dutton DL, eds, 2006. International Case Studies of Sea Turtle Population Restoration. Penang: The WorldFish Center.
Eckert K, Bjorndal K, Abreu-Grobois F, Donnelly M, 1999a. Population surveys (ground and aerial) on nesting beaches. Washington DC: IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group.
Eckert K, Bjorndal K, Abreu-Grobois F, Donnelly M, 1999b. Priorities for Research in Foraging Habitats. Washington, DC: IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group.
Eckert K, Bjorndal K, Abreu-Grobois F, Donnelly M, eds, 1999c. Taxonomy, external morphology, and species identification. Washington DC.: IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group.
Ehrenfeld DW, 1968. The role of vision in the sea-finding orientation of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) 2. Orientation mechanism and range of spectral sensitivity. Animal Behaviour 16:281-7.
Ekanayake E, Rajakaruna R, Kapurusinghe T, et al., 2010. Nesting behaviour of the Green turtle at Kosgoda rookery, Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 39:109-20.
Ekanayake EL, Ranawana K, Kapurusinghe T, Premakumara M, Saman M, 2002. Marine turtle conservation in Rekawa turtle rookery in southern Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Sciences) 30:79-88.
Foo R, Kunjappan, R., Zulkifli, R. Conservation and Islam: Infusing Turtle Conservation Messages in Islamic Sermons in Malaysia. Proceedings of the 30th Annual Sea Turtle Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, 2008. Goa, India: International Sea Turtle Society.
Frazier J, Lutz P, Musick J, Wyneken J, 2003. Prehistoric and ancient historic interactions between humans and marine turtles. The biology of sea turtles 2:1-38.
Frazier JG, ed, 1999. Community-based conservation. Washington DC: IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication.
133
Frick J, 1976. Orientation and behaviour of hatchling green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the sea. Animal Behaviour 24:849-57.
Friedman GM, 1961. Distinction between dune, beach, and river sands from their textural characteristics. Journal of Sedimentary Research 31:514-29.
Fugazzotto P, Behera C, 1999. Dead Turtles: Good for the global economy? . A Joint Report by Sea Turtle Restoration Project and Project Swaraja. 1-7.
Gadow H, 1899. Orthogenetic variation in the shells of Chelonia. In: Willey A, ed. Zoological Results Based on Material from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty Islands and Elsewhere, Collected During the Years 1896, 1896, and 1897. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 253-62.
Garcia A, Ceballos G, Adaya R, 2003. Intensive beach management as an improved sea turtle conservation strategy in Mexico. Biological Conservation 111:253-61.
Garrison TS, 2004. Essentials of oceanography. Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.
Gladstone W, Tawfiq N, Nasr D, et al., 1999. Sustainable use of renewable resources and conservation in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: issues, needs and strategic actions. Ocean & Coastal Management 42:671-97.
Glen F, Broderick A, Godley B, Hays G, 2003. Incubation environment affects phenotype of naturally incubated green turtle hatchlings. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 83:1183-6.
Glen F, Broderick A, Godley B, Hays G, 2005. Patterns in the emergence of green (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtle hatchlings from their nests. Marine Biology 146:1039-49.
Godley BJ, Broderick AC, Hays GC, 2001. Nesting of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) at Ascension Island, South Atlantic. Biological Conservation 97:151-8.
Gyuris E, 1993. Factors that control the emergence of green turtle hatchlings from the nest. Wildlife Research 20:345-53.
Gyuris E, 2000. The relationship between body size and predation rates on hatchlings of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas): is bigger better. Sea turtles of the Indo-Pacific: research, management and conservation 143-7.
Hamann M, Limpus CJ, Owens DW, 2002. Reproductive Cycles of Males and Females. The biology of sea turtles 135.
Hays GC, 2001. The implications of adult morphology for clutch size in the flatback turtle (Natator depressa). Journal of Marine Biology Association of the United Kingdom 81:1063-4.
134
Hays GC, 2004. Good news for sea turtles. Trends in ecology & evolution 19:349- 51.
Hays GC, Adams CR, Speakman JR, 1993. Reproductive investment by green turtles nesting on Ascension Island. Canadian Journal of Zoology 71:1098-103.
Hays GC, Godley BJ, Broderick AC, 1999. Long-term thermal conditions on the nesting beaches of green turtles on Ascension Island. Marine Ecology Progress Series 185:297-9.
Hendrickson JR, 1958. The green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linn.) in Malaya and Sarawak. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 130:455-535.
Hendrickson JR, 1980. The ecological strategies of sea turtles. American Zoologist 20:597-608.
Heppell S, Snover ML, Crowder LB, 2003. Sea turtle population ecology. Florida: CRC press.
Hildebrend S, 1930. Duplicity and other abnormalities in diamondback terrapins. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 46:41-53.
Hill RL, 1971. Surinam turtle notes, I. Polymorphism of costal and vertebral laminae in the sea turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea. Stichting Natuurbehoud Suriname (STINASU) Mededelingen 2.
Ibrahim K, Sharma, D.S.K., ed, 2006. 40 Years of Sea Turtle Conservation Efforts: Where did We Go Wrong? Lessons Learned for the Way Forward. Penang: The WorldFish Center IUCN, 2009. Caring for the Earth: a strategy for sustainable living. London: Earthscan.
IUCN, 2012. IUCN Red List. In. Janzen FJ, Tucker JK, Paukstis GL, 2000. Experimental analysis of an early life- history stage: avian predation selects for larger body size of hatchling turtles. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13:947-54.
Jessop TS, Hamann M, Read MA, Limpus CJ, 2000. Evidence for a hormonal tactic maximizing green turtle reproduction in response to a pervasive ecological stressor. General and Comparative Endocrinology 118:407-17.
Jessop TS, Knapp R, Whittier JM, Limpus CJ, 2002. Dynamic endocrine responses to stress: evidence for energetic constraints and status dependence in breeding male green turtles. General and Comparative Endocrinology 126:59-67.
Kamezaki N, 1998. First confirmed east-west transpacific movement of a loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, released in Baja California, Mexico. Pacific Science 52:151-3.
135
Kaska Y, Downie R, 1999. Embryological development of sea turtles (Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta) in the Mediterranean. Zoology in the Middle East 19:55-69.
Kula E, 2001. Islam and environmental conservation. Environmental conservation 28:1-9.
Law A, Clovis, T., Lalsingh, G.R., Downie, J.R., 2010. The Influence of Lunar, Tidal and Nocturnal Phases on the Nesting Activity of Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) in Tobago, West Indies. Marine Turtle Newsletter 1.
Leisher C, Brouwer R, Boucher TM, Vogelij R, Bainbridge W, Sanjayan M, 2011. Striking a Balance: Socioeconomic Development and Conservation in Grassland through Community-Based Zoning. PloS one 6:e28807.
Liew HC, ed, 2006. Aspects of Biology of Sea Turtles The WorldFish Center, Penang. Limpus CJ, Reed PC, Miller JD, 1985. Temperature dependent sex determination in Queensland sea turtles: intraspecific variation in Caretta caretta. Biology of Australasian frogs and reptiles 343-51.
Lohmann K, Lohmann C, 1994. Detection of magnetic inclination angle by sea turtles: a possible mechanism for determining latitude. The Journal of Experimental Biology 194:23-32.
Lohmann KJ, Putman NF, Lohmann CM, 2008. Geomagnetic imprinting: a unifying hypothesis of long-distance natal homing in salmon and sea turtles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105:19096-101.
Lopez-Mendilaharsu M, Gardner SC, Seminoff JA, Riosmena-Rodriguez R, 2005. Identifying critical foraging habitats of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) along the Pacific coast of the Baja California peninsula, Mexico. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 15:259-69.
Luschi P, Hays G, Del Seppia C, Marsh R, Papi F, 1998. The navigational feats of green sea turtles migrating from Ascension Island investigated by satellite telemetry. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 265:2279-84.
Lutz PL, Musick JA, Wyneken J, 2002. The biology of sea turtles. Florida: CRC press.
Maktav D, Sunar F, Yalin D, Aslan E, 2000. Monitoring loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) nests in Turkey using GIS. Coastal management 28:123-32.
Mann TM, 1977. Impact of developed coastline on nesting and hatchling sea turtles in southeastern Florida: Florida Atlantic University.
Marcovaldi MAG, & Thomé, J. C. A. , 1999. Reducing threats to turtles. Research and Management Techniques for the Conservation of Sea Turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication 165-8.
136
Mast RB, Carr JL. Carapacial scute variation in Kemp's ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) hatchlings and juveniles. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Kemp's Ridley Sea Turtle Biology, Conservation and Management, TAMU-SG-89-105, 1989, 202-19.
Mat Yamin RA, Yang AB, 2012. Islam, Pemuliharaan Hidupan Liar & Anda. Kuala Lumpur: Institut Kefahaman Islam Malaysia & Tabung Alam Malaysia (WWF- Malaysia).
Miller J, 1985. Embryology of marine turtles. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Miller JD, Limpus CJ, Godfrey MH, 2003. Nest site selection, oviposition, eggs, development, hatching, and emergence of loggerhead turtles. Loggerhead sea turtles 125-43.
Milton S, Lutz P, Shigenaka G, 2003. Oil toxicity and impacts on sea turtles. Oil and Sea Turtles: Biology, Planning, and Response. NOAA National Ocean Service 35- 47.
Mohai P, 1997. Men, Women, and the Environment: An Examination of the Gender Gap. Women Working In The Environment: Resourceful Natures 1001:215.
Mortimer J, 1982. Factors influencing beach selection by nesting sea turtles. Biology and conservation of sea turtles. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC 45- 51.
Mortimer JA, Carr A, 1987. Reproduction and migrations of the Ascension Island green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Copeia 103-13.
MRAG., 2010. Towards sustainable fisheries management: international examples of innovation. MRAG Ltd London: 93 Mrosovsky N, 1978. Orientation mechanisms of marine turtles. Animal Migration, Navigation and Homing (K. Schmidt-Koenig y W. Keeton, editores). Springer- Verlag, NY 413-9.
Mrosovsky N, Kingsmiix S, 1985. How turtles find the sea. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 67:237-56.
Mrosovsky N, Yntema C, 1980. Temperature dependence of sexual differentiation in sea turtles: implications for conservation practices. Biological Conservation 18:271- 80.
Newman HH, 1906. The significance of scute and plate "abnormalities" in Chelonia. The Biological Bulletin 10:68-114.
Olver C, Shuter B, Minns C, 1995. Toward a definition of conservation principles for fisheries management. Canadian journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 52:1584- 94.
137
Ozanne LK, Humphrey CR, Smith PM, 1999. Gender, environmentalism, and interest in forest certification: Mohai's paradox revisited. Society & Natural Resources 12:613-22.
Ozdemir A, Ilgaz C, Kumlutas Y, Durmus SH, Kaska Y, Turkozan O, 2007. An assessment of initial body size in loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) hatchlings in Turkey. Zoological Science 24:376-80.
Papi F, Liew H, Luschi P, Chan E, 1995. Long-range migratory travel of a green turtle tracked by satellite: evidence for navigational ability in the open sea. Marine Biology 122:171-5.
Parmenter C, 1980. Incubation of the eggs of the green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, in Torres Strait, Australia: the effect of movement on hatchability. Wildlife Research 7:487-91.
Phillott AD, Parmenter CJ, 2001a. The distribution of failed eggs and the appearance of fungi in artificial nests of green (Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles. Australian Journal of Zoology 49:713-8.
Phillott AD, Parmenter CJ, 2001b. Influence of diminished respiratory surface area on survival of sea turtle embryos. Journal of Experimental Zoology 289:317-21.
Plotkin P, ed, 2002. Adult Migrations and Habitat Use. Florida, USA. : CRC Press.
Provancha JA, Ehrhart LM, 1987. Sea turtle nesting trends at Kennedy Space Center and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, and relationships with factors influencing nest site selection. In: (Ed.) Wnw, ed. Ecology of East Florida sea turtles. Miami, Florida: NOAA Technical Report NMFS 53, 33-44.
Quilter D, Azmin A, 2010. Estimating the sea turtle nesting population in Terengganu
Rebel TP, 1974. Sea turtles and the turtle industry of the West Indies, Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico. Coral Gables, Florida. : University of Miami Press.
Ressurreição A, Gibbons, J., Kaiser, M., Dentinho, T. P., Zarzycki, T., Bentley, C., & Edwards-Jones, G., 2011. Different cultures, different values: The role of cultural variation in public’s WTP for marine species conservation. Biological Conservation 146:148-59.
Roff, 2000. Trade-offs between growth and reproduction: an analysis of the quantitative genetic evidence. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13:434-45.
Salmon M, Wyneken J, Fritz E, Lucas M, 1992. Seafinding by hatchling sea turtles: role of brightness, silhouette and beach slope as orientation cues. Behaviour 122:56- 77.
Sazima C, Grossman A, Bellini C, Sazima I, 2004. The moving gardens: reef fishes grazing, cleaning, and following green turtles in SW Atlantic. Cybium 28:47-53.
138
Scheyer TM, Martin Sander P, Joyce WG, Böhmee W, Witzel U, 2007. A plywood structure in the shell of fossil and living soft-shelled turtles (Trionychidae) and its evolutionary implications. Organisms Diversity & Evolution 7:136-44.
Schroeder B, Murphy S, 1999. Population surveys (ground and aerial) on nesting beaches. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication 4.
Senko J, Nichols WJ, Ross JP, Willcox AS, 2009. To eat or not to eat an endangered species: views of local residents and physicians on the safety of sea turtle consumption in northwestern Mexico. EcoHealth 6:584-95.
Senko J, Schneller AJ, Solis J, Ollervides F, Nichols WJ, 2011. People helping turtles, turtles helping people: Understanding resident attitudes towards sea turtle conservation and opportunities for enhanced community participation in Bahia Magdalena, Mexico. Ocean & Coastal Management 54:148-57.
Setiu MD, 2013. Maklumat Taburan Penduduk. In. (2013.) Shanker K, Pilcher NJ, 2003. Marine turtle conservation in South and Southeast Asia: hopeless cause or cause for hope. Marine Turtle Newsletter 100:43-51.
Sharma DSK, 2010. Setiu shrimp farm raises concerns. In. Malaysiakini. Shepherd C, Sharma D, 2013. Turtle Eggs: International cooperation needed to curb trade. In. New Straits Time. Spotila JR, 2004. Sea turtles: A complete guide to their biology, behavior, and conservation. Baltimore, Maryland: JHU Press.
Spotila JR, Reina RD, Steyermark AC, Plotkin PT, Paladino FV, 2000. Pacific leatherback turtles face extinction. Nature 405:529-30.
Stearns SC, 2000. Life history evolution: successes, limitations, and prospects. Naturwissenschaften 87:476-86.
Sukarno W, Mohamed Ridzuan, M.A., Mohamad Zabawi, S., Mohd Najib, R., Abdul Aziim, M.Y., , Mansor Y, Azwa, A.H., Farizan, S., Mohd-Khalil Khasah, M., Robert, L.H.F., Abd Karim, S., , Zakaria S, Syed Abdullah, S.A.K., Zulkifli, T., Wahidah, M.A., Abdul-Wahab, A., Norul Fahiezah, S., 2007. Prosedur Piawaian Pengurusan Penyu Semenanjung Malaysia.: Jabatan Perikanan Malaysia.
System ITI, 2013. Testudines Linnaeus 1758. In. (2013.) Taylor H, Cozens J, 2010. The effects of tourism, beachfront development and increased light pollution on nesting Loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758) on Sal, Cape Verde Islands. Zoologia Caboverdiana 1:100-11.
Tisdell C, Wilson C, 2001. Wildlife-based tourism and increased support for nature conservation financially and otherwise: evidence from sea turtle ecotourism at Mon Repos. Tourism Economics 7:233-49.
Tisdell C, Wilson C, 2002. Ecotourism for the survival of sea turtles and other wildlife. Biodiversity & Conservation 11:1521-38.
139
Troeng S, Rankin E, 2005. Long-term conservation efforts contribute to positive green turtle Chelonia mydas nesting trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Biological Conservation 121:111-6.
Turkozan O, Ilgaz C, Sak S, 2001. Carapacial scute variation in loggerhead turtles, Caretta caretta. Zoology in the Middle East 24:137-42.
Turkozan O, Yilmaz C, 2007. Nest relocation as a conservation strategy: looking from a different perspective. Marine Turtle Newsletter 118:6-8.
Uerpmann M. Remarks on the animal economy of Tell Abraq (Emirates of Sharjah and Umm al-Qaywayn, UAE). Proceedings of the Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 2001: JSTOR, 227-33.
Van Buskirk J, Crowder LB, 1994. Life-history variation in marine turtles. Copeia 66-81. van de Merwe JP, Hodge M, Olszowy HA, Whittier JM, Ibrahim K, Lee SY, 2009. Chemical contamination of green turtle (Chelonia mydas) eggs in peninsular Malaysia: implications for conservation and public health. Environmental health perspectives 117:1397.
Wagiman S, Sharma D, Liew H, 2006. Socioeconomic Linkages and Impacts of Fisheries on Sea Turtle Populations. Charting Multidisciplinary Research and Action Priorities towards the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Sea Turtles in the Pacific Ocean: A Focus on Malaysia 1.
Wang HC, Cheng IJ, 1999. Breeding biology of the green turtle, Chelonia mydas (Reptilia: Cheloniidae), on Wan-An Island, PengHu archipelago. II. Nest site selection. Marine Biology 133:603-9.
Wang X, Dong Z, Zhang J, Qu J, Zhao A, 2003. Grain size characteristics of dune sands in the central Taklimakan Sand Sea. Sedimentary Geology 161:1-14.
Welsh R, Tucker AD, 2009. Shifting Patterns of Nocturnal Emergence Events of Nesting Loggerhead Turtles (Caretta caretta). Marine Turtle Newsletter 1.
Wetterer JK, Lombard CD, 2010. Fire Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) Along an Important Sea Turtle Nesting Beach on St. Croix, USVI. Florida Entomologist 93:449-50.
Whitmore CP, Dutton PH, 1985. Infertility, embryonic mortality and nest-site selection in leatherback and green sea turtles in Suriname. Biological Conservation 34:251-72.
Whittow G, Balazs G, 1982. Basking behavior of the Hawaiian green turtle (Chelonia mydas). Pacific Science 36.
140
Wilson C, Tisdell C, 2001. Sea turtles as a non-consumptive tourism resource especially in Australia. Tourism Management 22:279-88.
Wilson E, Miller K, Allison D, Magliocca M, 2010. Why Healthy Oceans Need Sea Turtles. In.: Oceana. (2013.) Witherington B, Hirama S, Mosier A, 2011. Sea turtle responses to barriers on their nesting beach. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 401:1-6.
WWF M, 2007. Summary Report: A Study on the Socio-Economic Conditions, Perceptions Towards Sustainable Wetlands Management and Capasity Building Needs of Local Communities in the Setiu Wetlands, Terengganu. In. Selangor, Malaysia: World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), Malaysia.
WWF M, 2009. Survey of Marine Turtle Egg Consumption and Trade in Malaysia: Final Report. In. WWF M, 2010. Prosedur Piawaian Pengurusan Penyu Semenanjung Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Department of Fisheries Malaysia & WWF Malaysia.
Wyneken J, Salmon M, 1992. Frenzy and postfrenzy swimming activity in loggerhead, green, and leatherback hatchling sea turtles. Copeia 478-84.
Wyneken J, Witherington D, 2001. The anatomy of sea turtles. Southeast Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce.
Yender RA, Mearns AJ, 2003. Case studies of spills that threaten sea turtles. Oil and Sea Turtles: Biology, Planning, and Response. NOAA, National Ocean Service, Office of Response and Restoration, Seattle, Washington 69-86.
Yeo BH, Squires D, Ibrahim K, et al., 2007. Fisher profiles and perceptions of sea turtle-fishery interactions: case study of East Coast Peninsular Malaysia. The WorldFish Center.
Zelezny LC, Chua P-P, Aldrich C, 2000. New Ways of Thinking about Environmentalism: Elaborating on Gender Differences in Environmentalism. Journal of social issues 56:443-57.
141
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Data Sheet during Intensive Nocturnal Field Observation
143
Appendix B: Observation of Vegetation and Human Land-Use and Activities throughout Every Plot.
Plot Vegetation Human activities and built environment
Plot 1 Beach oak (Casuarina A camping site (Kem Bari Setiu), equisetifolia), buildings (Persatuan Perahu Littoral spine grass (Spinifex Layar Terengganu), litorale) Resort (Pandan Laut Resort), Pandanus tectorius Main road, old bridge
Plot 2 Beach oak (Casuarina Main road, hut/shed, boat stops equisetifolia), for fishermen, storeroom, Littoral spine grass (Spinifex litorale) Beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae),
Plot 3 Coconut trees (Cocos Muslim graveyard, road, public nucifera),Littoral spine grass road, main road, hut/shed (Spinifex litorale) Stretch of beach oak (Casuarina equisetifolia), Beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae), Terminalia catappa (Catappa tree)
Plot 4 Shrubs, stretch of coconut trees Public toilet, old Muslim (Cocus nucifera) Beach graveyard, disconnected from the morning glory (Ipomoea pes- public road and surrounded by caprae), Thatch screw pine shrubs and coconut vegetation (Pandanus odoratissimus),
Plot 5 Few coconut trees (Cocus Main road, grass field, nucifera), Grass (Axonopus compressus) Plot 6 Thatch screw pine (Pandanus Small hut, a construction of odoratissimus), buildings far behind the area
144
Plot 7 Grass (Axonopus compressus), shed/hut, surrounded by shrub Few coconut trees (Cocus nucifera), Thatch screw pine (Pandanus odoratissimus), Littoral spine grass (Spinifex litorale)
Plot 8 Grass (Axonopus compressus), Shrubs, old house. coconut trees (Cocus nucifera), Thatch screw pine (Pandanus odoratissimus), Littoral spine grass (Spinifex litorale)
Plot 9 Stretch of beach oak Huge beach house with large (Casuarina equisetifolia), compounds, Grass (Axonopus Littoral spine grass (Spinifex compressus), shrubs. litorale), Grass (Axonopus compressus), Plot 10 Beach oak (Casuarina Small accessible main road equisetifolia), behind a wide field area, a Littoral spine grass (Spinifex replanting program of beach oak. litorale),
145
Appendix C: Description and Classification Nest Sites
146
Appendix D: Data Sheet on Successive Hatching Rate in the Hatchery
147
Appendix E: Datasheet on Excavation Activity
148
Appendix F: Data Sheet on Hatchling’s Growth and Variation Carapacial Scute
149
Appendix G: Marking Scheme of Survey Integration
Marks stated in the brackets
Question Questions asked during the first Question asked during the second no interview interview 1 Do you know the existence of Do you know the existence of
marine turtles in coastal areas of marine turtles in coastal areas of
Setiu? Setiu?
a) Yes (10) d) Yes (10)
b) No (0) e) No (0)
c) Not sure (0) f) Not sure (0)
2 In your opinion, what do(es) In your opinion, what (is) are the
encourage the extinction of main threats to marine turtle
marine turtles? (Tick as many as survival? (Tick as many as
apply) apply)
a) Illegal poaching for body a) Consumption of eggs (2)
parts (2) b) Habitat destruction (2)
b) Usage of detrimental c) Trapped in detrimental
fishing gear (2) fishing nets (2)
c) Beach and sea pollution d) Beach and sea pollution
(2) causing incidental
d) Global climate change garbage consumption by
(2) marine turtles (2)
e) Threats by predators (2) e) No opinion (0)
f) Excessive destructive f) Others (please specify)
150
tourism (2) (2)
g) Trade of eggs by local
restaurants (2)
h) Others (please specify)
(2)
3 Is there any turtle conservancy Do you know any turtle
in Setiu? conservation projects in Setiu?
a) Yes (2) a) Yes (2)
b) No (0) b) No (0)
c) Not sure (0) c) Not sure (0)
4 Given chance, would you like to Are you interested in joining any
join any turtle conservation programs for turtle conservation
programs? or environmental
a) Yes (10) a) Yes (10)
b) No (0) b) No (0)
c) Not sure (0)
5 If you do, what type of In your opinion, what can we do
programs are you interested in? to conserve marine turtles?
a) Awareness talks (2) a) Distribution of brochures
b) Monitoring and and magazines
patrolling (2) b) Distribution of
151
c) Beach clean-up (2) newspapers and articles d) Stricter law on conservation
implementation (2) c) Sermons in local mosques e) Banning on egg trade d) Public road shows and
and consumption in local campaigns (2)
markets and restaurants e) Awareness campaigns in
(2) schools (2) f) Formal education (2) f) Encourage locals’ g) Distribution of brochure participation in
and magazine of conservation (2)
conservation efforts g) No opinion (0) h) Licensed collectors and h) Others (please specify)
Egg Buy Back Scheme (2) i) Others (please specify)
152
Appendix H: Official letter from Department of Fisheries, Malaysia
153
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
Abd Mutalib, A. H., Fadzly, N., & Foo, R. (2012). Micro and macro study of turtle conservation awareness of local citizen in Setiu. Malaysian International Biological Symposium 2012. Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM).
Abd Mutalib, A.H. (2012). A Turtle’s Tale: Surviving the Ancient Mariners. Malaysian Naturalist. pp 22-27.
Abd Mutalib, A. H., Fadzly, N. & Foo, R. (2013) Striking a balance between tradition and conservation: General perceptions and awareness level of local citizens regarding turtle conservation efforts based on age factors and gender. Ocean & Coastal Management, 78, 56-63
Abd Mutalib, A. H., Fadzly, N., & Ahmad, A. (2013). Conservation of green sea turtles in Setiu, Terengganu. Proceedings of the 8th PPSKH Postgraduate Biocolloquium.
Abd Mutalib, A. H., Fadzly, N., & Ahmad, A., Nasir, N. (2013). Understanding nesting ecology and behaviour of green sea turtles. Student Conference on Conservation Science- New York.
Abd Mutalib, A. H., Fadzly, N., Ahmad, A., Nasir, N. (2013) Safeguarding the Endangered From the Brisk of Extinction: Understanding Nesting Ecology and Behaviour of Green Marine Turtles. Marine Ecology. (in review).
154