Evaluating Ecological Impact of Commercial Trade on Surinamese Medicinal sold in the Netherlands

Master of Science thesis

Joelaika Behari-Ramdas June-December 2007

University of Leiden Programme Biology Track: Sustainability and Biodiversity

Preface This research is done on the occasion of my internship incorporated as a compulsory aspect in my Master of Science programme at the University of Leiden (programme Biology, track Sustainability and Biodiversity, January 2006- January 2008). I had the opportunity to conduct this research as part of the post-doc project on Surinamese medicinal plants leaded by Dr. Tinde van Andel at the University of Utrecht. Dr. T.R. van Andel is the ethnobotanical expert of the Guianas at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Utrecht branch. From the University of Leiden, Dr. M. Roos supported this research. Dr. Marco Roos is Assistant Professor and project leader of the research Group Plants of the Indopacific (PITA) at the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden branch.

From here on I want to thank both of the supervisors for their support and trust in me to continue this research. I am especially appreciating Dr. T. R. van Andel her strength, which motivated me to continue research in ethnobotany.

Last but not least, I am grateful to the Alberta Mennega Stichting, who supported this research by supplying an applied fund of € 400. This fund was additionally needed in order to buy material and to pay my traveling costs during fieldwork.

Joelaika Behari-Ramdas, in the honour of:

University of Leiden Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science Programme: Biology Track: Sustainability and Biodiversity

University of Utrecht Faculty Beta Science National Herbarium of the Netherlands, Utrecht Period of research: May-December 2007

Alberta Mennega Stichting Ds. Van Haaftenlaan 28 3984 NR Odijk Website: http://www.alberta-mennega-stichting.nl

2 Summary Large numbers of people in third world countries use medicinal plants. In 2004 the annual global market for herbal remedies was estimated to be US$ 23 billion. With this we nowadays see that besides deforestation the increased marketing of medicinal plants is leading to over harvesting and extinction (e.g. in Africa, Asia, and ). Primary forest plant species are the most vulnerable for the harvest.

In the Maroons are the main harvesters, sellers, exporters, and consumers of medicinal plants. In 2006 the export of medicinal plants to the Netherlands was estimated to be 55.000 kg annually. With the investigation in the Netherlands we examined if the trade of Surinamese medicinal plants has any ecological impact on the forest of Suriname.

We were able to investigate 31 shops selling Surinamese medicinal plants. The investigation came up with 398 plant products, which belonged to 266 different plant species. Twigs with leaves were the most sold plant product. The average weight of plant material sold per shop was 179 gram/bundle and the average price was € 6/bundle. In total 65% of the investigated plant species were exclusively harvested from the wild, 28% were exclusively cultivated plant species. The bulk of medicinal plants (66%) were harvested from secondary forest and open vegetation. From primary forest 15% of the plant species were found harvested. The determined lianas, (hemi-) epiphytes and herbs, harvested from primary forest do not survive the harvest. At least one epiphyte ( Begonia glabra ), and three herbs ( ulviformis ), (Renealmia floribunda and Renealmia monosperma ) are already indicated as rare species. The nearby resources of these species have depleted and people have to go deeper in primary forest to find them. Apart from these species, the trade in Surinamese medicinal plants seems to have little impact on the forest of Suriname.

3 1. Introduction Plants have been used since ancient times to heal and cure diseases and to improve health and wellbeing. Despite the ancient nature of the tradition, medicinal plants still form the basis of traditional or indigenous health systems. Reported by the World Health Organization (WHO) the majority of the populations in most developing countries use medicinal plants. The last three decades have seen substantial growth in medicinal plant use and herbal product markets across the world. Rapidly rising exports of medicinal plants during the past decade attests to worldwide interest in these products and in the traditional health systems (TITZ A, 2004 & WHO, 2003). In 2004 the annual global market for herbal remedies was estimated at approximately US$ 23 billion (Crabb, 2004). It is difficult to obtain precise information about the structure and scale of the international trade in medicinal plants. The exact volume of this trade is unknown, because it is believed that the greater part of it passes through unofficial channels (e.g. hand luggage) (Lewington, 1992a). Deforestation and the increased marketing of medicinal plants have resulted in over harvesting and species extinction as for example in Africa, Asia, and Brazil (Sheldon et al, 1997).

It has been said that as many as 35.000-70.000 species of plants have been used at one time or another for medicinal purposes. By far the greater number of species is employed in herbal medicine and is used in unrefined or semi-processed form, often in mixtures, which sometimes also contain non- botanical ingredients (Farnsworth & Soejarto, 1991).

Studies in the tropical and temperate region show that medicinal species can be well represented in disturbed landscapes, successional areas, and managed vegetations (Shanley, 2003). In addition to habitat being a critical factor in determining species abundance, the plant parts used, the manner in which medicinal products are harvested also affect population structure and availability. Primary forest plant species are the most vulnerable for over harvesting. Little is known about the sustainability of harvesting strategies currently employed to harvest barks, roots, and exudates from the trees. Particular vulnerable are those species occurring at low densities, those whose roots are harvested, and those whose bark or oil is extracted unsustainably (Cunningham, 2000).

In Suriname the Maroons are the main harvesters, traders, exporters and consumers of medicinal plants. In 2006 van Andel et al (in press) estimated the export of medicinal plants from Suriname to the Netherlands. This estimation was made for air parcels and was established to be 55.000 kg annually. At the other hand, also with containers and hand luggage medicinal plants are sent and brought to the Netherlands. With this the estimated value may lay even higher. Regarding the export amount, the question arises if the trade of Surinamese medicinal plants has any ecological impact on the forest of Suriname. In this report the investigation of 31 shops in the Netherlands is described. According to the determined growth forms and habitats conclusions are drawn on the effects of this trade on the forest of Suriname.

1.1 Research question Until recently, except for a few publications, the Surinamese medicinal plants were not documented very well. For the last decade, quite a few researches have been done on Non Timber Forest Products (e.g. Verwey, 2003; van Andel et al, 2003) and on medicinal plants among some ethnic groups in Suriname (e.g. Raghoenandan, 1994; Behari-Ramdas, 2005; Van Andel et al, in press). A study at a Surinamese Maroon shop in Amsterdam (van Andel & van ‘t Klooster, 2000) showed that about 2000 kg plant material was imported weekly for commercial purpose. In 2006, van Andel et al (in press) collected data on the diversity, source, and volume of medicinal plants being sold in Suriname: about 136.000 kg plant material (worth over US$ 1million) is being sold annually on the domestic market. As part of this study the export to the Netherlands was also estimated. About 55.000 kg medicinal plant material is being exported annually to the Netherlands. With respect to the export, the question arises if the trade of Surinamese medicinal plants in the Netherlands has any possible negative impact on the forest of Suriname.

4 1.2 Personal motivation With my internship during the bachelors study in Suriname (2004-2005) I already did research on medicinal plants sold by the Maroon people at markets in Paramaribo. The aim of my research was to make an inventory of the medicinal plants and plant products sold by the Maroons (Behari-Ramdas, 2005). At the other hand, in the Netherlands van ‘t Klooster (2000) did research on Surinamese medicinal plants sold by a Surinamese Maroon shop in Amsterdam.

As a student of the University of Leiden, it was possible for me to do research in the Netherlands. Regarding the research of van ‘t Klooster (2000), I was stimulated to do research on the trade of Surinamese medicinal plants in the Netherlands.

Shop in Rotterdam (Picture by L. Niekoop) Shop in Amsterdam (picture by L. Niekoop)

1.3 Methodology Fieldwork was carried out together with Ms. Lucienne Niekoop, MSc student at the Free University of Amsterdam. Literature study on the trade of Surinamese medicinal plants was done in advance. A draft field guide containing drawings, photographs, names and uses of Surinamese plants, encountered earlier in the Netherlands before, was made. This field guide was made by means of the reports of van Andel & van ‘t Klooster (2007) and van Andel et al, in press. With the help of our supervisor all the possible shops selling Surinamese medicinal plant and plant products were traced out.

In total 31 shops were investigated: 16 were situated in Amsterdam, 11 in Rotterdam, three in Den Haag, and one in Almere. The shops could be divided into 14 shops specialized in selling Surinamese medicinal plants, 14 shops specialized in selling tropical consumption products, two market stalls (1 regularly and one occasional), and one hair fashion shop (selling vegetable oil for hair care). Although one of the market stalls was occasional it is taken into account, because it represented those plant products being sold by people (e.g. traditional healers) from their home.

As we visited the shops, we made an inventory of the available medicinal plant and plant products. If the shops had a list of supplies available, we used this list for the inventory. The inventory was based on examining the plants and plant products (if possible) and enquiring about the vernacular names. Information about the sales units (e.g. bundles, bottles), the condition (e.g. fresh or dry), the weight, and the price of the products were also registered. Plant species that could not be identified on spot were purchased and made into a Herbarium voucher. The purchased plant species were identified at the Herbarium, using literature and reference species from the Herbarium.

As part of the inventory, semi-structured interviews were taken from shop holders or sellers. In total 17 interviews were taken: 11 shop owners, two sellers, three traditional healers, and one official of the Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (Voedsel en Waren Autoriteit, VWA). Most of the inventory and interviews were done together with Niekoop, sometimes accompanied with supervisor van Andel. A voice recorder was used to record the conversations. As for this research, questions

5 about the places of harvest, the amount and frequency of medicinal plant import, and regulations were important.

The following references and Floras were mainly used in order to retrieve information about the plant names (local and scientific), the growth forms, and the habitat where the plant species grow: Havinga (2006), van Andel & Havinga (2007), Lorenzi (2000), Everaarts & Teunissen (1989), Mori et al (2002), Flora da Reserva Ducke, Flora of the Guianas. A database of all the investigated plant products was made. For each shop the local and scientific plant names, the plant part sold, and the weight and prices of the products were put in the database. Afterwards, the growth forms and habitat were filled in by means of literature.

In order to count the different medicinal plant products, e.g. twigs with leaves, bark and wood, they were categorized into different groups called product categories. The different product categories are counted in terms of percentage: sum per product category, divided by the sum of all the product categories, multiplied by 100%. Since it was not possible to weigh all the plant products in a shop, we weighed 3-5 products per shop. Taking the average weight of these 3-5 products, we estimated the average weight per product per shop. In the same way we estimated the average price per product per shop. Summing up the sum of weights per shop, and dividing the outcome by 31 (total shops) calculate the overall average weight of plant material present per shop. Summing up the sum of prices per shop, and dividing the outcome by the sum of all the investigated products calculate the overall average price per product.

The informants were asked to name, in order of importance, the most sold plants species and the scarce or rare plants species. As the informants mentioned the plant names in a certain order (form the most to the least scare or rare), were scored the plant species with a number between one and five. To give a synchronized chronological order, all the scores per plant species were first summed up; plant species with the highest sum of scores were ranked in a list. A list for the most frequently observed plant species was also made. If the plants species were seen at ≥ 35% of the shops, they were put on this list.

Because of privacy precautions, we do not give detailed data on names, addresses or products sold for each individual shop and person that participated in this research.

Shop in Almere (picture by L. Niekoop) Shop in ALmere (picture by L. Niekoop)

6 2. Results At the 31 shops we recorded 398 medicinal plant products (see appendix 1). These plant products belonged to 266 different plants species. In total 249 plants species could be identified to the species level. A total of 13 plant species remained unidentified, because these were not available or consisted of incomplete material (e.g. only wood). Four products were categorised as “mixture”, because they consisted of several different undistinguishable plant parts.

2.1 The plant products Sometimes different parts (e.g. twig with leaves, bark, roots) of one plant species where sold as individual products. Additionally, because of physical variations (e.g. small leaves for species that grow in sunny places and larger leaves for the same species growing in shadowy places) some plant species were seen as different products (e.g. Tonka kowru ati Man, Tonka kowru ati Vrouw for Justicia pectoralis ). In some cases local names mismatched the plants, as in other shop (and in Suriname) other plant species were investigated with the same local name. In two shops at least three names mismatched the plants: e.g. “Alakondre” for Psychotria capitata , whereas a mixture of several plant species is called “Alakondre” in the other shops; “Bakru wiwiri” was used for Petiveria alliacea and Melaleuca leucadendron , whereas “Albina uma” is the common local name for Melaleuca leucadendron ; “Busi ingi wiwiri” was used for Nepsera aquatica and Miconia racemosa, whereas “Ingi wiwiri” is the common local name for Nepsera aquatica.

The different plant products varied from whole plants to oils and powders made from several plant parts. Because of the physical variation it was possible to divide 383 of the products into eight categories. Since not all products were available or it was difficult to distinguish the plant parts, 11 of the unidentified plant species and the four mixtures are not taken into account here. In figure 1 the percentages of different product categories observed are given.

Figure 1: Product categories (%), n = 383

The most harvested plant parts were twigs with leaves. Twigs with leaves are mostly harvested without killing the individual plants. In general the same counts for harvesting flowers, fruits, and other (= branches, stripped veins of palm leaves, oil, dried resin, tonic, powder, and seeds). Roots were harvested from herbs (e.g. Renealmia alpinia, Renealmia floribunda) or as part from the whole root system of trees (e.g. Astrocaryum vulgare, Citrus aurantifolia) . Wood was determined as pieces of tree stems (e.g. Quassia amara ), pieces of tree branches (e.g. Bixa orellana ), or pieces of lianas (e.g. Strychnos meloniana ). Whole plants were herbs. The herbs are pulled out of the ground, also for harvesting the root, so that the plants do not survive the harvest. Harvesting a piece of wood from a liana kills the liana.

7 The plant products were sold fresh, frozen or dried. Almost half (42%) of the shops sold both frozen and dried plant material, 42% sold only dried plant material, and 10% sold only oil products. Since the plant products were imported from Suriname, the bulk of fresh plant material was stored in freezers, in order to keep them longer well. The two market stalls sold fresh plant material and dried mixtures for making tonics.

The estimated weight of products sold per shop varied between 0, 19-60 kg (see figure 2).

Figure 2: The variety in total weight (kg) among the shops.

In figure 2 the shop names are abbreviated for privacy reasons. The total weight per shop depended both on the different products and their individual units. Sometimes only one kind of medicinal plant product, e.g. coconut oil, bottles of mixtures for making a tonic, was present per shop. Even though a large variety in total weight was observed, it was not always possible to examine all the products present in the shops. The stock was sometimes kept in freezers or in boxes somewhere behind, where no others than the shop owners were allowed to enter.

The weight per product varied in between 5 gram for the seeds of Sesamum orientale to 700 gram for a mixture to make a tonic. Conspicuous was that the weight per unit product was not standardized between the shops. At the regular market stall the average weight per unit product was 746 gram sold for the price of € 5 (about € 7 per kg). In contrast, the average weight per unit product at a religious Hindu shop was 33 gram for the price of € 5 (about € 151 per kg). The average weight per unit product for each shop was estimated at 179 gram. The price per unit product varied in between € 1,50 for the seeds of Sesamum orientale to € 35 for the mixture to make a tonic. The average price per unit product per shop was estimated at € 6. As mentioned before, some times different plant parts from one plant species were sold as different products. In Table 1 plants species are summed up in relation to the products derived from them.

Table 1: The sum of plant species and their derived products

Number of Number of plant species different products sold per plant 186 1 49 2 13 3 3 4

8 In table 1 again 11 of the unidentified plant species and the four mixtures are not taken into account. From most of the distinguished plant species (186) only one-plant part, if not the whole plant, was sold. With this trend an enormous variety of plants species was established.

The different plant species investigated per sales outlet, varied from 1 to 186 species. In figure 3 the plant species diversity per shop is given.

Figure 3: Plant species diversity per shop

The first then shops were specialized in the Afro-Surinamese winti religion, selling a great variety of plants used for different winti events (e.g. spiritual baths). Hereafter, the next three shops were specialized in plants for female hygiene, selling a lesser diversity of plants. The shops with a plant diversity of less than 20 were specialized in tropical food products and or products for hair fashion.

The investigated plant species belonged to 85 plant families. In figure 4 the names of the most representative plant families are mentioned.

Figure 4: The plant families

The five most represented plant families were Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Melastomataceae, Myrtaceae, and Piperaceae. The families Asteraceae and Melastomataceae are well represented in disturbed landscapes and managed vegetation. From figure 3 it is clear that there was no dominant plant family present among the medicinal plant species.

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2.1.1 The habitat from where harvested As 13 plant species could not be identified and for two of the mixtures the habitat could not be retrieved, for 251 plants species it was possible to retrieve the vegetation type from where they were likely to be harvested (see Appendix 2). The plants were harvested from either wild or cultivated sources. The majority of the plants was harvested from the wild. Some plant species could have been harvested from the wild or from cultivated sources (see figure 5).

Figure 5: Domestication status of Surinamese medicinal plants sold in the Netherlands, 2007

Among the cultivated plant species there were also domesticated exotics, e.g. Annona muricata , Carica papaya , Atrocarpus heterophyllus , Aloe vera . At the other hand, some wild plant species are almost exclusively harvested from cultivated sources, e.g. Spondias mombin, Maximiliana maripa , because they are domesticated.

If we want to study the ecological effect of the plant trade, we should focus on wild-harvested plants only. Species that are cultivated are less likely to suffer from over harvesting and declining populations. In figure 6 the distribution of the 180 wild-harvested plant species is given.

Figure 6: Distribution of the plant species harvested from the wild

The wild vegetation can be divided into 3 habitats: primary forest, secondary forest, and open (man- made or natural) vegetation. The largest group of medicinal plants was harvested from open vegetation. Open vegetation is found in the vicinity of inhabited environments, along streams, rivers, roadsides and forest edges (see figure 7). People’s backyards are also specified as open vegetation. The plant species in secondary forest and open vegetation are known as very easy and fast regenerating plants species. Regarding especially the amount of medicinal plants harvested from open vegetation (63 species), the harvest does not implicate negative effects on the sustainability of the plants.

10 Only 15% of the medicinal plants came exclusively from primary forest. Primary forest plant species rely on long lifespan instead of fast regeneration. Depending on the growth form, the frequency and the way of harvest, harvesting plants or plant parts from primary forest may have negative impact on the sustainability of the plant species.

Figure 7: Medicinal plant harvest from the different habitats

Drawing by H. Rypkema

.1.2 The growth forms of the plant species harvested from the wild As retrieved, the growth forms of the plant species harvested from the wild was very diverse (Appendix 2). In table 2 the numbers of plant species are categorized upon their growth form and their habitat of origin.

Table 2: The growth form of the plants Growth forms Open vegetation Primary forest Secondary forest Herbs 47 species 4 species 3 species 8 species 2 species 7 species Trees 4 species 15 species 7 species Vines 2 species Lianas 3 species 1 species (Hemi-) epiphytes 4 species 1 species Aquatic plants 2 species

The herbs were the most common growth form (n = 54). About 90% of these herbs were harvested from open vegetation as whole plants or partly (e.g. twigs with leaves). From the tree species twigs with leaves, bark pieces and pieces of the stem (as wood) were found. From the shrubs twigs with leaves were found. Form the lianas, wood pieces were harvested. Besides the small herbs, the vines (creeping plants), (hemi-) epiphytes, and aquatic plants were found harvested as whole plants. In primary forest especially the four herbs, the three lianas, and the four (hemi-) epiphytes are the most vulnerable species (see table 3). These growing forms do not survive the harvest so that the species population may decline locally if not harvested in a sustainable way.

11 Table 3: The vulnerable plant species harvested from primary forest Plant species Growth form Plant part harvested Mansoa alliacea Liana Wood Strychnos melinoniana Liana Wood Tanaecium nocturnum Liana Wood Begonia glabra Epiphyte Whole plant Mezobromelia pleiosticha Epiphyte Whole plant Philodendron scandens Hemi-epiphyte Whole plant Philodendron sp. Hemi-epiphyte Whole plant Psychotria ulviformis Herb Whole plant Coccocypselum guianensis Herb Whole plant Renealmia floribunda Herb Whole plant Renealmia monosperma Herb Whole plant

Depending on the amount and frequency of the harvest, the population of the species may be confronted with unsustainable harvest. In this case the species may become scares and rare locally. Although lianas are harvested as pieces of wood, once a piece of wood is taken, the liana will die out. A subdivision of the growth form in open vegetation is the group of weeds (see appendix 2). Among the plants species harvested from open vegetation 60% of the species (n= 63) belonged to weeds. The growth forms of these investigated weeds could be divided into 33 species of herbs, three species of shrubs, one species of a (herbaceous) tree, and one species of a vine (creeping plants).

2.2 The interviews We asked 16 people, who were the shop owners, sellers and or traditional healers, to list the five most frequently sold plants. As they mentioned 22 local names of plants, we constructed (see methodology) all the named plants to a top ten list (see table 4). Within the top five plants, the hemi-epiphyte Begonia glabra is ranked on the second place. Despite its high price and rarity, it is still among the most popular species.

Table 4: The most advised or sold plant species, according to the respondents (n=16) Ranking Plant species Growth form Harvested part Habitat 1 Piper marginatum Leaves Sec. & open 2 Begonia glabra Hemi-epiphyte Whole plant Prim. 3 Costus spp. Herb Leaves Sec. & open 4 Inga heterohylla Tree Leaves Sec. Ocimum campechianum Herb Leaves Cult. 5 Aristolochia cf. consimilis Liana Wood Sec. Nepsera aquatica Shrub Leaves Sec. & open 6 Mansoa alliacea Liana Wood Prim. & sec. 7 Azadirachta indica Tree Twigs with leaves Cult. Campomanesia aromatica Shrub Twigs with leaves Sec. Lycopodiella cernua Herb Whole plant Open Scoparia dulcis Herb Whole plant Open 8 Bixa orellana Tree Twigs with leaves Cultivated and fruits Momordica charantia Herb Whole plant Open Senna occidentale Herb Twigs with leaves Open and fruits 9 Eryngium foetidum Herb Whole plant Open Justicia pectoralis Herb Whole plant Sec. & open Siparuna guianensis Tree Twigs with leaves Prim. & open 10 Citrus aurantium Tree Twigs with leaves Cult. Phyllanthus amarus Herb Whole plant Open Psychotria poeppigiana Shrub Twigs with leaves Prim. & sec. Quassia amara Tree Wood Prim., sec. & cult. Legend: prim. = Primary forest; sec. = secondary forest; open = Open vegetation; cult. = Cultivated

12 As the informants summed up the most sold plants, frequently noticing these plant species would be obvious. On the contrary, our own observation of herbs lying on the shelves or in the freezer in a slightly different list of plant species (see table 5). This contrary occurred mainly because the informants immediately named those plants species which they frequently advice or specifically sell to customers. According to 8% of the informants the customers were asking for advice; 92% mentioned that the customers were buying their needs according to a list (given to them by a traditional healer) or according to their own knowledge. In the latter case the informants mentioned not to verify the plants bought on behalf of lists or own knowledge.

Table 5: Frequently noticed plant species (as investigated) Scientific name Growth Harvest Habitat % form Shops 1 Phyllanthus amarus Herb Whole plant Open 48 2 Aristolochia cf. consimilis Liana Wood Sec. 45 3 Crescentia cujete Tree Twigs with leaves, Cult. 42 fruit 4 Quassia amara Tree Wood Prim., sec. & 42 open. 5 Azadirachta indica Tree Twigs with leaves Cult. 42 6 Gossypium barbadense Tree Twigs with leaves Cult. 42 7 Siparuna guianensis Tree Twigs with leaves Prim., sec. & 39 open. 8 Campomanesia aromatica Shrub Twigs with leaves Sec. 35 9 Nicotiana tabacum Shrub Twigs with leaves Cult. 35 10 Cordia schomburgkii Tree Twigs with leaves Sec. & open 35 11 Imperata brasiliensis Herb Whole plant Open 35 12 Eleusine indica Herb Whole plant Open 35 13 Aframomum melegueta Shrub Fruits Cult. 35 14 Sesamum orientale Shrub Seeds Open & cult. 35 15 Scoparia dulcis Herb Whole plant Open 35 16 Senna alata Shrub Twigs with leaves Open 35 Legend: prim. = Primary forest; sec. = secondary forest; open = Open vegetation; cult. = Cultivatie

Focusing on the plant use, 77% of the plants (n = 10) mentioned by the informants, was known to be use for winti events. 18 % was known for making aphrodisiacs and drinks for purifying the intestine and circulation, and 5% for female hygiene (e.g. vaginal steam bad). As for the investigated plants, 67% of the most frequent plants (n = 6), seen in about 50% of the shops, were those for making aphrodisiacs and drinks for purifying the intestine and circulation (see table 5); the other 33% belonged the winti plants. 70% of the most frequent plants (n = 10), seen in about 40% of the shops, were winti plants; the other 30% belonged to the plants for female hygiene. The informants explained this trend by the fact that the demand for winti plants depends on the event in the year (e.g. New Years Eve). Since Surinamese people often use aphrodisiacs and laxatives for purifying the intestine and circulation, the demand for the specific plants is always present.

2.2.1 Locations from where plants are harvested As informed by some of the informants, the medicinal plants they sold, where harvested from the following locations: • Paramaribo • Para • (Boven) Saramacca • Between Muru kriki and Zanderij (in Brokopondo and partly in Para) • Jumu (in Brokopondo) • Sipaliwini

13 The area around Paramaribo is covered with open vegetation and secondary forest. The areas of the other locations are mainly covered with primary and secondary forest, but open vegetation is also present. In total 88% of the informants mentioned to import their plants and plant products directly from Suriname, 12% mentioned to buy their products from other importers. As from the amounts mentioned by the respondents, we estimated that ca. 26.000 kg is annually imported to the Netherlands. Some informants also mentioned to import some plant material from Spain, India and Indonesia. As stated before, the medicinal plants and plant parts can be harvested from the wild or from cultivated sources. Asking the informants their preference, 53% mentioned to sell plants from both wild and cultivated origin, 47% mentioned to prefer only plants from the wild.

Asking the informants if the plants absolutely need to be harvested from the wild, 82% answered no, stating that some plants do not even grow in the wild; 18% answered yes, since in their opinion the plants from the wild are more naturally and pure. However, among these 18% informants, at least one had cultivated plants species, e.g. Manihot esculenta , Musa sp ., in his shop. Some informants even mentioned not to import medicinal plants bought at the famous markets in Paramaribo. Even though this was stated, the white ropes found wrapped around the plant bundles made clear that some of their plants were still bought at the market in Paramaribo. The market sellers in Paramaribo use white ropes to wrap the plant in bundles, which is a typical and standardized way of packing the plant material. This means that several shops were selling plants that were bought on the Paramaribo market and not directly harvested in the wild, although they claimed the opposite.

2.2.2 Perceived scarcity Although there are many plant species used for medicinal purposes, some species are scarce and difficult to find. In order of importance, the respondents mentioned the following plant species: Begonia glabra , Peperomia pellucida , Chamaesyce thymifolia , Eryngium foetidum, and Justicia pectoralis. Begonia glabra (table 3) was mentioned to be one of the most popular plant species. Because the demand for Begonia glabra is high, the frequency of its harvest became high, making it to become locally scarce (the plant relies on long life span). People have to go deeper in primary forest to find the Begonia glabra . One of the informants even mentioned a place called Jumu, situated about 250 km from Paramaribo. The species Peperomia pellucida , Chamaesyce thymifolia , Eryngium foetidum , and Justicia pectoralis , growing in open vegetation, were mentioned to be scarce and difficult to find, because of the bad weather conditions in Suriname. It is stated that long lasting heavy rains, overflow the growing places of these species, causing them not to grow optimal.

2.2.3 Problems in the business Since no business is without problems, 65% of the informants mentioned to have problems with the import of medicinal plants. Most of the time, they complained about customs office taking the packages into their custody for inspection (for illegal drug control). Since there are many more packages sent to the Netherlands, the inspection might take days and so the plants may become moldy and get spoiled. Some were annoyed when custom officers break fruits, bottles or pottery open for inspection.

Another remarkable problem mentioned by the informants were the high wages paid to their contacts in Suriname. Since transportation costs in Suriname have risen sharply in the past years, especially the harvest in the interior costs much more to the shopkeepers in the Netherlands. Finally, the informants mentioned sometimes to receive the wrong plants from their contacts.

2.2.4 The future expectation of medicinal plant use Ending the interview with the question whether the demand for medicinal plants will increase or not, 82% answered yes. The explanation was that medicinal plants are becoming popular and more people are trying them out. Since medicinal plants do not have chemical substances as in pharmaceutical medicines, some people no longer want to use pharmaceutical medicines. The informants also explained that frequent use pharmaceutical medicines might cause side effects. Remarkable was that one of the informants mentioned the medical science to have reached its limit in healing what is known. Medicinal plant use will exceed this limit by healing the unknown diseases.

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Although the majority was enthusiastic about the increase use of medicinal plants, 18% of the informants had their doubt. Also stated was that first of all, especially in the Netherlands, the immigrants should have more space and freedom to practice their cultural habitat. Others even stated that among the few honest medicine men a lot of quack doctors are present, breaking the trust of people in using medicinal plants.

2.2.5 Regulations Despite many attempts, e-mails and phone calls, we were not allowed to accompany the customs officers at Schiphol international airport to make a calculation of the amount of plant material imported to the Netherlands. The customs officers are obliged to inspect all packages arriving from Suriname. Having a look at especially the plants and plant products being sent from Suriname, would give a better estimation of the amount imported to the Netherlands. Besides, the regulations on the import of plants and plant products would be retrieved. Since the customs officers at Schiphol concentrate on drug control, they do not allow company from outside during the inspection. All information regarding import by parcel post from Suriname was said to be classified and therefore not available to this study. As long as this remains the case, it will never be possible to calculate the amounts of medicinal plants imported from Suriname.

Asking the shipping agencies, via whom the packages from Suriname are reaching the customers, to estimate the amount of plants and plant products being send form Suriname, they could not gave an answer, because they do not open the packages. Although a form of contents is being filled, shipped items in the packages are not mentioned in detail and shipping agents said they do not keep records of the contents.

Informed by the ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food quality, the import of plants and plant products to the Netherlands is regulated. With plants and plant products from outside, harmful organisms can be introduced to the crops grown in the Netherlands. Some plants are not allowed for import, because they have a high infection risk. Many products can be imported to the Netherlands, but only under the condition to be inspected and provided with a certificate of the home country. Attached, as appendix 3, is a list of the plants and plant products, which needs to be inspected and provided with a certificate before importing them. Except for the species Zea mays, the other Surinamese plant species investigated in the Netherlands or not on the list. Although Zea mays was seen at eight shops, the shop owners did not mentioned to need a certificate of inspection when importing this species.

An additional interview was taken from an official from the Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (Voedsel en Waren Autoriteit, VWA). The VWA is an independent agency in the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (LNV), and is a delivery agency for the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. The main task of the authority is to monitor food and consumer products, in order to safeguard the health of human and animal. The Authority controls the whole production chain, from raw materials and processing aids to end products and consumption, and draws up regulations for the import and export. Since Surinamese medicinal plants and plant products concern human health care, we inquired about regulations on the import of these products. Despite their control mechanism, the authority answered not to be familiar with Surinamese medicinal plants. Neither did they have any experience with the Surinamese plants.

2.3 Remarks Since the focus of this research was on unporcessed plant material, the shop named Fytotheek Pakosie (http://www.rainforest-pakosie-healthcare.com ) was not taken into account here. The products in the shop were extracts, made by the shop owner from several Surinamese medicinal plants. In some cases, scientific names were mentioned on the labels of the products, but often either genus or species names were lacking. Neither was it clear which part of the plants was used. The same counts for the products sold on the Internet by the shop Odany – Jewa ( http://www.odany-jewa.com ), of which the head quarter is situated in Suriname. Andre Pakosie, registered as a complementary healer in the

15 Netherlands, did agree to be interviewed. His responses on our questionnaire are taken into account in our data analysis.

We noticed that the Surinamese species Strychnos melinoniana (Dobruduwa) is being used as a basic element in an aphrodisiac product (Liquid 69). This product can be obtained in the so-calles Smart shops in bottles of 10 ml for ca. € 7. Despite many attempts, it was not possible to get information from the Surinamese supplier of this herb on the import or harvest of this liana. Strychnos melinoniana was the only Surinamese plant that was sold for a quite different market: young Dutch or European tourists interested in drugs and other hallucinogenic or ‘smart’ products in Amsterdam, in stead of Surinamers looking for traditional medicine.

Shop in Rotterdam (picture by L. Niekoop) Shop in Almere (picture by L. Niekoop)

3. Discussion Our results show that the bulk of medicinal plants are harvested from secondary forest and from open vegetation. Only 15 % of the investigated plant species were exclusively harvested from primary forest. Secondary forest and open vegetation plant species are known to be very easy and fast growing plant species, with a wide ecological and geographical range (Oostendorf, 1992; Everaarts & Teunissen, 1989). Primary forest plant species are more vulnerable: they regenerate readily, occur in low densities, and have preferred habitat requirements (Peters, 1996; Shanley et. al., 2003). Studies throughout tropical and temperate regions show that medicinal species can be well represented in disturbed landscape, succession areas, and managed vegetation (Shanley et. al., 2003). These habitats are situated in the vicinity of human civilization and are known as the nearby resources (see figure 7, page 13). People will go to primary forest only for those plants that exclusively grow there. Harvesting primary forest plant species unsustainably may cause them to become locally extinct.

The trade of Surinamese medicinal plants seems to have little impact on the forest of Suriname, apart from a few primary forest species. Begonia glabra, Psychotria ulviformis, Renealmia floribunda, Renealmia monosperma, are already becoming rare. Equal to what van Andel et al (in press) found in Suriname, the species Begonia glabara is also mentioned by Surinamese shopkeepers in the Netherlands to be a rare plant species. Although not mentioned by shopkeepers in the Netherlands, P. ulviformis , R. floribunda, and R. monosperma are also known to be rare in Suriname. As for P. ulviformis and B. glabra , both are very popular among the drug couriers: P. ulviformis is being carried in order to become imaginary invisible (Havinga, 2006), and with B. glabra the medicine men make a spiritual bath in order to keep the courier calm and cool during his job (Andel et al., in press). Now that these plant species are becoming rare at nearest resources, People have to go deeper in primary forest to find them.

The estimated average price per kg plant material in the Netherlands is € 34. In Suriname, the estimated average price per kg plant material is € 2 per kg (Behari-Ramdas, 2005; van Andel et. al., in press). With this the price per kg plant material in the Netherlands is 17 times higher than in Suriname.

16 Prices in Suriname are determined by resource scarcity, distance to harvesting sites, processing costs and local demand. As for the trade in the Netherlands, shipping costs, wages for harvesters in Suriname, transport and storage costs, and personal profits are also added to the price of herbal medicine.

With this investigation we estimated about 26.000 kg plant materials being imported annually. Van Andel et al (in press) estimated about 55.000 kg plant materials being exported annually from Suriname to the Netherlands. Discovering an occasional market stall in Amsterdam made it clear to us that the Surinamese medicinal plants are also sold at home in a private sphere in the Netherlands. Besides the regular shops, some people (e.g. traditional healers) are also selling Surinamese medicinal plants, in private, at home. Moreover, the fact that Surinamese immigrant in the Netherlands often ask their relatives in Suriname to send them medicinal plants for personal use should also be taken into account.

In Suriname the Maroons are the main harvesters, traders, exported, and consumers of medicinal plants (Behari-Ramdas, 2005; van Andel et al, in press). In the Netherlands, Surinamese people of different ethnic groups sell the medicinal plants: Maroons, Creoles, and Hindustanis, Chinese and European shop holders also sell Surinamese medicinal plant products (e.g. coconut oil, mixtures for making tonics). As there is no central point of Surinamese medicinal plant trade in the Netherlands, shop holders in large cities where Surinamese immigrants mostly live are supplying these plants.

Comparing the 249 identified plant species by van Andel et al (in press) in Paramaribo with our investigation (249 identified plant species), we found 74 different plant species in the Netherlands (see appendix 4). These species are very abundant in the gardens of Paramaribo (e.g. Mangifera indica L .) and hardly have a commercial value in Suriname. Some of them are weeds and are only occasionally sold at the market, because they are easily collected for free in Suriname (e.g. Heliconia psittacorum ).

As mentioned by van ‘t Klooster (2000), the customs officers at the international airport of the Netherlands (Schiphol) are working with the CITES list in order to control the import and export of endangered plant and animal species. Using a risk-analyzing program, the country of origin and especially the products being imported are controlled in order to maintain the rules on CITES. Remarkably, the custom officer cited by van ‘t Klooster said that only 6% of all the non-European flights were allowed to be fully controlled because of limited time. For the import of non-protected plant species for personal use, no permit is needed; for commercial import an import permit is necessary. For privacy reasons, we did not enquire whether the shop owners had an import permit. As we noticed, many plants are shipped as non-commercial gift packages. We did not found any CITES or IUCN red listed plant species.

4. Conclusions

1. The bulk of the medicinal plants are harvested from open vegetation or secondary forest. A small part is harvested from primary forest. Many medicinal plants are cultivated. Since plants growing in open vegetation and secondary forest are known to be abundant and fast growing plants, there seems little impact of the commercial trade on the forests of Suriname.

2. Tree lianas, two shrubs, two herbs and one epiphyte harvested from primary forest are vulnerable and do not survive the harvest: Mansoa alliacea , Strychnos melinoniana , Tanaecium nocturnum , Renealmia floribunda , Renealmia monosperma , Begonia glabra , Psychotria ulviformis and Mezobromelia pleiosticha .

17 3. The average price per kg plant material in the Netherlands ( € 33, 53/kg) is about 17 times higher than in Suriname ( €2/kg).

4. An average of 26.000 kg medicinal plant material is imported annually from Suriname for all the 31 sales outlet we have inventoried

5. In the Netherlands also non-commercial plant products form the gardens in Paramaribo are sold (e.g. mango leaves).

5. Recommendations

1. Specific research needs to be done to calculate sustainable harvest levels for medicinal plants harvested from primary forest.

2. Attention should be given to the method of harvest, the amount of harvest, the frequency of harvest, and cultivation possibilities for valuable medicinal plant species.

3. The medicinal plant trade should be monitored, in order to follow the development.

4. A list of Surinamese medicinal plants with scientific and local names and with pictures should be made available to the custom officers

5. Responsible authorities in Paramaribo should brainstorm about how to make Surinamese medicinal plants fit in existing regulations

6. Projects should be put up in order to promote and stimulate cultivation of species, which might become rare, e.g. Begonia glabra, Renealmia floribunda , and Renealmia monosperma .

Literature

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Andel, T.R. van & Klooster, C.I.E.A. van ’t. 2007. Medicinal plant use by Surinamese immigrants in Amsterdam, the Netherlands: results of a pilot market survey. Travelling cultures, plants and medicines: the ethnobiology and ethnopharmacy of migrations (eds. A. Pieroni & I. Vandebroek), pp. 207-237. Berghahn Publishers, New York.

Behari-Ramdas, J. A. 2005. De door (Bos)landcreolen verhandelde medicinale planten inParamaribo. Een inventarisatie van marketen, cultuurwinkels and straatventers. Afstudeer scriprie. MO-B Biologie, de Opleiding van leraren (IOL), Paramaribo.

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Havinga, R. M. 2006. Harvest of medicinal plants in Surinamese Maroon Society. Implications for sustainability. MSc thesis. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, the Netherlands.

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Klooster, C.I.E.A. van ’t. 2000. Het gebruik van medicinale planten door Surinamers in Amsterdam. Afstudeer scriptie. Nationaal Herbarium Nederland, Utrecht.

Klooster, C.I.E.A. van ’t. et al. 2003. Index of vernacular plant names of Suriname. BLUMEA supplement 15.

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Lindeman J.C. and Molenaar J.C. 1955. Voorlopig overzicht van de bostypen in het noordelijk deel van Suriname. Dienst s’Lands Bosbeheer, Paramaribo.

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19 Mori, S.A., Cremers, G, Gracie, C.A., Granville, J.J. de, Heald, S.V., Hoff, M. & Mitchell, J.D. 2002. Guide to the vascular plants of Central French Guiana, Part 2. Dicotyledons. Memoirs of the New York Botanical

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6. After word Doing this research made it clear that the traditional use of medicinal plants is still going on among the Surinamese immigrants settled in the Netherlands. The presence of an optimal medical care system did not change the mind of the Surinamese immigrants about the alternative way. Because of this the generation of the last decade is also (becoming) familiar with the use of medicinal plants.

I am grateful to especially the following informants, who supplied important information for this research.

Mr. Pandit Koki, Mr. Martijn Martena, Mr. Andre Kendo, Mr. A. Pakosie, Mr. Ruud Parami, Mr. Erno Parami, Mr. Riedwijn, Ms. Bibi, Ms. Dilly, Ms. Marlene Ceder, Ms. Parry Prior, and the owners of the following shops: Bharat Lachmansing, Fanowdoe Sani, Sagi Mado Hini, Toko Si-Joy Linka, Sabi wiri, and Sangrafu.

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