Non-Timber Forest Products

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Non-timber forest products

of the North-West District of Guyana

Part I

TROPENBOS-GUYANA SERIES 8

The Tropenbos-Guyana Series publishes results of research projects carried out in the framework of the Tropenbos-Guyana Programme. The Tropenbos-Guyana Programme operates within the framework of the international programme of the Tropenbos foundation and is executed under the responsibility of Utrecht University. The multidisciplinary Tropenbos-Guyana Programme contributes to the conservation and wise utilization of forest resources in Guyana by conducting strategic and applied research and upgrading Guyanese capabilities in the field of forest-related sciences.

T.R. van Andel Non-timber forest products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I Tropenbos-Guyana Series 8a Tropenbos-Guyana Programme-Georgetown, Guyana ISBN: 90-393-2536-7 Keywords: Non-timber forest products, Guyana, indigenous peoples, ethnobotany.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including photography, microfilm, electronic or electromagnetic record, without written permission.

Printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp B.V. Cover Front page: Carib children eating the fruits of Inga thibaudiana subsp. thibaudiana Back page: Small-scale furniture workshop along the Haimaracabra River All photographs by Tinde van Andel Photographic layout Frits Kindt Cover design Femke Bulten

Non-timber forest products

of the North-West District of Guyana

Part I

Niet-hout bosprodukten van het Noordwest District van Guyana

Deel I

(Met een samenvatting in het Nederlands)

Proefschrift

Ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, Prof. Dr. H.O. Voorma, ingevolge het besluit van het College voor Promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 29 November 2000 des middags te 14:30 uur

door

4 Tulemore Ruth van Andel geboren op 16 Mei 1967 te Sorengo (Zwitserland)

5 Promotor: Prof. Dr. P.J.M. Maas Hoogleraar in de Plantensystematiek Nationaal Herbarium Nederland Universiteit Utrecht

The research reported in this thesis was carried out in the North-West District of Guyana, within the framework of the Tropenbos-Guyana Programme, 12 E Garnett Street, Campbellville, Georgetown, Guyana, and at the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, p.o. box 80102, 3508 TC Utrecht, the Netherlands. E- mail: [email protected]

This research was funded by the European Union. Additional funding was provided by the Alberta Mennega Stichting and the Van Leersum Fonds (KNAW).

“Life on the Barama, unlike that reported from certain other tropical environments, cannot be supported by so simple a means as merely plucking the fruits which a bountiful nature places within easy reach of the hand of man. The jungle yields no vegetable products which are or can be used as a staple human diet; and the animals which inhabit the bush have a wary way of eluding unskilful hunters. Likewise the fish of the streams show an annoying liking for the water of their native habitats in preference to that of a cooking pot……”

The Barama River Caribs of British Guiana, by John Gillin (1936: 1).

….And the wise old turtle mother told her small turtles: “No matter how much you like to eat plum, when a storm comes, you must never hide under a plum tree. Because when the plum tree falls, it grows back from the stump and you will be trapped between the branches. You better hide under a Mora tree, when it falls on you it is no problem, you just wait till the Mora tree rots and then you come out under the takouba….”

Arawak joke about the patience of the turtle to wait for a chance to escape from captivity.

Aan mijn vader, die mij zijn liefde voor planten en de wetenschap heeft bijgebracht, en aan mijn moeder, die mij heeft geleerd nooit de moed op te geven….

9 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 12

1.1 The importance of NTFPs in forest management 12 1.2 Tropenbos research strategy on NTFPs 14 1.3 Aims and objectives of this research 14 1.4 NTFP harvesting in Guyana 15 1.4.1 From early Amerindian trading systems to colonialism 15 1.4.2 Present-day NTFP harvesting in Guyana 19 1.5 Study sites 19 1.5.1. The North-West District 19 1.5.2. The Barama River Caribs 20 1.5.3 The Santa Rosa Arawaks 22 1.5.4 The Warao 23 1.6 Presentation of results 23

2. FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY OF MIXED PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FORESTS IN NORTHWEST GUYANA 27

2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Methodology 29 2.2.1 Study area 29 2.2.2 Layout of hectare plots 31 2.2.3 Plant collection 33 2.2.4 Data analysis 33 2.3 Results 34 2.3.1 General forest composition 34 2.3.2 Barama mixed forest 36 2.3.3 Moruca mixed forest 39 2.3.4 20-year-old secondary forest (Barama) 41 2.3.5 60 year-old secondary forest (Moruca) 44 2.4 Discussion 46 2.4.1 Classification of mixed forest 46 2.4.2 Disturbance and succession 48 2.4.3 Efficacy of one-hectare plots 49 2.4.4 Biodiversity 49 2.5 Conclusions 52 2.6 Appendix 53

3. FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY OF THREE SWAMP FORESTS IN NORTHWEST GUYANA 66

3.1 Introduction 66 3.2 Study sites 67 3.3 Methodology 68 3.4 Results 68 3.4.1 General forest composition 68 3.4.2 Mora forest 70

10 3.4.3 Quackal swamp 73 3.4.4 Savannas 75 3.4.5 Manicole swamp 76 3.5 Discussion 79 3.5.1 Classification of Mora forest 79 3.5.2 Classification of manicole swamp 79 3.5.3 Classification of quackal swamp 80 3.5.4 Savannas 81 3.5.5 Comparison with other Amazonian floodplain forests 82 3.5.6 Usefulness of one-hectare plots 83 3.5.7 Biodiversity 83 3.5.8 Conservation priorities 85 3.6 Appendix 86

4. USEFUL PLANT SPECIES IN THE SEVEN FOREST HECTARE PLOTS 94

4.1 Introduction 94 4.1.1 Quantitative ethnobotany 94 4.4.2 Valuation of forests 95 4.4.3 Quantitative NTFP studies in Guyana 95 4.2 Methodology 96 4.3 Results 98 4.3.1 Food 100 4.3.2 Construction 100 4.3.3 Technology 102 4.3.4 Medicine 103 4.3.5 Other uses 104 4.3.6 Firewood 105 4.3.7 Differences in forest use 105 4.4 Use values and actual ntfp harvesting in the different forest types. 106 4.4.1 Barama mixed forest 106 4.4.2 Young secondary forest 106 4.4.3 Mora forest 107 4.4.4 Moruca mixed forest 108 4.4.5 Late secondary forest 109 4.4.6 Quackal swamp 110 4.4.7 Ité savannas 111 4.4.8 Manicole swamp 112 4.4.9 Most important NTFP species from the seven hectare plots 113 4.4.10 Commercialisation of NTFPs 116 4.4.11 Most important NTFP families 116 4.5 Discussion 118 4.5.1 Nested sampling and plot size 118 4.5.2 Arawak vs. Carib plant use 119 4.5.3 Valuation of forests 119 4.5.4 Use percentages and categories 121 4.5.5 Forest diversity and marketing of NTFPs 123 4.5.6 Secondary forest 124 4.6 Conclusions 126 4.7 Appendix 127

5. COMMERCIAL EXTRACTION OF PALM HEARTS 147

5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 Methodology 151 5.2.1 Climate and topography 151 5.2.2 Field inventories 151 5.2.3 Data processing and statistical analysis 149 5.3 The socio-economic setting of palm heart harvesting 156 5.3.1 Types of palm heart harvested in the North-West District 156 5.3.2 Extraction techniques 157 5.3.3 Selection criteria 159 5.3.4 Provenance of the resource 159 5.3.5 Canals 161 5.3.6 Processing of palm hearts 161 5.3.7 The economics of palm heart extraction 162 5.3.8 The role of palm heart harvesting in the village economy 164 5.3.9 Opening the undisturbed areas 168 5.3.10 Relationship between cutters and the Company 166 5.4 Quantitative impacts of palm heart harvesting on Euterpe populations 170 5.4.1 Population structure 170 5.4.2 Sucker and clump mortality 174 5.4.3 Palm heart yield 174 5.4.4 Effects of harvesting practices per study site 175 5.4.5 Harvesting the virgin swamp 176 5.4.6 Harvesting of Euterpe precatoria 176 5.4.7 Growth of Euterpe oleracea in cultivation 177 5.4.8 Effects of palm heart harvesting on other NTFPs 178 5.5 Discussion 178 5.5.1 Impact of palm heart harvesting on Euterpe populations 178 5.5.2 Fallow periods and growth rates 179 5.5.3 Decline in production: Guyana versus Brazil 180 5.5.4 Socio-economic benefits of palm heart harvesting 181 5.6 Recommendations 182 5.6.1 Management plan 182 5.6.2 Further research 182 5.6.3 Certification 183 5.6.4 Large-scale rotation systems 183 5.6.5 Small-scale rotation systems 184 5.6.6 Safety 186 5.6.7 Utilisation of Euterpe fruits 186 5.7 Conclusions 187

6. COMMERCIAL EXPLOITATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS IN GUYANA’S NORTH-WEST DISTRICT 189

6.1 Introduction 189 6.2 Methodology 191 6.3 Results 193 6.3.1 Total export revenues of NTFPs 193

12 6.3.2 Wildlife 194 6.3.3 Palm heart 197 6.3.4 Nibi and kufa furniture 197 6.3.5 Tibisiri 200 6.3.6 Mokru 200 6.3.7 Medicinal plants 201 6.3.8 Mangrove bark 202 6.3.9 Palm leaves 203 6.3.10 Other NTFPs 204 6.3.11 Importance of non-commercial NTFPs 205 6.4 Discussion 205 6.4.1 Monitoring of NTFP harvesting and export 205 6.4.2 Social advantages of commercial NTFP extraction 207 6.4.3 NTFP extraction: development or underdevelopment? 207 6.4.4 Land tenure 208 6.4.5 Participatory forest management 208 6.4.6 Future commercial NTFPs 209 6.4.7 The potential contribution of NTFPs to forest conservation 210 6.5 Conclusions 211

7. THE DIVERSE USES OF FISH-POISON PLANTS IN NORTHWEST GUYANA 212

7.1 Introduction 212 7.2 Fish poisons presently used in northwest Guyana 214 7.3 The importance of fish poisons in Amerindian society today 220 7.4 Fish poisons in traditional medicine 221 7.5 Additional uses of ichthyotoxic plants 222 7.6 Discussion and conclusions 223

8. MEDICINAL PLANT USE 226

8.1 Introduction 226 8.2 Methodology 228 8.3 Study area 229 8.4 Results 229 8.4.1 General health conditions in Kariako 229 8.4.2 General health conditions in Moruca 231 8.4.3 Medicinal plant use in the North-West District. 232 8.4.4 Diseases treated with herbal medicine 233 8.4.5 Collection and preparation of medicines 238 8.4.6 Differences in medicinal plant use between Carib and Arawaks 240 8.4.7 Commercialisation of medicinal plants 242 8.5 Discussion 244 8.5.1 The importance of herbal medicine in the North-West District 244 8.5.2 Comparisons with other regional studies on medicinal plant use 245 8.5.3 Differences in medicinal plant use between indigenous groups 247 8.5.4 Loss of traditional knowledge 249 8.5.5 Incorporating medicinal plants in Primary Health Care 249

13 8.5.6 The commercial potential of Guyanese medicinal plants 250 8.6 Conclusions 251 8.7 Appendix 253

9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 281

9.1 Hectare plots vs. ‘walk in the woods method’ 281 9.2 Secondary forest and enrichment planting 283 9.3 The importance of NTFPs for local indigenous tribes 283 9.4 The future of commercial NTFP harvesting in guyana 286 9.5 NTFP extraction as a potential for forest conservation 287 9.5.1 Can NTFP extraction prevent forest destruction? 287 9.5.2 NTFP harvesting in high-diversity forests 289 9.6 The contribution of commercial NTFPs to rural development 290 9.7 Land tenure 292

10. REFERENCES 294

11. SUMMARY 313

12. SAMENVATTING 318

13. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (not included in this PDF-file)

14. CURRICULUM VITAE (not included in this PDF-file)

14 1. Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF NTFPS IN FOREST MANAGEMENT

Tropical rainforests are not only the most biodiverse ecosystems known on earth, they also play a vital role in stabilising the world climate, fixing carbon dioxide, and protecting against soil erosion (Jacobs, 1981; Prance and Lovejoy, 1985). Yet most economic appraisals of tropical forests have focused exclusively on timber resources or the possible creation of agricultural land (Peters et al., 1989a). Meanwhile, thousands of plant and animal species in tropical regions have been providing a variety of non-timber products that are used by billions of people all over the world (Nepstad and Schwartzman, 1992; Balick and Mendelsohn, 1992; Hall and Bawa 1993). Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are defined here as all wild plant and animal products harvested from the forest or other natural and man-made vegetation types, except for industrial timber (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995).

The importance of NTFPs tends to be underestimated, because the majority are not traded through established market channels and do not appear in national economic statistics (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). As a result, NTFPs often remain beyond the vision of policy makers and development planners (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). But for the subsistence economy of forest-dwelling people, NTFPs offer a great source of food, shelter, household equipment, forage, and medicine. Furthermore, commercial exploitation of NTFPs offers cash income for the (mostly indigenous) people that are engaged in their extraction, processing, and/or trading. The labour- intensive, capital-extensive aspect of NTFP harvesting is often well-suited to local conditions in many tropical countries (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). NTFP extraction has also been mentioned as a viable alternative to commercial logging and slash-and-burn agriculture (Peters et al., 1989a; LaFrankie, 1994). Several scientists have stressed that NTFPs can be harvested without much destruction of the forest, while maintaining essential environmental functions and preserving biological diversity (Anderson, 1990; Plotkin and Famolare, 1992; Richards, 1993). It has often been stated that marketing of NTFPs could add substantial economic value to the forest and thus provide economic incentives for conservation and sustainable resource management (Vasquez and Gentry, 1989; FAO, 1991; Clay, 1992; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Broekhoven, 1996). In other words, the sustainable expansion of commercial NTFP extraction is generally viewed as a promising conservation strategy (Duke, 1992; Richards, 1993; Ros-Tonen et al., 1995).

However, uncontrolled extraction or low prices for NTFPs may cause overharvesting, forest degradation, and even local depletion of species (Nepstad and Schwartzman, 1992; Richards, 1993; Boot, 1997). As a result, extractors may shift again to less-sustainable land uses like logging or cattle ranging. Conservation and long-term utilisation of forest products require that they be harvested on an ecologically sustainable basis. The extraction of NTFPs is considered sustainable if it has no long-term deleterious effect on the regeneration of the harvested population, and when the yield remains more or less constant throughout the years

12 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

(Strudwick, 1990; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Pollak et al., 1995). The ecological impact of NTFP extraction, however, depends on the nature of the harvested product. It makes a difference if entire individuals are harvested or only parts (e.g., leaves, fruits, or eggs). Extraction of the latter might not kill the species, but could slow down its growth or reproduction. The different effects of harvesting on individual species affect the size and structure of the population, which ultimately determines the availability of the resource (Boot, 1997). The question remains whether natural populations are adequate to provide such a regular harvest (LaFrankie, 1994).

To be economically successful, a NTFP must have a lasting market appeal. Harvesters should receive a good price for the product in order to avoid destructive extraction techniques or abandoning the product altogether (Pollak et al., 1995). Therefore, it is necessary to assign an economic value to NTFP-producing forests, to weigh their advantages against alternative land uses (McNeely, 1988; Peters et al., 1989a; Godoy and Lubowski, 1992). Middlemen must be guaranteed a consistent supply of the product and therefore, the harvest should also be ecologically sustainable (Pollak et al., 1995). But successful NTFP extraction should not only contribute to the conservation of forests and stimulate the economic development of the country, it should also offer an increased income to local forest-dwelling people (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). Commercial extraction of NTFPs depends for a great deal on the knowledge and skills of local people, as well as on their possibilities and willingness to engage in the collection and trade of NTFPs (Ros- Tonen et al., 1995). Posey (1992) and Hall and Bawa (1993) stressed that rural communities, which have been relying on a variety of plant and animal species for their livelihoods, should have a direct stake and interest in the sustainable extraction and conservation of tropical biodiversity.

The usefulness of forests as confirmed by indigenous peoples who rely on them, is often cited as a reason for rain forest conservation (Myers, 1982; Prance et al., 1987; Phillips, 1996). However, with the continuing destruction of tropical forests and the consequent erosion of indigenous, forest-dependent cultures, much of the traditional knowledge about the natural environment is being lost (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). In some areas, the knowledge of useful plants is disappearing even more rapidly than the plant species themselves (Arvigo and Balick, 1993; Slikkerveer, 1999). If no efforts are made to conserve this biological and cultural diversity, a potential source of new medicines for human diseases, food crops for international trade, and indigenous management systems will disappear together with the forest and its people. A thorough knowledge of the economic potential of the diverse forest products and a better understanding of how mankind can profit from their existence is a prerequisite for forest conservation (Posey, 1983; Milliken et al., 1992). Ethnobotany, defined by Schultes (1992: 7) as ‘the complete registration of the uses and concepts about plant life in primitive societies’, can play a key role in the revitalisation and revaluation of indigenous knowledge (Martin, 1995; Posey, 1999). Although the western science is generally aware of the urgency of ethnobotanical conservation, the pace of research into indigenous plant uses and vegetation management processes that could offer alternatives to the destruction is dwarfed by the accelerating rates of cultural and biological extinction (Phillips and Gentry, 1993).

13 1. Introduction

1.2 TROPENBOS RESEARCH STRATEGY ON NTFPS

With its international programme for multidisciplinary research, training, and information, the Tropenbos Foundation aims to contribute to the conservation and wise use of tropical forests. From this objective, it shares the interest with many organisations in promoting the extraction of non-timber forest products as a strategy for conservation and sustainable use of tropical forest. By means of scientific research in various tropical countries, Tropenbos aims to develop an exploitation system for NTFPs which is ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially acceptable (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). Within the framework of the Tropenbos programme, research programmes on indigenous forest use and NTFPs were carried out in Cameroon (van Dijk, 1999), Ivory Coast (Bonnéhin, 2000), Colombia (van der Hammen, 1992; Duivenvoorden et al., 1999), Indonesia (van Valkenburg, 1997), and Guyana (this study; Reinders, 1996; Forte, 1997; Sullivan, 1999).

In the second phase of the Tropenbos-Guyana Programme, various research projects were started to obtain more insight in the economy, ecology and floristic diversity of NTFPs, as well as the social and cultural factors influencing their trade and use (van Andel and Reinders, 1999). The present PhD research on the use of NTFPs in the North-West District of Guyana was started in June 1995. This project was carried out by the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands, one of the major herbaria world-wide storing Neotropical biodiversity reference collections, and with a long time experience in the flora and biodiversity of the Guianas. The training of MSc students from the Netherlands was an essential part of the project.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THIS RESEARCH

In the present study, the term NTFPs comprises wild plant products found in forests and other natural and man-made vegetation types (e.g., secondary forest), including wood products used by indigenous peoples. The term ‘non-wood forest products’, frequently used in international projects (FAO, 2000), will not be used in this research, since it excludes the variety of wood products used by forest-dwelling peoples for tools, canoes, house construction, fuel, crafts, poison, and medicine. Including these aspects in an ethnobotanical survey gives a more realistic view of the importance of a tropical forest to its native inhabitants (de Beer and McDermott, 1996).

Products of animal origin (pets, meat, hides, honey, eggs, etc.) form an important proportion of the NTFPs harvested in many tropical countries (Godoy and Lubowski, 1992). Guyana is no exception to this (van Andel, 1998), but since wildlife falls outside the scope of this research, it is only mentioned in a few words in chapter 6. Non-tangible services from tropical rain forests that are often viewed as NTFPs (e.g., watershed and soil protection, aesthetic and spiritual values, ecotourism and climate control) were also excluded from this study.

14 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The main objectives of the present research can be summarised as follows:

1. To make a complete survey of the NTFP-producing plant species and their uses. 2. To study the harvest and processing methods used by local communities. 3. To understand the role of these plants in the local economy. 4. To assess the abundance and diversity of NTFPs in different forest types. 5. To compare the above-mentioned data between different locations within the study area.

This project aims to assess the importance of non-timber forest products to the indigenous peoples of the North-West District (Figure 1.1). Differences in plant use will be discussed for Amerindian communities that vary in ethnicity, surrounding vegetation types, distance to the market, and level of acculturation. One would expect that relatively isolated communities have a greater traditional knowledge of plants than more westernised groups, because there is a greater need to practise it, since the access to market and health facilities is more limited. The results of this study may contribute to a better understanding of the floristic diversity in northwest Guyana, and the traditional and (potential) commercial use of this resource. This research will also provide baseline data necessary for subsequent ecological and economical studies on NTFP extraction as a sustainable forest management system.

The present research was carried out in co-ordination with several anthropological and socio-economical PhD studies conducted in the North-West District. These included the study of M.A. Reinders (Utrecht University) on indigenous agricultural management systems in relation to gold mining activities, the research of J. Forte (University of Guyana) on adaptive strategies of Kariña (Carib) people, the study of C. Sullivan (Keele University) on the economical valuation of NTFP resources, and the research of G. Ford (Free University of Brussels, Belgium) on food and nutrition among Amerindians in Koriabo, Barima. This multidisciplinary research team offered an opportunity to underpin the socio-economic and cultural factors determining indigenous forest use and their participation in the market economy (van Andel and Reinders, 1999). The researchers co-ordinated fieldwork and shared information and experience in the framework of the Carib Studies Group, a collaborative research effort within the Tropenbos-Guyana Programme. Results from these studies will lead to recommendations for the Guyanese government, (inter-) national NGOs, institutions involved in forest research and management, and local communities themselves.

1.4 NTFP HARVESTING IN GUYANA

1.4.1 From early Amerindian trading systems to colonialism Guyana, a poor and sparsely populated country suffering under a heavy debt burden, harbours one of the world’s last large undisturbed tracts of tropical rain forest. With a population of less than 800,000, of which the great majority lives on a narrow coastal strip, the country has allowed the preservation of the interior rain forest for many years. An estimated 80 to 86% of the land is covered with forest, and much of this is still in a pristine state (Flaming et al., 1995; Sizer, 1996; ter Steege, 2000).

15 1. Introduction

Figure 1.1 Map of Guyana. The North-West District is indicated in the rectangle. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

16 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Guyana’s interior is sparsely populated by nine Amerindian tribes: the Arawak, Akawaio, Arekuna, Carib, Macushi, Patamona, Wai-wai, Wapishana, and Warao. Their total population is now estimated at around 40,000 (Forte, 1988), but may have been much greater in the past (Davis and Richards, 1934; Whitehead, 1988; Benjamin, 1992).

Guyanese Amerindians have traded forest products among each other since the early ages (Im Thurn, 1883; Butt, 1973). Indian merchants were allowed to pass unmolested through hostile territories in order to exchange their valuable products; the enmity between tribes never disrupted mutual trade (Boomert, 1984). Each tribe had its own speciality: the Warao and Wapishana, for example, were masters in canoe building, while the Macushi were the chief makers of arrow poison and cotton hammocks. The Arekuna were specialised in blowpipes, the Wai-wai were famous for their cassava graters and hunting dogs, the Caribs were skilful potters, and the Arawaks made ingenious fibre hammocks (Im Thurn, 1883). These intertribal trading links also created a medium for the dissemination of ethnobotanical knowledge (Matheson, 1994).

Soon after the discovery of Guyana in the early 16th century, the Dutch found their way into the existing trade channels. By 1653, they were already engaged in large- scale bartering activities with Amerindians along the Guyana coast (Simmons, 1991). From their fortified trading posts, the Dutch exchanged axes, machetes, knives, beads, mirrors, earthenware, cloth, and alcohol for wildlife, cassava, tobacco, Indian slaves, hammocks, canoes, anatto dye (Bixa orellana), crab oil (Carapa guianensis), copaiba balsam (Copaifera spp.), and other timber and non- timber forest products (Benjamin, 1988, 1992; Simmons, 1991; Colchester, 1997). One of the early European adventurers in Guyana who explicitly reported the value of non-timber forest products was Sir Walter Raleigh (1596). He was among the first to mention the existence of curare, a paralytic arrow poison based either on the genus Strychnos or various Menispermaceae, used for hunting by Amerindians in southern Guyana (DeFilipps, 1992). Raleigh was followed by many other naturalist- explorers and ethnologists like Charles Waterton (1825), the Schomburgk brothers (1835-1844), Everard Im Thurn (1883), and Walter Roth (1924), who all were attracted by the riches of plants, animals and indigenous cultures of the land behind the ‘Wild Coast’.

Since the 18th century, Guyana’s economy has become dependent on the exports of primary commodities: bauxite, sugar, and rice, supplemented by minerals (gold, diamonds) and timber (Sizer, 1996; Colchester, 1997). Only from 1859 to the 1920s, during the boom of the balata industry, the trade in NTFPs was once again the most important economic activity in Guyana (Fanshawe, 1948). The world market for balata, the rubber-like latex of Manilkara bidentata, collapsed in the 1930s, after the discovery of synthetic substitutes (Pennington, 1990). In the 1940s, the bark of the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), used for leather tanning, and bartaballi gum (Ecclinusa spp.), a chewing gum base, were important NTFPs exported from Guyana (Fanshawe, 1948).

17 1. Introduction

Figure 1.2 Map of the North-West District and Pomeroon region. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

18 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

1.4.2 Present-day NTFP harvesting in Guyana To address its present need for economic development, the Guyanese government has recently stimulated the utilisation of natural resources by allocating large areas as concessions to foreign logging and mining companies (Sizer, 1996). Once based on sustainable management systems, Guyana will benefit from the continued presence of a permanent forest cover, which can provide services and products for the future (Tropenbos, 1991; ter Steege, 2000). However, some of these foreign companies have questionable environmental and social track records (Sizer, 1996; Colchester, 1997). Several international NGOs and research institutes (e.g., World Resources Institute, Conservation International, Tropenbos, IUCN) have recommended that Guyana should try to diversify the forest-based portion of the national economy, instead of focusing primarily on the production of a few valuable timber species. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs is viewed as one opportunity to benefit from Guyana’s tropical forests without plundering them (Ziegler and Zago, 1993; Sizer, 1996; Tropenbos, 1999; IUCN, 1999; Iwokrama, 1999). Furthermore, the country should take up the challenge to safeguard its natural and cultural heritage before it is too late.

Prior to this study, very little research on NTFPs had been carried out in Guyana. Although substantial amounts of forest products were said to be sold on local village markets (Atkinson, 1990; Forte, 1996c), quantitative information on traded goods on the domestic market was scarce (Sizer, 1996). Recent information on the role of NTFPs in indigenous society or the availability of these products in different forest types is virtually absent. The only more extensive literature available, the publication on ‘minor forest products’ by Fanshawe (1948), based on records compiled by the Forestry Department of British Guiana, is rather out of date and in some aspects incomplete. As Austin and Bourne (1992: 293) put it: “Guyana has yet to receive the ethnobotanical attention that many of its smaller neighbours have had”. The few detailed studies for Guyana have focused on medicinal plants (Lachman-White et al., 1992; Austin and Bourne, 1992; Reinders, 1993). Several ethnographical studies have been conducted on the country’s indigenous tribes (e.g., Im Thurn, 1883; Roth, 1924; Gillin, 1936; Yde, 1965; Coles et al., 1971; Adams, 1972; Butt, 1973, 1976, 1977; Forte, 1988; Forte et al., 1992; Mentore, 1995). Unfortunately, the researchers have put little emphasis on verifying the scientific names of plant species used by their Amerindian informants.

1.5 STUDY SITES

1.5.1. The North-West District Together with the Rupununi savannas in the southern part of the country, the North- West District forms the main Amerindian region in Guyana. This administrative division, also known as Region 1, stretches from the Venezuelan border to the watersheds of the Barama and Waini Rivers (Figure 1.2). The region’s 20,117 square kilometres are largely forested, and inhabited by some 20,000 people, of which some 75% are Amerindians, belonging to the Arawak, Carib or Warao tribes (Forte, 1997). The North-West District is one of the most important areas in Guyana

19 1. Introduction for commercial extraction of NTFPs, and Amerindians are the main people involved in the harvesting and processing of these products (Forte, 1995; van Andel, 1998). Most indigenous people in the area make a living by subsistence activities, such as hunting, fishing, slash-and-burn agriculture, and the gathering of NTFPs for household purposes. Recent regional developments in the area include Guyanese and Canadian gold mining activities, Asian logging companies, and a French palm heart processing factory (Colchester, 1994; Forte, 1995). Many Amerindians now earn cash income by small-scale (independent) gold mining, wage labour in the logging and mining industry, and commercial NTFP extraction.

The adjacent Pomeroon River is geographically not included in the North-West District, but belongs to the Essequibo District (Region 2). However, the Pomeroon area is economically en ethnically strongly connected with the North-West District and acts as a major centre for the harvesting and marketing of NTFPs from that region. Therefore, the Pomeroon River was included in this research, together with the regional market of Charity, a strategically located trading point where the road from Georgetown ends and transportation continues by boat.

The exact research locations were determined after consultation with J. Forte of the Amerindian Research Unit (University of Guyana), official counterpart of this study and co-ordinator of the Carib Studies Programme. Fieldwork was carried out in the period 1995-1998 and was concentrated in two regions: the community of Kariako, Barama River (central North-West District), and the Santa Rosa Mission, Moruca River (coastal North-West District). Additional research was carried out along the Pomeroon River, Koriabo (middle Barima River), and the coastal wetlands along the Waini, Baramanni, lower Kaituma, and lower Barima Rivers (Figure 1.2). Surveys were held at the regional markets of Charity, Mabaruma and Georgetown, and at local Amerindian markets (Santa Rosa, Kariako) and craft shops (Santa Rosa, Hossororo, Kabakaburi, and Haimaracabra). To compare plant use and marketing of NTFPs between a remote, traditional community and a relatively ‘westernised’ Amerindian settlement, ethnobotanical research focused on the fairly isolated Barama Caribs (Kariako) and the largely acculturated Arawaks (Moruca River).

1.5.2. The Barama River Caribs The central and western parts of the North-West District are inhabited by Carib Indians, who constitute ca. 6% of the total Amerindian population in Guyana (Forte, 1990b). Their settlements are mainly located along the Barama River, which has its origin in the Imataka Mountains near the Venezuelan border and flows into the Waini River. Since the discovery of gold in the early twentieth century, the Caribs in the upper Barama region (Baramita) have experienced the negative influence of mining activities, including heavy malaria epidemics and the loss of their arts, crafts, and language (Peberdy, 1948; Adams, 1972; Forte, 1990a). The lower Barama region, however, has been relatively ‘untouched’ and remained unnoticed, since the river is hardly navigable during the dry season due to rapids and fallen trees blocking the waterway (Sanders, 1972; Forte, 1994). This isolation is the reason why, outside the ethnography of Gillin (1936), there is very little information available on the lower Barama Caribs, their numbers, the location of their settlements, and their way of living.

20 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Research in the Barama region was concentrated in the community of Kariako (7º 23' N, 59º 43' W), consisting of approximately 334 persons, nearly all Caribs (Reinders and van Andel, 1996). Although many Carib families along the upper and middle Barama still seem to live a migratory life (Forte, 1993, 1997), the village of Kariako was already mentioned by Schomburgk (1842), and a century later again by Gillin (1936). Prior to this study, the most recent news of Kariako was given by Forte (1994), who briefly visited the village that year. According to her observations, the Kariako Caribs still largely depend on subsistence agriculture, hunting, fishing, and gathering. Cash is obtained by means of small-scale gold mining and labour in the larger gold mines. They interact only with outsiders when they want to sell gold or excess game and make purchases. They have a high protein intake, because wild life is still abundant. Nearly all the villagers speak their native language and many old people (especially women) know little or no English. The access to health facilities and regional markets is very limited (Forte, 1994). It is expected that, because of their traditional lifestyle and isolation, the Kariako Caribs still rely heavily on the surrounding forest for their primary needs. Therefore, the village will be suitable to study the role of NTFPs in subsistence activities, and subsequent comparison with communities deeply involved in commercial NTFP harvesting.

Another reason for choosing Kariako as one of the research sites was the general lack of information about its inhabitants and their uncertain position concerning the near future. Unlike other groups of Barama River Caribs, Kariako villagers do not have legal land titles. The settlement is situated within the 1.67 million hectare timber concession of the Asian logging operation Barama Company Ltd. (BCL). Logging is supposed to start in the area within a period of 10 years. This may offer prospects of employment opportunities and improved health and education services, but may also bring a disruption of the traditional subsistence economy in the area, as well as a possible increase of venereal diseases and AIDS (ECTF, 1993). Moreover, the Geology and Mines Department has given out several gold claims covering the village and the surrounding forest. There is a steady influx of (mostly Afro- Guyanese) miners from the coast. A number of shops have been established near the village, selling a limited number of highly priced food items, clothes, tools, and alcohol (Forte, 1994). Although the BCL management plans state that timber extraction on Amerindian lands should not be encouraged (ECTF, 1993, 1995), Kariako was not clearly mentioned in the list of indigenous settlements in the concession area. The village was either omitted or considered part of the Kokerite Reserve, which is in fact located some 40 km down river. Forte (1994) reported that the majority of the Kariako inhabitants were not aware of the existence of the Company. The Guyanese law obviously states that concessions for mining and logging cannot interfere with officially recognised Amerindian lands (Sizer, 1996), but communities without title to their lands seem rather powerless against logging and mining activities in their homelands (Colchester, 1997). The researchers of the Carib Studies Group try to raise awareness from (inter-) national organisations for the fragile situation of the Barama River Caribs, by documenting their dependency on their traditional culture and surrounding forest for their survival, and support their recent petition to the Guyanese government for title to their traditional lands.

21 1. Introduction

1.5.3 The Santa Rosa Arawaks The coastal part of the North-West District is inhabited by Arawak and Warao Indians, who account for respectively 33% and 10% of the total Amerindian population of Guyana (Forte, 1990b). The (predominantly Arawak) Santa Rosa Amerindian Reserve (7º 38' N, 58º 56' W) is the largest Amerindian village in Guyana. It is not a compact settlement, but rather a conglomerate of about 10 satellite settlements, spread out along the Kumaka-Kwebanna road and the many small islands that lay in the flooded savanna along the Moruca River (Figure 2.2). It is generally assumed that the village was founded by ‘Spanish Arawaks’, catholic Indians who migrated from Venezuela at the beginning of the 19th century (Hilhouse, 1825; Pierre, 1988). They intermarried with local Arawaks, who had been occupying the lands along the Moruca River since 1560, as indicated by the earliest maps of the region (Benjamin, 1988). At the end of the 17th century, Moruca had become one of the most important trading posts for anatto and boats, and served as a suitable point for intercepting runaway slaves (Pierre, 1988). When Schomburgk visited Moruca for the first time, he was impressed by the high level of civilisation of the Moruca Indians, as compared to neighbouring Amerindian tribes (Schomburgk, 1847).

Nowadays, the population of the Santa Rosa Amerindian Reserve is estimated to be between 3,500 (Forte, 1995) and 10,000 (Jara and Reinders, 1997). The number of residents is still increasing, which can be explained by the attractiveness of Santa Rosa as a centre of government, commerce and religion. Facilities like a hospital and a secondary school are also contributing to the growing population (Jara and Reinders, 1997). The population of the reserve is somewhat divided into a poor, more traditional class that combines cash crop agriculture (peanuts, copra, coffee, citrus fruit) with commercial fishing and subsistence activities, and a more ‘modern’, richer class with salaried jobs (e.g., teachers, government officers, and shopkeepers). The settlements in the periphery of the reserve are inhabited by Caribs and Warao. These groups often belong to the lower agricultural class (Jara and Reinders, 1997; van Breugel, 1998). The main language in Moruca is English. Although the descendants from the Spanish Arawaks still speak some Spanish, only a few elder people are able to speak Arawak, Warao, or Carib. The loss of the traditional Arawak culture, caused by a long history of contact with outsiders, was already noted by Im Thurn (1883: 272). He stated that ‘they (the Arawaks) have become so far civilised, and have so far adopted habits similar to those of the colonists that they no longer have need of much interaction with other Indians’.

Santa Rosa has a small weekly market and a relatively easy access to the larger regional market of Charity. There have been various cooperative agricultural and marketing ventures, but few of them have been successful over the medium or long term. High transportation costs from the shallow Moruca River to the Essequibo coast still seem to be a major problem (Forte, 1995; van Breugel, 1998; Sullivan, 1999). Integration into the national market economy (Georgetown) is even more limited. Farming among the young people of Moruca is declining. During the last decade, the Moruca River has become an important gateway for gold miners and other people travelling to the Waini and Barama River further inland. Many young men and women from Santa Rosa are working in the gold mines and logging companies in the interior (Forte, 1995). Commercial NTFP extraction also provides an income for a substantial number of Amerindians in the coastal area. Products include palm

22 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I heart, wildlife, roof thatch, craft work, and raw material for the furniture industry (Forte, 1995; Jara and Reinders, 1997). It was expected that due to the better market access the Santa Rosa Arawaks had more opportunities to commercialise their forest products than inhabitants of remote communities like Kariako. On the other hand, one might assume that the availability of synthetically manufactured goods and the loss of traditional Amerindian culture would reduce the need to use NTFPs for subsistence purposes.

1.5.4 The Warao The majority of the Warao communities are found in the Orinoco delta in Venezuela, the Mabaruma-Hossororo area and the coastal swamplands of the North- West District. Since the early ages, the Warao have been swamp-dwellers, who have adapted themselves to surviving in areas where no other tribe would live (Benjamin, 1988; Wilbert, 1993). In the beginning, they did not practice agriculture, but relied totally on hunting, gathering, fishing and the collection of shellfish. Prehistoric shell mounds have been found near several coastal communities (e.g., Assakata, Waramuri, Warapoka). These mounds consist of huge deposits of the remainders of mollusks, periwinkles and bones of fishes and mammals (Williams, 1989). Occasionally, stone axes, pieces of Delft blue pottery and human skeletons are found in these shell mounds (Poonai, 1992). Lacking dry land for agriculture, the Warao obtained their starch from the pith of Mauritia flexuosa and Manicaria saccifera palms (Heinen and Ruddle, 1976; Wilbert, 1976). They exchanged their excellent canoes with the Dutch for manufactured trade goods (Schomburgk, 1842; Colchester, 1997). Nowadays, most Warao have engaged in cassava cultivation or buy rice and flour in shops, but they are still famous for their canoes (Wilbert, 1993).

Additional information on NTFP use and marketing was gathered in cooperation with anthropologist Ford in the mixed Arawak/Warao/Carib village of Koriabo, the Arawak/Warao community of Assakata (in cooperation with Sullivan), the Warao village of Warapoka, and the predominantly Arawak community of Kabakaburi (Figure 1.2). Since detailed research had been done by Reinders (1993) on medicinal plant use among the Warao, most of the time spent at Warao communities was reserved for research on palm heart harvesting (Chapter 5) and less attention was paid to the local pharmacopoeia. Regular market surveys on NTFPs were held at the Georgetown markets.

1.6 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

This PhD thesis consists of two parts. In Part I, a general analysis is made of the present status of NTFP harvesting in the North-West District and Pomeroon region. Research is focused on the availability of NTFPs in different forest types and their importance for forest-dwelling peoples, both concerning subsistence and commercial use. Special attention is paid to the harvesting, processing, and marketing of the main commercial NTFPs. Part II of this thesis, published in a separate volume, is a field guide of useful plants of the North-West District. It contains scientific and vernacular plant names, short botanical descriptions and uses of 471 NTFP-

23 1. Introduction producing species. For the 85 NTFPs of major importance, detailed species and use descriptions are provided, as well as illustrations and information on habitat preference and seasonal availability.

In chapter 2 of this volume, a vegetation description is made for mixed primary forest and secondary forest in the Barama and Moruca regions. The following questions are addressed:

1. Which plant species are characteristic and/or abundant in these forest types? 2. Do these forest types correspond to earlier classifications? 3. How does the regeneration proceed from secondary to primary mixed forest? 4. What are the patterns of species diversity in these forests?

Swamp forests cover a large proportion of Guyana’s North-West District. They are also the major vegetation types used for commercial NTFP extraction. In chapter 3, the floristic composition, structure, and diversity of three swamp forest types are described. The main questions addressed in this chapter correspond with those listed for chapter 2 (except for question No. 3).

Forests with high species diversity may contain more useful plants than low- diversity forests, but they generally contain low densities of conspecific adults. Forests dominated by a few, economically important species have been mentioned as very suitable for sustainable NTFP extraction (Peters et al., 1989b; Johnston, 1998). Chapter 4 provides a quantitative assessment of the useful species in the seven hectare plots and concentrates on the following questions:

1. What are the most important NTFPs in the different forest types and how abundant are these species? 2. Which plant families provide most NTFPs and which have the largest use value? 3. What percentage of the total number of species in a forest is utilised by local Amerindians? 4. Are there differences in plant use between Arawaks and Caribs? 5. Which forest types offer the best opportunities for commercial NTFP harvesting?

Palm heart from Euterpe oleracea is the most important commercial NTFP of northwest Guyana, with an annual export revenue of US$ 2 million. In chapter 5, the impact of the current palm heart extraction on E. oleracea populations is compared between areas with a high and those with a low harvest pressure. A general overview is given of the socio-economic aspects of palm heart harvesting, which is an important source of income for local Amerindians. This leads to the following questions:

24 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

1. What is the extent and ecological impact of palm heart harvesting in the North- West District? 2. Are their significant differences in population structure, reproduction, yield and mortality of E. oleracea between sites with different harvest pressures? 3. Can the current harvesting methods be considered sustainable? 4. Is a five-year fallow period sufficient for the regeneration of Euterpe populations? 5. What is the socio-economic importance of palm heart harvesting for Amerindian communities? 6. Which are the underlying causes for overharvesting of palm hearts?

Guyana’s vast potential of NTFPs has only partly been developed commercially. Many plant and animal products are gathered from the country’s extensive forests, but the majority are used only for subsistence purposes. Just a few NTFPs are extracted on a commercial basis and even fewer are harvested for export purposes. The lack of information on export and domestic markets obstructs the involvement of NTFPs in land use and economic planning. In chapter 6, a general impression is given of the main commercial NTFPs of the North-West District and Pomeroon region. The questions addressed in this chapter include:

1. Which NTFPs are actually being marketed and at what prices? 2. Which NTFPs are exported and which have only local or regional commercial value? 3. What are the main problems in commercialising NTFPs? 4. Do these NTFPs have a potential for sustainable harvesting? 5. Can these NTFPs contribute to forest conservation and improve local people’s livelihood?

Although prohibited by law, fish poison plants are still widely used by indigenous tribes in Guyana. Chapter 7 attempts to clarify the taxonomy and ethnobotany of the fish poisons used in the North-West District, in particular those species containing rotenone. Fish poisons not only serve as a quick method of providing food in times of shortage, they also play an important role in magic rituals and traditional medicine. Particularly striking is the use of these plants in the treatment of cancer and AIDS.

Medicinal plants form an important proportion of the NTFPs used in the study area. The health situation in Guyana’s interior is generally poor. Many Amerindians have to rely on traditional medicine, since nothing else is affordable or available. Chapter 8 deals with the variety of medicinal plants and their uses recorded during this study. General aspects of present-day traditional health care and the role of medicinal plants in this system will be discussed. The main research questions with regard to the use of herbal medicine were: 1. Which plant species are being used for which diseases? 2. What is the present role of herbal medicine in the health care system of indigenous communities? 3. Are there differences in medicinal plant use between the two ethnic groups studied (Carib and Arawak)? 4. In what ways are medicinal plants commercialised in Guyana?

25 1. Introduction

Finally, the implications of the obtained results for the sustainable management of NTFPs will be discussed in chapter 9. The importance of non-timber forest products to the indigenous peoples of the North-West District is highlighted. Comparisons are made with other NTFP studies within and outside the Tropenbos programme. General theories on the role of NTFPs in sustainable forest management will be reviewed with regard to their relevance for Guyana.

26 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

2. FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY OF MIXED PRIMARY AND SECONDARY FORESTS IN NORTHWEST GUYANA1,2

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Although the Guyanese government has handed out large forested areas as concessions to foreign timber and mining companies (Sizer, 1996), the country has also set up a National Protected Area System (NPAS) to ensure the protection and sustainable use of its natural resources. Some of the objectives of this system include the preservation of viable examples of the different natural ecosystems in Guyana and the protection of areas of particular biological significance (Persaud, 1997). However, for the conservation and wise use of these forests, a good understanding of their biodiversity is needed (Ek and ter Steege, 1998). Unfortunately, there are still many gaps in this knowledge that need to be filled in order to develop a sound protected-area system (Nasir et al., 1997; ter Steege, 1998).

Forest inventories in Guyana have mainly focused on the timber-producing region in the central part of the country (Davis and Richards, 1934; ter Steege, 1993, Johnston and Gillman, 1995; Ek, 1997; van der Hout, 1999; ter Steege et al. 2000e). In contrast, little (published) quantitative information is available on the forest types in the North-West District, even though a substantial part of this region has been designated as logging concessions. Moreover, the area has not been of major interest to plant collectors (ter Steege et al., 2000b). One of the first general accounts of the vegetation of northwest Guyana was given by Anderson (1912), who distinguished two major forest categories: ‘forests of the swamp lands’ and ‘forests on the slightly elevated or hilly lands’, the latter being characterised by Lecythidaceae, Chrysobalanaceae, and Alexa imperatricis. More than a decade later, Davis (1929) divided the vegetation of the North-West District into swamp forests, Mora forests, and mixed forests. These mixed forests, whether primary or secondary, were all found on higher ground and were dominated by Lecythidaceae, Chrysobalanaceae, Alexa imperatricis, and Catostemma commune. The frequency data, collected on the trees in plots of one square mile in the mixed forests along the Barama, Barima, and Aruka Rivers, suggested that these forests were of “rather poor quality” (Davis, 1929: 126).

1. This chapter was accepted in a slightly different form by Biodiversity and Conservation. 2. Data from this chapter have been published in ter Steege et al. (2000a, 2000c, and 2000d).

27 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

In 1968-1969, the Forest Industries Development Surveys (FIDS) sampled a total area of 23.6 hectares, divided over 14 different locations in the North-West District. Although all field and location data were lost, a summary was recaptured by ter Steege (1998). It revealed a forest type with high numbers of Eschweilera, Mora excelsa, Alexa, Eperua, Licania, and Protium, but lower in species diversity than southern Guyana (ter Steege, 1998). In the early 1990s, numerous permanent sample plots were laid out by the logging company Barama Company Ltd. (BCL) and the Edinburgh Centre for Tropical Forests (ECTF). These plots also showed a dominance of Lecythidaceae, Chrysobalanaceae, Alexa imperatricis, and Protium sp. (ECTF, 1995). Unfortunately, all of the above-mentioned inventories were based on vernacular (Arawak) plant names. One name is often used for different species. Reliable scientific names were only provided for the major commercial species. Plant collection and subsequent scientific identification during those surveys was minimal. Trees of different size classes were counted in the ECTF plots, while the other surveys only included trees larger than 30.5 cm (FIDS) or even 40 cm in diameter (Davis, 1929).

The only detailed vegetation study of the North-West District was published by Fanshawe in the early 1950s (1952, 1954). He provided exhaustive information on the structure, physiognomy, and floristic composition of various forest types and complemented his findings with extensive plant collections in the region (Ek, 1990). Fanshawe established a plot in mixed forest along the Moruca River, which he classified as the Alexa imperatricis faciation. This forest type belongs to the Eschweilera-Licania association, a type of rain forest typical of the Guyana lowlands (Fanshawe, 1954). Various authors have suggested that this well-drained mixed forest growing on brown sands represents a late successional stage of a climax forest dominated by only few species, since it is generally favoured by Amerindians for their swidden agriculture (Davis, 1929; Fanshawe, 1954; Hammond and ter Steege, 1998). Very little, however, has been documented about succession in Eschweilera-Licania forests after slash-and-burn agriculture. In contrast, long-term monitoring of species composition in disturbed and undisturbed primary forests has been done for greenheart forests (van der Hout, 1999; Ek, 1997) to measure the (selective) logging damage by timber companies.

The FIDS surveys resulted in a vegetation map, based their own forest plots, aerial photographs, and Fanshawe’s forest classifications (FIDS, 1970). The map distinguished a mosaic of vegetation types, although no details were given on species composition. The vegetation map drawn by Huber et al. (1995) was also mainly based on Fanshawe’s work. The mixed forest type on that map, covering almost half of the North-West District, was thus based on the single plot of 2.1 ha made by Fanshawe in 1954. Ter Steege (1998) concluded from the FIDS results that the forests of the North-West District are quite different from those of central Guyana: because of its lack of legume dominants and the high occurrence of Alexa, the district had to be classified as a separate forest region. Such large inventories, however, tend to be crude and underestimate biodiversity (ter Steege et al., 2000b, 2000c). In general, hectare plots give the best estimates of local species diversity and have emerged in the past few years as a popular standard for forest surveys (Martin, 1995). Nevertheless, a few plots do not cover the total spatial variation within a forest type. This lack of quantitative data on the distribution and abundance of tree

28 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I species is one of the main limitations in understanding tropical forest dynamics (Johnston and Gillman, 1995).

For the design of appropriate conservation and management plans, quantitative information is required on the diversity, population structure, and distribution patterns of useful (and non-useful) species. Some of the results of an extensive inventory of the major forest types of northwest Guyana will be presented in this chapter. Floristic composition, vegetation structure, and diversity are compared between two well-drained mixed primary forests and two stages of succession forest. Information on the swamp forests of the North-West District will be published in the following chapter. The vegetation descriptions presented here should contribute to a better understanding of the forests of northwest Guyana, which may in turn be useful in the NPAS programme. It is further hoped that the results of this research will provide baseline data for future sustainable exploitation of both timber and non- timber forest products.

2.2 METHODOLOGY

2.2.1 Study area The climate of the North-West District is tropical, with a mean annual temperature of 26.5 ºC. The average precipitation is 2750 mm per year (Ramdass, 1990). There is a distinct dry season from February to April and a less obvious dry period from August to November. Rainfall is at its highest from May to July, with another small peak occurring in December and January. There is little indication of climate differences within the district.

The first study site was located at the remote village of Kariako on the Barama River, a few days’ journey by boat from the Atlantic coast (Figure 1.2). The settlement is inhabited by Carib Indians. The Barama is a strongly meandering white-water river, with its origin in the Imataka Mountains near the Venezuelan border and its mouth in the Waini River. At Kariako, situated some 80 km from its mouth, the Barama has a width of about 50 meters (Figure 2.1). The riverbank collapses in the convex bends, while sediments are deposited in the concave curves. In the dry season, the water level in the river drops significantly, so that the Barama is barely navigable due to fallen trees blocking the waterway. During the rainy season, the forest adjacent to the river is flooded. Behind this floodplain forest, which is dominated by Mora excelsa, the vegetation gradually changes into a mixed forest growing on well- drained, sandy-loamy, lateritic soils (Ferralsols or ferralic Arenosols) (Fanshawe, 1952; van Kekem et al., 1996). There is no real dominance of a single species in this mixed forest. The primary forest in the periphery of the village had been replaced by secondary vegetation as a result of shifting cultivation, while the first long stretches of undisturbed forest were found at a distance of only five km inland. Occasionally, higher terraces occur directly along the river. Amerindian villages are often built on these cliffs, since they do not flood during the rainy season, facilitate water transport, and offer good agricultural soil. As a consequence of this human activity, the well-drained forest close to the river has been replaced by secondary vegetation.

29 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Figure 2.1 Map of Kariako and surrounding forest, indicating the plots in mixed, Mora and secondary forests. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

30 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The second study site was the Santa Rosa Mission, located along the Moruca River in the coastal swamplands (Figure 1.2). The Moruca is a black-water river that flows into the Atlantic Ocean. It is linked to the Waini River by a network of smaller rivers. The Moruca is flanked on both sides by a flooded savanna, in which many small sandy islands arise. Moving inland, these islands gradually merge into a mainland of well- drained, brown loamy sands and red lateritic soils (Ferralsols or ferralic Arenosols, Fanshawe, 1952; van Kekem et al., 1996), covered with secondary and primary forest (Figure 2.2). Due to Santa Rosa’s growing population and the activities of the Mazaharally logging company at Kwebanna (Waini), the area of undisturbed primary forest is decreasing rapidly. Santa Rosa itself is fringed by a wide zone of disturbed vegetation, varying from shrubland to late secondary forest.

2.2.2 Layout of hectare plots From July to October 1996, two hectare plots (10 x 1000 m) were laid out at Kariako: one in mixed primary forest (7º 25' N, 59º 44' W) and one in a 20-year-old secondary forest (7º 24' N, 59º 43' W). From July to October 1997, two plots of a similar size were made at Santa Rosa: one in mixed primary forest (7º 36' N, 58º 57' W) and one in a 60-year-old secondary forest (7º 38' N, 58º 54' W). All plots were laid out in areas accessible to local Amerindians, to be sure that these forests were subject to NTFP collection. Information about the age and boundaries of the secondary forests was obtained from the former ‘owners’ of the abandoned farms.

Although neglected in most studies, the undergrowth generally contains between 25 and 46% of the species found in wet tropical forests (Gentry and Dodson, 1987), and harbours many useful species as well. Because of this, a nested sampling method was used in the present study, including trees, shrubs, lianas, and herbs (Alder and Synott, 1992; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Ek, 1997). Each plot was systematically surveyed by identifying, measuring, and tagging all trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) > 10 cm, and estimating their height. Every 100 m, species with a DBH < 10 cm and a height > 1.5 m (‘shrub layer’) were sampled in a subplot of 10 x 10 m (Figure 2.3).

Herbs and seedlings smaller than 1.5 m were sampled in quadrates of 2 x 2 m. (Hemi-) epiphytes were counted only if they occurred within reach on lower trunks or on the forest floor, or when their aerial roots had a DBH > 10 cm.

Care was taken that the hectare plots covered a homogeneous forest area and did not include transitions in vegetation. This was particularly the case in the secondary forests, since the original ‘farms’ had a circular size rather than an elongated rectangular shape. Creeks lined with Mora forest frequently traversed the mixed forests. When the vegetation changed along the kilometre line, the shape of the plot was altered (smaller plots were laid out next to each other), in order to still achieve a total surface of one hectare. Natural gaps were included in the plots.

31 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Figure 2.2 Map of Santa Rosa, indicating the plots in secondary forest (Blanco), mixed forest (Kabrora) and swamp forest (Quackal). Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

32 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

2.2.3 Plant collection Plant collections, fertile ones when 1 km possible, were made of all species occurring in the plots. In addition, flowering and fruiting material was collected outside the plots to match the sterile specimens in the plots. Although 100 m this procedure required a great deal of 2 time, it definitely decreased the number 10 2 of unidentified plants. This ‘additional collection’ method was also 10 successfully implemented in biodiversity studies conducted in the Mabura Hill area (Ek, 1997).

10 m Figure 2.3 Layout of a hectare plot.

Flowering and fruiting material is particularly important in the study of useful plants, as correct identifications are essential. Duplicates were deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Guyana (BRG) and the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (U). A full list of the identifiable species found in the four hectare plots is given in the Appendix of this chapter.

2.2.4 Data analysis The Importance Value index (I.V.) of Cottam and Curtis (1956) was used to describe and compare the species composition of the plots. This method has been employed in various quantitative studies on vegetation structure and NTFP (Balée, 1994; Comiskey et al., 1994; van Valkenburg, 1997; Dallmeijer and Comiskey, 1998; Ferreira and Prance, 1999). The I.V. of a species is defined as the sum of its relative dominance (Rdom), its relative density (Rden), and its relative frequency (Rfreq): i.e., I.V. = Rdom + Rden + Rfreq.

The last three indices are calculated using the following equations:

Rdom = total basal area for a species / total basal area for all species x 100%

(basal area = π * (DBH/2)²)

Rden = number of individuals of a species / total number of individuals x 100%

Rfreq = frequency of a species / sum frequencies of all species x 100%

33 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

The frequency of a species is defined as the number of subplots (100 x 10 m) in which it is present. The theoretical range for Rdom, Rden, and Rfreq is 0-100%. Thus, the I.V. of a species may vary between 0 and 300%. According to Johnston and Gillman (1995), a dominant species in the vegetation is defined as a single species accounting for > 20% of the total number of individuals. Co-dominance is defined as two or more taxa each representing 10-20% of the trees. To see whether a plot size of one hectare was sufficient to cover the major variety of species in a particular forest type, species-area curves were drawn for trees with a DBH > 10 cm in each of the four plots. To compare the results of the study plots with other forest types, species richness was quantified using the Fisher’s α diversity index (Fisher et al., 1943). Fisher’s α is relatively insensitive to sample size and is calculated with α the formula: α - (α + N) e(-S/ ) = 0; where N is the number of individuals in the sample, S the number of species in the sample, and α = Fisher’s α.

2.3 RESULTS

2.3.1 General forest composition A total of 462 plant species (including 10 unidentified specimens) were found in the four one-hectare plots (see Appendix). A summary of the findings in the four plots is shown in Table 2.1. The number of tree species and families in 60-year-old secondary forest equalled that of primary forests. However, even though tree density came within the range of the undisturbed forest, the mean diameter, basal area, and canopy height were lower in the secondary forest. Moreover, there were obvious differences in species composition between the primary and late secondary forests. The 20-year-old forest had the lowest tree diversity, but, due to its open canopy, the lower strata contained many more species than the other plots. Because of the dense undergrowth, both secondary forest plots had a higher number of species per hectare than the primary plots. Lianas were particularly common in the succession forests, but most species were < 10 cm DBH. True herb species were rare in all plots. It can be deduced from Table 2.1 that the understorey harboured 41% (Moruca mixed) to 60% (Barama secondary) of the total number of species in the plots. Trees > 10 cm DBH represented 40% (Barama secondary) to 59% (Moruca mixed) of the total number of species. These figures illustrate the importance of nested sampling when studying vegetation structure and species richness in a tropical rain forest.

Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae clearly co-dominated the canopy of both primary plots (Table 2.2), representing over 34% of the total number of trees in Barama and almost 49% in Moruca. Chrysobalanaceae were more abundant than Lecythidaceae in Barama, and vice versa in Moruca. Papilionaceae ranked third in Barama, but were less abundant in Moruca. Sapotaceae occupied the third place in Moruca, while only 1.4% belonged to that family in Barama. After 60 years of forest succession, Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae were still of minor importance compared to Mimosaceae. The high percentage of the latter family can be ascribed to the abundance of Pentaclethra macroloba and various Inga species, of which I. alba was the most common in both secondary plots. The canopy of the 20-year-old forest was dominated by pioneer families, such as Araliaceae, Malpighiaceae, Melastomataceae, and Cecropiaceae. These families had lost most of their

34 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I importance in the 60-year-old forest and were either absent or rare in the primary forests. The high score for Euphorbiaceae in the 60-year-old forest was largely due to the abundance of Mabea piriri. Families like Burseraceae, Celastraceae, and Sapotaceae seemed to appear late in the succession stage. Not one plant family dominated all four study plots; however, if the three subfamilies were summed, Leguminosae had a higher overall score than Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae.

Table 2.1 Summary of the floristic composition of four hectare plots in mixed and secondary forests in Barama and Moruca. The second number in the range of species and families includes the number of unidentified species, regarded as a previously unrecorded species or family. Liana species include hemi-epiphytes and climbing ferns.

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca Forest type mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for. Floristic composition primary primary 20 years 60 years TREE LAYER > 10 cm DBH Number of individuals in 1 ha 496 550 657 528 Number of species in 1 ha 92-93 94-95 78 95 Number of families in 1 ha 39-40 37-38 35 38 Mean diameter trees > 10 cm DBH [cm] 23.6 23.6 18.8 21.0 Canopy height [m] 20-40 30-40 15-20 15-25 α-diversity 28.2 28.6 21 31.2

SHRUB LAYER < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m Number of individuals in 0.1 ha 524 716 590 870 Number of species in 0.1 ha 88 91 139 137 Number of families in 0.1 ha 49 42 57 53

HERB LAYER < 1.5 m Number of individuals in 4*10-3 ha 268 536 431 588 Number of species in 4*10-3 ha 50-55 66-68 75-77 65 Number of families in 4*10-3 ha 28-33 34-36 40-42 36-41

Total no. of tree species > 10 cm DBH 82-83 86 73 90 Total no. of liana species > 10 cm DBH 10 9 5 5 Total no. of shrub/small tree species < 10 cm 27 27 56 46 DBH Total no. of liana species < 10 cm DBH 31 27 38 43 Total no. of species only found in herb layer 17 12 25 20 True herb species 2 0 5 4

Total no. of species found in 1 ha plot 168 161 197 204 Total no. of families found in 1 ha plot 59-62 54 65 61-66

35 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Table 2.2 Family dominance by tree density (percentage of individuals > 10 cm DBH) for the 15 most common families in the four forest hectare plots.

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca Forest type mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for. Families primary primary 20 years 60 years

Lecythidaceae 12.7 31.6 2.3 6.3 Leguminosae-Mimos. 5.8 5.1 14.6 23.0 Chrysobalanaceae 21.6 16.9 6.5 1.9 Euphorbiaceae 4.0 2.5 3.3 14.2 Leguminosae-Papil. 11.3 3.3 2.4 5.9 Annonaceae 4.4 1.6 7.2 4.2 Sapotaceae 1.4 10.0 - 1.9 Araliaceae - 0.2 10.0 1.1 Malpighiaceae - - 10.5 0.2 Leguminosae-Caesalp. 3.2 0.9 4.7 1.5 Burseraceae 4.4 1.6 0.9 2.8 Celastraceae 2.8 2.4 0.5 4.2 Melastomataceae - - 7.8 1.1 Guttiferae 1.2 3.8 3.2 0.4 Cecropiaceae 0.8 - 6.4 0.9

Unidentified 0.2 - 0.2 - Total of other families 26.2 20.0 18.7 30.5

2.3.2 Barama mixed forest The mixed forest in Barama was characterised by the abundance of Couepia parillo (Table 2.3). Other species with a high I.V. were Eschweilera wachenheimii, Licania alba, and Alexa imperatricis. Except for a few 40-m-tall emergent trees (mostly Goupia glabra or Inga alba), the height of the canopy varied between 20 and 30 m. The crown layer was closed except for an occasional gap caused by a fallen tree. Dense clusters of secondary species were found in these openings (e.g., Senna multijuga subsp. multijuga, Posoqueria longiflora, and Olyra longifolia). The largest diameter (133.5 cm) was recorded for Goupia glabra.

The few small depressions in the landscape were occupied by some large Mora excelsa trees, which, in spite of their low density, attributed to a high basal area. Lianas were common and attained rather large diameters, particularly Pinzona coriacea and to a lesser extent Bauhinia scala-simae and Dioclea scabra.

36 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 2.3 Density, basal area, and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of mixed forest, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value. * Liana.

Barama mixed forest Absolute Importance Relative Relative Relative Basal area Tree layer density value density dominance frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Couepia parillo 89 6.00 40.23 17.94 18.24 4.05 Alexa imperatricis 43 3.06 22.03 8.67 9.31 4.05 Eschweilera wachenheimii 45 1.70 17.87 9.07 5.16 3.64 Mora excelsa 8 3.86 14.57 1.61 11.74 1.21 Goupia glabra 6 2.79 10.90 1.21 8.47 1.21 Licania alba 16 1.35 10.57 3.23 4.11 3.24 Protium decandrum 17 0.74 8.90 3.43 2.23 3.24 Neea cf. constricta 14 0.57 8.20 2.82 1.73 3.64 Inga alba 7 1.56 8.17 1.41 4.74 2.02 Inga rubiginosa 12 0.76 7.97 2.42 2.32 3.24 Catostemma commune 15 0.80 7.89 3.02 2.44 2.43 Eschweilera pedicellata 14 1.08 7.74 2.82 3.29 1.62 Unonopsis glaucopetala 15 0.38 7.00 3.02 1.15 2.83 Mabea piriri 12 0.31 5.37 2.42 0.93 2.02 Paypayrola longifolia 9 0.09 4.91 1.81 0.26 2.83 Pinzona coriacea * 8 0.11 4.39 1.61 0.35 2.43 Myrcia graciliflora 7 0.13 4.22 1.41 0.38 2.43 Sloanea grandiflora 6 0.22 3.89 1.21 0.66 2.02 Tetragastris altissima 4 0.57 3.74 0.81 1.72 1.21 Aspidosperma sp. 2 0.83 3.73 0.40 2.52 0.81 (TVA1583)

Total of other species (73) 147 6.01 97.69 29.64 18.26 49.80 Total 496 32.91 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

The shrub and herb layers of this forest were quite open and hardly formed well- marked strata. Although some true shrub species were common (Tabernaemontana undulata, Psychotria astrellantha), most individuals in the shrub layer were saplings of the canopy species (Table 2.4). Understorey palms like Bactris humilis and B. oligoclada were found every now and then. Common hemi-epiphytes included Evodianthus funifer subsp. funifer and the climbing fern Cyclodium meniscioides var. meniscioides. Their seedlings were also frequent on the forest floor (Table 2.5). Occasional hemi-epiphytes were Heteropsis flexuosa, Thoracocarpus bissectus, and Clusia grandiflora. The long aerial roots of these species often reached the forest floor.

37 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Table 2.4 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha of mixed forest, ‘shrub layer’, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana.

Barama mixed forest Relative Absolute density Relative density Shrub layer frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Tabernaemontana undulata 45 8.59 4.27 Paypayrola longifolia 41 7.82 3.85 Protium decandrum 37 7.06 2.99 Quiina guianensis 36 6.87 3.42 Alexa imperatricis 32 6.11 3.42 Psychotria astrellantha 26 4.96 3.85 Couepia parillo 20 3.82 3.42 Anaxagorea dolichocarpa 19 3.63 3.42 Paullinia cf. rufescens * 19 3.63 2.14 Myrcia graciliflora 11 2.10 2.99

Total of other species (78) 238 45.41 66.23 Total 524 100.00 100.00

Although tree seedlings were locally abundant (Eschweilera wachenheimii, Quiina guianensis, Paypayrola longifolia), the herb layer was poor in true herbaceous species (Table 2.5). This group was represented by only two species: Costus erythrothyrsus and the fern Triplophyllum funestum var. funestum. The lowest stratum further consisted of shrub and liana seedlings.

Table 2.5 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha of mixed forest, ‘herb layer’, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Barama mixed forest Absolute Relative Relative Herb layer density density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Paypayrola longifolia 28 10.45 5.31 Psychotria apoda 23 8.58 1.77 Quiina guianensis 19 7.09 6.19 Triplophyllum funestum var. funestum 18 6.72 3.54 Protium decandrum 13 4.85 3.54 Bauhinia guianensis * 12 4.48 3.54 Cyclodium meniscioides var. meniscioides • 12 4.48 3.54 Psychotria astrellantha 11 4.10 5.31 Philodendron rudgeanum • 10 3.73 4.42 Eschweilera wachenheimii 10 3.73 3.54

Total of other species (55) 112 41.81 59.28 Total 268 100.00 100.00

38 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

2.3.3 Moruca mixed forest The primary forest in Moruca showed a strong dominance of Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae, in particular large numbers of Eschweilera sagotiana, E. wachenheimii, and E. decolorans (Table 2.6). The canopy of this forest was ca. 30 m high, with a few emergents growing to 45 m (Aspidosperma excelsum, Hymenolobium flavum, and Peltogyne venosa subsp. venosa). The latter species (purpleheart) had the largest diameter (159.7 cm). Purpleheart was quite rare in the Barama region. The mean diameter of trees > 10 cm DBH was the same in the two study sites (23.6 cm). Couepia parillo, which was abundant at Barama, was totally absent at Moruca, not only from the plot but also from the surrounding area. In contrast, E. sagotiana, dominant in Moruca, was infrequently collected in the mixed forest in Barama and was not found in the hectare plot.

Table 2.6 Density, basal area and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of mixed forest, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value.

Moruca mixed forest Absolute Importance Relative Relative Relative Basal area Tree layer density value density dominance frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Eschweilera sagotiana 62 3.66 25.67 11.27 10.58 3.82 Eschweilera wachenheimii 60 3.28 24.23 10.91 9.50 3.82 Licania alba 49 1.83 16.88 8.91 5.30 2.67 Eschweilera decolorans 28 2.06 14.86 5.09 5.96 3.82 Pouteria durlandii 17 1.55 11.02 3.09 4.50 3.44 Licania heteromorpha var. 24 0.53 9.33 4.36 1.53 3.44 perplexans Peltogyne venosa subsp. 3 2.66 9.00 0.55 7.69 0.76 venosa Alexa imperatricis 15 0.74 7.92 2.73 2.14 3.05 Goupia glabra 9 1.54 7.61 1.64 4.45 1.53 Pentaclethra macroloba 14 1.00 7.34 2.55 2.89 1.91 Tovomita cf. schomburgkii 17 0.25 7.25 3.09 0.72 3.44 Aspidosperma excelsum 6 1.00 5.90 1.09 2.90 1.91 Pouteria cf. coriacea 11 0.29 5.90 2.00 0.84 3.05 Licania sp. (TVA2332) 13 0.43 5.89 2.36 1.23 2.29 Inga alba 6 0.83 5.40 1.09 2.41 1.91 Pouteria guianensis 11 0.59 5.24 2.00 1.72 1.53 Jacaranda copaia subsp. 7 0.75 4.96 1.27 2.16 1.53 copaia Quiina guianensis 10 0.16 4.95 1.82 0.46 2.67 Lecythis sp. (TVA2380) 8 0.47 4.72 1.45 1.35 1.91 Trattinickia cf. lawrancei 9 0.40 4.31 1.64 1.15 1.53 var. boliviana

Total of other species (75) 172 10.54 111.80 31.27 30.54 50.01 Total 550 34.55 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

39 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

The importance of Sapotaceae was noticeable in Moruca, represented by six different species of Pouteria, with P. durlandii being the most common. Alexa imperatricis played a less important role in Moruca, while late secondary species like Goupia glabra, Jacaranda copaia subsp. copaia, and Inga alba were common in both primary plots. Large lianas were less frequent in the mixed forest in Moruca. Tetracera volubilis subsp. volubilis was present with five individuals over 10 cm; of the six other large climbing species, only Dicranostyles guianensis was represented by more than one individual. Some of the large hemi-epiphytes (Clusia palmicida and C. grandiflora) had aerial roots with a diameter greater than 10 cm.

The shrub layer in this forest was denser and richer in species than in Barama: 716 individuals belonging to 91 species in 0.1 ha, vs. 524 individuals and 88 species in Barama. The most abundant species in the understorey, the small tree Quiina guianensis and the shrub Tabernaemontana undulata, accounted for only 17.7% of the individuals (Table 2.7). The small palm Bactris oligoclada was rather common. Major hemi-epiphytes in this stratum included Clusia palmicida and C. grandiflora. Connarus perrottetii var. rufus was the most important woody climber (n = 30) in the shrub layer, followed by Tetracera volubilis subsp. volubilis with ten individuals.

Table 2.7 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha of mixed forest, ‘shrub layer’, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana.

Moruca mixed forest Relative Absolute density Relative density Shrub layer frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Quiina guianensis 64 8.94 3.60 Tabernaemontana undulata 63 8.80 4.00 Alexa imperatricis 56 7.82 2.00 Licania alba 32 4.47 4.00 Trichilia schomburgkii subsp. schomburgkii 32 4.47 3.60 Licania heteromorpha var. perplexans 31 4.33 3.20 Bactris oligoclada 31 4.33 2.80 Connarus perrottetii var. rufus * 30 4.19 1.20 Duguetia pauciflora 22 3.07 2.80 Tovomita cf. schomburgkii 20 2.79 3.20

Total of other species (81) 335 46.78 69.60 Total 716 100.00 100

40 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

No true herb species were found in the herb layer, just seedlings of trees, shrubs, and lianas (Table 2.8). Juveniles of Eschweilera wachenheimii were the most abundant, followed by the hemi-epiphyte Thoracocarpus bissectus and the liana Rourea pubescens var. spadicea. Seedlings of more than 20 liana species were found in the herb layer.

Table 2.8 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha of mixed forest, ‘herb layer’, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Moruca mixed forest Absolute Relative Relative Herb layer density density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Eschweilera wachenheimii 129 24.07 4.64 Thoracocarpus bissectus • 61 11.38 0.66 Rourea pubescens var. spadicea * 60 11.19 5.30 Tabernaemontana undulata 24 4.48 3.31 Eschweilera cf. sagotiana 20 3.73 2.65 Quiina guianensis 18 3.36 5.30 Paypayrola longiflora 16 2.99 1.99 Trattinickia cf. lawrancei var. boliviana 14 2.61 3.31 Licania heteromorpha var. perplexans 12 2.24 3.97 Unidentified liana seedling (TVA2394) * 11 2.05 1.99

Total of other species (58) 171 31.91 66.89 Total 536 100.00 100.00

2.3.4 20-year-old secondary forest (Barama) The young secondary forest plot in Barama had an irregular, open canopy of 15-20 m high, with several emergents of Schefflera morototoni, Miconia fragilis, and Jacaranda copaia subsp. copaia (Table 2.9). The tree layer was mainly composed of secondary pioneer species (e.g., S. morototoni, Byrsonima stipulacea, Cecropia sciadophylla, and J. copaia subsp. copaia), and other light-demanding species like Pentaclethra macroloba, Inga alba, and Bellucia grossularioides. The largest diameter recorded was 47.5 cm for Tapirira guianensis, while the mean diameter was only 18.8 cm. Because of their valuable bark, some of the large I. alba trees had been spared when the original primary forest was felled, thus attributing to the relatively high basal area. Some of the dominant species in the Barama primary forest (Couepia parillo, Alexa imperatricis) were already common in the 20-year-old forest, while other typical species of the mature forest (Eschweilera wachenheimii, Licania alba) were only represented by a few individuals, three and one respectively. No large palms were found. Only five liana species were present in this size class, of which only Bauhinia guianensis was represented by more than one individual. Large hemi-epiphytes were absent.

41 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Table 2.9 Density, basal area, and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of 20-year-old forest, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value.

Barama secondary forest Absolute Importance Relative Relative Relative Basal area Tree layer density value density dominance frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Schefflera morototoni 66 2.96 27.40 10.05 13.85 3.50 Byrsonima stipulacea 69 2.18 24.20 10.50 10.20 3.50 Cecropia sciadophylla 35 1.63 17.27 5.33 7.66 4.28 Pentaclethra macroloba 41 1.14 15.47 6.24 5.34 3.89 Couepia parillo 41 1.16 14.78 6.24 5.43 3.11 Alexa imperatricis 29 1.42 14.56 4.41 6.64 3.50 Inga alba 22 1.37 12.48 3.35 6.41 2.72 Jacaranda copaia subsp. 29 1.10 12.30 4.41 5.17 2.72 copaia Bellucia grossularioides 25 0.70 10.19 3.81 3.27 3.11 Miconia fragilis 18 0.44 7.92 2.74 2.07 3.11 Tapirira guianensis 16 0.67 7.92 2.44 3.15 2.33 Hyeronima alchorneoides 15 0.37 7.13 2.28 1.74 3.11 var. stipulosa Xylopia aff. surinamensis 15 0.36 6.31 2.28 1.69 2.33 Cordia tetrandra 15 0.24 6.14 2.28 1.13 2.72 Vismia guianensis 18 0.25 5.47 2.74 1.18 1.56 Apeiba petoumo 7 0.35 5.42 1.07 1.63 2.72 Clathrotropis brachypetala 10 0.28 5.18 1.52 1.33 2.33 Pourouma guianensis 9 0.38 4.73 1.37 1.80 1.56 subsp. guianensis Xylopia sp. (TVA1176) 9 0.17 4.52 1.37 0.81 2.33 Catostemma commune 7 0.30 4.43 1.07 1.42 1.95

Total of other species (58) 161 3.86 86.16 24.51 18.09 43.59 Total 657 21.33 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Although the shrub layer did not contain that many individuals, it was very dense because of the numerous lianas (38 species < 10 cm), impenetrable patches of razorgrass (Scleria secans), and Melastomataceae shrubs (Table 2.10). The most common small tree was Couepia parillo, a species that was dominant in the primary forest (Table 2.3). The highest diversity was scored by the genus Inga with eight species, of which I. umbellifera was the most abundant. The families Rubiaceae and Melastomataceae were also represented by eight species. Hemi-epiphytes were occasionally found, mainly Evodianthus funifer subsp. funifer and Philodendron rudgeanum.

42 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 2.10 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha of 20-year-old forest, ‘shrub layer’, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana.

Barama secondary forest Absolute density Relative density Relative frequency Shrub layer Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Couepia parillo 36 6.10 3.51 Scleria secans 36 6.10 0.70 Tabernaemontana undulata 26 4.41 2.11 Inga umbellifera 23 3.90 1.40 Pentaclethra macroloba 18 3.05 1.75 Neea cf. floribunda 15 2.54 2.11 Aciotis sp. (TVA1384) 14 2.37 1.40 Bactris humilis 14 2.37 3.16 Bauhinia guianensis * 13 2.20 2.11 Dioclea cf. scabra * 13 2.20 1.75

Total of other species (127) 382 64.73 79.99 Total 590 100 100.00

The most common species in the herb layer are listed in Table 2.11. This stratum was characterised by liana seedlings, large patches of the herb Leandra divaricata, and juveniles of trees and shrubs typical of a secondary forest (e.g., Pourouma guianensis, Miconia spp., and Inga spp.). Five true herb species were recorded.

Table 2.11 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha of 20- year-old forest, ‘herb layer’, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Barama secondary forest Relative Absolute density Relative density Herb layer frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Pourouma guianensis subsp. guianensis 64 14.85 3.23 Leandra divaricata 61 14.15 3.23 Bauhinia guianensis * 31 7.19 4.03 Triplophyllum funestum var. funestum 16 3.71 2.42 Miconia ceramicarpa var. ceramicarpa 16 3.71 0.81 Selaginella parkeri 15 3.48 0.81 Psychotria poeppigiana var. barcellana 14 3.25 4.03 Philodendron rudgeanum • 13 3.02 3.23 Inga melinonis 12 2.78 1.61 Piper nigrispicum 11 2.55 2.42

Total of other species (167) 178 41.29 74.19 Total 431 100.00 100.00

43 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

2.3.5 60 year-old secondary forest (Moruca) The canopy of the late secondary forest plot in Moruca was more closed than that of the younger forest in Barama. The crown layer was 15 to 25 m high, with several large emergents (Simarouba amara, Pentaclethra macroloba, and Inga alba). Although diversity, density, and mean diameter of trees in this late secondary forest were almost equal to that of the primary forest, the floristic composition was very different (Table 2.12). Mabea piriri had the greatest number of individuals, but due to its much larger trunks, Pentaclethra macroloba had the highest I.V. score. A maximum diameter of 67.8 cm was recorded for Goupia glabra, while the mean diameter was 21 cm.

Table 2.12 Density, basal area, and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of 60-year-old forest, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value.

Moruca secondary forest Absolute Importance Relative Relative Relative Basal area Tree layer density value density dominance frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Pentaclethra macroloba 55 3.45 28.07 10.42 14.28 3.38 Mabea piriri 62 1.28 20.01 11.74 5.31 2.95 Goupia glabra 22 1.87 15.69 4.17 7.73 3.80 Inga alba 13 1.85 12.24 2.46 7.67 2.11 Alexa imperatricis 23 1.04 12.05 4.36 4.32 3.38 Lecythis cf. chartacea 19 0.84 9.63 3.60 3.50 2.53 Laetia procera 12 0.89 8.89 2.27 3.67 2.95 Inga cf. acreana 23 0.41 7.74 4.36 1.70 1.69 Cordia sericicalyx 13 0.65 6.84 2.46 2.69 1.69 Cupania hirsuta 20 0.30 6.72 3.79 1.24 1.69 Jacaranda copaia subsp. 9 0.59 6.25 1.70 2.44 2.11 copaia Protium unifoliolatum 7 0.66 5.77 1.33 2.75 1.69 Schefflera morototoni 6 0.66 5.55 1.14 2.73 1.69 Brosimum guianense 10 0.22 5.35 1.89 0.93 2.53 Carapa guianensis 8 0.37 5.15 1.52 1.52 2.11 Clathrotropis brachypetala 5 0.61 5.15 0.95 2.51 1.69 Rollinia exsucca 9 0.27 4.94 1.70 1.12 2.11 Aniba cf. riparia 9 0.16 4.91 1.70 0.67 2.53 Parinari rodolphii 3 0.58 4.25 0.57 2.42 1.27 Hyeronima alchorneoides 7 0.36 4.08 1.33 1.49 1.27 var. stipulosa

Total of other species (75) 193 7.08 120.73 36.57 29.32 54.86 Total 528 24.14 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

44 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Several large palms were present: Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa, Maximiliana maripa, and Astrocaryum aculeatum; the latter being a sign of previous human occupation (Wessels Boer, 1965). Except for Alexa imperatricis, characteristic species of the mature mixed forest (Eschweilera spp., Licania spp.) were either absent or present with very few individuals. Just five woody climbers over 10 cm DBH were present, of which Tetracera volubilis subsp. volubilis was the largest.

The shrub layer in the 60-year-old forest was very dense (with 870 individuals in 0.1 ha) and mainly composed of small trees (Paypayrola longiflora and Mabea piriri) and the shrub Tabernaemontana undulata (Table 2.13). Lianas were common (43 species), both as saplings in the shrub layer and as seedlings on the forest floor. However, apart from Bauhinia spp. and Dichapetalum pedunculatum, most climbing species were only represented by few individuals. Six species of the genus Inga were noted. Except for Alexa imperatricis and Pentaclethra macroloba, saplings of trees common in primary forests were not abundant in the shrub layer.

Table 2.13 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha of 60-year-old forest, ‘shrub layer’, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana.

Moruca secondary forest Relative Absolute density Relative density Shrub layer frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Paypayrola longiflora 84 9.66 1.45 Mabea piriri 79 9.08 2.32 Tabernaemontana undulata 73 8.39 2.32 Pentaclethra macroloba 55 6.32 2.90 Lecythis corrugata subsp. corrugata 30 3.45 0.87 Alexa imperatricis 29 3.33 2.03 Protium unifoliolatum 20 2.30 0.87 Dichapetalum pedunculatum * 19 2.18 2.32 Duguetia pauciflora 19 2.18 2.03 Trichilia schomburgkii subsp. schomburgkii 18 2.07 0.58

Total of other species (127) 445 51.83 82.90 Total 870 100.00 100.00

45 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Mabea piriri was again numerous in the herb layer, followed by juveniles of Tabernaemontana undulata (Table 2.14). Numerous Inga seedlings were found, but many were impossible to identify to species level at this early stage. Lianas and hemi-epiphytes were particularly common. Only four true herbs were found, of which the small fern Triplophyllum funestum var. funestum was the most frequent. Just a few seedlings of primary tree species were found in the herb layer.

Table 2.14 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha of 60- year-old forest, ‘herb layer’, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Moruca secondary forest Relative Absolute density Relative density Herb layer frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Mabea piriri 182 30.95 5.13 Tabernaemontana undulata 104 17.69 4.49 Inga spp. (various) 30 5.10 5.77 Paypayrola longiflora 24 4.08 3.21 Philodendron surinamense • 24 4.08 2.56 Pentaclethra macroloba 21 3.57 2.56 Rourea surinamensis * 17 2.89 3.21 Virola elongata 12 2.04 2.56 Paullinia cf. rufescens * 10 1.70 1.92 unidentified seedling (TVA2160) 10 1.70 0.64

Total of other species (55) 154 26.19 67.94 Total 588 100.00 100.00

2.4 DISCUSSION

2.4.1 Classification of mixed forest Although no more than 10 km apart as the crow flies, the hectare plot in the Moruca mixed forest and the mixed forest plot of Fanshawe (1954) differed in several ways. The latter was laid out on a sandy island at the headwaters of the Moruca River, probably near the village of Kamwatta (Figure 1.2). As stated above, the Moruca mixed forest plot was established on the brown loamy sands and lateritic soils of the mainland. Alexa imperatricis was the second most abundant tree species in Fanshawe’s plot (with a relative density of 13%), while it ranked eighth in the Moruca plot (Rden = 2.73%). Eschweilera wachenheimii was an important species in the plots of this study (ranking second in Moruca and third in Barama), but was unnoticed by Fanshawe. Licania heteromorpha var. perplexans was a common species in Moruca, but was absent in the Kamwatta plot. Interestingly, this species was noted earlier by Fanshawe (1952) to occur in every known faciation of the Eschweilera-Licania association. Fanshawe also did not mention Licania alba in his descriptions, while it was quite common in both the Moruca and Barama mixed

46 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I forests. In contrast, Hebepetalum humiriifolium, a tree common in Fanshawe’s plot, was not observed anywhere in the study area.

The Barama plot, located almost 100 km further inland, differed from the Moruca and Kamwatta plots by the abundance of Couepia parillo (number one in the tree layer of the mixed forest and also frequent in the young secondary forest). Alexa imperatricis ranked second in Barama mixed forest, following Fanshawe’s definition of the faciation named after that species. Eschweilera sagotiana and Licania heteromorpha var. perplexans were both present, but not common, in Barama primary forest.

Much of the rain forest in Guyana remains to be explored, and as Fanshawe (1952) already noted, each faciation tends to be divided into smaller floristic groups. Species are restricted by their natural range, limits not yet fully known for many taxa in the Guianas. Davis (1929) and Anderson (1912) mentioned earlier that densities of dominant taxa are quite variable, even over small areas with apparently similar conditions. This proves again that a few plots are not sufficient to define a particular forest type. Apart from the geographical variations in floristic composition and densities of dominant species, the two mixed forest plots showed a substantial overlap with Fanshawe’s plot (1954). Therefore, it is very likely that both the Barama and the Moruca mixed forests are members of the same Alexa imperatricis faciation, and consequently correspond with the Eschweilera-Licania association, although ‘Lecythidaceae-Chrysobalanaceae association’ would be a better term for this vegetation type. No direct comparisons could be made with Fanshawe’s plot, as the islands behind Kamwatta had been transformed into coconut plantations.

Chlorocardium rodiei (greenheart) was not found in any of the plots nor in their surroundings, although it was noted by Huber et al. (1995) on their vegetation map as growing in the mixed forests of the North-West District. Fanshawe (1952) had cited the northern limit of greenheart around the Pomeroon River, even though it was found by Davis (1929) and Anderson (1912) around St. Bedes (lower Barama) and the Aruka River. There is a great need for updating the existing vegetation maps of northwest Guyana, as they were based on limited information.

In general, the plots of this study seem to correspond with the mixed forest as described by Davis (1929), even though many of the scientific names used in his article have changed and many trees were listed by family or local names only. Less overlap was found between the plots of the North-West District and the mixed forest in central Guyana (Davis and Richards, 1934; ter Steege, 1993; Johnston and Gillman, 1995; Ek, 1997; ter Steege et al., 2000c). The forest in Barama, in particular, differed substantially in floristic composition and species dominance. The central Guyana mixed forest is dominated by other species of Chrysobalanaceae and Lecythidaceae; E. wachenheimii and Couepia parillo play a much less prominent role in the canopy. The Eschweilera-Licania dominance also seems to change in species composition along the geographical range (ter Steege et al., 2000b). For example, mixed forests dominated by Chrysobalanaceae and Lecythidaceae continue far into Venezuelan Guayana, but E. decolorans, Gustavia poeppigiana, and Licania densiflora take over the leading part there (Huber, 1995a).

47 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

2.4.2 Disturbance and succession If the mixed forests in Barama and Moruca are regarded as the same forest type, putting aside some regional differences like the abundance of C. parillo, then the secondary plots may be considered as two stages of succession. This being the case, we then see that 60 years since abandonment is not long enough for Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae to become dominant. The canopy of the late succession forest was occupied by different species and families than the primary forest, while pioneer species were present in much lower numbers than in the early secondary forest. The basal area of the 60-year-old forest (24.1 m2/ha) was much lower than that found in the Moruca primary plot (34.6 m2/ha), indicating that after 60 years of succession the forest still has not attained a forest structure similar to that of a primary forest. This does not quite correspond with the conclusions of Aide et al. (1996), who suggested that 60 years was sufficient for abandoned pastures to regain a basal area comparable with that of primary rain forest. In fact, with regard to floristic composition, it may take more than a century before a secondary forest resembles the surrounding primary forest (Ferreira and Prance, 1999).

The Moruca area has a long history of Amerindian occupancy (Schomburgk, 1848; Benjamin, 1988). The frequent findings of stone axes and potsherds in the primary forest in Barama also point towards an early presence of humans. The large individuals of late successional species (Goupia glabra, Inga alba) further suggest that both areas of mixed forest were subjected to disturbance in the past, although local Amerindians considered the forest as ‘high bush’ or primary forest. Fanshawe discovered charcoal traces at a depth of 30-70 cm in the soil of his Kamwatta plot, which he related to prior slash-and-burn cultivation. He concluded that: “With the evidence of a once numerous Amerindian population and consequent widespread shifting cultivation, it is extremely difficult not to be suspicious of the primeval state of any forest type encountered” (Fanshawe, 1954: 80). He assumed that the Eschweilera-Licania association represented a late stage of succession to the climax rain forest, ‘more or less indistinguishable from primary forest’, but he did not give an example of how this undisturbed forest should look. No soil samples were taken during the present study, so verification of whether burning had occurred in the past was not possible. Nevertheless, it is to be expected, since charcoal has even been found in the little-disturbed forests in central Guyana (Hammond and ter Steege, 1998). Furthermore, there is evidence that the North-West District has acted as an important centre for pre-Columbian peoples (Williams, 1989).

In comparison to the Moruca plot, the mixed forest in Barama contained fewer Eschweilera, but more Alexa imperatricis, Goupia glabra, and Mabea piriri, and more large lianas (29 vs. 17 individuals over 10 cm). The overall dominance of Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae in Barama was a bit lower than in Moruca. Following the theory of Hart (1990), who proposed that high species dominance might be achieved during early and late successional stages and co-dominance during mid-successional stages, this might indicate that the Barama forest represents a slightly earlier stage of succession than the Moruca forest. Davis (1929) stated that the abundance of Sapotaceae (as was the case in Moruca) almost certainly indicates primary forest. However, the present data offer only a snapshot in forest succession. The real patterns of regeneration can only be assessed after long-term monitoring of regrowth in permanent sample plots.

48 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

2.4.3 Efficacy of one-hectare plots The question remains whether a one-hectare sample is large enough to detect most of the variation in a particular vegetation type. Looking at the species-area curves for trees > 10 cm DBH in the four hectare plots, we see that the slopes of the curves for each plot decline as the sample area increases (Figure 2.4). The curves of the primary forest plots begin to level off at one hectare, which means that enlarging the sample area will yield just a few more species. The curves of the secondary plots, especially the one of the 60-year-old forest, however, have not started flattening out at 1 hectare. This means that increasing the sample area would bring about a considerable increase in species numbers. Therefore, hectare plots may give a fair estimate of the local diversity, but one plot is certainly not enough to classify an entire vegetation community.

Number of species 100 90 80 70 Barama mixed 60 Moruca mixed 50 20 y sec for 40 60 y sec for 30 20 10 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Area [ha]

Figure 2.4 Species-area curves of trees > 10 cm DBH in the four hectare plots.

2.4.4 Biodiversity Except for the 20-year-old secondary forest, the study plots appeared to have a relatively high diversity when comparing their Fisher’s α values with those of more or less similar forest types in Guyana (Table 2.15). Plant diversity and forest composition strongly correlate with geographical location, soil type, and disturbance (ter Steege, 1998). The high species-richness of the forest plots in Moruca and Barama might be explained by the fact that the North-West District has been subjected to extensive and frequent human disturbance (Williams, 1989). According to the intermediate-disturbance theory, a high dominance of species indicates a low rate of disturbance (Hart, 1990; Huston, 1994). Short intervals between slash-and- burn cultivation certainly reduce species-richness, but a longer return time between fire events may promote diversity by facilitating a re-establishing process driven by colonisation rather than competition (Hammond and ter Steege, 1998). The 60-year- old secondary forest plot had the highest alpha diversity of all plots studied in Guyana so far. Since it was surrounded by both older and younger forests, the plot contained elements from early and late secondary forests, as well as from primary forests. Comparisons with similar succession forests could not be made, since no other plots of secondary forest have yet been studied in Guyana.

49 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests

Table 2.15 Comparison of density and diversity (Fisher’s α) of trees > 10 cm DBH in forest plots in Guyana and Peru: 1) This study; 2) Fanshawe (1954); 3) Johnston and Gillman (1995); 4) Davis and Richards (1934); 5) Ek (unpublished data, cited in ter Steege, 2000); 6) Comiskey et al. (1994); 7) Philips et al. (1994).

Location Forest type No. of Plot size No. of No. of Fisher’s plots [ha] individuals species alpha

Northwest Guyana1 mixed 2 1 467-533 83-86 28.2-28.6 Northwest Guyana1 20 year old 1 1 650 73 21 Northwest Guyana1 60 year old 1 1 524 90 31.2

Northwest Guyana2 mixed 1 2.1 744 52 13.1

Iwokrama3 mixed 1 1 459 71 23.5 Moraballi4 mixed 1 1.5 644 91 28.9 Mabura Hill5 mixed 1 1 459 71 23.5

Kwakwani6 mixed 1 1 493 59 17.5 Kwakwani6 mixed 1 1 504 85 29.3

Tambopata, Peru7 tierra firme 1 1 575 172 83.1

The central Guyana forests have only recently been disturbed by logging and mining. Because of their low soil fertility, the white sands in this region are less favoured for shifting cultivation. Perhaps for this reason, the region was never inhabited by a substantial Amerindian population. The low rate of large-scale disturbances may have led to competitive exclusion and to the higher dominance of few, often Caesalpinoid, species (Hammond and ter Steege, 1998). In contrast, the mixed forest in Moraballi Creek had an alpha diversity comparable to the northwestern forests (Table 2.15). According to Davis and Richards (1934), there was reason to believe that the indigenous population of that area was once greater than at the time of their research. The mixed forest plots in Kwakwani, also an area with a long history of human intervention, were even more species-rich than those in the North-West District, but they were different in species composition and less dominated by Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae (Comiskey et al., 1994). It remains unclear, then, why Fanshawe’s mixed forest in Kamwatta had such a conspicuous low diversity when compared to the nearby plots on the Moruca mainland. One explanation might be a low level of colonisation through inadequate seed dispersal. Studies have shown that the distance from a primary forest is an important factor of forest regeneration (Ferreira and Prance, 1999). Fanshawe’s mixed forest plot was laid out on a relatively small island, surrounded by a wide area of marsh forest. Moreover, the islands in the vicinity of Fanshawe’s plot were already cultivated at the time of his research (1954) and the first patch of well- drained primary forest was situated several kilometres away.

Ter Steege (1998, 2000) suggested a geographical decline in tree alpha diversity from southern Guyana northward, implying that the forests of the North-West District were among the most species-poor of the country. The results of this study, however, contradict that hypothesis, since the Barama and Moruca plots rank among

50 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I the most diverse in Guyana so far. One reason might be that although ter Steege left out two coastal swamp forest plots in his analysis of the FIDS inventories, he may have included the extremely species-poor Mora forests, thus reducing the overall diversity in the northwestern region. Another explanation for the suggested low diversity in northwest Guyana might be the FIDS’ inclusion of only those trees larger than 30.5 cm DBH. The mean diameter in the Barama mixed plot was 23.6 cm: only 22% of the individuals and 31% of the total number of species had a DBH > 30.5 cm. Thus, 78% of the individuals and 69% of the tree diversity at that site were represented by species with a DBH below the diameter threshold of the FIDS inventories.

The large-scale inventories of Barama Company Ltd. and FIDS also underestimated diversity as they were based on vernacular (Arawak) plant names, which often included several species within one name (ECTF, 1995; ter Steege, 1998). Although many commonly used vernacular names in forestry come from Arawak, the language itself is hardly spoken anymore (Fanshawe, 1949). Enumeration by native names is not a rigidly accurate nor an absolutely satisfactory method of working out the floristic composition of a tropical forest, but it is often the only method available to third-world forestry officers (Davis and Richards, 1934). This system can give useful results as long as the indigenous tree spotters are familiar with the particular forest region. However, if Arawak plant names are used for species identification in remote interior (non-Arawak) areas, this might lead to unreliable results, especially when the different species of a genus are barely distinguishable in the field (e.g., Licania, Swartzia, Protium, and Pouteria). This has become obvious from the sample plots of the BCL, where Licania species were listed as either ‘kauta’ or ‘kairiballi’, all Inga species were summed as ‘waikey’, and various Eschweilera species were called ‘kakaralli’ (ECTF, 1995).

During the fieldwork of this research, it was discovered that the Barama Caribs had separate names for 19 different Inga species. They also made a clear distinction between the various Licania and Eschweilera species in their homeland. Unfortunately, Carib names are hardly ever used in forestry in Guyana. Carib informants are less familiar with Arawak and Creole names, as these are not their native languages. Moreover, many species restricted to remote (Carib) areas do not even have an Arawak name. These aspects may also have played a role in the low estimation of plant diversity of the northwest forests. Therefore, forest inventories should always be combined with plant collection and local indigenous informants should be involved as much as possible.

The forests of the North-West District are nevertheless poor in species when compared to similar vegetation types in western Amazonia (Philips et al., 1994; Table 2.15). With markedly fewer than 100 species > 10 cm DBH per ha, the forests in Guyana may have the lowest diversity in Neotropical forests. This may be caused by low soil fertility, low rates of disturbance, and a relative isolation (Connel and Lowman, 1989; Johnston and Gillman, 1995; ter Steege, pers. comm.).

Except for a small fringe of mangrove forest, none of the NPAS’ existing proposals for protected areas include a significant portion of the North-West District (Persaud, 1997). Ter Steege (1998) has already recommended that rapid action should be taken

51 2. Floristic composition and diversity of mixed primary and secondary forests to preserve a portion of the northwest forest, which is possibly unique to South America. Moreover, the forests in this region are under serious threat from logging and mining concessions (Sizer, 1996; Nasir et al., 1997). The fact that these forests rank among the most species-rich of Guyana should also influence the planning of protected areas in Guyana. The long-term protection of the forest of northwest Guyana requires the maintenance of the conditions of low disturbance under which they have evolved (ter Steege, 2000). This offers the opportunity for indigenous management, instead of strict protection measures.

2.5 CONCLUSIONS

The forests of the North-West District largely corresponded with the vegetation types described by Fanshawe (1952; 1954), although there were substantial geographical variations in floristic composition and densities of dominant species. There is a great need for updating the existing vegetation maps of northwest Guyana, as they were based on very limited information.

Large scale forest inventories (FIDS, BCL) provide a fair indication of species dominance and forest composition, but do not give a reliable insight in floristic diversity. To produce trustworthy results, quantitative forest inventories should always be combined with plant collection. Hectare plots give a fair estimate of local diversity, but enlarging the sample area in well-drained forest (especially in late secondary forest) would substantially increase the total number of species.

The mixed forests plots of this research ranked among the most diverse plots studied in Guyana so far, a result that should have its influence in the planning of protected areas in Guyana.

52 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

2.6 APPENDIX

Species identified in four hectare plots of well-drained forest, North-West District, Guyana.

Specimens unidentified at the family level (n = 10) have been omitted

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

ACANTHACEAE Mendoncia hoffmannseggiana Nees x

ANACARDIACEAE Astronium cf. lecointei Ducke x x Tapirira guianensis Aubl. x x x Tapirira cf. obtusa (Benth.) J.D. Mitch. x

ANNONACEAE Anaxagorea dolichocarpa xx Sprague & Sandw. Annona symphyocarpa Sandw. x Bocageopsis multiflora (Mart.) R.E. Fr. x Duguetia calycina Benoist x Duguetia megalophylla R.E. Fr. x Duguetia pauciflora Rusby x x Duguetia pycnastera Sandw. x Duguetia yeshidan Sandw. x x Guatteria schomburgkiana Mart. x Guatteria sp. (TVA1127) x Rollinia exsucca (DC. ex Dunal) A. DC. x x x x Unonopsis glaucopetala R.E. Fr. x x x x Xylopia cayennensis Maas x Xylopia aff. surinamensis R.E. Fr. x Xylopia sp. (TVA1176) x Xylopia sp. (TVA1165) x

APOCYNACEAE Ambelania acida Aubl. x Aspidosperma excelsum Benth. x Aspidosperma marcgravianum Woodson x x Aspidosperma sp. TVA1583 x Forsteronia guyanensis Müll. Arg. x Forsteronia sp. (TVA2460) x Himatanthus articulatus (Vahl) Woodson x x Odontadenia puncticulosa (Rich.) Pulle x Odontadenia sp. (TVA1401) x Odontadenia sp. (TVA2178) x Parahancornia fasciculata (Poir.) Benoist x Tabernaemontana heterophylla Vahl x x Tabernaemontana aff. siphilitica (L.f.) xx Leeuwenb. Tabernaemontana undulata Vahl x x x x

53 2.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

ARACEAE Heteropsis flexuosa (Kunth) G.S. Bunting x x Philodendron fragrantissimum (Hook.) x Kunth Philodendron rudgeanum Schott x x x Philodendron scandens K. Koch & Sello x x Philodendron surinamense (Schott) Engl. x x Philodendron spp. (unidentified seedlings) x

ARALIACEAE Dendropanax sp. (TVA2414) x Schefflera morototoni xx (Aubl.) Maguire, Steyerm. & Frodin

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Aristolochia daemoninoxia Mast. x

BIGNONIACEAE Anemopaegma sp. (TVA1661) x Arrabidaea sp. (TVA2357) x Clytostoma binatum (Thunb.) Sandw. x Distictella magnoliifolia (H.B.K.) Sandw. x Jacaranda copaia (Aubl.) D. Don ssp. copaia x x x Jacaranda copaia ssp. spectabilis xx (DC.) A. H. Gentry Memora flavida (DC.) Bureau & K. Schum. x x Musatia prieurei (DC.) Bureau ex K. Schum. x Parabignonia steyermarkii Sandw. x Tabebuia insignis (Miq.) Sandw. var. x monophylla Sandw. Bignoniaceae sp. (TVA2099) x

BOMBACACEAE Catostemma commune Sandw. x x x x Pachira aquatica Aubl. x x Pachira insignis (Sw.) Savigny x

BORAGINACEAE Cordia nodosa Lam. x x x x Cordia sericicalyx A. DC. x x Cordia tetrandra Aubl. x x x

BURSERCEAE Protium decandrum Marchand x x x Protium guianense Marchand x x x Protium heptaphyllum x Marchand ssp. heptaphyllum Protium sp. (TVA931) x Protium unifoliolatum Engl. x Tetragastris altissima (Aubl.) Swart x x

54 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

BURSERCEAE Trattinnickia cf. lawrancei x var. boliviana Swart Burseraceae sp. (TVA1464) x

CECROPIACEAE Cecropia peltata L. x x Cecropia sciadophylla Mart. x x x Pourouma guianensis Aubl. ssp. guianensis x x x

CELASTRACEAE Goupia glabra Aubl. x x x x Maytenus cf. guyanensis Klotzsch ex xx x Reissek Maytenus sp. (TVA958) x x

CHRYSOBALANACEAE Couepia parillo DC. x x Hirtella racemosa L. var racemosa x Licania alba (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. x x x x Licania cf. divaricata Benth. x Licania heteromorpha Benth. xxx var. perplexans Sandw. Licania kunthiana Hook.f. x Licania micrantha Miq. x Licania persaudii Fanshawe & Maguire x Licania sp. (TVA2324) x Licania sp. (TVA2332) x Parinari rodolphii Huber x x

COMBRETACEAE Combretum laxum Jacq. x Combretum rotundifolium Rich. x Terminalia cf. amazonia (J.F. Gmel.) Exell x x Terminalia dichotoma G. Mey. x

COMPOSITAE Mikania cf. psilostachya DC. x

CONNARACEAE Connarus perrottetii var. rufus Forero x Connarus sp. (TVA2350) x Pseudoconnarus cf. macrophyllus Radlk. x x Rourea pubescens (DC.) Radlk. var. spadicea xxxx (Radl) Forero Rourea surinamensis Miq. x x x

CONVULVULACEAE Dicranostyles ampla Ducke x Dicranostyles guianensis Mennega x Dicranostyles sp. (TVA2364) x Dicranostyles sp. (TVA2407) x

55 2.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

CONVULVULACEAE Maripa scandens Aubl. x Maripa sp. (TVA2009) x

COSTACEAE Costus erythrothyrsus Loes. x Costus scaber Ruiz & Pav. x

CUCURBITACEAE Cayaponia jenmanii C. Jeffrey x Helmontia leptantha (Schltdl.) Cogn. x

CYCLANTHACEAE Evodianthus funifer (Poit.) Lindm. ssp. xx funifer Thoracocarpus bissectus (Vell.) Harling x x x x Cyclanthaceae sp. (TVA2471) x

CYPERACEAE Scleria secans (L.) Urb. x x

DICHAPETALACEAE Dichapetalum pedunculatum (DC.) Baill. x x x x Tapura guianensis Aubl. x x x

DILLENIACEAE Davilla kunthii A. St. Hil. x x x Doliocarpus brevipedicellatus Garcke ssp. xx brevipedicellatus Doliocarpus cf. dentatus (Aubl.) Standl. x Pinzona coriacea Mart. & Zucc. x Pinzona sp. (TVA2509) x Tetracera volubilis L. ssp. volubilis x x x x

DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea pilosiuscula Bert. ex Spreng. x

DRYOPTERIDACEAE Cyclodium meniscioides (Willd.) C. Presl xxx var. meniscioides Polybotrya caudata Kuntze x x

EBENACEAE Diospyros cf. ierensis Britton x Diospyros tetrandra Hiern x x x

ELAEOCARPACEAE Sloanea grandiflora Sm. x x Sloanea cf. guianensis (Aubl.) Benth. x x x Sloanea latifolia (Rich.) K. Schum. x x Sloanea obtusifolia (Moric.) K. Schum. x Sloanea cf. parviflora Planch. ex Benth. x

56 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

ELAEOCARPACEAE Sloanea cf. schomburgkii Benth. x x Sloanea aff. synandra Spruce ex Benth. x x Sloanea sp. (TVA2006) x Sloanea sp. (TVA2195) x

ERYTHROXYLACEAE Erythroxylum macrophyllum Cav. x x x

EUPHORBIACEAE Alchornea schomburgkii Klotzsch x Alchorneopsis floribunda (Benth.) Müll. Arg. x Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus (Kuntze) xx x Pax & Hoffm., Conceveiba guianensis Aubl. x x Drypetes fanshawei Sandw. x Hyeronima alchorneoides Allemao var. xxx stipulosa Franco Hyeronima oblonga (Tul.) Müll. Arg. x x x Mabea piriri Aubl. x x x x Maprounea guianensis Aubl. x Pausandra hirsuta Lanj. x Pausandra sp. (TVA2058) x Pera glabrata (Schott) Baill. x Sandwithia guyanensis Lanj. x x x x Sapium jenmanii Hemsl. x Senefeldera sp. (TVA1621) x Senefeldera sp. (TVA1369) x

FLACOURTIACEAE Casearia aff. acuminata DC. x Casearia aff. arborea (Rich.) Urb. x Casearia javitensis Kunth x x x x Casearia cf. ulmifolia Vahl ex Vent. x Caesearia sp. (TVA1522) x Caesearia sp. (TVA2334) x Laetia procera (Poepp.) Eichl. x x Flacourtiaceae sp. (TVA2448) x

GESNERIACEAE Paradrymonia maculata (Hook. f.) Wiehler x

GNETACEAE Gnetum sp. (TVA1612) x

GRAMINAE Olyra longifolia Kunth x x

GUTTIFERAE Clusia grandiflora Splitg. x x Clusia palmicida Rich. ex Planch. & Triana x x x Symphonia globulifera L.f. x x

57 2.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

GUTTIFERAE Tovomita cf. brevistaminea Engl. x x Tovomita calodictyos Sandw. x Tovomita cf. choisyana Planch. & Triana x Tovomita cf. obscura Sandw. x x x Tovomita schomburgkii Planch. & Triana x Vismia guianensis (Aubl.) Choisy x Vismia macrophylla Kunth x

HERNANDIACEAE Sparattanthelium guianense Sandw. x

HIPPOCRATEACEAE Hippocratea volubilis L. x Salacia sp. (TVA1498) x Salacia sp. (TVA1584) x Tontelea coriacea A.C. Sm. x Tontelea cf. glabra A.C. Sm. x x

HUMIRIACEAE Humiria balsamifera (Aubl.) A. St. Hil. var. x balsamifera Sacoglottis aff. cydonioides Cuatrec. x Sacoglottis guianensis Benth. var. guianensis x

ICACINACEAE Casimirella ampla (Miers) R.A. Howard x Discophora guianensis Miers x x Leretia cordata Vell. x

LACISTEMATACEAE Lacistema aggregatum (Bergius) Rusby x x

LAURACEAE Aniba cf. guianensis Aubl. x x Aniba hostmanniana Mez x Aniba cf. kappleri Mez x Aniba cf. riparia (Nees) Mez x x Aniba sp. (TVA988) x Nectandra cf. cuspidata Nees x Nectandra sp. aff. x Ocotea cernua (Nees) Mez x x Ocotea schomburgkiana (Nees) Mez x x x Ocotea splendens (Meisn.) Mez x x Ocotea tomentella Sandw. x x x Ocotea sp. (TVA2111) x Ocotea sp. (TVA2710) x

58 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

LECYTHIDACEAE Eschweilera alata cf. A.C. Sm. x Eschweilera decolorans Sandw. x Eschweilera pedicellata (Rich.) S.A.Mori x Eschweilera sagotiana Miers x x Eschweilera wachenheimii (Benoist) Sandw. x x x x Eschweilera sp. (TVA2144) x Lecythis cf. chartacea Berg x x Lecythis corrugata Poit. ssp. corrugata x x x Lecythis zabucajo Aubl. x x x x Lecythis sp. (TVA2380) x Lecythidaceae sp. (TVA1348) x

LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIACEAE Alexa imperatricis (R.H. Schomb.) Baill. x Bauhinia guianensis Aubl. var. guianensis x x x x Bauhinia scala-simiae Sandw. x x Brownea latifolia Jacq. x Dicorynia cf. guianensis Amshoff x Eperua falcata Aubl. x Hymenaea courbaril L. var. courbaril x Mora excelsa Benth. x x Peltogyne venosa (Vahl) Benth. ssp. venosa x Sclerolobium micropetalum Ducke x x Senna bacillaris (L.f.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby x Senna multijuga xx (Rich) H.S. Irwin & Barneby var. multijuga Tachigali paniculata Aubl. x

LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOSACEAE Abarema jupunba var. trapezifolia (Vahl) xxx R.C. Barneby & J.W. Grimes Hydrochorea cf. corymbosa (A. Rich.) x Barneby & J.W. Grimes Inga cf. acreana Harms x Inga cf. acrocephala Steud. x x Inga alba (Sw.) Willd. x x x x Inga capitata Desv. x x x Inga edulis (Vell.) Mart. x x Inga graciliflora Benth. x x x x Inga huberi Ducke x x x Inga lateriflora Miq. x x Inga leiocalycina Benth. x Inga marginata Willd. x Inga melinonis Sagot x x Inga pezizifera Benth. x Inga rubiginosa (Rich.) DC. x x x Inga splendens Willd. x Inga thibaudiana DC. ssp. thibaudiana x Inga umbellifera (Vahl) Steud. ex DC. x Inga sp. (TVA1352) x Inga sp. (TVA1535) x

59 2.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOSACEAE Inga sp. (TVA2463) x Inga sp. (TVA920) x Inga spp. (unidentified seedlings) x x x x Pentaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze x x x x Zygia cataractae (Kunth) L. Rico x

LEGUMINOSAE-PAPILIONACEAE Alexa imperatricis (R.H. Schomb.) Baill. x x x Clathrotropis brachypetala (Tul.) xxxx Kleinhoonte var. brachypetala Clitoria sp. (TVA2008) x Dioclea scabra (Rich.) R.H. Maxwell x x Diplotropis purpurea (Rich.) Amshoff x x Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd. x Hymenolobium flavum Kleinhoonte x Lonchocarpus cf. heptaphyllus (Poit.) DC. x Lonchocarpus negrensis Benth. x x Lonchocarpus sp. (TVA2113) x Machaerium ferox Ducke x x Machaerium kegelii Meisn. x Machaerium madeirense Pittier x x x x Machaerium myrianthum Spruce ex Benth. x x Machaerium quinata (Aubl.) xx Sandw. var. quinata Machaerium sp. (TVA2072) x Machaerium sp. (TVA2082) x Machaerium sp. (TVA2172) x Ormosia nobilis Tul. x Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq. ssp. officinalis x Pterocarpus cf. rohrii Vahl x Swartzia arborescens (Aubl.) Pittier x x Swartzia grandifolia Bong. x x Swartzia guianensis (Aubl.) Urb. x x Swartzia sp. (TVA1654) x

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos glabra Sagot ex Progel x Strychnos cf. melinoniana Baill. x Strychnos mitscherlichii xx M.R. Schomb. var mitscherlichii Strychnos sp. (TVA2479) x

MALPIGHIACEAE Banisteriopsis sp. (TVA2132) x Byrsonima aerugo Sagot x Byrsonima stipulacea A. Juss. x Heteropterys multiflora Hochr. x Hiraea affinis Miq. x x Hiraea sp. (TVA1534) x Mezia cf. includens (Benth.) Cuatrec. x x Tetrapterys crispa A. Juss. x

60 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

MALPIGHIACEAE Malpighiaceae sp. (TVA2360) x

MARANTACEAE Ischnosiphon arouma (Aubl.) Körn. x x Ischnosiphon foliosus Gleason x x x x Maranta sp. (TVA2217) x Monotagma spicatum (Aubl.) J.F. Macbr. x

MELASTOMATACEAE Aciotis sp. (TVA1384) x Bellucia grossularioides (L.) Triana x Clidemia japurensis DC. var. japurensis x Henriettea cf. multiflora Naudin x Leandra divaricata (Naudin) Cogn. x x Loreya mespiloides Miq. x Miconia ceramicarpa x (DC.) Cogn. var. ceramicarpa Miconia fragilis Naudin x Miconia hypoleuca (Benth.) Triana x Miconia nervosa (Sm.) Triana x Miconia plukenetii Naudin x Miconia punctata D. Don. x Miconia cf. racemosa (Aubl.) DC. x Miconia cf. ruficalyx Gleason x x Miconia cf. traillii Cogn. x Miconia sp. (TVA1752) x Melastomataceae sp. (TVA1130) x

MELIACEAE Carapa guianensis Aubl. x x x x Cedrela odorata L. x Guarea cf. guidonia (L.) Sleumer x Guarea sp. (TVA1125) x Trichilia schomburgkii C. DC. ssp. xx x schomburgkii Trichilia sp. (TVA2116) x

MENISPERMACEAE Abuta barbata Miers x Anomospermum grandifolium Eichler x Cissampelos cf. andromorpha DC. x Curarea candicans (Rich.) Barneby & x Krukoff Odontocarya sp. (TVA1545) x Telitoxicum krukovii Moldenke x Telitoxicum sp. (TVA1265) x

MONIMIACEAE Siparuna guianensis Aubl. x x

61 2.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

MORACEAE Brosimum guianense (Aubl.) Huber x Ficus broadwayi Urb. x Helicostylis tomentosa x (Poepp. & Endl.) Rusby Naucleopsis cf. guianensis x (Mildbr.) C.C. Berg Pseudolmedia laevis x (Ruiz & Pav.) J.F. Macbr. Sorocea hirtella ssp. oligotricha xx Akkermans & C.C. Berg

MUSACEAE Heliconia acuminata Rich. var. acuminata x x

MYRISTICACEAE Iryanthera juruensis Warb. x Virola calophylla Warb. x Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb x x Virola sebifera Aubl. x x Virola surinamensis (Rol.) Warb. x Myristicaceae sp. (TVA956) x

MYRSINACEAE Cybianthus cf. surinamensis (Spreng.) G. x Agostini Stylogyne surinamensis (Miq.) Mez x

MYRTACEAE Calycolpus goetheanus (Mart. ex DC.) x O. Berg Eugenia patrisii Vahl x x Marlierea schomburgkiana O. Berg x x x Myrcia graciliflora Sagot x Myrcia cf. guianensis (Aubl.) DC. var. x guianensis

NYCTAGINACEAE Neea cf. constricta Spruce ex J.A. Schmidt x Neea cf. floribunda Poepp. & Endl. x

OCHNACEAE Ouratea guianensis Aubl. x

OLACACEAE Minquartia guianensis Aubl. x

PALMAE Astrocaryum aculeatum G. Mey. x Astrocaryum gynacanthum Mart. x x Bactris humilis (Wallace) Burret x x x x Bactris oligoclada Burret x x x x

62 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

PALMAE Bactris simplicifrons Mart. x Euterpe oleracea Mart. x Euterpe precatoria Mart. x Geonoma maxima (Poit.) Kunth x x Jessenia bataua (Mart.) Burret ssp. xx oligocarpa (Griseb. & H. Wendl.) Balick Maximiliana maripa (Correa) Drude x x

PASSIFLORACEAE Passiflora nitida Kunth x

PIPERACEAE Piper adenandrum (Miq.) C. DC. x x x Piper aequale Vahl x Piper arboreum Aubl. x x Piper avellanum (Miq.) C. DC. x Piper hostmannianum (Miq.) C. DC. x Piper vs. humistratum Görts & K.U. Kramer x Piper nigrispicum C. DC. x Piper vs. oblongifolium (Klotzsch) C. DC. x Piper sp. (TVA2098) x Piper sp. (TVA2170) x

POLYGALACEAE Moutabea guianensis Aubl. x x

POLYGONACEAE Coccoloba gymnorrachis Sandw. x Coccoloba cf. lucidula Benth. x Coccoloba marginata Benth. x Coccoloba cf. parimensis Benth. x

PTERIDOPHYTAE Triplophyllum funestum (Kunze) Holttum xxx var. funestum

QUIINACEAE Quiina guianensis Aubl. x x x x Quiina indigofera Sandw. x x x x Quiina obovata Tul. x Quiina sp. (TVA1360) x

RUBIACEAE Amaioua corymbosa Kunth x Amaioua guianensis Aubl. x x Faramea aff. guianensis Bremek. (poss. sp. xx nov.) Faramea quadricostata Bremek. x Faramea sp. (TVA1380) x Palicourea crocea (Sw.) Roem. & Schult. x Palicourea cf. guianensis Aubl. x

63 2.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

RUBIACEAE Posoqueria longiflora Aubl. x x Psychotria apoda Steyerm. x x x Psychotria astrellantha Wernham x Psychotria brachybotrya Müll. Arg. x Psychotria poeppigiana Müll. Arg. var. x barcellana (Müll. Arg.) Steyerm. Psychotria sp. (TVA1368) x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1173) x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1416) x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1440) x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1476) x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1618) x x Sabicea glabrescens Benth. x Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. x x

RUTACEAE Zanthoxylum sp. (TVA2333) x x

SAPINDACEAE Cupania hirsuta Radlk. x x x Cupania scrobiculata Rich. var. reticulata xx (Cambess.) Radlk. Matayba guianensis Aubl. x Paullinia cf. capreolata (Aubl.) Radlk. x x x x Paullinia cf. rufescens Rich. ex Juss. x x Paullinia sp.(TVA2131) x Talisia cf. guianensis Aubl. x x Talisia hexaphylla Vahl x x

SAPOTACEAE Chrysophyllum pomiferum xx (Eyma) T.D. Penn. Chrysophyllum sanguinolentum x (Pierre) Baehni Micropholis venulosa xxx (Mart. & Eichler) Pierre Pouteria bilocularis (Winkl.) Baehni x Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk. x x Pouteria cf. coriacea (Pierre) Pierre x Pouteria cuspidata (A. DC.) Baehni x Pouteria durlandii (Standl.) Baehni x Pouteria guianensis Aubl. x x x x Pouteria hispida Eyma x Pouteria sp. (TVA1525) x Pouteria sp. (TVA2151) x Pouteria sp. (TVA2359) x Pouteria venosa (Mart.) Baehni ssp. x amazonica T.D. Penn.

SCHIZAEACEAE Lygodium volubile Sw. x

64 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Barama Moruca mixed mixed sec. for. sec. for.

SELAGINELLACEAE Selaginella parkeri (Hook. & Grev.) Spring x

SIMAROUBACEAE Simarouba amara Aubl x x x

SMILACACEAE Smilax cumanensis Willd. x Smilax schomburgkiana Kunth x Smilax syphilitica Willd. x

SOLANACEAE Markea sp. (TVA2466) x x

STERCULIACEAE Herrania kanukuensis R.E. Schult. x Sterculia pruriens (Aubl.) K. Schum. x x Sterculia sp. (TVA1753) x x Sterculia sp. (TVA2372) x Sterculia sp. (TVA2709) x x

TILIACEAE Apeiba petoumo Aubl. x x x

TURNERACEAE Turnera aff. rupestris Aubl. x

VERBENACEAE Petrea bracteata Steud. x Vitex compressa Turcz. x x x

VIOLACEAE Paypayrola longifolia Tul. x x x x

VITACEAE Cissus descoingsii Lombardi x

ZINGIBERACEAE Curcuma cf. xanthorrhiza Roxb. x Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Maas x Renealmia orinocencis Rusby x x

65 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

3. FLORISTIC COMPOSITION AND DIVERSITY OF THREE SWAMP FORESTS IN NORTHWEST GUYANA1

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Amazonian flooded forests have been the focus of increasing interest in recent times. The reasons for this scientific attention are the importance of flooded forests for conserving biodiversity and protecting river quality (Rosales Godoy et al., 1999), their suitability for agriculture due to the constant process of soil enrichment through sedimentation (Prance, 1979; Padoch and Pinedo-Vasquez, 1999), and their significance to local fish ecosystems (Goulding et al., 1988; Henderson and Robertson, 1999). Furthermore, the general low diversity of Amazonian swamp forests has been mentioned as a great advantage for the sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (Peters et al., 1989b; Johnston, 1998). The management of forests dominated by economically important species could be a viable enterprise if product value is high and the potential for conflicting land uses is minimal (Anderson, 1988).

Although floodplain forests cover extensive areas in the deltas of Guyana’s magnificent rivers, they have not yet received much scientific attention. Forest inventories have mainly focused on the timber-producing region in central Guyana (Johnston and Gillman, 1995; Ek, 1997; van der Hout, 1999; ter Steege et al., 2000e). In fact, only the riparian Mora forest, dominated by the commercial timber species Mora excelsa, has been described in detail (Davis and Richards, 1934; Polak, 1992; ter Steege, 1990, 1993; Johnston and Gillman 1995). Few surveys have been conducted in the coastal peat swamps, because of the rather high costs of survey work and ‘the forest being of little economic importance’ (Davis, 1929: 159).

Recently, the Guyanese Government developed its National Protected Area System (NPAS), to guarantee the protection and wise use of its natural resources (Persaud, 1997). Some of the objectives of this programme are:

1) Preservation of viable examples of all natural ecosystems in Guyana 2) Protection of areas of particular biological significance 3) Protection of key watersheds and provisions of buffer zones to mitigate the effects of climate change and natural hazards.

For the conservation of tropical forests and the establishment of protected areas, however, a good understanding of their biodiversity is needed (Ek and ter Steege, 1998). Moreover, in order to design adequate management plans, quantitative information is needed on the diversity, population structure, and distribution patterns of useful (and non-useful) species in these vegetation types.

1. This chapter was submitted in a slightly different form to Plant Ecology.

66 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

This is especially true for the coastal wetlands of Guyana’s North-West District (Figure 5.1), which are subject to the extraction of palm heart, one of the main commercial NTFPs of the country (see chapter 5 of this thesis).

Little has been published on the swamp forests of the North-West District, although some general accounts of dominant swamp species were given by Anderson (1912) and Davis (1929). The only detailed quantitative study of the coastal wetlands was provided by Fanshawe (1952, 1954), who described several different plant assemblages and communities based on species composition, soil type, seasonal flooding, and palm dominance. Fanshawe based his swamp forest classifications on a few study plots of 1.5 to 2.1 hectares, but stated that “the formation is so complicated and obscure that only a complete study of the whole complex will bring out the dominant vegetation trends. Localised studies are of little value for the understanding of the whole” (Fanshawe, 1952: 41). The few existing vegetation maps of the North-West District (FIDS, 1970; Huber et al., 1995), are largely based on Fanshawe’s forest classifications and provide few details on species composition.

This chapter compares the floristic composition, structure, and diversity of three swamp forest types in Guyana’s North-West District, to provide baseline data for the future sustainable exploitation of NTFPs. The vegetation descriptions presented here will hopefully contribute to a better understanding of the structure and floristic diversity of the forests of the North-West District and may be useful in the NPAS programme. Information on the well-drained primary and secondary forests is given in the previous chapter.

3.2 STUDY SITES

The first study site was located near the village of Kariako, Barama River (Figure 1.2 and 2.1). Like many meandering rivers, the riverbank collapses in the convex bends, while sediments are deposited in the concave curves. Although the forest adjacent to the river is flooded only during the rainy season, the heavy clay soils (distric Fluvisols) remain swampy for most of the year (Fanshawe, 1952; van Kekem et al., 1996). This floodplain forest is dominated by Mora excelsa and is therefore known as Mora forest. This forest gradually gives way to mixed forest on the higher, well- drained soil behind the floodplain. However, large Mora trees can be found along creeks traversing the mixed forest.

The second study site was located in the coastal swamplands in the vicinity of the Santa Rosa Amerindian Reserve, (Figure 2.2). The Moruca River is flanked on both sides by an open flooded savanna, in which many small sandy islands arise, remnants of ancient sand dunes (Anderson, 1912). Individual homesteads, cultivated fields, and entire villages can be found on these islands. Moving inland, these sandy islands gradually merge into a mainland of well-drained secondary and primary forest (chapter 2). The soil of the savanna is largely organic, consisting of a thick layer of decayed vegetative matter, also known as ‘pegasse’ (Histosol) (Fanshawe, 1952; van Kekem et al., 1996). The acid peat is underlain with alluvial and marine clay at a depth of sometimes more than 4 m. This clay layer impedes drainage and keeps the soil

67 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests waterlogged most of the time. Only in the dry season can these soils be walked on. Moving towards the coast beyond the savanna, one encounters a dense swamp forest that has been given the name ‘quackal swamp’ because of the abundance of the small tree Marlierea montana, locally known as ‘quackoo’. It was in such a forest that the second plot was laid out.

Moving up the Moruca River towards the Baramanni River (Figure 1.2), the savannas change into dense swamp forest, in which Euterpe palms (manicole) are dominant. The third study site was located in a manicole swamp near the mouth of the Assakata Creek, which leads to a village by the same name. In the wet season, both the quackal and manicole swamps are heavily flooded and can only be entered by canoe.

3.3 METHODOLOGY

The first hectare plot was laid out in August-September 1996 in Mora forest near Kariako (7º 23' N, 59º 43' W). The second plot was established in September 1997 in a quackal swamp near Santa Rosa (7º 41' N, 58º 55' W), while the third plot was laid out in November 1997 in a manicole swamp near Assakata (7º 44' N, 59º 04' W). All plots were located in areas accessible to Amerindians of nearby villages to be sure that these forests were subject to NTFP collection. The same nested sampling method was used as in the better-drained forests. In paragraph 2.2.4 of chapter 2, a detailed account of the methodology used for plant collection and data analysis is presented.

3.4 RESULTS

3.4.1 General forest composition A total of 228 species (including three unidentified specimens) were found in the three hectare plots (see Appendix) and a summary of these findings is presented in Table 3.1. One remarkable aspect is that the Mora forest plot contained an rather small number of trees. Mean diameter and canopy height, however, were the highest of all plots, indicating that the Mora forest was composed of a few number of large trees. In contrast, the other two swamp forests consisted of many thin-stemmed trees. The α-diversity was generally very low. The manicole plot had the lowest number of tree species, but a richer understorey than the other two plots.

The shrub layer of the quackal swamp was less dense than that of the Mora and manicole forests. Lianas and hemi-epiphytes were relatively common in all three plots. It can be deduced from Table 3.1 that the understorey harboured 45.3% (quackal) to 69.6% (Mora) of the total number of species in the plots. These figures illustrate again the importance of nested sampling when studying vegetation structure and species richness of tropical rain forests.

68 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 3.1 Summary of the floristic composition of three hectare plots in swamp forests in Barama, Moruca and Assakata. The second number in the range of species and families includes the number of unidentified species, regarded as a previously unrecorded species or family. Liana species include hemi-epiphytes and climbing ferns.

Forest type Barama Moruca Assakata Floristic composition Mora quackal manicole

TREE LAYER > 10 cm DBH Number of individuals in 1 ha 321 946 664 Number of species in 1 ha 31 41 30 Number of families in 1 ha 21 24 18 Mean diameter trees > 10 cm DBH [cm] 29.0 17.2 20.8 Canopy height [m] 30-45 12-15 15-25 α-diversity 7.4 8.0 5.7

SHRUB LAYER < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m Number of individuals in 0.1 ha 1594 720 1603 Number of species in 0.1 ha 63 49 82 Number of families in 0.1 ha 34 29 37

HERB LAYER < 1.50 m Number of individuals in 4 *10-3 ha 407 481 548 Number of species in 4 *10-3 ha 47 34 47-48 Number of families in 4 *10-3 ha 29 21 27-28

Total no. of tree species > 10 cm DBH 28 38 27 Total no. of liana species > 10 cm DBH 323 Total no. of shrub /small tree species < 10 cm 31 13 24 DBH Total no. of liana species < 10 cm DBH 22 15 37 Total no. of species only found in herb layer 18 7 7 True herb species 9 2 4

Total no. of species found in 1 ha plot 102 75 98 Total no. of families found in 1 ha plot 49 36 43

The three swamp forest plots clearly differed in family composition (Table 3.2). The only common aspect in the three plots seemed to be the abundance of Mimosaceae. The Mora forest was obviously dominated by Caesalpiniaceae (Mora excelsa). Papilionaceae and Lecythidaceae were also more important in the Mora forest than in the two pegasse swamps. In contrast, Guttiferae, Bignoniaceae, Ebenaceae, and Myristicaceae were typical aspects of the pegasse swamps, although somewhat more of the quackal than of the manicole swamp. The quackal forest was further characterised by the high presence of Humiriaceae and Myrtaceae, an aspect not shared with the others.

69 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

The manicole swamp was the only forest dominated by Palmae. Mimosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae were the second and third most important families in that plot.

Table 3.2 Family dominance by tree density (percentage of individuals > 10 cm DBH) for the 15 most common families in the three swamp forest plots.

Percentage of trees > 10 cm DBH per Barama Assakata Moruca quackal plant family Mora manicole Leguminosae-Caesalp. 57.9 0.3 13.1 Leguminosae-Mimos. 10.0 13.5 20.0 Palmae - 0.6 30.4 Guttiferae 0.9 17.0 9.8 Bignoniaceae - 12.9 6.0 Leguminosae-Papil. 11.5 2.4 3.8 Ebenaceae - 8.9 5.4 Humiriaceae - 11.3 - Myristicaceae 0.3 7.4 3.5 Sapotaceae 1.6 4.8 0.8 Myrtaceae - 6.6 - Lecythidaceae 6.5 - - Anacardiaceae 0.6 1.6 3.5 Sapindaceae 0.3 2.6 0.6 Lauraceae 0.3 2.4 0.3

Unidentified - - 0.2 Total of other families 10.0 7.6 2.7

3.4.2 Mora forest The Mora forest in Barama is a tall, riparian forest with an average height of 30-45 m. Table 3.3 shows the I.V. scores of the 20 most common tree species. The forest is heavily dominated by Mora excelsa, accounting for more than 56% of the trees. All individuals with a DBH > 65 cm belonged to this species as well. The towering Mora trees have large buttresses, but are not deeply rooted. They were often felled by rainstorms or by the force of the meandering river. Apart from these natural gaps, the canopy was more or less closed. Several creeks traversed the plot. The clay soil remained swampy for months after the annual flooding in June-July. Mora fruited massively in December, as made evident by a carpet of seeds on the forest floor. Other common trees were Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. officinalis, Pentaclethra macroloba, and Eschweilera wachenheimii: the latter was also a characteristic species of the mixed forest further inland. Species like Zygia latifolia var. communis, Spachea elegans, Ficus spp., Inga spp., and Spondias mombin were common directly on the waterfront, but their importance gradually decreased further from the river.

70 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Likewise, curtains of lianas covered the riverbanks, while they were less abundant more inland. Uncaria guianensis was the most common woody liana in Mora forest.

Table 3.3 Density, basal area and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of Mora forest, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value. * Liana.

Mora swamp forest Absolute Basal Relative Relative Relative I.V. Tree layer density area density dom. frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Mora excelsa 182 28.44 152.81 56.70 84.49 11.63 Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. 27 1.41 20.75 8.41 4.20 8.14 officinalis Eschweilera wachenheimii 21 1.25 17.23 6.54 3.72 6.98 Pentaclethra macroloba 15 0.96 16.82 4.67 2.85 9.30 Zygia latifolia var. communis 16 0.27 13.93 4.98 0.80 8.14 Licania persaudii 5 0.14 7.79 1.56 0.42 5.81 Spachea elegans 4 0.17 6.40 1.25 0.51 4.65 Brownea latifolia 4 0.05 6.05 1.25 0.15 4.65 Alexa imperatricis 7 0.24 5.23 2.18 0.73 2.33 Uncaria guianensis * 5 0.05 5.20 1.56 0.15 3.49 Chrysophyllum argenteum subsp. 4 0.06 4.91 1.25 0.18 3.49 auratum Vitex compressa 3 0.11 4.76 0.93 0.34 3.49 Trichilia rubra 3 0.05 4.58 0.93 0.16 3.49 Tovomita sp. (TVA1020) 3 0.03 3.36 0.93 0.09 2.33 Duguetia pycnastera 3 0.03 3.35 0.93 0.09 2.33 Spondias mombin 2 0.09 3.21 0.62 0.26 2.33 Clathrotropis brachypetala var. 2 0.10 2.08 0.62 0.30 1.16 brachypetala Carapa guianensis 2 0.02 1.86 0.62 0.07 1.16 Hyeronima alchorneoides var. 1 0.03 1.56 0.31 0.09 1.16 stipulosa Ficus maxima 1 0.02 1.54 0.31 0.07 1.16

Total of other species (11) 11 0.11 16.56 3.42 0.34 12.78 Total 321 33.66 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Mora excelsa regenerated abundantly in the understorey. The thin saplings occupied most of the shrub layer (Table 3.4), leaving little space for other small trees like Duguetia spp. and Tovomita sp. (TVA1020). True shrubs were represented by Gustavia augusta and Psychotria bahiensis var. cornigera. Geonoma baculifera was frequently present in large quantities in Mora forest, but only two individuals were found in the plot. This may have two explanations. This clustered palm has a rather patchy distribution and, because its leaves are used as roof thatch, the species tends to be scarce around Amerindian settlements (van Andel, 1998). The same applies to Euterpe oleracea, which also has an irregular distribution in Mora forests: it was only found in juvenile stages along small streams outside the plot. Hemi-epiphytes, such as Philodendron rudgeanum and the climbing fern Cyclodium meniscioides

71 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests var. meniscioides, were common. The most frequent liana was Dioclea scabra, followed by Paullinia caloptera. The broad crowns of the Mora trees were covered with epiphytes (mostly bromeliads and orchids); however, these plants fell outside the scope of this inventory.

Table 3.4 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha (‘shrub layer’) of Mora forest, Barama. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Mora swamp forest Absolute Relative Relative Shrub layer density density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Mora excelsa 1330 83.44 6.34 Duguetia pycnastera 31 1.94 5.63 Tovomita sp. (TVA1020) 19 1.19 4.23 Duguetia yeshidan 16 1.00 4.23 Cyclodium meniscioides var. meniscioides • 10 0.63 4.93 Gustavia augusta 10 0.63 2.82 Philodendron rudgeanum • 10 0.63 2.11 Psychotria bahiensis var. cornigera 10 0.63 2.82 Zygia latifolia var. communis 10 0.63 4.23 Dioclea scabra * 9 0.56 2.11

Total of other species (53) 139 8.72 60.56 Total 1594 100.00 100.00

Table 3.5 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha (‘herb layer’) of Mora forest, Barama Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. • Hemi- epiphyte.

Mora swamp forest Absolute Relative Relative Herb layer density density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Adiantum latifolium 148 36.36 8.64 Mora excelsa 96 23.59 11.11 Philodendron sp. (TVA1362) • 19 4.67 1.23 Philodendron rudgeanum • 18 4.42 4.94 Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. officinalis 14 3.44 4.94 Hyeronima oblonga 13 3.19 2.47 Olyra longifolia 13 3.19 4.94 Hymenocallis tubiflora 10 2.46 1.23 Celastraceae sp. (TVA1364) 5 1.23 1.23 Cyclodium meniscioides var. meniscioides • 5 1.23 4.94

Total of other species (37) 66 16.20 54.31 Total 407 100.00 100.00

72 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The lowest stratum contained several true herb species, such as Hymenocallis tubiflora, Hypolytrum longifolium subsp. longifolium, and Calathea cf. micans. The fern Adiantum latifolium was the most numerous plant in the herb layer, followed by recently germinated Mora seedlings (Table 3.5).

3.4.3 Quackal swamp This dense swamp forest beyond the Moruca savannas continues towards the Atlantic Ocean, where it gradually changes into mangrove forest. The soil consists of a pegasse layer several meters thick. In the wet season, the water level rose to 2 m above the soil, so that the area could only be entered by boat. Access to the forest was easier in the dry season. The canopy was low (12-15 m), with a few emergent Mauritia flexuosa palms and Calophyllum brasiliense trees (20-25 m tall).

Table 3.6 Density, basal area and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of quackal swamp forest, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value.

Quackal swamp forest Absolute Basal Importance Relative Relative Relative Tree layer density area value density dominance frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Tabebuia insignis var. 122 3.20 30.98 12.90 12.79 5.29 monophylla Symphonia globulifera 104 3.63 30.80 10.99 14.52 5.29 Macrosamanea pubiramea 123 3.02 30.38 13.00 12.09 5.29 var. pubiramea Humiriastrum obovatum 76 2.61 23.25 8.03 10.46 4.76 Diospyros guianensis subsp. 84 1.68 20.91 8.88 6.74 5.29 guianensis Pradosia schomburgkiana 40 1.54 15.69 4.23 6.17 5.29 subsp. schomburgkiana Virola elongata 57 1.36 15.68 6.03 5.42 4.23 Marlierea montana 59 0.84 14.89 6.24 3.36 5.29 Humiria balsamifera var. 31 1.59 13.89 3.28 6.38 4.23 balsamifera Clusia fockeana 50 0.70 12.85 5.29 2.81 4.76 Pachira aquatica 21 0.47 8.33 2.22 1.87 4.23 Trattinnickia burserifolia 20 0.26 7.91 2.11 1.04 4.76 Matayba camptoneura 25 0.33 7.68 2.64 1.33 3.70 Tapirira guianensis 15 0.41 6.95 1.59 1.66 3.70 Dulacia cf. guianensis 12 0.25 5.45 1.27 1.00 3.17 Calophyllum brasiliense 7 0.35 5.32 0.74 1.41 3.17 Mauritia flexuosa 6 0.46 4.04 0.63 1.82 1.59 Macoubea guianensis 5 0.18 3.89 0.53 0.72 2.65 Ormosia coutinhoi 13 0.50 3.89 1.37 1.98 0.53 Iryanthera juruensis 10 0.17 3.87 1.06 0.70 2.12

Total of other species (21) 66 1.43 33.33 6.97 5.72 20.65 Total 946 24.99 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

73 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

The most common woody species were Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, Symphonia globulifera, Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea, Clusia fockeana, and Humiriastrum obovatum (Table 3.6). Marlierea montana, characteristic of this forest type, was also frequent. Large lianas were rare; the only two individuals > 10 cm DBH were Machaerium myrianthum and Norantea guianensis.

The shrub layer was characterised by clustered palms, including the spiny Bactris campestris and the unarmed Euterpe oleracea (Table 3.7). Neither palms produced stems > 10 cm DBH. Cassipourea guianensis and Marlierea montana were common in the understorey, as was the shrub Ischnosiphon obliquus. Hemi-epiphytes grew abundantly on the lower tree trunks; however, apart from some fertile specimens of Philodendron fragrantissimum and P. linnaei, most individuals were sterile and could not be identified to species level. Saplings of the common canopy species further typified the shrub layer. Tetracera volubilis subsp. volubilis was one of the few lianas.

Table 3.7 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha (‘shrub layer’) of quackal swamp forest, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. • Hemi-epiphyte.

Quackal swamp forest Absolute Relative Relative Shrub layer density density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Bactris campestris 214 29.72 5.92 Philodendron spp. • 52 7.22 2.96 Cassipourea guianensis 44 6.11 5.33 Marlierea montana 34 4.72 3.55 Euterpe oleracea 29 4.03 2.37 Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 28 3.89 4.14 Diospyros guianensis subsp. guianensis 26 3.61 4.73 Asplundia cf. gleasonii • 24 3.33 2.96 Humiriastrum obovatum 23 3.19 2.96 Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea 22 3.06 2.96

Total of other species (39) 224 31.11 62.14 Total 720 100.00 100.00

The quackal swamp had a dense ground cover of Rapatea paludosa subsp. paludosa (Table 3.8). Seedlings of various Philodendron species were also common. Juveniles of the common canopy species further occupied the herb layer. Seedlings of Euterpe oleracea and Bactris campestris were found in small quantities, while seedlings or saplings of Mauritia flexuosa were rare.

74 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 3.8 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha (‘herb layer’) of quackal swamp forest, Moruca. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. • Hemi-epiphyte.

Quackal swamp forest Absolute Relative Relative Herb layer density density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%]

Rapatea paludosa var. paludosa 134 27.86 11.76 Marlierea montana 64 13.31 7.06 Asplundia cf. gleasonii • 58 12.06 7.06 Diospyros guianensis subsp. guianensis 53 11.02 7.06 Philodendron spp. • 38 7.90 5.88 Philodendron surinamense • 26 5.41 3.53 Humiriastrum obovatum 13 2.70 5.88 Symphonia globulifera 11 2.29 4.71 Philodendron lanceolatum • 9 1.87 2.35 Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea 9 1.87 3.53 Total of other species (24) 66 13.73 41.18 Total 481 100.00 100.00

3.4.4 Savannas Residents along the Moruca River have been burning the quackal swamp forest for decades. In prolonged dry periods, the pegasse dries out and is easily set on fire. From August 1997 to March 1998, when Guyana suffered from the El Niño droughts, large stretches of savanna were set on fire (Figure 3.1). The reasons for burning swamp forests and the consequences for the collection of NTFPs are discussed in the following chapter. Half-burnt pieces of quackal forest were observed, with Mauritia flexuosa being the only surviving species among the dead stumps. After several fire events, most shrubs and stumps disappear and the vegetation is transformed into an open plain with Mauritia flexuosa palms and a ground cover of grasses and sedges (e.g., Oryza rufipogon, Rhynchospora spp., Fuirena umbellata, and Cyperus haspan).

These extensive, ‘man-made’ savannas are found alongside the Moruca and neighbouring rivers. Similar savannas are occasionally found deeper in the interior, but always close to Amerindian settlements (e.g. Assakata, Koriabo). Since juveniles of M. flexuosa do not survive repeated burning, the palms gradually disappear from the savannas which are directly surrounding human settlements. The few herbaceous plants that withstand fire very well (e.g., Eleocharis mitrata, Nephrolepis biserrata, and Ludwigia nervosa) are dominating these treeless plains.

75 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

Figure 3.1 Burning savanna along the Moruca River, with the quackal swamp and Mauritia flexuosa palms on the background.

In the wet season, Nymphaea ampla, Nepsera aquatica, Xyris laxiflora, Crinum erubescens, Habenaria longicauda, and Utricularia foliosa flower in the flooded savannas. Remnants of tree trunks are found in the pegasse layer. Riverbanks and other parts of savanna that have escaped annual burning quickly become invaded by a dense shrubland of Montrichardia arborescens, Chrysobalanus icaco, saplings of Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, and Virola surinamensis.

3.4.5 Manicole swamp As its name suggests, the multi-stemmed manicole palm (Euterpe oleracea) was the most numerous tree species in the manicole plot (Table 3.9). In fact, more than 30% of the individuals > 10 cm DBH were palms. However, since the manicole stems did not attain a diameter over 18 cm, the basal area and importance value of this species were lower than those of Pentaclethra macroloba and Symphonia globulifera. The canopy of the swamp forest was 15-25 m high, with a few emergents of Iryanthera juruensis and Virola surinamensis. The latter species achieved a maximum diameter of 153.5 cm, while the mean DBH of all trees was only 20.8 cm. Other common trees included Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, Diospyros guianensis subsp. guianensis, and Eperua falcata. The single-stemmed palms Euterpe precatoria and Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa were also frequent. A few scattered individuals of Mora excelsa were found; their diameters were not larger than 63 cm. Lianas were poorly represented: Machaerium myrianthum and Sapindaceae sp. (TVA3056) were among the few large species encountered in the plot.

76 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 3.9 Density, basal area and importance value of the 20 most common species of trees > 10 cm DBH in one hectare of manicole swamp, Assakata. Species are ranked in order of decreasing importance value. * Liana.

Manicole swamp forest Absolute Basal Importance Relative Relative Relative Tree layer density area value density dominance frequency Species [# ind./ha] [m2/ha] [%] [%] [%] [%]

Pentaclethra macroloba 116 3.90 34.82 17.47 10.86 6.49 Symphonia globulifera 65 4.96 30.11 9.79 13.82 6.49 Euterpe oleracea 124 1.37 28.99 18.67 3.82 6.49 Virola surinamensis 7 7.58 26.08 1.05 21.12 3.90 Tabebuia insignis var. 40 2.84 19.79 6.02 7.92 5.84 monophylla Diospyros guianensis subsp. 36 2.04 17.61 5.42 5.70 6.49 guianensis Eperua falcata 49 2.03 16.29 7.38 5.66 3.25 Macrolobium cf. 32 1.48 14.80 4.82 4.14 5.84 angustifolium Iryanthera juruensis 16 2.67 14.41 2.41 7.45 4.55 Euterpe precatoria 45 0.86 14.36 6.78 2.39 5.19 Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. 21 1.56 13.35 3.16 4.35 5.84 officinalis Jessenia bataua subsp. 33 0.61 12.52 4.97 1.71 5.84 oligocarpa Tapirira guianensis 23 0.83 11.63 3.46 2.32 5.84 Alchorneopsis floribunda 12 0.87 9.43 1.81 2.42 5.19 Inga marginata 13 0.30 7.99 1.96 0.84 5.19 Mora excelsa 6 0.54 3.70 0.90 1.49 1.30 Micropholis venulosa 4 0.11 3.51 0.60 0.31 2.60 Ficus gomelleira 1 0.88 3.26 0.15 2.46 0.65 Sapindaceae sp. TVA3056 * 4 0.05 2.70 0.60 0.14 1.95 Inga cf. java 3 0.04 2.50 0.45 0.10 1.95

Total of other species (10) 14 0.34 12.18 2.10 0.98 9.10 Total 664 35.88 300.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

The understorey was characterised by saplings of Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea, Euterpe oleracea, and Pentaclethra macroloba (Table 3.10). Large numbers of hemi-epiphytes grew on the lower tree trunks, from the giant Philodendron melinonii to the delicate P. surinamense. Tococa aristata was one of the few true shrubs. Lianas were common in the lower strata (37 species), especially the vigorously climbing palm Desmoncus polyacanthos. Other climbers included Maripa scandens, Machaerium spp., and Marcgravia coriacea.

77 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

Table 3.10 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 10 cm DBH and > 1.5 m in height in 0.1 ha (‘shrub layer’) of manicole swamp, Assakata. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Manicole swamp forest Absolute Relative Relative density Shrub layer density frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea 303 18.90 3.40 Philodendron surinamense • 216 13.47 3.02 Euterpe oleracea 170 10.61 3.40 Pentaclethra macroloba 92 5.74 3.40 Philodendron scandens • 57 3.56 2.64 Philodendron linnaei • 54 3.37 1.89 Desmoncus polyacanthos * 39 2.43 2.26 Evodianthus funifer subsp. funifer • 39 2.43 1.89 Ischnosiphon obliquus 34 2.12 2.26 Philodendron sp. (TVA3007) • 33 2.06 1.51

Total of other species (72) 566 35.30 11.70 Total 1603 100.00 100.00

The fleshy herb Dieffenbachia paludicola formed a dense ground cover in the manicole swamp (Table 3.11). Juveniles of hemi-epiphytes and lianas were also numerous in the herb layer. The seedling density of Euterpe oleracea was not very high; this was probably caused by the selective cutting of mature individuals for palm heart (chapter 5). Other herb species were Rapatea paludosa var. paludosa and Spathiphyllum cannifolium. The most common tree seedlings were Pterocarpus officinalis and Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea.

Table 3.11 Density and frequency of the 10 most common species < 1.5 m in height in 4*10-3 ha (‘herb layer’) of manicole swamp forest, Assakata. Species are ranked in order of decreasing numbers. * Liana; • hemi-epiphyte.

Manicole swamp forest Relative Absolute density Relative density Herb layer frequency Species [# ind.] [%] [%] Dieffenbachia paludicola 83 15.15 8.62 Sapindaceae sp. (TVA3056) * 59 10.77 0.86 Philodendron sp. (TVA3007) • 44 8.03 5.17 Spathiphyllum cannifolium 44 8.03 3.45 Philodendron surinamense • 32 5.84 3.45 Machaerium myrianthum * 29 5.29 1.72 Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea 25 4.56 6.03 Philodendron scandens • 22 4.01 3.45 Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. officinalis 21 3.83 2.59 Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana • 20 3.65 0.86

Total of other species (38) 169 30.84 63.78 Total 548 100.00 100.00

78 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

3.5 DISCUSSION

3.5.1 Classification of Mora forest As previously reported by Davis (1929) and Anderson (1912), the Mora forest along the Barama and Barima Rivers have only developed fully above the tidal influence. Going upriver, the numbers of Euterpe oleracea decreased, as did typical brackish swamp species like Symphonia globulifera, Pterocarpus officinalis, and Pachira aquatica. For a geographical distribution of Mora forest within the North-West District, see Figure 5.1, where Mora forest is indicated along the major rivers as ‘swamp with fewer E. oleracea, dominated by other species’. Fanshawe (1952) did not include Mora forest in his inventories, but did briefly mention that this forest was co-dominated above the tidal limits by Carapa guianensis, Clathrotropis brachypetala, and Eschweilera sagotiana. The Barama plot, however, was not consistent with this description, as C. guianensis and C. brachypetala were only represented by two individuals per ha, and E. wachenheimii, not E. sagotiana, was the third most important species. The low density of C. guianensis (crabwood) might be attributed to a patchy distribution (Davis, 1929) or to past logging activities. Before gold mining became their major source of income a few decades ago (Forte, 1999b), local Amerindians used to float crabwood logs down the Barama to a sawmill along the Waini. At the beginning of the previous century, almost all crabwood in the riverine forest along the Barama and Barima Rivers had been felled for timber (Anderson, 1912).

Pterocarpus officinalis and Pentaclethra macroloba ranked as second and third canopy species in the central Guyanan Mora forest studied by Davis and Richards (1934). They ranked second and fourth in the present study. Moreover, various Annonaceae were present in the understorey of both forests. Even though Mora excelsa accounted for only 24% of the species in central Guyana and several minor tree species (e.g., Aldina insignis and Eschweilera pedicellata) were not found in the North-West District, the central Guyanan Mora forest (sensu Davis and Richards, 1934) seemed to correspond better with our Mora forest plot. The Mora forest in Iwokrama (Johnston and Gillman, 1995) also had much less in common with the Barama plot than the central Guyanan forest. There, M. excelsa made up only 20% of the species, and Eperua spp. and Myrcia phaeoclada were sub-dominant. Fanshawe (1952) described another Mora forest co-dominated by E. wachenheimii along the Mazaruni River. The densities of other common trees in that forest, however, differed again from those in the forest in Kariako. Nevertheless, since more than 56% of the individuals > 10 cm DBH in the Barama plot were M. excelsa, there is no doubt that this vegetation type belongs to the Mora excelsa consociation (Fanshawe, 1952). Mora-dominated forest occurs from Venezuelan Guayana to Western Suriname (Lindeman and Moolenaar, 1959; Huber, 1995a), but there seems to be a substantial geographical variation in species composition and density.

3.5.2 Classification of manicole swamp Forests dominated by Euterpe oleracea are widely distributed in swamplands in northern South America and attain their greatest concentration in the Amazon Estuary (Henderson and Galeano, 1996). The vegetation of the manicole swamp in

79 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests this study was quite consistent with Fanshawe’s description of the ‘palm marsh forest on pegasse’ (Fanshawe, 1952). This climax swamp forest, 30-40% of which was made up of palms, is typical of the delta area of the North-West District and belongs to the Symphonia-Tabebuia-Euterpe association. Fanshawe sketched several subdivisions of this vegetation type: his Pentaclethra macroloba community corresponded best with our manicole swamp in Assakata as this species had the highest in I.V. in the plot. Fanshawe (1952) also noted a manicole swamp with Virola surinamensis as the characteristic emergent along creeks in the Courantyne- Canje district. That particular forest had more aspects in common with the Assakata plot, such as the abundance of Diospyros guianensis and Macrosamanea and a ground cover of Dieffenbachia paludicola and Rapatea paludosa.

Not a single individual of Manicaria saccifera (troolie) was found in the Assakata plot, while the species was very abundant (ca. 120 mature palms per ha) in other Euterpe swamps in the North-West District (van Andel et al., 1998). Except for the absence of troolie, however, the species composition of the Assakata plot did not differ much from the other coastal Euterpe swamps. Troolie swamp has been classified as the Manicaria saccifera faciation, occurring in narrow belts along rivers where alluvial silt mixes with pegasse. Fanshawe (1952: 96) noted that “for some obscure reasons, this faciation only occurs in patches along the lower Waini, instead of in a solid belt as it does on other rivers”. Along the middle and lower Barima, the majority of Euterpe oleracea was found just behind the mangrove belt to about 100 m inland. In contrast, troolie grew up to 300 m from the river, after which the vegetation changed to a dense, thin-stemmed swamp of Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea and Symphonia globulifera, probably a form of quackal forest. Deeper inland, the swamps gave way to well-drained mixed forest. This zonation from riverbank to watershed did not quite correspond with the transition reported for this region by Fanshawe (1952).

3.5.3 Classification of quackal swamp The quackal swamp showed traits common to several of Fanshawe’s forest types, but did not fully coincide with one particular community or assemblage. For example, Fanshawe (1952) described a ‘manni-dalli swamp’ along the Moruca River, which he classified as the Symphonia globulifera community within the Symphonia-Tabebuia- Euterpe association. That community also contained Clusia fockeana and Pradosia schomburgkiana, with Euterpe oleracea as canopy dominant. It belonged, therefore, to the palm marsh forests. In contrast, Euterpe was only present in the understorey in our quackal swamp. Moreover, less than one percent (six individuals) of the tree layer were occupied by palms (Mauritia flexuosa). The quackal swamp, therefore, bore more resemblance to a marsh forest, in which palms only account for 5% of the stand, lianas are few, and epiphytes frequent (Fanshawe, 1952).

The Iryanthera-Tabebuia assemblage, with a few scattered Mauritia palms, has been said to cover most of the pegasse forest behind the riverine palm swamps along the lower Barima (Davis, 1929; Fanshawe, 1954; Ramdass, 1990). This assemblage, especially the Iryanthera macrophylla facies or ‘kirikaua forest’, had several features in common with our quackal swamp. They both contained Diospyros guianensis, Humiriastrum obovatum, Humiria balsamifera, Bactris sp., Tapirira

80 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I guianensis, and Marlierea montana. However, the Myristicaceae species typical of a kirikaua forest were missing from the quackal forest. Instead of Iryanthera macrophylla and I. lanceifolia, I. juruensis and I. sagotiana, Virola surinamensis, and V. elongata were found in Moruca. None of them, however, were dominant. The Arawak name ‘kirikaua’ was not used in the Moruca area, while it is used elsewhere in the country for I. sagotiana and I. macrophylla (Mennega et al., 1988).

Fanshawe (1952) and Davis (1929) also described a ‘palm marsh woodland’ occurring contiguous to the flooded savannas. It was a small-stemmed, dense forest, with Mauritia as sole emergent along with Tabebuia, Ilex martiana, Pradosia schomburgkiana, and Marlierea montana, species also common to our quackal swamp. Their forest, however, was consistently dominated by Clusia fockeana, a tree that ranked only tenth in the Moruca swamp plot (Table 3.6). A ‘kwako community’ was also found in a few places on the Essequibo, with a couple of Mauritia palms towering over a 5 m high shrub layer of M. montana, Tabebuia, Bactris, and Symphonia (Fanshawe, 1952). This community seems to be a less- developed stage of the quackal forest in Moruca. Then again, the marsh forest on pegasse was said to vary from place to place in floristic composition, dominants, and physiognomy (Fanshawe, 1954).

The composition of our quackal swamp coincided with the ‘flooded shrublands of the coastal plains’, with Mauritia flexuosa, Clusia, and Pradosia distinguished by Huber et al. (1995) as small patches on their vegetation map. In contrast, the swamp woodland containing Bombax, Pterocarpus, Croton, and Inga that covers the entire Moruca area on the map was not found in the present study. The marsh forest along the Surinamese coast, described by Lindeman and Moolenaar in 1959, also had several species in common with our quackal forest (e.g., M. flexuosa, Virola surinamensis, Tabebuia insignis, and Symphonia globulifera), but differed substantially in other aspects. The ‘permanently flooded swamp and palm forests’ found by Huber (1995a) along the lower Orinoco delta were not treated in such detail that an adequate comparison could be made.

3.5.4 Savannas Fanshawe (1952) mentioned that the pegasse of the kirikaua forest could dry out to the underlying clay pan during severe periods of drought and easily start to burn. Although the vast savannas between the Essequibo and the Courantyne Rivers probably have an edaphic-biotic origin, there are signs that fire has been partly responsible for their development along the Moruca River. Besides the fires during the latest El Niño droughts, when rainfall was the lowest in over a century (Hammond and ter Steege, 1998), large forest fires are known to have occurred around Moruca in 1898, 1912, 1926, and 1940 (Fanshawe, 1954). When M.R. Schomburgk visited the Moruca area, he also noted the occurrence of extensive savanna fires (Schomburgk, 1847). Moving from the populated islands towards the (uninhabited) coast, the swamp vegetation in Moruca seems to follow a man-made zonation: aquatic swamp Æ flooded savanna Æ palm marsh Æ marsh forest (quackal) Æ mangrove forest. This sequence is slightly different from the transition found by Fanshawe (1952) in the delta area of the North-West District.

81 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

The savannas of the North-West District do not appear on the vegetation map by Huber et al. (1995). As there are clear indications that most of them are of recent, man-made origin, one should wonder if they should be called ‘savannas’ at all. They do not form part of the coastal savanna belt of the Guianas, which stretches from the Berbice River to Amapá (Brazil) and consists mostly of coarse (white) sands (Sarmiento, 1983). Vegetation types similar to the Moruca savanna, with extensive colonies of Mauritia flexuosa towering over a thick, floating peat layer of Cyperaceae, are also found in coastal Suriname. These open swamps are sometimes thought to have resulted from peat fires, initiated by lightning, excessive droughts, and human activities (Lindeman and Moolenaar, 1959; Theunissen, 1993). As the germination of M. flexuosa is enhanced in open fields (Hiraoka, 1999) and adult palms are fire-resistant, burning may ultimately result in pure stands of the species. However, M. flexuosa does not tolerate even periodic brackish conditions (Theunissen, 1993), which may explain its absence in the Euterpe-dominated swamps bordering the nearby brackish rivers. The lowland plains of the Orinoco delta have a similar appearance: large Mauritia colonies standing out above a herbaceous layer with flood-resistant grasses and sedges (Huber, 1995a). The species in the herb layer, however, were different from the Moruca savanna. Huber (1995a, 1995b) did not mention the role of fire in this vegetation type, although the Orinoco savannas have long been inhabited by Arawak and Warao Indians and peat fires are thought to have taken place at least since the arrival of Amerindians in South America (Janssen, 1974; Theunissen, 1993).

3.5.5 Comparison with other Amazonian floodplain forests There is a considerable variation in Amazonian forest types subject to inundation (Prance, 1979). Not only the length and frequency of flooding, but also water chemistry and acidity are very important for the floristic differentiation of these forests (Kubitzki, 1989; Rosales Godoy et al., 1999). Following the terminology of Prance (1979), a Mora forest can be classified as a seasonal várzea, i.e., a forest flooded by regular annual cycles of white-water rivers. The Mora plot in this study contained typical seasonal várzea species like Gustavia augusta and Carapa guianensis. A manicole swamp, on the other hand, represents a tidal várzea, inundated and drained twice daily, as high tides temporarily block the flow of the rivers in the estuarine region. Typical species of this forest type, such as Virola surinamensis, Euterpe oleracea, and Manicaria saccifera, were also common elements in the plots in the North-West District. Finally, a quackal forest can be considered as a permanent swamp forest, occurring behind the main riverbanks in depressed areas that rarely fully drain in the dry season (Prance, 1979). In the present study, the quackal swamp was flooded by excessive rain or black water from the Moruca River. For this reason, the quackal swamp shows some traits similar to the Amazonian igapó forest, e.g., the abundance of Virola elongata. In addition, it shares a few species with extremely nutrient-poor white sand forests, such as Humiria balsamifera (Kubitzki, 1989) and Pradosia schomburgkiana (ter Steege, 1998). That Mauritia flexuosa more or less replaced E. oleracea may also be explained by the fact that M. flexuosa can withstand a terrain with poorer drainage better than E. oleracea (Hiraoka, 1999).

82 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

3.5.6 Usefulness of one-hectare plots The question remains whether a one-hectare sample is sufficient to detect most of the variation in a particular vegetation type. Looking at the species-area curves for trees > 10 cm DBH in the three hectare plots (Figure 3.2), we can see that the curves of the three swamp plots soon level off, more quickly than those of the better drained forest types (Figure 2.4, chapter 2). This means that one hectare gives a rather complete view of the tree diversity in these swamp forests. Increasing the sample area would yield only a few more species. Therefore, hectare plots may give a fair estimate of the local diversity, but one plot is certainly not enough to classify an entire vegetation community.

Number of 45 species 40 35 30 Mora 25 quackal 20 manicole 15 10 5 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Area [ha]

Figure 3.2 Species-area curves of trees > 10 cm DBH in the three one-hectare plots.

3.5.7 Biodiversity When the Fisher’s α values of the three study plots were compared with more or less similar forest types in Guyana, the Barama Mora forest emerged as extremely species-poor (Table 3.12). In addition, the plots of Johnston and Gillman (1995) and Davis and Richards (1934) in central Guyana were much less dominated by Mora excelsa than the Barama plot. Mora forests are considered to represent relatively established forests (Davis and Richards, 1934; Hammond and ter Steege, 1998), although little is known about their succession. Data from this research offer no further explanation for the striking differences in diversity and species composition between northwest and central Guyanan Mora forests.

With regard to species richness, all three swamps in the North-West District were clearly much poorer in species than the better-drained forests described in the previous chapter. The two swamp plots on pegasse were comparable to the swamp plots studied by Fanshawe (1954).

83 3. Floristic composition and diversity of swamp forests

Table 3.12 Comparison of density and diversity of trees > 10 cm DBH in 1 ha study plots in Guyana and Peru. (1) This study; 2) van Andel (chapter 2); 3) Fanshawe (1954); 4) Johnston and Gillman (1995); 5) Davis and Richards (1934); 6) ter Steege et al. (2000e); 7) Dallmeijer et al. (1996); 8) Philips et al. (1994).

Location Forest type No. of Plot size No. of No. of Fisher’s plots [ha] individuals species alpha

Northwest Guyana1 Mora 1 1 314 28 7.4 Northwest Guyana1 quackal 1 1 942 39 8.2 Northwest Guyana1 manicole 1 1 657 27 5.7 Northwest Guyana2 mixed 2 1 467-533 83-86 28.2-28.6

Northwest Guyana3 kirikaua 1 1.5 1034 29 5.6 Northwest Guyana3 troolie 1 1.5 1057 30 5.8

Central Guyana Iwokrama4 Mora11 3576422.7 Moraballi5 Mora 1 1.5 462 60 18.4 Mabura Hill6 palm swamp 6 - - - 12.6

Manu, Peru7 swamp 1 1 668 73 20.9 Tambopata, Peru8 swamp 1 1 713 60 15.6

Low diversity is a general pattern in Neotropical swamp forests, since living conditions are quite extreme in seasonally and permanently flooded habitats (Hiraoka, 1999). Inundated forests are exposed to severe oxygen stress in the root zone, especially when the duration of the annual flood lasts up to 10 months. Moreover, one must keep in mind that the water quality of a river can change during the course of a year (Kubitzki, 1989). This is particularly important in the delta of the North-West District, where the salt content of the large rivers rises not only twice a day during high tide, but also throughout the year in periods with low rainfall. These severe conditions may possibly explain the exceptionally low diversity of the manicole swamp: it ranked among the least diverse of all swamp forests studied in Guyana so far (Table 3.12).

According to Prance (1979) and Kubitzki (1989), local species diversity in várzeas is higher than in igapós, because soils frequently inundated by sediment-rich white water are supposedly relatively richer in nutrients than those of forests flooded by nutrient-poor black water. The results of the present study, however, do not agree with this theory, since the nutrient-poor quackal plot had a higher tree diversity than the Mora and manicole plots, which were both flooded by relatively nutrient-rich white water. Fanshawe’s kirikaua forest was indeed quite species-poor, but the troolie swamp (inundated by brackish water) had a similar low diversity (Fanshawe, 1954). Another reason for the low species diversity in the swamp forests in Guyana may be that they form a heavily fragmented habitat (ter Steege, pers. comm.). In contrast, the swamp and floodplain forests in Western Amazonia generally have a higher diversity than those in the North-West District (Philips et al., 1994;

84 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Dallmeijer et al., 1996). This could be because these forests are less fragmented, but it might also be linked to a higher habitat complexity, such as oxbow lakes, floodplain depressions, ridges, and river terraces (Salo et al., 1986). To date, the underlying causes of diversity and vegetation gradients in the North-West District remain poorly understood. More quantitative data on swamp forest communities, flood periods, and nutrient contents of soils and rivers are needed to fully comprehend the conditions which lead to the formation of a particular kind of swamp forest.

3.5.8 Conservation priorities The NPAS is aspiring to protect key watersheds and buffer zones in order to mitigate the effects of climate change and natural hazards (Persaud, 1997). However, except for a small fringe of mangrove forest, none of the existing proposals for protected areas include a significant portion of northwest Guyana. Although poor in plant species, the wetlands of the North-West District form the last stretch of natural coastline in Guyana and play an important role in the protection against spring tides, rising seawater levels, and other natural hazards. This fact alone should be of influence in the planning of protected areas in Guyana. In addition, protected areas should aim at conserving representative examples of all forest regions in the country, so the northwestern swamp forests should be included as well (ter Steege, 2000). Furthermore, the actual and future commercial value of these forests for the extraction of non-timber forest products should also promote the development of adequate management and conservation strategies.

85 3.6 Appendix

3.6 APPENDIX

Species identified in three hectare plots of swamp forest in the North West District, Guyana.

Species unidentified at the family level (n = 3) have been omitted

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole ADIANTACEAE Adiantum latifolium Lam. x

AMARYLLIDACEAE Hymenocallis tubiflora Salisb. x

ANACARDIACEAE Spondias mombin L. x Tapirira guianensis Aubl. x x

ANNONACEAE Anaxagorea dolichocarpa Sprague & Sandw. x Duguetia megalophylla R.E. Fr. x Duguetia pycnastera Sandw. x Duguetia yeshidan Sandw. x Guatteria schomburgkiana Mart. x Guatteria sp. (TVA666) x

APOCYNACEAE Macoubea guianensis Aubl. x Malouetia flavescens (Willd.) Müll. Arg. x Tabernaemontana disticha A. DC. x Tabernaemontana sp. (TVA1593) x Apocynaceae sp. (TVA3045) x

ARACEAE Dieffenbachia paludicola N.E. Br. x Monstera adansonii Schott x var. klotzschiana (Schott) Madison Philodendron cf. brevispathum Schott x Philodendron fragrantissimum (Hook.) Kunth x Philodendron lanceolatum (Vell.) Schott x Philodendron linnaei Kunth x x Philodendron megalophyllum Schott x x Philodendron cf. melinonii Brongn. ex Regel x Philodendron pedatum (Hook.) Kunth x x Philodendron quercifolium Engl. x Philodendron rudgeanum Schott x x Philodendron scandens K. Koch & Sello x Philodendron surinamense (Schott) Engl. x x Philodendron spp. (unidentified seedlings) x x Philodendron sp. (TVA1362) x Philodendron sp. (TVA3007) x Spathiphyllum cannifolium Schott x x Syngonium sp. (TVA1447) x

86 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium serratum L. x Asplenium sp. (TVA3058) x

BIGNONIACEAE Anemopaegma paraense Bureau & K. Schum. x Anemopaegma sp. (TVA1394) x Ceratophytum tetragonolobus x (Jacq.) Sprague & Sandw. Mansoa kerere (Aubl.) A.H. Gentry x Schlegelia violacea (Aubl.) Griseb. x Tabebuia insignis (Miq.) Sandw. xx var. monophylla Sandw. Bignoniaceae sp. x

BOMBACACEAE Pachira aquatica Aubl. x

BORAGINACEAE Cordia nodosa Lam. x

BROMELIACEAE Araeococcus sp. x

BURSERCEAE Trattinnickia burserifolia Mart. x

CECROPIACEAE Cecropia peltata L. x

CELASTRACEAE Celastraceae sp. (TVA1364) x

CHRYSOBALANACEAE Licania alba (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. x Licania heteromorpha Benth. var. perplexans Sandw. x Licania incana Aubl. x Licania persaudii Fanshawe & Maguire x Parinari rodolphii Huber x

COMBRETACEAE Combretum cacoucia Exell x

COMPOSITAE Mikania gleasonii B.L. Rob. x

CONVULVULACEAE Maripa scandens Aubl. x

COSTACEAE Costus arabicus L. x

87 3.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole CUCURBITACEAE Cucurbitaceae sp. (TVA1696) x

CYCLANTHACEAE Asplundia cf. gleasonii Harling x x Evodianthus funifer (Poit.) Lindm. ssp. funifer x x Thoracocarpus bissectus (Vell.) Harling x x x

CYPERACEAE Hypolytrum longifolium (Rich.) Nees ssp. longifolium x Rhynchospora gigantea Link x

DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Lindsaea lancea (L.) Bedd. var. lancea x

DICHAPETALACEAE Tapura sp. (TVA1466) x

DILLENIACEAE Tetracera volubilis L. ssp. volubilis x

DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea amazonum Mart. ex Griseb. x

DRYOPTERIDACEAE Cyclodium meniscioides (Willd.) xx C. Presl var. meniscioides Elaphoglossum sp. (TVA2309) x

EBENACEAE Diospyros guianensis (Aubl.) Gürke ssp. guianensis x x Diospyros tetrandra Hiern x

ELAEOCARPACEAE Sloanea grandiflora Sm. x

EUPHORBIACEAE Alchorneopsis floribunda (Benth.) Müll. Arg. x Amanoa guianensis Aubl. x Hieronyma alchorneoides Allemão var. stipulosa Franco x Hieronyma oblonga (Tul.) Müll. Arg. x x Mabea piriri Aubl. x Sandwithia guyanensis Lanj. x Euphorbiaceae sp. (TVA1481) x

FLACOURTIACEAE Casearia guianensis (Aubl.) Urb. x Homalium guianense (Aubl.) Oken x

GESNERIACEAE Codonanthe crassifolia (Focke) C.V.Morton x

88 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole GRAMINAE Olyra longifolia Kunth x

GUTTIFERAE Calophyllum brasiliense Cambess. x Clusia fockeana Miq. x Clusia grandiflora Splitg. x x x Clusia palmicida Rich. ex Planch. & Triana x x Clusia sp. x Symphonia globulifera L.f. x x Tovomita schomburgkii Planch. & Triana x Tovomita sp. (TVA1020) x

HAEMODORACEAE Xiphidium caerulum Aubl. x

HIPPOCRATEACEAE Cheiloclinium cognatum (Miers) A.C. Sm. x

HUMIRIACEAE Humiria balsamifera (Aubl.) A. St.-Hil. var. balsamifera x Humiriastrum obovatum (Benth.) Cuatrec. x

LAURACEAE Aniba cf. guianensis Aubl. x Aniba jenmanii Mez x x Aniba cf. terminalis Ducke x Licaria sp. (TVA2251) x Ocotea schomburgkiana (Nees) Mez x x Ocotea splendens (Meisn.) Mez x

LECYTHIDACEAE Eschweilera wachenheimii (Benoist) Sandw. x Gustavia augusta L. x

LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIACEAE Bauhinia guianensis Aubl. var. guianensis x Brownea latifolia Jacq. x Eperua falcata Aubl. x Eperua rubiginosa Miq. var. rubiginosa x Macrolobium cf. angustifolium (Benth.) Cowan x Mora excelsa Benth. x x Sclerolobium sp. (TVA2282) x

LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOSACEAE Abarema jupunba var. trapezifolia x (Vahl) Barneby & J.W. Grimes Inga capitata Desv. x Inga edulis (Vell.) Mart. x Inga cf. java Pittier x Inga marginata Willd. x x Inga splendens Willd. x

89 3.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOSACEAE Inga thibaudiana DC. ssp. thibaudiana x Inga sp. (TVA2283) x Macrosamanea pubiramea (Steud.) xx Barneby & J.W. Grimes var. pubiramea Pentaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze x x x Zygia latifolia (L.) Fawc. & Rendle xx var. communis (Benth.) Barneby & Grimes

LEGUMINOSAE-PAPILIONACEAE Alexa imperatricis (R.H. Schomb.) Baill. x Clathrotropis brachypetala (Tul.) xx Kleinhoonte var. brachypetala Crudia sp. (TVA1468) x Dioclea scabra (Rich.) R.H. Maxwell x Dioclea sp. (TVA3064) x Machaerium leiophyllum var. leiophyllum (DC.) Benth. x Machaerium myrianthum Spruce ex Benth. x x Machaerium quinata (Aubl.) Sandw. var. quinata x x Ormosia coccinea (Aubl.) Jackson x Ormosia coutinhoi Ducke x Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq. ssp. officinalis x x Swartzia guianensis (Aubl.) Urb. x Vatairea guianensis Aubl. x Leguminosae-Papil. sp. (TVA1426) x Leguminosae-Papil. sp. (TVA1444) x Leguminosae-Papil. sp. (TVA2276) x Leguminosae-Papil. sp. (TVA2302) x

LOGANIACEAE Strychnos mitscherlichii M.R. Schomb. var x mitscherlichii

MALPIGHIACEAE Hiraea affinis Miq. x Mezia cf. includens (Benth.) Cuatrec. x Spachea elegans (G. Mey.) A. Juss. x Tetrapterys crispa A. Juss. x Malpighiaceae sp. (TVA2277) x

MARANTACEAE Calathea cf. micans (Mathieu) Körn. x Ischnosiphon foliosus Gleason x Ischnosiphon obliquus (Rudge) Körn. x Ischnosiphon sp. (TVA3016) x

MARCGRAVIACEAE Marcgravia coriacea Vahl x Marcgravia sp. (TVA3061) x Norantea guianensis Aubl. x

90 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole MELASTOMATACEAE Bellucia grossularioides (L.) Triana x Clidemia japurensis DC. var. japurensis x Miconia serrulata (DC.) Naudin x Miconia sp. (TVA3053) x Tococa aristata Benth. x x

MELIACEAE Carapa guianensis Aubl. x x Trichilia rubra C. DC. x Trichilia sp. (TVA3046) x

MENISPERMACEAE Orthomene schomburgkii (Miers) Barneby & Krukoff x

MORACEAE Ficus maxima Mill. x Ficus paraensis (Miq.) Miq. x Ficus vs. roraimensis C.C. Berg x Sorocea hirtella Mildbr. ssp. oligotricha x Akkermans & C.C. Berg

MYRISTICACEAE Iryanthera juruensis Warb. x x Iryanthera sagotiana (Benth.) Warb. x Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb x x Virola surinamensis (Rol.) Warb. x x

MYRSINACEAE Cybianthus aff. surinamensis (Spreng.) G. Agostini x Stylogyne surinamensis (Miq.) Mez x

MYRTACEAE Calyptranthes sp. (TVA2239) x Marlierea montana (Aubl.) Amshoff x

OCHNACEAE Ouratea guianensis Aubl. x

OLACACEAE Dulacia cf. guianensis (Engl.) Kuntze x Heisteria cauliflora Sm. x

ORCHIDACEAE Catasetum sp. (TVA1927) x Epidendron anceps Jacq. x

PALMAE Bactris campestris Poepp. ex Mart. x x Desmoncus polyacanthos Mart. x x Euterpe oleracea Mart. x x Euterpe precatoria Mart. x

91 3.6 Appendix

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole PALMAE Geonoma baculifera (Poit.) Kunth x Jessenia bataua (Mart.) Burret ssp. oligocarpa (Griseb. x & H.Wendl.) Balick Mauritia flexuosa L. x

PASSIFLORACEAE Passiflora garckei Mast. x Passiflora cf. laurifolia L. x

PIPERACEAE Peperomia glabella (Sw.) A. Dietr. x Peperomia rotundifolia (L.) Kunth x Piper vs. berbicense Miq. x Piper nigrispicum C. DC. x Piper sp. (7M4H7) x

POLYGALACEAE Moutabea guianensis Aubl. x

POLYGONACEAE Coccoloba densifrons Mart. ex Meisn. x x

POLYPODIACEAE Campyloneurum repens (Aubl.) C. Presl x

RAPATACEAE Rapatea paludosa Aubl. var. paludosa x x

RHIZOPHORACEAE Cassipourea guianensis Aubl. x x

RUBIACEAE Alibertia acuminata (Benth.) Sandw. x Duroia eriopila L.f. var. eriopila x x Geophila repens (L.) L.M. Johnst. x Gonzalagunia dicocca Cham. & Schltd. x Palicourea sp. (TVA3012) x Psychotria bahiensis DC. var. cornigera (Benth.) x Steyerm. Randia armata (Sw.) DC. x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1651) x Rubiaceae sp. (TVA2257) x Schradera polycephala A.DC. x Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. x

SAPINDACEAE Allophylus racemosus Sw. x Matayba camptoneura Radlk. x Paullinia caloptera Radlk. x Sapindaceae sp. (TVA3056) x

92 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Barama Moruca Assakata Mora quackal manicole SAPOTACEAE Chrysophyllum argenteum Jacq. x ssp. auratum (Miq.) T.D. Penn. Micropholis guyanensis (A.DC.) Pierre ssp. guyanensis x Micropholis venulosa (Mart. & Eichl.) Pierre x x Pouteria bilocularis (Winkler) Baehni x Pouteria cuspidata (A. DC.) Baehni x x Pouteria guianensis Aubl. x Pouteria sp. (TVA3070) x Pradosia schomburgkiana x (A. DC.) Cronq. ssp. schomburgkiana

SCHIZAEACEAE Schizaea fluminensis Miers ex J.W. Sturm x

SMILACACEAE Smilax syphilitica Willd. x

STERCULIACEAE Sterculia sp. (unidentified seedling) x

VERBENACEAE Vitex compressa Turcz. x

VIOLACEAE Paypayrola longifolia Tul. x x Rinorea cf. flavescens (Aubl.) Kuntze x

93 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

4. USEFUL PLANT SPECIES IN THE SEVEN FOREST HECTARE PLOTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.1.1 Quantitative ethnobotany The sustainable harvest of non-timber forest products is assumed to play a crucial role in the conservation of tropical forests and the well-being of indigenous peoples relying on these resources (Nepstad and Schwartzman, 1992; Balick and Mendelsohn, 1992; Hall and Bawa, 1993). A thorough knowledge of the economic potential of the diverse forest products and a better understanding of how mankind can profit from their existence is a prerequisite for forest conservation (Posey, 1983; Milliken et al., 1992). For the design of appropriate conservation and management plans, information is required on the population dynamics and distribution patterns of useful species. Quantitative data are needed to estimate the feasibility of commercial NTFP exploitation, and the effect of harvesting on the long-term viability of natural populations (Hall and Bawa, 1993; Peters, 1994; Boot, 1997).

Various researchers have quantified useful plants in Amazonian forests (Boom, 1987; 1990; Prance et al., 1987; Peters et al., 1989a; Pinedo-Vásquez et al., 1990; Milliken et al., 1992; Phillips, 1993; Balée, 1994). Counting and identifying all trees with a DBH > 10 cm per hectare was the commonly used method in these inventories. Hectare plots have emerged as a popular standard, not only for rapid inventories of useful species, but also for long-term monitoring of forest dynamics (Martin, 1995). Trees > 10 cm may provide a fair image of the structure and composition of a forest (Gentry, 1988; ter Steege et al., 2000c), and possibly account for a large percentage of the useful species (Prance et al., 1987). However, this method has the limitation that it does not take into account shrubs, small trees, herbs, lianas, or epiphytes used by local people. For this reason, it does not give a complete picture of the available NTFPs in a certain forest type. If the aim is to conduct a general ethnobotanical survey, a broad range of useful plants needs to be sampled (Martin, 1995). For future sustainability assessments it is also important to sample individuals of all age/size classes. In this way the recruitment of economically important species can be estimated (Hall and Bawa, 1993; Peters, 1996). It was shown in the previous chapters that in northwest Guyana, the understorey held 41 to almost 70% of the total number of species in the sample plots. NTFPs produced by these smaller species would have been overlooked if only trees > 10 cm DBH had been considered.

Most quantitative inventories have focused on well-drained, primary ‘terra firme’ forest, usually characterised by high species diversity and low densities of conspecific trees. Such a great species-richness would automatically have its reflection on the variety of indigenous uses (Milliken et al., 1992). Although much of this forest is presently being disturbed, only few quantitative ethnobotanical surveys have included secondary forest (Pinedo-Vásquez et al., 1990; Grenand,

94 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

1992; Balée, 1994; van Dijk, 1999). Swamp forests have neither been a favourite subject of NTFP studies, even though they cover several millions of hectares in Amazonia and are often dominated by economically important species (Peters et al., 1989b).

4.4.2 Valuation of forests Quantitative ethnobotany has been used to indicate that tropical forests can generate substantial benefits if their non-timber forest products are marketed and properly managed. Especially in the long term, revenues earned by commercial NTFP exploitation are thought to be much higher than those resulting from timber harvesting or conversion of the forest into pasture or agricultural land (Peters et al., 1989a). Quantitative techniques have also been developed to analyse patterns of plant use knowledge among indigenous informants (Phillips and Gentry, 1993). Quantitative ethnobotany has furthermore been used to evaluate the degree to which traditional people use their forest environment. According to Phillips (1996), the paper of Prance et al. (1987) is considered a bench mark study in this field, being the first to systematically address the question: How important is the forest to indigenous people?

There are several, often complicated, methods to calculate the economic value of a forest. In the past, this was done by simply measuring the volumes of commercial timber (Panayotou and Ashton, 1992). Since NTFPs became a research topic, the value of forests needed reassessment. This was done by just counting the numbers of useful species in a forest plot (Balée, 1994; Johnston, 1998), or summing up the potential or actual market prices of plant products (Peters et al, 1989a). Prance et al. (1987) designated useful plants as ‘minor’ or ‘major’ and gave them a symbolic value. The sum of these values was then used as an indication of the usefulness of the forest. Other researchers have quantified the importance of forest resources by putting arbitrary prices on forest-derived subsistence goods (Sullivan, 1997), or by measuring local people’s agreement on the utility of various species (Phillips and Gentry, 1993). Calculating the use value of biological resources will continue to be a controversial aspect of ethnobotanical methodology (Martin, 1995), but these methods do shed a light on the importance of the forest for its local inhabitants and their cultural survival (Prance et al., 1987; Phillips, 1996).

4.4.3 Quantitative NTFP studies in Guyana Very little quantitative studies on useful plants have been done in Guyana. Matheson (1994) carried out an ethnobotanical inventory in three forest plots in upper Demerara, while Johnston (1998) assessed the relative abundance of potentially useful species of several forest types around Kurupukari and Moraballi. In these two central Guyana studies only trees over 10 cm DBH were taken into account. The North-West District is much more important for commercial NTFP extraction than central Guyana. It is a major Amerindian area, where various enterprises are processing and marketing local forest products. But apart from a study by Hoffman (1997), who calculated the density of the commercial craft fiber Heteropsis flexuosa in the lower Pomeroon, virtually nothing is known about the abundance and diversity of NTFPs in the forest types of the North-West District. During a short economic study in three northwestern villages, Sullivan (1997) estimated the

95 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots contribution of NTFPs to the gross village product on the basis of interviews with local villagers.

This chapter provides a quantitative assessment of the useful species in seven one- hectare plots in northwest Guyana. The following questions will be addressed:

• What are the most important NTFPs in the different forest types studied and how abundant are they? • Which plant families provide most NTFPs and which have the largest use value? • What percentage of the total number of species in a forest is utilised by local Amerindians? • Are there differences in plant use between Arawaks and Caribs? • Which forest types offer the best opportunities for commercial NTFP harvesting?

The aim of this research is to determine quantitatively the degree to which Amerindians in the North-West District utilise their surrounding forest resources. With the figures of diversity and abundance of useful species, this study hopes to provide baseline data for future sustainable management of non-timber forest products. The strong dependence of local Amerindians on the floristic diversity of their environment may have its influence on the decision-making process in the allocation of forested land for self-sustaining Amerindian Reserves.

4.2 METHODOLOGY

Seven one hectare plots were sampled in the major forest types of Guyana’s North- West District. Exact locations, vegetation descriptions, and forest classifications are given in chapters 2 and 3. The plots were carefully selected to represent the particular vegetation types: their exact location was chosen with the help of people familiar with the topography and recent history of land use. In these plots, trees > 10 cm DBH, as well as shrubs, small trees, lianas, hemi-epiphytes and herbs were collected, counted and identified. Plant uses were recorded with the assistance of local informants.

Three plots were established near the small, traditional Carib settlement of Kariako, Barama River: in mixed forest, seasonally flooded Mora forest, and 20-year-old secondary forest. Kariako is located a couple of days travelling by boat to the nearest regional market of Charity. Although very few NTFPs are commercialised at present, the Kariako Caribs heavily depend on forest products, since luxury goods are expensive or unavailable. Another three plots were laid out in the vicinity of Santa Rosa, Moruca River: in mixed forest, 60-year-old secondary forest and quackal swamp. This large Amerindian village with its predominantly Arawak population is much more integrated in the coastal Guyanese market economy. Several NTFPs are commercially harvested and traded among villagers and at the Charity market. A seventh plot was made in a brackish manicole swamp near the settlement of Assakata. The region is inhabited by Arawak and Warao Indians, but since the informants that were involved in the plant identification were Arawak, plant uses in the plot largely reflect their cultural preferences. Although located

96 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I further away from the market than Santa Rosa, most Assakata residents had direct access to commodity items by bartering palm hearts from Euterpe oleracea (see chapter 5).

To cover the widest variety of plants used by the Amerindian communities, the botanical inventories in the plots were combined with interviews and the ‘walk-in- the-woods’ method, as described in Prance et al. (1987). As the expertise of a few field assistants is often not representative for the knowledge of the whole community, various residents of the same village were asked to identify the species encountered during the surveys. In case of doubt, voucher specimens were carried from house to house to broaden and crosscheck ethnobotanical information. Additional collecting of fertile specimens outside the plots (with different informants) was carried out to increase the number of identified species and to yield supplementary information on their utilisation. In this chapter, only useful plants found in the seven one-hectare plots will be discussed. Except for 22 species used as minor fuel source, all useful species are listed in the Appendix of this chapter. Detailed use descriptions are given in Part II of this thesis.

Plants were divided in six use categories that largely corresponded with those of Prance et al. (1987): a) food: any plant or plant part (fruits, seeds, bark, leaves, or latex) used for human consumption; b) construction: all roundwood and sawn boards used for permanent and temporary Amerindian dwellings, canoes and bridges, leaves for roof thatch, and lianas for tying rafts and house frames; c) technology: lashing material, dyes, poisons, glues, craft fibers, household equipment (sifters, baskets) and tools (arrows, paddles); d) medicine: plants used to treat or prevent illnesses and physical afflictions; e) other: plants with miscellaneous uses (wrapping material, (fish) bait, toys, ornamental, magic); f) firewood: all plants that are used as fuel.

These categories are artificial and do not necessarily reflect the classification of the indigenous people themselves (Prance et al., 1987). Plants with multiple uses fall in more than one category. The categories were principally used to facilitate comparison with the various other studies that have adapted this method (Boom, 1987; Pinedo-Vásquez et al., 1990; Grenand, 1992; Milliken et al., 1992; Johnston, 1998). It was not possible to make a sharp distinction between ‘timber’ and ‘non- timber’ species, as the same wood species used for canoes and house frames were usually sawn into boards for house construction, particularly in Moruca. To give an overall impression of the forest use by local Amerindians, it was decided to include sawn boards in this chapter. The number and percentage of species in the different use categories (food, medicine, etc.) was calculated for each forest type.

Local informants clearly considered some plants ‘more useful’ than others. For example, small Melastomataceae berries were often eaten by children, but generally neglected or considered insignificant by adults, while fruits such as Spondias mombin were much sought after and sold at local markets. In order to quantify the

97 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots relative importance of NTFPs, plant uses were classified as minor or major within the different categories, following Prance et al. (1987). Each major use was indicated in the Appendix with a capital letter and given a use value of 1.0, while minor uses were indicated with a small letter and counted as 0.5. When products were irreplaceable or the object of intensive gathering and economic exchange, they were given a major score (1.0). In most cases, informants gave their own account of the importance of a NTFP by emphasising the strength of a certain fibre or the effectiveness of a medicine. Although the significance of a specific plant was also influenced by the number of informants who independently reported knowledge of its use, this was not categorically measured. Thus, the relative importance of each use was subjectively assigned by the researcher.

The difficulty with this technique is that it does not allow for more than one use within each category. In this study, a category was also given a major score if more than one use was mentioned within this group. For example in the case of Protium heptaphyllum, of which the Barama Caribs eat both the fruit and the exudate, the food category was given a score of 1.0. All scores were summed for each species to calculate its use value. To calculate relative family use values, species’ use values were summed within each plant family, and divided by the total number of species of that family occurring in the plot. The most important multi-use species were listed for each forest type, with their numbers of individuals > 10 cm DBH per hectare, the amounts below 10 cm, found in the shrub layer (subplots of 0.1 ha) and herb layer (subplots of 4 * 10-3 ha, see chapter 2).

The Kariako Caribs used several species in a different way than the Santa Rosa Arawaks did and vice versa. For instance, Barama Caribs mixed the seeds of Mora excelsa with cassava flour in times of scarcity, while this practice was unknown to informants in Santa Rosa. The uses given in the Appendix thus indicate local uses only. To give a realistic image of present indigenous plant utilisation in the forest plots, uses mentioned in literature were left out. However, when a plant was not found within a plot, this did not mean that the species was absent from the region or remained unutilized. For a complete account of plant uses in northwest Guyana, the reader should consult Part II of this thesis.

Canopy hemi-epiphytes like Heteropsis flexuosa, Thoracocarpus bissectus and Clusia spp. were barely visible from below, but their aerial roots often reached the forest floor. As these roots were intensively used in craft production, the numbers of roots were counted throughout the seven hectare plots. The total use value was determined by summing all species’ use values per forest plot. Finally, the use percentage per forest type was calculated by dividing the number of useful species by the total amount of species encountered in the plot.

4.3 RESULTS

A total of 616 species (including unidentified specimens) were found in the seven one-hectare plots (see chapters 2 and 3), of which 357 species (58%) were utilised in one way or another. Of these useful species, 61% (216 spp.) were trees with a DBH

98 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

> 10 cm in one of the plots. The remaining 39% included trees < 10 cm DBH, lianas, hemi-epiphytes, shrubs, and herbs. In Table 4.1 the numbers and percentages of useful plants in the different categories are shown for the seven plots. Firstly, some important examples for each use category will be discussed in more detail. Secondly, the most important multi-use species will be listed for each forest types. All species are listed with their use categories and minor and major uses in the Appendix of this chapter.

Table 4.1 Numbers and percentages of useful plant species in the different categories for the seven hectare plots in northwest Guyana. The three plots in Barama are the homeland of Caribs, while Arawaks are the predominant user group of the plots in Moruca and Assakata. Note that species > 10 cm may include large lianas, unless mentioned otherwise; fw = firewood.

Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata mixed 20-year Mora mixed 60-year quackal manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp No. of useful species 113 (17) 136 (13) 66 (6) 103 (3) 124 (3) 51 (2) 71 (3) (firewood only) Food 32 41 19 29 36 17 16 Construction 40 54 23 58 59 23 24 Technology 31 43 19 47 53 17 28 Medicine 35 44 23 34 39 20 26 Other 20 26 15 8 16 5 14 Firewood 38 54 17 13 15 8 4

Food [%] 28.3 30.1 28.7 28.2 29.0 33.3 22.5 Construction [%] 35.3 39.7 34.8 56.3 47.6 45.1 33.8 Technology [%] 27.4 31.6 28.8 45.6 42.7 33.3 39.4 Medicine [%] 31.0 32.4 34.8 33.0 31.5 39.2 36.6 Other [%] 17.7 19.1 22.7 7.8 12.9 9.8 19.7 Firewood [%] 33.6 39.7 25.8 12.6 12.1 15.7 5.6

No. of species > 10 cm 93 (83) 78 (73) 31 (28) 95 (86) 95 (90) 41 (38) 30 (3) DBH (trees only) No. of useful species 77 (17) 70 (12) 29 (6) 80 (3) 86 (3) 34 (2) 27 (3) > 10 cm (fw only) Use % of species > 10 83 (65) 90 (74) 94 (74) 84 (81) 91 (87) 83 (78) 90 (80) cm DBH (excl. fw) % of useful indiv. 92 90 94 94 97 90 99 > 10 cm DBH Total no. of species 168 197 102 161 204 75 98 No. of useful species 36 66 37 23 38 17 44 < 10 cm DBH Use percentage 51 55 53 35 35 50 65 of species < 10 cm Total use value 128 161.5 s 129.5 143.5 60 71 Use percentage of 67.3 69.0 64.7 64.0 60.8 68.0 72.4 all plants [%]

99 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

4.3.1 Food Of the 113 useful species found in the Barama mixed forest, local Caribs considered 28.3% as a major or minor food source. The more important edible products include the seeds of Lecythis zabucajo, the red berries of Eugenia patrisii and highly esteemed juicy fruits of Pouteria guianensis, only fruiting once every few years. In the young secondary forest, 41 species were categorised as food, of which 11 species belonged to the genus Inga. Some of them (I. edulis and I. pezizifera) produce large fruits and are preferred above others. Other notable fruit trees are Byrsonima stipulacea, Bellucia grossularioides and Astrocaryum gynacanthum. The shoots of Costus scaber are boiled and fermented into a strong alcoholic beverage. The coagulated resin of Protium heptaphyllum is used as a sort of chewing gum. The Mora forest is poorer in wild fruits, although Spondias mombin ranks among the most appreciated fruits in the region. In times of plenty, the pulp is made into an alcoholic drink and sold in the village. The barks of Brownea latifolia and Clusia grandiflora are boiled into a hot beverage resembling chocolate milk.

Ambelania acida, Maximiliana maripa and several Pouteria species produce the most esteemed fruits in the Moruca mixed forest. The watery sap of Tetracera volubilis subsp. volubilis is drunk to quench thirst. In the 60-year-old secondary forest, 36 edible species were found. A notable species is Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril, of which the fruit pulp is consumed and a beverage is produced from the bark. Again, the main fruit-producing genus is Inga (8 species). Other favourites are Astrocaryum aculeatum (probably a relic of human occupancy), Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa, and Maximiliana maripa. Fruits of these three palms are sold at the local market. Curcuma xanthorrhiza, an herb of which the rhizome is as an ingredient for curry, is another remnant of a once abandoned farm. No more than 17 edible species were found in the quackal swamp. Fruits of importance are Pouteria cuspidata and Marlierea montana, the latter made into an alcoholic drink. Less esteemed, but present in large quantities is Humiriastrum obovatum, of which the fruits are pounded in hot water to make a beverage. The manicole swamp does not contain many edible species, but J. bataua subsp. oligocarpa, of which the fruits are boiled into a popular beverage, occurs frequently in the plot. Euterpe oleracea is harvested commercially for its edible palm heart (chapter 5). Fruits of Euterpe spp. are not much liked by the locals.

4.3.2 Construction In general, the Barama Caribs used fewer species for construction or timber than the Moruca Arawaks (Table 4.1). Traditional Carib dwellings are constructed of a roundwood frame tied together with lianas and a thatched roof. They lack walls and floors and hardly contain any furniture. In the deep interior, few people possess chain saws, so boards are rarely used and quite expensive. Because of their flexible wood, Vismia guianensis and various Annonaceae (often harvested from secondary forest) are used as roof rafters and ridges.

100 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Figure 4.1 Schematic drawing of a Carib house. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

Most roofs were thatched with Geonoma baculifera, a small palm irregularly distributed in Mora forest. A layer of Euterpe leaves always covered the ridge (Figure 4.1). Trunks of Eschweilera spp., Lecythis spp., Mora excelsa and Trichilia schomburgkii subsp. schomburgkii were favoured for house post, because of their strong and rot-resistant wood. Canoes were principally made from Carapa guianensis, Inga alba, Hyeronima alchorneoides var. stipulosa, and various Lauraceae species. As some of the valuable wood species were only found in primary forest, dragging a canoe or a house post through the forest was an arduous

101 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots task. Therefore, large trunks were preferably cut near the village in Mora or secondary forest.

Arawak houses are mostly build on stilts, with floors and walls of industrially processed wood, bought from a nearby sawmill or from one of the various local chain saw operators. Frames and posts are often made of Eschweilera spp., Lecythis spp., Carapa guianensis, and Peltogyne venosa subsp. venosa. Roofs are either thatched with Manicaria saccifera or Maximiliana maripa, or made from corrugated iron. Less-privileged house owners make their walls in the traditional Arawak ‘wattle and stave’ style, in which young stems are woven between a horizontal frame (see plate 29, Part II). Flexible saplings are needed for this construction, such as Cupania spp. and several Flacourtiaceae, abundant in secondary forest. Both Arawak and Caribs beat the bark of Catostemma commune with an axe into large slabs, which are spread out as floors and walls. The most durable canoes in Moruca are made from Diplotropis purpurea, Peltogyne venosa subsp. venosa, Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril, Hyeronima alchorneoides var. stipulosa, various Burseraceae and Lauraceae. These trees do occur in secondary forest, but large individuals are only found in primary forest. Unfortunately, the area of undisturbed mixed forest is rapidly disappearing around Santa Rosa, as many large trees are felled for commercial timber and large forested areas are burned for agriculture. As a result, good quality house material and canoes is quite expensive in Moruca. For this reason, people shift to less durable timber species, such as Tapirira guianensis and Simarouba amara. Both Caribs and Arawaks use the strong aerial roots of Thoracocarpus bissectus and Heteropsis flexuosa, as well as the stems of various Bignoniaceae lianas to tie the frames of temporary and permanent dwellings.

The pegasse swamps yield fewer species for construction (Table 4.1). In the quackal swamp, Calophyllum brasiliense, Symphonia globulifera, and Macoubea guianensis were mentioned to yield good material for houses and canoes. Makeshift walls are made by tying the petioles of Mauritia flexuosa together. People living in the manicole swamps make their floors from the split trunks of Euterpe spp. Leaves of Manicaria saccifera, a palm dominating the manicole swamps around the Waini River, but absent from Assakata and Moruca, are shipped towards these villages for roof thatch and walls. The leaves are stitched on the roof with strips of the split stems of Ischnosiphon arouma, a species common in secondary forest. Holes in old roofs are patched with the giant leaves of Philodendron melinonii. The wood of Iryanthera juruensis and Virola surinamensis is used as a minor timber source and to build low-grade canoes.

4.3.3 Technology Species used for technology in Barama ranged from 19 (28.8%) in Mora forest to 43 (31.6%) in the young secondary forest. Inga alba is important tree to the Caribs, as a black dye is made from the bark to strengthen clay pottery (see Part II of this thesis). Individuals are often spared from felling when clearing forest for agriculture, which explains the presence of large individuals in secondary forest (Table 4.3). The mixed forest provides hard wood for cotton spindles (Eugenia patrisii), arrow sockets, and sifter frames (Quiina guianensis). Both indigenous groups make tool handles from Pouteria guianensis, Carapa guianensis, and Cedrela odorata. The valuable wood

102 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I of the latter is used for music instruments as well. The hemi-epiphytes Thoracocarpus bissectus and Heteropsis flexuosa furnish the major craft fibres found in the Barama and Moruca mixed forest. Their aerial roots are woven into burden baskets, carried with head straps from bark strips of Sterculia pruriens var. pruriens, and sold in nearly all Amerindian communities. In the Pomeroon forests and to a lesser extent in Moruca, H. flexuosa, Clusia grandiflora, and C. palmicida are commercially exploited for the furniture industry (chapter 6). The numbers of aerial roots of these species per plot are presented in Table 4.9. The fine basketry used in processing bitter cassava (Manihot esculenta) is made from Ischnosiphon arouma, a major craft fibre present in both types of secondary forest.

In Mora swamp forest, the main technology species is Duguetia pycnastera, preferred above other Duguetia species for fishing rods, because its wood is the strongest and most flexible. Stems of D. megalophylla and Anaxagorea dolichocarpa are carved into blunt arrow points to shoot birds. Occasionally occurring in Mora forest, but much more common in pegasse swamps, is Symphonia globulifera (Tables 4.7 and 4.8). The yellow latex of this tree is made into a tar-like substance to fasten arrow points in their sockets. This so-called ‘karaman wax’ is a major NTFP in areas where hunting is still done with bow and arrow. In the quackal swamp, the young shoots of Mauritia flexuosa yield a soft fibre used in commercial basketry and hammocks. Ischnosiphon obliquus is harvested as a craft fibre to substitute I. arouma. In the whole coastal swamp region, paddles from the wood of Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla are an important trading item.

4.3.4 Medicine Between 31.0 and 39.2% of the species in the plots was used as major or minor remedy. The Barama Caribs recognise 35 medicinal species in the mixed forest. Most remedies are prepared from the bark of trees and lianas. The watery sap from several Dilleniaceae is drunk by snakebite victims and to provoke abortions. Throughout Guyana, the wood of these lianas is boiled into an aphrodisiac. Women use the bark of Inga alba to induce permanent sterility. The leaves of Philodendron scandens are placed on skin sores, while the same leaves are applied on ant bites in Assakata. The highest number of medicinal species (44) are found in the 20-year-old secondary forest. The important ones include Cecropia peltata, the leaves of which are boiled as tea for kidney disorders and back pain, and Cordia nodosa, prepared similarly to alleviate headache and high blood pressure. The Mora forest yields fewer medicinal species (23). A major remedy is prepared from the poisonous bark of Clathrotropis brachypetala var. brachypetala, applied externally on swellings and bush yaws.

Both Amerindian groups consider the bark of Unonopsis glaucopetala the best remedy for snakebites. Roots of Bauhinia spp. are used in the deep interior against diarrhoea, while the wood of these lianas is known as an aphrodisiac in the coastal region. The only commercially traded medicine in the central North-West District is crabwood oil, extracted from the seeds of Carapa guianensis and used externally to repel insects and disinfect skin wounds. The oil is taken orally for malaria, whooping cough and colds. In the Moruca mixed forest, the bark of Aspidosperma spp. and the wood of Curarea candicans are said to be effective against malaria as

103 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots well. In the late secondary forest, 39 species are used medicinally. Piper avellanum is pointed out as a miracle plant, as its sap is administered to patients suffering from severe stomach cramps, unconsciousness, blocked jaws, and snakebites. In Assakata, P. horstmannianum is recommended for scorpion and snakebites. The milky bark of Pradosia schomburgkiana subsp. schomburgkiana from the quackal swamp is mentioned as an effective cure for cough and tuberculosis. The bark is occasionally traded around Santa Rosa. Other significant medicinal species of pegasse swamps are Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, the bark of which is boiled and taken for malaria. The latex of Symphonia globulifera is rubbed on abscesses to make them go down. The bark of Pachira aquatica, a small tree common in the brackish manicole swamps, is taken against dysentery. More herbal remedies and differences in medicinal plant use between indigenous groups will be discussed in chapter 8.

4.3.5 Other uses Species used for miscellaneous purposes in the Barama mixed forest accounted for 17.7% of the total uses. An example is Alexa imperatricis, of which the poisonous bark and seeds are thrown in armadillo holes. The venom kills the animal, but apparently does not make the meat inedible. In the early secondary forest, 26 species (19.1%) fall in this category. For instance, the bark of Lecythis corrugata subsp. corrugata is beaten with a club and split in numerous thin layers, which are used as cigarette paper. When a baby is born, the fresh, smelly leaves of Jacaranda copaia subsp. copaia are thrown in the fire to ward off evil spirits that could attack the newborn. Children gather the hard berries of Siparuna guianensis for slingshot ammunition. Fewer species (15), but a relative larger percentage (22.7%) of species with a miscellaneous use were found in Mora forest, represented by various fruits and seeds used as fish bait (Ficus spp., Brownea latifolia, Spachea elegans, and Carapa guianensis). The large leaves of Sloanea grandiflora, present in all forest types in Barama, are used to wrap up the piles of cassava bread that are carried into the gold mines for sale.

In the Moruca mixed forest, just eight species (7.8%) are found in the miscellaneous category. An example is the bark of Humiria balsamifera var. balsamifera, stuffed in roofs to chase away insect larvae feeding on the thatch. In the 60-year-old forest, 16 species (12.9%) are employed for ‘other’ uses, such as the saplings of Licania kunthiana, which are decorated with light bulbs during Christmas. Only five species in the quackal plot fall within this group. People believe that if they beat a fruit tree with a twig of Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea or Pentaclethra macroloba, it produces a good crop the following year. Peperomia rotundifolia, a delicate vine from the manicole swamp, is said to have magic properties. A love charm is made by mixing the pounded leaves with perfume and rubbing this on the body. The beloved one will now follow this person everywhere.

104 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

4.3.6 Firewood Table 4.1 shows that not all woody species are used as fuel. Some types of wood are avoided, like Alexa imperatricis and Clathrotropis brachypetala var. brachypetala, since their poisonous sap produces an acrid smoke. The various Chrysobalanaceae from the mixed forests are highly valued as firewood, because their wood is easily sliced into small sticks and quickly lit, even when wet. In Barama, these trees are even cut down for fuel, as the wood is preferred for the small fires under the circular iron plates used for baking cassava bread, the staple food in Barama. Wood is still the only fuel source in Barama, which is illustrated by the high number of species (54) harvested for this purpose in secondary forest. Tapirira guianensis and Byrsonima stipulacea are also mentioned as good quality fuel. Much fewer species are harvested for firewood in Mora forest. Several trees are said to yield potential fuel, but due to the swampy soil the fallen trees are wet and muddy. Firewood is mostly harvested from the secondary forest surrounding the village and from the charred trunks lying in the cultivated fields.

Wealthy Moruca residents use gas stoves, but the poorer section of the community still depends on firewood. In the more traditional villages, all households use and collect firewood. Chrysobalanaceae wood is sold at the Moruca market for cassava baking, although cassava bread is no longer the main staple food. Commercial charcoal is produced from Aspidosperma excelsum and traded at the Charity market. Fewer species (resp. 13 and 15) are harvested for firewood from the mixed and secondary forest. Apart from some Myrtaceae and Chrysobalanaceae, few species are used for fuel in the waterlogged quackal and manicole swamps. Occasionally, dry leaves and waste of Mauritia flexuosa straw is used to burn out and widen the opening of new canoes. In the old days, twigs of Tabernaemontana disticha, a species frequent in manicole swamp, were rapidly swizzled together to start a fire.

4.3.7 Differences in forest use Although differences in useful plants between the seven hectare plots and the two indigenous groups were not statistically tested, several trends could be distinguished. In Table 4.1, it can be seen that the number of useful species in the swamp forest was much lower than that of the better-drained forests. This was caused by their low floristic diversity, as the percentage of useful plants was not lower than in forest types. One of the poorest forest plots, the manicole swamp, had even the highest use percentage for the understorey. This might be explained by the familiarity of the locals with these swamps as they were frequently visited to harvest palm hearts. Thus, the number of useful species in a forest does not depend entirely on its floristic diversity, but it is also influenced by the knowledge of local informants. The more traditional Amerindians (such as the Assakata Arawaks and the Barama Caribs) seemed to spend more time in the forest and had a better knowledge of indigenous plant names and uses than the Moruca Arawaks, who had been strongly influenced by the ‘western’ society. This possibly explains the higher numbers of useful plants in the Barama mixed and young secondary forest plots, although their floristic diversity was comparable to the well-drained plots in Moruca.

105 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

4.4 USE VALUES AND ACTUAL NTFP HARVESTING IN THE DIFFERENT FOREST TYPES.

4.4.1 Barama mixed forest The well-drained mixed forest in Barama, called ‘ituru’ or ‘high bush’ by the Caribs, was frequently visited to harvest forest products. Most species were extracted for subsistence only. The total use value of this forest type was 128 (Table 4.1). Of the 113 useful species, 77 (including species used for firewood) had a DBH over 10 cm, accounting for 92% of the individuals in the tree layer. This high percentage indicates that the forest was extremely useful to the local Amerindians. The most important multi-use species are listed in Table 4.2. Inga alba and Carapa guianensis had the highest use values and were indeed important NTFPs in the mixed forest. The seeds of Lecythis zabucajo were much liked, but they were only produced once very few years and then the majority was consumed by monkeys and birds before they could be collected from the forest floor. Despite its high use value, the species was just an occasional product. Other species with less-varied uses (and a lower total use value) were more important, like Heteropsis flexuosa and Thoracocarpus bissectus, present with 105 resp. 32 mature roots in the plot (Table 4.9). The heavy duty baskets (‘warishis’) woven from these roots were one of the few regularly traded NTFPs in Kariako. Five more species had a use value of 2, but since they were not very abundant, they were omitted from Table 4.2. The most common tree species in the plot (Couepia parillo, Eschweilera wachenheimii, and Alexa imperatricis, see Table 2.3) all had indigenous uses, but were no important NTFPs.

Table 4.2 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of mixed forest, Barama (with use values > 2) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey Inga alba 3.5 7 1 Carapa guianensis 3.5 4 0 Unonopsis glaucopetala 2.5 15 7 Lecythis zabucajo 2.5 4 0 Catostemma commune 2.0 15 6 Protium decandrum 2.0 17 50 Tovomita cf. brevistaminea 2.0 3 5 Mora excelsa 2.0 8 13 Pentaclethra macroloba 2.0 4 1 Myrcia graciliflora 2.0 7 13

4.4.2 Young secondary forest A total of 136 species (69%) in the 20-year-old forest plot was used by the Barama Caribs, of which 70 had a DBH over 10 cm (Table 4.1). Thus 97.3% of the trees in the plots were used, representing 90% of the species in the tree layer. If firewood was excluded, 74% of the species > 10 cm were considered useful. The canopy of the young secondary forest, called ‘mainyapo’ by the Caribs, was less diverse than

106 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I the those of mature mixed forest, but fewer species were unknown to the informants. Due to the open canopy, the shrub and herb layer contained more species than those in the mature forest. Consequently, more species (66) in these strata were utilised than in the other forest plots. The species-rich understorey attributed to a total use value of 161.5, the highest of all plots. The largest variety of edible fruits was found in this young secondary forest. Generally neglected by their parents, the fruits of Byrsonima stipulacea, Inga spp. and various Melastomataceae were collected daily by children walking through this forest on their way to school. As trees were low and fruit producing shrubs abundant, their berries were easily accessible compared to the mature forest. Fruits from young secondary forest almost certainly played an important role in the diet of young children.

The most important multi-use species are listed in Table 4.3. Inga alba was abundant and its bark was often harvested for the manufacturing of clay pots. Carapa guianensis and Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla were present with too few individuals to produce a substantial part of the NTFPs collected in this forest type. Essential species with less diverse uses but frequently harvested from this forest were Ischnosiphon arouma, Costus scaber, Schefflera morototoni, Pentaclethra macroloba and Protium heptaphyllum subsp. heptaphyllum. Firewood was also an important product collected from secondary forest.

Table 4.3 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of 20-year-old fallow, Barama (with use values > 2.5) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey Inga alba 3.5 22 4 Carapa guianensis 3.5 1 0 Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 3.0 0 1 Unonopsis glaucopetala 2.5 5 6 Lecythis zabucajo 2.5 3 1 Duguetia megalophylla 2.5 1 1 Xylopia sp. (TVA1165) 2.5 1 0 Smilax schomburgkiana 2.5 0 6

4.4.3 Mora forest The Mora forest along the Barama riverbanks was dominated by towering Mora excelsa trees. It was called ‘parakuwa patï’, translated as ‘Mora’s hammock’ or ‘Mora’s home’, as in the Carib world the place where you hang your hammock is your home. The total use value of this plot was rather low (69.5), which corresponds with the low diversity of this forest. Nearly all trees over 10 cm were considered useful (94% of the species and 99% of the individuals), but then again, most were Mora trees (Table 4.4). Other multi-use species were Carapa guianensis, present with few individuals, Pentaclethra macroloba and Duguetia spp., Spondias mombin did not have many different uses, but its edible fruits were highly esteemed. Geonoma baculifera, the principal source of roof thatch in Barama, was rather scarce, with only two individuals. This was probably the result of overharvesting, as large populations of this understorey palm were found further away from settlements. The same applies to Euterpe oleracea, of which the leaves were used to

107 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots cover the ridge of the roofs. Palm leaves and canoes made of Mora and Carapa were the main objects commercialised from Mora forest. No cultivated fields were made in this seasonally flooded forest, as cassava generally requires well-drained soils.

Table 4.4 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of Mora forest, Barama (with use values > 1.5) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey Carapa guianensis 3.5 2 0 Duguetia megalophylla 2.5 0 5 Pentaclethra macroloba 2.0 15 2 Bellucia grossularioides 2.0 0 1 Duguetia pycnastera 2.0 3 31 Mora excelsa 2.0 182 1426 Duguetia yeshidan 1.5 0 19 Eschweilera wachenheimii 1.5 21 3 Clathrotropis brachypetala var. brachypetala 1.5 2 0 Dioclea scabra 1.5 0 9 Brownea latifolia 1.5 4 1 Zygia latifolia var. communis 1.5 16 14 Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. officinalis 1.5 27 17 Geonoma baculifera 1.5 0 2

4.4.4 Moruca mixed forest The mixed forest plot of this study was probably one of the last pieces of primary forest in the vicinity of Santa Rosa village. Although located far away from the settlement, the mixed forest was frequently visited to collect NTFPs, to work on the cultivated fields in the surroundings, to saw wood or build canoes from large trees (Diplotropis purpurea, Peltogyne venosa subsp. venosa). The total use value (129.5) was comparable to that of the mixed forest in Barama, just like the percentage of useful species over 10 cm DBH (84%), accounting for 94% of the individuals in the tree layer. A total of 26 species had a use value of more than 2, but only those with a significant number of individuals are mentioned in Table 4.5.

Carapa guianensis and Symphonia globulifera had the highest use values, but were present with few individuals. Fruits of Pouteria spp. were cherished, but seldom available. Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa and Maximiliana maripa were fruiting at more regular intervals. Tool handles were carved from the spurs at the stem base of Pouteria spp. and the fluted stem of Aspidosperma spp., a practice that did not seem to harm the trees. Several people gathered medicinal barks and lianas (e.g., Bauhinia guianensis, Aspidosperma spp., Curarea candicans, Dilleniaceae spp.). Heteropsis flexuosa was an important craft fibre in this forest, but only immature roots were found in the plot (Table 4.9). Firewood was not often collected from the primary forest itself, but from the Chrysobalanaceae trunks felled in the cultivated fields. The most common tree species (Eschweilera spp.) were primarily used for house frames and boards.

108 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 4.5 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of mixed forest, Moruca (with use values > 2) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey

Carapa guianensis 3.0 1 0 Symphonia globulifera 3.0 0 8 Unonopsis glaucopetala 2.5 4 12 Lecythis zabucajo 2.5 5 0 Lecythis corrugata subsp. corrugata 2.5 4 0 Maximiliana maripa 2.5 0 3 Cupania scrobiculata var. reticulata 2.5 3 15 Alexa imperatricis 2.0 15 59 Pouteria durlandii 2.0 17 4 Pouteria guianensis 2.0 11 6 Eschweilera sagotiana 2.0 62 28 Aspidosperma excelsum 2.0 6 6

4.4.5 Late secondary forest The 60-year-old plot in Moruca contained the most species of all forest plots (204), but had the lowest overall use percentage (60.8%). This low percentage must be sought in the high numbers of unknown species in the understorey, as 91% of the trees species and 97% of the individuals in the tree layer were utilised. Only 38 undergrowth species were used, much less than in the young secondary forest. Still, this area was subject to frequent NTFP harvesting and the overall use value of the plot was high (143.5). The most important multi-use species are listed in Table 4.6. Cupania scrobiculata var. reticulata and other tree saplings were collected to build kitchen walls. These species also grew in mixed forest, but people preferred to harvest their products close to home.

Fruits of Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril, Maximiliana maripa, Pouteria spp., and especially Astrocaryum aculeatum were harvested when ripe. Several Inga species were present, but they were less consumed by Arawaks than by Caribs. Fishing rods (Duguetia pauciflora) and craft fibres (Ischnosiphon arouma) were frequently taken from this forest. Timber harvesting was also a common activity; species like Simarouba amara and various Lauraceae were sawn into boards in the forest surrounding the plot. Bark of Brownea latifolia, Astronium cf. lecointei, and several Burseraceae were gathered for medicinal purposes. This late succession forest was already considered suitable for establishing cultivated fields. As a result, much of this forest had already been converted to agricultural land again.

109 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

Table 4.6 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of 60-year-old fallow, Moruca (with use values > 2) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey

Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril 3.5 1 0 Symphonia globulifera 3.0 0 1 Carapa guianensis 3.0 8 2 Ischnosiphon arouma 3.0 0 3 Unonopsis glaucopetala 2.5 5 8 Lecythis zabucajo 2.5 2 1 Lecythis corrugata subsp. corrugata 2.5 2 31 Maximiliana maripa 2.5 3 7 Cupania scrobiculata var. reticulata 2.5 1 25 Astrocaryum aculeatum 2.5 7 3 Pentaclethra macroloba 2.0 55 76 Pouteria guianensis 2.0 5 3 Marlierea schomburgkiana 2.0 2 2 Davilla kunthii 2.0 0 5 Brownea latifolia 2.0 4 2 Hyeronima alchorneoides var. stipulosa 2.0 7 0

4.4.6 Quackal swamp Except for the quackal forest, named after the abundance of ‘kuaku’ or ‘quackoo’ (Marlierea montana), no traditional Arawak names were given to forest types in Moruca. The quackal swamp had the lowest number of species per hectare (75) and also the least useful species (51), of which two-third was present in the tree layer (Table 4.1). The total use value was the lowest of all plots, but still 83% of the species > 10 m DBH (90% of the individuals) were mentioned as useful. Most parts of the year, the peat soils were flooded and the swamp had to be entered by canoe. Few people felt like walking or paddling the large distance over the flooded savanna to harvest NTFPs in the quackal swamp, especially if these products could be found closer to home. The most important multi-use species are presented in Table 4.7.

Symphonia globulifera and Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla had high use values and were present with large numbers of individuals. Wild fruits were occasionally harvested, mostly the berries of Marlierea montana and Humiriastrum obovatum, which were made into an alcoholic ‘wine’. Palm heart had been harvested from the quackal swamp in the past. Boats would come down the Santa Rosa market to buy palm hearts, probably to sell them again to AMCAR agents along the Biara River (see chapter 5). This resource must have depleted quickly, as neither mature Euterpe oleracea palms or signs of harvesting were observed. Valuable species occurring exclusively in this forest were Calophyllum brasiliense, favoured for canoe making and Pradosia schomburgkiana subsp. schomburgkiana, of which the bark was a reputed medicine against tuberculosis. Both species were commercialised on a small scale. People living on the islands close to this forest were cutting Ischnosiphon obliquus for craft production. Firewood was seldom harvested in this swamp forest.

110 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 4.7 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of quackal forest, Moruca (with use values > 1.5) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey Symphonia globulifera 3 104 31 Mauritia flexuosa 3 6 1 Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 2.5 122 29 Pentaclethra macroloba 2 2 2 Humiria balsamifera var. balsamifera 2 31 0 Pouteria cuspidata 2 2 0 Marlierea montana 2 59 98 Tapirira guianensis 1.5 15 8 Macoubea guianensis 1.5 5 1 Pachira aquatica 1.5 21 18 Parinari rodolphii 1.5 0 8 Humiriastrum obovatum 1.5 76 36 Ocotea schomburgkiana 1.5 8 6 Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea 1.5 123 31 Euterpe oleracea 1.5 0 34

4.4.7 Ité savannas Although Mauritia flexuosa, known locally by its Arawak name ‘ité’, was a major NTFP-producing species in the quackal swamp, it was seldom harvested from this forest. The young shoots of this palm, processed into ‘tibisiri’ fibre and used in commercial craft production, were mostly cut from the individuals growing on the adjacent savanna. As was described in chapter 3, large tracts of swamp forest have been burned and transformed into savannas, in which M. flexuosa occurs as single tree species above a waterlogged herb layer. The reason for this annual burning did not become totally clear. The ité savanna is not suitable for cattle grazing, as the animals sink down in the pegasse. Few people keep cows in Moruca anyway. Elder people said that in their youth the savanna was much smaller and the swamp forest almost extended till the village edge. Some persons said they burned the vegetation to keep open the channels for canoe transport. The population of the Santa Rosa Amerindian Reserve has grown substantially in recent years (Forte, 1990b; Jara and Reinders, 1997). Amerindian communities no longer have to hide themselves in the forest like in the past, when violent encounters between tribes were common (Brett, 1868, cited in Benjamin, 1988). More of the ancient sand dunes, visible as hills in the flooded savanna, became inhabited and traffic between these islands intensified. From the air, the savanna appeared to be crisscrossed by a network of ‘short cuts’, used at different times of the year, depending on the water level.

It is also possible that the quackal swamp was initially burned to facilitate the access to Mauritia flexuosa palms and to enhance their growth. Juveniles of M. flexuosa were rare in the quackal plot, but seemed to be more abundant in the open plains adjacent to the swamp forest that had been burned only once or twice. According to Hiraoka (1999), the palm is an early successional species, germinating on open ground and able to colonize open wetlands and gaps along stream banks. In the recent past, coastal Amerindians were much more dependent on the ité palm than

111 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots they are today. Ité fruits and the starch from the pith of the trunk provided the staple food for the Warao (Wilbert, 1976), while the Arawaks made fermented beverages from the fruits and boiled down the sap from the trunks into a sugar substitute. Both groups relished on palm grub larvae found in the notches of fallen trunks (Forte, 1988). Nowadays, the palm is mainly used for its fibre. In the wet season, shoots are harvested from the savanna by approaching the palms by boat, which is more difficult in the dense swamp forest. In Suriname, similar herbaceous swamps and savannas have been set to fire to keep the areas accessible to man and attractive to wildlife (Theunissen, 1993). Hunting is easier in the open field as the visibility is better, but people said the wildlife on the Moruca savanna had decreased substantially in the last decades, probably due to overharvesting. According to Janssen (1974), peat fires must have taken place at least since the arrival of Amerindians in Suriname, some 10,000 years before present.

Except for the ité palm, few useful plants were found in the open savanna. Some Moruca residents admitted they burned the savanna because they thought it was ‘fun’ and enjoyed the cool breeze of the northeastern trade winds blowing over the open plains. However, ité seedlings apparently do not survive repeated burning, since the palms had gradually disappeared from the savannas near human settlements. Tibisiri harvesters complained that they could not approach the palms during the annual fires and had to travel further each year to obtain their raw material. Although probably beneficial at first, the burning of the savanna will eventually become fatal to one of the most valuable NTFP resources in Moruca.

4.4.8 Manicole swamp The Euterpe-dominated forest had a low floristic diversity, with just 30 species > 10 cm DBH in one ha and a total use value of only 71 (Table 4.1). Local residents recognised 71 useful species, of which 27 were found in the tree layer and 44 (62%) in the lower strata. Still 90% of the trees (over 99% of the individuals in the tree layer) were considered useful. The most important multi-use species are listed in Table 4.8. In spite of their low species-richness, the manicole swamps are probably the most important forests for commercial NTFP extraction in Guyana. Euterpe oleracea (manicole) is harvested for its palm heart and sold to a canning company located at the Barima River. Since the opening of the factory, palm heart harvesting has become the main source of income for Amerindians in the coastal swamps of the North-West District. The impact of this palm heart extraction is discussed in the following chapter.

Except for palm heart, the palm was also used for roof thatch, construction, and as minor food source. E. precatoria was used similarly, although its palm heart was only consumed for subsistence and rarely traded, since it was too large for the cans. Other important plants were Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa, frequently harvested for its edible fruits, and Eperua falcata (wallaba), cut into poles and sold to construction workers in Santa Rosa. Near the Waini River, the palm Manicaria saccifera suddenly became an important canopy element in the manicole swamp. Its giant leaves were used as roof thatch and commercialised throughout the North- West District. In the past, Iryanthera juruensis and Virola surinamensis were felled for timber, but logging activities in the coastal swamp area have now ceased.

112 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Frequently gathered medicinal species in this swamp forest were Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, Schlegelia violacea, Philodendron scandens, Pentaclethra macroloba, and Symphonia globulifera. In the wet period the swamps had to be entered by canoe, but soils remained swampy the rest of the year. Consequently, firewood was just a minor NTFP in these forests.

Table 4.8 Most important multi-use species in 1 ha of manicole swamp, Assakata (with use values > 1.5) and their abundance in tree layer and undergrowth.

Species Use value # individuals # individuals > 10cm DBH understorey Euterpe oleracea 3.5 127 184 Symphonia globulifera 3.0 65 11 Carapa guianensis 3.0 1 0 Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 2.5 40 12 Pentaclethra macroloba 2.5 116 98 Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa 2.5 33 4 Euterpe precatoria 1.5 45 14 Tapirira guianensis 1.5 23 25 Macrosamanea pubiramea var. pubiramea 1.5 0 328 Mora excelsa 1.5 6 0 Micropholis venulosa 1.5 4 3

4.4.9 Most important NTFP species from the seven hectare plots Although most culturally important species had multiple uses, some plants with fewer uses produced quite essential NTFPs as well. The most important NTFPs found in the seven hectare plots, both for commercial and subsistence purposes, were: Euterpe oleracea, Heteropsis flexuosa, Clusia spp., Geonoma baculifera, Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, Carapa guianensis, Mauritia flexuosa, Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril, Ischnosiphon arouma, and Inga alba. Hemi- epiphytes in the canopy were not covered in the nested sampling method, but some of the species had a substantial commercial value. Heteropsis flexuosa (‘peeling nibi’), Clusia grandiflora, and C. palmicida (‘kufa’) were commercially exploited for the furniture industry, while Thoracocarpus bissectus (‘scraping nibi’) was mostly used for heavy duty baskets, often traded with gold miners in the interior (chapter 6). Nibi and kufa plants were patchily distributed throughout the region, but seemed to have a preference for well-drained primary forest (Table 4.9). They were much more abundant in Barama than in Moruca. It takes long before these plants have settled in the canopy, as only after 60 years of succession the first harvestable roots were found. Harvestable roots are mature and straight; young roots lack the required strength. Unsuitable roots may be mature, but contain many knots or wrap around the tree trunk. Nibi and kufa were rare in swamp forest on pegasse, but seemed to be somewhat more frequent in Mora forest. Most of the raw material for the furniture industry was harvested around the Pomeroon area. However, if overharvesting would cause a scarcity of roots in that region, or if a similar cottage industry would be set up in Moruca, there might be a chance that these roots will be harvested to a greater extent in the future.

113 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 4.9 Numbers of aerial roots of hemi-epiphytic species used in commercial craft production. Numbers indicate the amount of mature and young or unsuitable roots found in one hectare in each of the seven plots.

Species Type of aerial roots Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata mixed 20-year Mora mixed 60-year quackal manicole forest sec. for forest forest sec. for. swamp swamp

Heteropsis flexuosaharvestable105------Heteropsis flexuosa young or unsuitable 87 - - 7 - - - Thoracocarpus bissectus harvestable 32 - 16 18 - - - Thoracocarpus bissectus young or unsuitable 67 6 8 5 22 1 1 Clusia grandiflora harvestable 43 - 7 6 - - 1 Clusia grandiflora young or unsuitable 10 - 5 14 - 3 - Clusia palmicida harvestable - - - 32 3 7 - Clusia palmicida young or unsuitable 1 - - 21 2 3 2

115 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

4.4.10 Commercialisation of NTFPs Because of their limited access to the market, the Barama Caribs commercialised few plant species. Of the 213 species harvested from the three hectare plots, ca. 42 species (20%) were traded within the region. Raw plant products were occasionally sold, like in the case of Geonoma baculifera leaves. Most species had an indirect commercial value, since they were processed into sawn wood (27 species) or household equipment (e.g., clay pots treated with Inga alba bark). No more than six species were sold on a regular basis: Heteropsis flexuosa, Ischnosiphon arouma, Quiina guianensis, I. alba, G. baculifera, and Carapa guianensis.

If we assume that most sawn boards in the Arawak region were subject to economic exchange, about 32% (73 species) of the 229 useful species in the Moruca and Assakata plots were commercialised. Most of these (54 species) were sold as lumber. Since timber harvesting was not the subject of this research, the exact amount of wood species sawn into boards was not verified. Nine species of NTFPs were sold on a regular basis: Euterpe oleracea, Duguetia pycnastera, Heteropsis flexuosa, Ischnosiphon arouma, I. obliquus, Carapa guianensis, Mauritia flexuosa, Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla, and Astrocaryum aculeatum.

4.4.11 Most important NTFP families The relative use value of each plant family was calculated for both indigenous groups. The major family use values of the Barama plots are listed in Table 4.10, adjusted to their number of species occurring in the plots. The Meliaceae had the highest importance, which resulted from the various uses of Carapa guianensis, such as medicinal oil, bark, seeds, canoes, and household equipment. However, the species was not very abundant, since it was frequently logged for its valuable wood.

Table 4.10 Most important multi-use families in the Barama plots (mean use value > 1), adjusted for the number of species per family.

Families Barama Barama Barama mixed forest 20-year secondary Mora forest Meliaceae 2.33 2.00 2.25 Annonaceae 1.67 1.72 1.50 Costaceae 1.50 2.00 1.00 Tiliaceae 2.00 2.00 - Bombacaceae 2.00 2.00 - Cyclanthaceae 1.25 2.00 2.00 Guttiferae 1.60 1.50 1.25 Myrtaceae 2.00 1.75 - Lecythidaceae 1.00 2.00 0.75 Leguminosae-Mimos. 1.10 1.13 1.50 Myristicaceae 0.75 1.25 1.50 Anacardiaceae 0.50 2.00 1.00 Zingiberaceae 1.50 1.75 - Cecropiaceae 0.75 1.00 1.50 Chrysobalanaceae 1.13 1.00 1.00 Monimiaceae 1.50 1.50 -

116 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The Annonaceae, of which most members stayed below the 10 cm DBH, was quite a useful family, because of its strong and flexible wood. The importance of Costaceae indicates that species present in the shrub and herb layer were also producing essential NTFPs. The relative high value of the Cyclanthaceae illustrates the contribution of useful hemi-epiphytes.

Palmae, Guttiferae and Anacardiaceae came out as most important multi-use families in the Moruca and Assakata plots (see Table 4.11). Meliaceae had less diversified uses than in Barama, but Myrtaceae were somewhat more important because of the various species with edible fruits. Again several families with only smaller species (Marantaceae, Cyclanthaceae) produced important NTFPs. Just like in the Barama plots, the swamp forest plots contained less multi-use families than the better-drained forests.

Table 4.11 Most important families in the Moruca and Assakata plots (mean use value > 0.75), adjusted for the number of species per family.

Family Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata mixed 60-year quackal manicole forest secondary swamp swamp Guttiferae 2.00 1.75 1.50 2.25 Palmae 1.00 1.43 1.67 1.80 Anacardiaceae 1.50 1.25 1.50 1.50 Meliaceae 2.00 1.33 - 1.50 Myrtaceae 2.00 1.67 1.00 - Chrysobalanaceae 1.07 1.00 1.17 1.00 Lauraceae 1.17 0.88 0.83 1.13 Bignoniaceae 0.17 0.13 2.50 1.17 Marantaceae 1.50 1.67 - 0.75 Myristicaceae 2.00 0.25 0.63 1.00 Bombacaceae 1.00 1.33 1.50 - Dilleniaceae 1.13 1.17 1.50 - Leguminosae-Mimos. 0.82 0.73 0.92 1.08 Lecythidaceae 1.75 1.80 - - Leguminosae-Caesalp. 1.00 1.31 - 1.17 Cyclanthaceae 1.25 1.50 1.17 1.17 Sapotaceae 1.00 0.58 1.00 0.63 Apocynaceae 0.75 0.43 1.50 0.50

The present valuation method, deduced from Prance et al. (1987), favours families present that have a few species with multiple uses. For instance, the family Tiliaceae was represented by a single species (Apeiba petoumo) with minor uses in four categories, but these were in reality not very important forest products. If we just look at the mean family use values for all plots, calculated from the summed use values of NTFP species, but not divided by the number of species in the plots, we see a quite different list (Table 4.12). Mimosaceae now are in first place, because of the numerous edible Inga species. Guttiferae, Annonaceae and Palmae remained important families, but Araceae and Euphorbiaceae ranked higher than before, as

117 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots these families had large numbers of species with few uses each. This new valuation method is clearly related to the species diversity of the various families.

Table 4.12 Most important NTFP-producing families in northwest Guyana, averaged over the seven hectare plots (mean use value > 2.50).

Family Mean use Family Mean use value value Leguminosae-Mimos. 9.43 Lauraceae 4.00 Guttiferae 7.21 Sapotaceae 3.79 Annonaceae 6.36 Chrysobalanaceae 3.50 Palmae 5.50 Euphorbiaceae 2.93 Lecythidaceae 5.21 Araceae 2.93 Leguminosae-Papil. 4.71 Dilleniaceae 2.50 Leguminosae-Caesalp. 4.21 Myrtaceae 2.50 Meliaceae 4.07

4.5 DISCUSSION

4.5.1 Nested sampling and plot size The use of the nested sampling method revealed that 35 to 65% of the species present in the lower forest strata were utilised by the local population. Some of these plants were saplings of canopy trees, but others were herbs, shrubs, lianas, or hemi- epiphytes. Above all in the young secondary forest and the manicole swamp, more useful species were found in the understorey than in the tree layer. These results point out that those inventories that only count trees > 10 cm DBH may overlook at least 20% and sometimes even more than 60% of the useful species. If this method was followed in the present study, important NTFPs such as Geonoma baculifera and Ischnosiphon arouma would have been overlooked. Lianas, usually left out of forest hectare inventories, also provided essential products, often with medicinal properties (e.g., Curarea candicans, Dilleniaceae spp.). The nested sampling method still does not cover all useful species, as was shown by the craft-producing hemi- epiphytes.

The question remains if seven hectare plots are sufficient to cover all the useful plant species in the different forest types. The species-area curves in chapter 2 and 3 (Figure 2.4 and 3.2) suggest that, especially in the secondary forests, the number of tree species would increase considerably if the sample area would be enlarged. As up to 91% of the trees in secondary forest were utilised, more plots in fallow forest would almost certainly yield ‘new’ NTFPs. The same applies to the primary forests, although to a lesser extent, as their species-area curves were already levelling off. Establishing plots in similar vegetation types elsewhere in the North-West District would probably bring even more previously unrecorded species. Collection efforts outside the plots indeed yielded several other useful species not found within the plots, of which some were valuable NTFPs. Most of these species were quite rare, such as Lonchocarpus spp., renowned fish poisons and Anacardium giganteum, a

118 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I locally marketed fruit species (see Part II of this thesis). Abandoned farms and open shrub lands also contained numerous useful plants. The species-area curves for the swamp forests had flattened considerably, so one hectare was likely to cover the majority of the species. Just a few useful species were collected in swamp forests outside the plots. In chapter 9, the effectiveness of the hectare plots versus the ‘walk-in-the woods’ method will be discussed further.

4.5.2 Arawak vs. Carib plant use Prance et al. (1987) reasoned that differences in plant use between indigenous groups might be more a reflection of plant endemism within the tropical forest than intercultural differences per se. This makes sense when Amerindians from distinct Amazonian countries are evaluated, but seems less valid when plants uses are compared between groups spaced just a few hundred kilometres apart. Several useful plants were found in Barama that were not encountered in Moruca and vice versa, but the overlap in species and uses was still rather large. There certainly existed cultural differences in plant use. Moruca Arawaks, for example, did not eat the fruits of Astrocaryum gynacanthum, which were favoured by Caribs. In the more traditional Arawak-Warao village of Assakata, however, people did consume these palm fruits. Recipes for medicinal plants varied among communities and even among households. It was hard to pinpoint which uses were ‘typical Arawak’ or ‘typical Carib’, although informants often characterised them as such.

Except for cultural heritage and traditional ways of living, plant use may also be correlated with poverty. The richer inhabitants of Santa Rosa (mostly of Spanish Arawak or mixed origin) lived in the village centre and seemed much less dependent on NTFPs than the ‘lower class’, formed by Carib, Warao and Arawaks living in the forested periphery of the settlement. Basketry on the Santa Rosa village market was for the most part made and sold by Caribs from these ‘outskirts’, while Warao came paddling from far to trade their fish and wildlife. This in accordance with the theory that integration through the market for crops and labour signals a shift away from extractivism, and consequently implies that people will probably lose knowledge of wild plants and animals because they spend less time foraging in the forest (Godoy et al., 1998). However, data from this study do not allow for the statistical testing of differences in useful plants (and/or animals) between ethnic groups and forest types. More quantitative data on local plant availability and the loss or retention of knowledge would be needed for such an analysis, but this was somewhat outside the scope of this research.

4.5.3 Valuation of forests The valuation method of Prance et al. (1987) underestimates species with fewer uses that might be of great importance for subsistence and commercial use (e.g., Geonoma baculifera). Furthermore, it does not differentiate between abundant and rare species. Carapa guianensis ranked among the most important NTFPs in nearly each forest type, while the density of this species remained low in all plots. To get a complete picture of actual NTFP harvesting, one should make long-time observations at the forest gate, in stead of focusing on (hypothetical) use values alone. In addition, the valuation method was less practical in nested sampling plots,

119 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots as adults and juveniles of useful species were counted equally. Some trees already produce NTFPs in their juvenile stage (such as bark or leaves), but canoes or house posts can only be made from adult individuals. Another difficulty with the technique of Prance and co-workers is that is does not allow for more than one use within each category; a species either has a major or a minor use. This problem could be solved by introducing more levels of cultural significance, as was done by Berlin et al. (1966) and Turner (1974), or by using complex models composed of use importance, intensity, and exclusivity (Turner, 1988; Stoffle et al, 1990). However, the outcomes all rely on posterior subjective decisions by the researcher about the relative importance of a species, and it is unlikely that these concepts are applied consistently by different researchers (Phillips, 1996).

Simply totalling the number of uses, treating minor uses equivalent to more important forest uses, as was done by Johnston (1998), does not differentiate the relative importance of the various uses. The sheer quantity of uses may overwhelm the reality of NTFP importance in the field (Phillips, 1996). In a forest near Iquitos, Peters et al. (1989a) just summed the existing market prices for the volumes of NTFPs that could possibly be harvested per hectare. This method was heavily criticised, since it yielded extraordinary high values per hectare, but did not include fluctuations in price and demands, nor actual extraction volumes (Padoch and de Jong, 1989; Piñedo-Vasquez et al., 1990; Godoy and Lubowski, 1992). This method was less useful in the Guyanese context, as few of the NTFPs present in the forest plots were actually marketed. And even if all available commercial NTFPs would be harvested from a forest, the price per item would drop substantially.

In spite of these unfavourable aspects, this method was used by Sullivan (1999) to calculate the economic value of NTFPs in three Amerindian villages in the North- West District. On the basis of single interviews, held during two weeks of fieldwork per village, she calculated the total volumes of NTFPs collected per week and simply extrapolated this to one year, assuming that the seasonal variety in available plants and animals was of minor importance. The monetary value of the NTFPs was either based on existing or hypothetical market prices for these goods, or on the amount of time spent on collecting these items, by taking a shadow wage based on the earnings obtained during palm heart harvesting. But it is shown in chapter 5 that this shadow wage was not representative for the actual revenues earned by cabbage cutting, since wages varied substantially throughout the study area. Furthermore, the majority of NTFPs were used for subsistence, since the nearest market was located as far as six hours away from the villages studied by Sullivan. Especially in the dry season, when transport costs are high, the commercialisation of NTFPs is strongly limited in this region. Finally, several of the marketed ‘forest fruits’ in her study (e.g., Maximiliana maripa, Astrocaryum aculeatum) were probably coming from cultivated sources. This misinterpretation led to a rather high contribution of ‘wild foods’ in the income of local people.

Similarly, the value of medicinal plants used in the villages was based on a figure of US$ 0.70 per lbs., derived from the local price of crabwood seeds (Carapa guianensis). Strangely, none of the informants in the present study ever mentioned crabwood seeds as a commercial item. Crabwood oil, however, was regularly sold in the interior for US$ 3.50 a litre, for which 20 lbs. of seeds were needed. Using

120 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Sullivan’s seed price, a bottle of oil would then cost $ 14, excluding the (substantial) labour costs. In the end, Sullivan calculated the imputed annual value of medicinal plants at $ 78 to $ 131 per household. By keeping in mind that crab oil is the most expensive herbal medicine in the country, and that other medicinal plants are seldom commercialised within Amerindian communities and cost only $ 0.10 per bundle in Georgetown (chapters 6 and 8), these figures are clearly exaggerated. Through a complicated series of formulas, Sullivan calculates that the total value of forest inputs used per capita in the three villages amounts to US$ 357 per year. She then multiplies this with the number of Amerindians in the North-West District (14,075) and divides this by the surface of land (20,117 km2), and concludes that the use- value of NTFPs by Amerindian forest-dwellers in the region is US$ 2.25 per hectare. She thereby assumes a total homogeneity in the distribution of Amerindian households, equal marketing opportunities, and similar forest types throughout the region.

Putting hypothetical monetary values on species used for subsistence, also known as ‘contingent valuation’, is a rather arbitrary method. Although this technique might encourage researchers and policy makers to reflect on the total value of forests, it is impractical to apply them in most ethnobotanical studies (Martin, 1995). It assumes that the value people say they are willing to pay is the value they would actually pay, while in remote areas the willingness to pay for goods than can be freely collected in the forest is likely to be zero (Mitchell and Carson, 1989; Godoy and Lubowski, 1992). Although it is important to show that NTFPs have an economic value, the quality of data is crucial to the reliability of the results. By using inaccurate prices and false assumptions from the beginning, the final outcomes will have a limited credibility. Sullivan’s data are therefore only used in this study when they seemed trustworthy.

Only in the manicole swamp plot in Assakata, where NTFPs were directly sold ‘at the forest gate’, the potential harvest of palm heart (Euterpe oleracea) could be estimated at US$ 27.6 per ha (chapter 5). Hoffman (1997) estimated the revenues of Heteropsis flexuosa extraction in the lower Pomeroon mixed forest at US$ 2.4 per ha (62 mature roots/ha). This would result in US$ 4.1 per ha for the Barama mixed forests (105 mature roots/ha), but such an estimate is of little use as these forests are located far away from the Pomeroon market. Because of the high transportation costs, roots from Barama have little chance to compete with those extracted near the market. The large amount of taxa evaluated in this study, the low percentage of commercialised species, and the focus on indigenous plant use made the forest valuation method of Prance et al. (1987) the most appropriate for this study.

4.5.4 Use percentages and categories When we look at other quantitative NTFP inventories, percentages of useful trees over 10 cm DBH are quite variable among Amazonian forests. Researchers that included the categories firewood and game animal food came to use percentages of 100% (Balée, 1986, 1987) and 94.8% (Grenand, 1992). According to Prance et al. (1987), any tree could be burned as fuel or eaten by animals, so they omitted these categories from their calculations. Not all woody species in northwest Guyana were used as fuel, but including firewood also resulted in high percentages of useful trees

121 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots in (83-94%). Animal food was left out from this inventory, but plant products deliberately used by humans to catch game (bait) were included in the ‘other’ category. Use percentages without firewood varied between 65% (Barama mixed forest) and 87% (60-year-old forest), more or less comparable to those found by Prance et al. (1987) for other Amazonian groups. In northwest Guyana, a lower percentage of tree species was used for food and a higher percentage for medicine than in the plots surveyed by Prance and co-workers in Brazil, Venezuela and Bolivia.

The use percentage of a particular forest is determined both by local plant diversity and by the level of acculturation or specialisation of its indigenous users. Prance et al. (1987) stated that different sets of species within the Amazonian forests do not have to affect the utility of these forests per se to comparable indigenous groups. Still, comparisons between use categories are difficult to make, since the floristic composition of the forest types in central and western Amazonia are quite different from those in Guyana.

In one of the few quantitative NTFP studies in Guyana, Matheson (1994) found that an average of 84% (65% excluding firewood) of the trees > 10 cm DBH in Mora, mixed and wallaba forest was used by local Akawaio in upper Demerara. She stated that the species-poor wallaba and Mora forest had a higher usefulness than the diverse mixed forest, but these values were based of the number of individuals rather than the number of species. She mentioned the Palmae as the most useful family, but many of these palm species in her report were cultivated and none occurred in the plots. The percentage of useful individuals in the northwest plots was much higher, ranging from 90 to 99% of the trees > 10 cm DBH. Further comparisons were impractical, as Matheson’s plots were smaller (0.64 ha), and many trees were not fully identified.

In his assessment of NTFP availability in central Guyana, Johnston (1998) made hectare plots in Mora, morabukea, mixed, wallaba, and greenheart forest in Kurupukari (Iwokrama Reserve). He compared them with similar vegetation plots made by Davis and Richards (1933, 1934) in Moraballi Creek. The number of useful trees found in the two localities (112 species > 10 cm DBH in 9 ha), was much lower than in the present study (216 useful tree species in 7 ha). Some of the most important NTFP-producing families in central Guyana were similar to those in the northwest (Mimosaceae, Palmae), while other widely utilised families (Caesalpiniaceae, Bombacaceae and Chrysobalanaceae) were less important in the present study. Annonaceae and Guttiferae, important NTFP families in the northwest plots, seemed to be less significant in central Guyana, probably because attention was only paid to trees > 10 cm DBH.

The mixed forest plots in Kurupukari, described in detail by Johnston and Gillman (1995), had a lower tree diversity than the mixed plots in this study. In chapter 2, we have seen that the species-richness of the Moraballi mixed forest plot (Davis and Richards, 1933) was similar to those of the North-West District (Table 2.15). However, the Mora forest in the two central Guyana locations was much more diverse than the one in Barama (chapter 3, Table 3.12). Thus, the general lower number of useful trees in central Guyana cannot be explained by a lower tree

122 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I diversity. It seems to be caused by the fact that many of Johnson’s plant uses were based on the survey of Fanshawe (1948), which is by no means exhaustive and in many cases outdated in its botanical names and uses. Moreover, the plots of Davis and Richards were made in the 1930s. Johnston apparently assumed that the forest composition in Moraballi was still the same in the 1990s, but according to H. ter Steege (pers. comm.), the area has been repeatedly logged since the 1930s. On-the- spot surveys of these forest plots with present inhabitants of Moraballi creek would probably have yielded more accurate results. Thus, Johnston’s forest valuations were largely based on the potential availability of NTFPs, rather than on the actual forest utilisation by local Amerindians. This makes a comparison between use categories with this study not very relevant.

4.5.5 Forest diversity and marketing of NTFPs Many of the quantitative NTFP inventories were made in well-drained terra firme forest in western and central Amazonia. These forests were usually characterised by a high species diversity, which was often reflected by a large variety in indigenous uses (Peters et al, 1989a; Milliken et al., 1992; Phillips et al., 1994). But such low densities of conspecific trees may result in low quantities of specific harvestable products per hectare and high extraction costs (Peters et al, 1989b; Johnston, 1998). Commercial extraction of NTFPs from diverse forests is further complicated by a discontinuous product supply and an unknown sustainability as populations are small (Richards, 1993). The only viable option for these forests would be multiple- species extractivism (Johnston, 1998). Low-diversity forests seem to offer much better possibilities for sustainable single-species harvesting (Salafsky et al., 1993). Johnston (1998) assumed that Mora, wallaba and greenheart-dominated forests were likely to produce economically sustainable NTFPs, provided that the few dominating species generated valuable products. Unfortunately, these canopy dominants are also being exploited on a large scale by logging companies. Although they yield some subsistence products that could be harvested without killing the tree (e.g., a decoction of Mora bark is used against diarrhoea), their timber is also highly valued by Amerindians for canoes and house post.

Looking at the present-day NTFP extraction in Guyana, we see that the least diverse forests are the main areas for commercial harvesting. Mangrove bark is collected from the tidal forests dominated by Rhizophora mangle. Troolie leaves (Manicaria saccifera) and palm hearts (Euterpe oleracea) are extracted in substantial volumes from manicole swamps. The great economic potential of permanently flooded, species-poor swamp forests was already brought up by Peters et al. (1989b). These so-called oligarchic forests cover over several millions of hectares in Amazonia and often are dominated by few, economically important species. With 490 harvestable stems per ha (E. oleracea develops a mature palm heart at a DBH of ca. 8.4 cm), the manicole swamp is an example of an oligarchic forest in Guyana. The quackal swamp is a less prominent case, as the major commercial species (Mauritia flexuosa) does not occur in such high densities, but the ité savanna can definitely be considered an oligarchic vegetation type.

123 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

These ‘natural monocultures’ produce large volumes of fruits, but unfortunately, few Guyanese value this abundant resource. In Brazil and Peru, hundreds of tons of E. oleracea, M. flexuosa and Jessenia bataua fruits are processed annually into juices, ice creams and preserves (Peters et al., 1989b; Richards, 1993). If an export market for these products could be developed or local consumption would be stimulated in Guyana, the swamp forests of the North-West District would bring in even more economic revenues than they do today.

Fruit collection does little damage to the forest ecosystem (Peters, 1989), but palm heart harvesting may have a serious impact on Euterpe populations. Programmes for controlled extractivism and non-destructive harvesting techniques should therefore be implemented. This would imply a ban on the annual burning of ité savanna and quackal forest, in order to increase the survival chances of Mauritia flexuosa. Recommendations for sustainable palm heart extraction are given in chapter 5. According to Anderson (1988), in-situ management of forests dominated by economically important species could be a viable enterprise when product value is high and the potential for conflictive land uses is minimal. Increased utilisation of the oligarchic northwestern swamps seems to be a feasible development option, as these areas are less suitable for agriculture, mining, or timber harvesting.

4.5.6 Secondary forest In Barama as well as in Moruca, the highest numbers of species and the greatest total use values were found in secondary forest. The large amount of useful species in succession forest might have two causes: a general floristic diversity and the phenomenon that local plant knowledge is likely to decrease if moving away from the village. The plants most utilised are generally found close to home, with intensity of use decreasing at greater distances (Martin, 1995). The lower use percentages of the two mixed forest plots and the quackal plot could possibly be explained by the fact that these plots were located further from the villages and less often visited than the other plots. The succession forest plots in the North-West District also contained more fruit species than the other plots. Smaller trees and abundant fruit-producing shrubs further facilitated the gathering of edible berries. Balée (1994: 136) called the exceptionally rich 40 to 100-year old secondary forest in Brazil ‘an indigenous contribution to regional biodiversity’. The high percentage of fruit species made him consider these fallow forest as ‘indigenous orchards, whether consciously planted or not’. Results of this study seem to confirm the theory that secondary forest is most intensively used and best known since it is always surrounding the settlements (Martin, 1995).

High densities and short distances are very decisive factors in plant collection (Grenand, 1992). This means that if useful products occurring in primary forest also grow in old fallows, they are much likely to be harvested from there. For instance, the bark from Inga alba was more often collected in secondary than in primary forest in Barama, although the species was present in both forest types (chapter 2). Commercial NTFP exploitation is often believed to be able to ‘save’ the forest, as it may yield more revenue than other land uses (Peters et al, 1989a). But this can only be achieved if NTFPs are able to prevent or reduce deforestation.

124 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

In the case of the quackal swamp, we have seen that fibre extraction from Mauritia flexuosa is not capable of preserving the forest. On the contrary, the natural habitat is destroyed in order to harvest the desired product. NTFPs that also occur in secondary forest have a limited potential to conserve the primary forest. The aerial roots of nibi and kufa, used in the commercial furniture industry, are examples of NTFPs with an actual market value in Guyana that are only present in standing primary forest. Given their economic importance, their possibilities for sustainable harvesting and their potential for forest conservation, there is an urgent need for developing adequate management plans for these species (see chapter 6).

According to Prance et al. (1987), the well-drained terra firme forest with its large numbers of species and useful plants should have a high conservation priority. The successful marketing of NTFPs from these forests is obstructed by high transport costs and low densities of commercial species. These problems could be solved only if external subsidies would be introduced for NTFPs from remote forests, or products would be processed locally (Hall and Bawa, 1993; Richards, 1993; Johnston, 1998). Precisely these species-rich forests in northwest Guyana are most threatened by mining and logging activities (ter Steege, 1998).

Large tracts of relatively undisturbed primary forest can still be found along the Barama, as the Carib villages are rather small and scattered over a large area (Forte, 1995). But this might change in the near future, as several communities within the BCL logging concession have not (yet) been granted official land rights (Forte, 1994). Although BCL’s management plan states that timber extraction on Amerindian lands should not be encouraged (ECTF, 1993), Kariako and several other Barama Carib communities were omitted from the list of indigenous settlements in the concession area. As the company reports remain vague about the time schedule of their logging operations, urgent action is needed to ensure that their diverse and intensively used forest is still available to the Barama Caribs in the future.

The mixed forest in Moruca is officially included in the Santa Rosa Amerindian Reserve, but this does not automatically imply that local authorities follow sufficient protection measurements. Adequate management plans for the remaining forest in this area are needed on a short term, to guarantee the availability of forest products for the future generations of Moruca. These plans should include the quackal swamp. This forest forms an important buffer zone between the seacoast and the densely populated Moruca area, but it is severely threatened by annual burning.

Finally, one should consider that plants alone do not make up the total value of NTFPs in a forest. Wildlife is by far the most important NTFP in Guyana, both for subsistence use and for commercial trade (van Andel, 1998). Hunting is done in all forest types, but primary forest may harbour different species than open fallows. Dense swamps offer an important refuge for animals, and provide food and shelter to fishes during the seasonal flooding (Goulding et al., 1988). This was illustrated by the fishing activities in the inundated swamps and the variety of seeds and fruits used as bait. As was already stressed by Godoy and Lubowski (1992), a complete valuation of NTFPs in a particular forest type should include both flora and fauna.

125 4. Useful plant species in the seven hectare plots

4.6 CONCLUSIONS

Although not covering every single species, nested sampling gave a fairly good picture of the useful plants in the seven forest hectare plots. Between 20 and 60% of the useful species in the plots was found in the understorey.

Variations in the number of useful species between the hectare plots seem to be caused by floristic diversity, socio-economic and cultural differences. The species- rich mixed forests contained more useful species and had a higher overall use value than the species-poor swamp plots. High floristic diversity, however, is not a prerequisite for economically and ecologically sustainable NTFP extraction. Craft- producing hemi-epiphytes are among the few species that have a potential to preserve this diverse forest, as standing forest is needed for the required products. The low-diversity forests, in particular the manicole swamp, offered the best opportunities for sustainable NTFP harvesting, since the vegetation was dominated by economically important species.

Except for regional differences in species and use techniques, we can conclude that all forest types sampled in this study were of great importance to their local inhabitants. High use percentages (especially in the tree layer, in which up to 99% of the individuals were considered useful) indicated that people had a great knowledge of their surrounding forest.

Many highly valued NTFPs were produced by commercial timber species (e.g., Carapa guianensis, Aspidosperma spp., Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril, Brosimum guianense, and Inga alba). Selective logging of these species would deprive local Amerindians from these products, of which some are essential elements in their daily lives.

Since several of the sampled forest types were threatened, either immediately by local timber harvesting and slash-and-burn agriculture (Moruca), or in the near future by logging and mining (Barama), there is an urgent need for protection measurements and sustainable management plans in the region.

126 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

4.7 APPENDIX

Useful species in the seven one-hectare forest plots in northwest Guyana Use catogories: A = major food, a = minor food, B = major construction material, b = minor construction material, C = major technology product, c = minor technology product, D = major medicine, d = minor medicine, E = major other use, e = minor other use, F = major firewood species. ? = occurring in the plot but not used in this region., ** = commercial timber species in Guyana (Polak, 1992), * = local commercial timber. Life forms: H = herb, T = tree, S = shrub, HE = hemi-epiphyte, L = liana. Minor firewood species (22 spp.) are omitted from the table.

Anacardiaceae Astronium cf. lecointei T? D Spondias mombin TA Tapirira guianensis * T bcF abd abd abd abd T. cf. obtusa TF

Annonaceae Anaxagorea dolichocarpa Tbcbcbc Annona symphyocarpa Tcf Bocageopsis multiflora Tc Duguetia calycina Tc D. megalophylla T abCd abCd D. pauciflora Tcdcd D. pycnastera TBC BC

127 4.7 Appendix

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Annonaceae Duguetia yeshidan T bcd bcd bcd Guatteria schomburgkiana * Tbb Guatteria sp. (TVA1127) T bf Guatteria sp. (TVA666) T b Rollinia exsucca TcDfcDf cece Unonopsis glaucopetala * T BcD BcD BcD BcD Xylopia cayennensis Tb X. aff. surinamensis *T bf Xylopia sp. (TVA1165) * T BcF Xylopia sp. (TVA1176) T Bc

Apocynaceae Ambelania acida TA Aspidosperma excelsum TcdF A. marcgravianum TcDcD Forsteronia guyanensis Ld Himatanthus articulatus TBB Macoubea guianensis * T Bc Maloueta flavescens Se Tabernaemontana disticha S de T. undulata Sd d d d

128 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Araceae Dieffenbachia paludicola H e Heteropsis flexuosa HE BC BC Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana HE D Philodendron cf. brevispathum HE d P. deflexum HE cd P. fragrantissimum HE ce P. linnaei HE dd P. melinonii HE ce P. rudgeanum HE cccc c P. scandens HE cD cD D P. surinamense HE cccc Spathiphyllum cannifolium He ?

Araliaceae Schefflera morototoni ** T bcdf bdf

Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia daemoninoxia Ld

Bignoniaceae Ceratophytum tetragonolobus Lb Jacaranda copaia subsp. spectabilis ** Tbcebce b b Mansoa kerere L b Parabignonia steyermarkii Lb

129 4.7 Appendix

Bombacaceae Catostemma commune ** TBcdBcd BcBc Ceiba pentandra Tce Pachira aquatica T cDcDcD

Boraginaceae Cordia nodosa SaDaD ddd C. sericicalyx Tacac C. tetrandra Tacac ac

Burseraceae Protium decandrum ** T bcde bcde bc P. guianense * Tb b bc P. heptaphyllum ssp. heptaphyllum * TAbc P. unifoliolatum * Tbc Tetragastris altissima ** Tabfabf Trattinnickia cf. lawrancei v. boliviana * Tbc T. burserifolia T c

Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata TcDcDD C. sciadophylla Tcece D

130 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Celastraceae Goupia glabra ** Tbdbd bdbd Maytenus cf. guyanensis Td ? ?

Chrysobalanaceae Couepia parillo TbFbF Hirtella racemosa var. Tb racemosa * Licania alba ** TFF FFF L. heteromorpha var. perplexans T F F bdF F L. incana T F L. kunthiana Te L. micrantha Tbf L. persaudii Tbf bf Licania sp. (TVA2324) T F Licania sp. (TVA2332) T F Parinari rodolphii ** T dFdFdF

Combretaceae Combretum cacoucia L c Terminalia cf. amazonia ** T b b T. dichotoma ** Tb

131 4.7 Appendix

Costaceae Costus arabicus SDe Costus erythrothyrsus SaD Costus scaber SAD

Cyclanthaceae Asplundia cf. gleasonii HE cc Evodianthus funifer ssp. funifer HE c ccc Thoracocarpus bissectus HE BC BC BC BCe BCe BCe BCe

Cyperaceae Scleria secans He e

Dichapetalaceae Tapura guianensis T? ? b

Dilleniaceae Davilla kunthii LaD aDeaDe Doliocarpus cf. dentatus LaD Pinzona coriacea LD Pinzona sp. (TVA2509) L D D Dilleniaceae Tetracera volubilis ssp. volubilis LaDaD aDaDaD

132 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Cyclodium meniscioides var. Dryopteridaceae HE dddd d meniscioides Dryopteridaceae Polybotrya caudata HE dd

Diospyros guianensis subsp. Ebenaceae T ac c guianensis * D. tetrandra T???a

Elaeocarpaceae Sloanea grandiflora Te e e S. cf. guianensis T? c c S. latifolia Tf c S. obtusifolia * Tbc

Erytroxylaceae Erytroxylum macrophyllum Tb b ?

Euphorbiaceae Alchorneopsis floribunda * Tf b Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus * T b bdf bdf Hyeronima alchorneoides var. TB B B BC stipulosa** H. oblonga * T? ?bbb Mabea piriri T d d d bc bc Maprounea guianensis Td

133 4.7 Appendix

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Euphorbiaceae Pera glabrata * Tb Sandwithia guianensis * T ? ? ? bc bc Sapium jenmanii Te Snefeldera sp. (TVA1369) T b

Flacourtiaceae Casearia aff. acuminata Td C. javitensis T? ? bfbf Laetia procera ** TF b

Gesneriaceae Codonanthe crassifolia HE d

Graminae Olyra longifolia Hee?

Guttiferae Calophyllum brasiliense * T B Clusia grandiflora HE acDe acDe aCD aCD aCD C. palmicida HE acD aCD aCD aCD aCD Symphonia globulifera ** T BCD BCD BCD BCD Tovomita cf. brevistaminea T abef abef T. calodictylos Tcf T. cf. obscura T acf acf c T. schomburgkii Tbcbc

134 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Haemodoraceae Xiphidium caeruleum Hd

Humiria balsamifera var. Humiriaceae TBefBef balsamifera ** Humiriastrum obovatum * T abf

Humiriaceae Sacoglottis aff. cydonioides Td

Lauraceae Aniba cf. guianensis *T BB B A.hostmanniana * TB A. jenmanii * T BB A. cf. kappleri * TB A. cf. riparia * TB B A. cf. terminalis * TB Aniba sp. (TVA988) * TB Nectandra cf. cuspidata * TBf Ocotea cernua * TB B O. schomburgkiana * T f Bc Bc Bc Bc

135 4.7 Appendix

Lecythidaceae Eschweilera alata ** TB E. decolorans ** TBc E. sagotiana ** TBceBC E. wachenheimii ** TBcBcBcBcBc Eschweilera sp. (TVA2144.) T B Lecythis cf. chartacea * TBcBc L. corrugata subsp. corrugata ** T BE Bcde Bcde L. zabucajo ** T ABe ABe ABc ABc Lecythis sp. (TVA2380) * TBc

Leg.- Caesalp. Bauhinia guianensis LDDDDD B. scala-simae LD D Brownea latifolia TaefabD Dicorynia cf. guianensis Tc Eperua falcata ** TBB E. rubiginosa var. rubiginosa ** TB Hymenaea courbaril ** TABcD

136 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Leg.- Caesalp. Macrolobium cf. angustifolium * T bc Mora excelsa ** TaBd aBd Bc Bc Peltogyne venosa subsp. venosa ** TBc Sclerolobium micropetalum ** Te e Senna multijuga var. multijuga Tef ef Tachigali paniculata * Tb

Leg.- Mimos. Abarema jupunba v. trapezifolia ** Tbcbcbcbc Hydrochorea cf. corymbosa Tbf Inga cf. acreana Ta I. cf. acrocephala Taa I. alba ** TaBCdeaBCde bc bc I. capitata T a aaa I. edulis TAfAfAf I. graciliflora Tafaf a a I. huberi T a ab ab I. cf. java T a I. lateriflora T acd acd I. leiocalycina Taf I. marginata Taaa I. melinonis Tafaf

137 4.7 Appendix

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Leg.- Mimos. I. pezizifera TAf I. rubiginosa Tafaf a I. splendens Tafaf I. thibaudiana subsp. thibaudiana Taf a I. umbellifera Taf Inga sp. (TVA2283) T a Inga sp. (TVA2463) T a Macrosamanea pubiramea var. T cde cde pubiramea Pentaclethra macroloba T bDf bDf bDf bDe bDe bDe bDef Zygia cataractae Tcd Z. latifolia var. communis T bdf d

Leg.- Papil. Alexa imperatricis ** Tdededebdbd Clathrotropis brachypetala TbDbDbDbdbdbd var. brachypetala ** Dioclea scabra L cde cde cde Diplotropis purpurea ** TBB Dipteryx odorata ** Tc Hymenolobium flavum ** Td Machaerium quinata Lcc? ? Ormosia coccinea ** T be

138 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Leg.- Papil. O. nobilis Te Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. Tcdecde ce officinalis Swartzia guianensis Tbfbfbf Vatairea guianensis ** T d

Strychnos mitscherlichii var. Loganiaceae Lad ad D mitscherlichii

Malpighiaceae Byrsonima aerugo TaF Byrsonima stipulacea TAF Spachea elegans Te

Marantaceae Ischnosiphon arouma SCeBCde I. foliosus Scecececdecde I. obliquus S ce Ischnosiphon sp. (TVA3016) S e Maranta sp. (TVA2217) H e Monotagma spicatum He

Marcgraviaceae Marcgravia coriacea L d Norantea guianensis L d

139 4.7 Appendix

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Melastomataceae Bellucia grossularioides TAcfAcf Clidemia japurensis var. japurensis Saa Henriettea cf. multiflora Ta Leandra divaricata Hae? Loreya mespilioides ta Miconia ceramicarpa v. ceramicarpa Sa M. fragilis Tbf M. nervosa Sa M. cf. racemosa Sa

Meliaceae Carapa guianensis ** T BCDe BCDe BCDe BCD BCD BCD Cedrela odorata ** TBC Guarea cf. guidonia TdF Trichilia rubra Tac T. schomburgkii subsp. schomburgkii TBC bcbc

Menispermaceae Curarea candicans LD Ortomene schomburgkii L a Telitoxicum sp. (TVA1265) L d

Monimiaceae Siparuna guianensis SDeDe

140 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Musaceae Heliconia acuminata var. acuminata Se e

Myristicaceae Iryanthera juruensis * Tbdbdbd Virola calophylla * Tbd V. elongata * T bdf bdf b b V. sebifera Tbdbd V. surinamensis ** Tbdbdbd

Myrsinaceae Cybianthus cf. surinamensis * Tb Stylogyne surinamense Tac

Myrtaceae Calycolpus goetheanus Tadf Calyptranthes sp. (TVA2239) T af Eugenia patrisii TACAC Marlierea montana T AF M. schomburgkiana T aC abcf abcf

141 4.7 Appendix

Nyctaginaceae Neea cf. constricta Ta Neea cf. floribunda Taf Ochnaceae Ouratea guianensis Tbb

Orchidaceae Epidendrum anceps E e

Palmae Astrocaryum aculeatum TACe A. gynacanthum TAdac Bactris campestris T cc B. humilis Sbcbc c c B. oligoclada Sa a a a B. simplicifrons Sa Desmoncus polyacanthos Lacc Euterpe oleracea TAbAbABcde E. precatoria TaB abe Geonoma baculifera SaB G. maxima Sb ? Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa TAbAbAbce

142 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Passifloraceae Passiflora garckei L a P. cf. laurifolia L D P. nitida Lad

Piperaceae Peperomia rotundifolia HE e Piper avellanum SD P. vs. berbicense S d P. hostmannianum SD P. nigrispicum S? D

Polygonaceae Coccoloba densifrons S aa C. marginata Sad

Quiinaceae Quiina guianensis TaCaC ? ? Q. indigofera Tbcfbcf b b

Rapateaceae Rapatea paludosa var. paludosa H bd d

143 4.7 Appendix

Families Species Barama Barama Barama Moruca Moruca Moruca Assakata Mixed 20-year Mora Mixed 60-year Quackal Manicole forest secondary forest forest secondary swamp swamp Carib Carib Carib Arawak Arawak Arawak Arawak Rubiaceae Amaioua corymbosa * Ta A. guianensis Tabfabf Duroia eriopila var. eriopila S aa Faramea aff. guianensis Saa Geophila repens Hd Gonzalagunia dicocca Sa Posoqueria longiflora T? be Psychotria bahiensis var. cornigera Sa P. poeppigiana var. barcellana Sd Sabicea glabrescens Lade Uncaria guianensis La d Rubiaceae sp. (TVA1173) S a

Sapindaceae Allophylus racemosus T b Cupania hirsuta Tf f bF C. scrobiculata var. reticulata TaBFaBF Matayba camptoneura T b M. guianensis * Tb Paullinia cf. capreolata Ld d ? ? Talisia cf. guianensis Tc ? T. hexaphylla Tc ?

144 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Chrysophyllum argenteum subsp. Sapotaceae Ta auratum C. sanguinolatum Tc Micropholis venulosa * Tafafaf ? abc Pouteria bilocularis Taa P. caimito ta a P. cf. coriacea TA P. cuspidata ** TABABa P. durlandii Tabcd P. guianensis ** TAbAbAbAbcAbc P. hispida Tac P. venosa subsp. amazonica TA Pradosia schomburgkiana subsp. T D schomburgkiana

Schizaeaceae Lygodium volubile LD

Selaginellaceae Selaginella parkeri He

Simaroubaceae Simarouba amara TB

145 4.7 Appendix

Sterculiaceae Herrania kanukuensis SA Sterculia pruriens var. pruriens ** T C C Sterculia sp. (TVA1753) T C Sterculia sp. (TVA2372) T c

Tiliaceae Apeiba petoumo T bdef bdef f

Verbenaceae Vitex compressa Tffc

Violaceae Paypayrola longifolia Tbfbfbf? ? ?

Zingiberaceae Curcuma cf. xanthorrhiza HAd Renealmia alpinia ScDe R. orinocencis Scdecde

146 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

5. COMMERCIAL EXTRACTION OF PALM HEARTS1

By T.R. van Andel, K.C.A. Bröker and P.E. Huyskens

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Palm heart from Euterpe oleracea Mart. is the most important non-timber forest product of vegetal origin in Guyana. This multi-stemmed palm species, known locally as ‘manicole’, grows in large numbers in the brackish coastal wetlands of Guyana, and particularly in the country’s North-West District. The heart of this palm consists of the young, rolled leaves in the crownshaft that have not yet been exposed to sunlight. This palm heart or ‘cabbage’ is consumed raw or cooked and is considered a delicacy in both Europe and the United States. Although several palm species have edible hearts, E. oleracea is the world’s main source (Strudwick, 1990). This species is widely distributed in the swamplands of northern South America and attains the greatest concentrations in the Amazon estuary (Henderson and Galeano, 1996). Because of its frequency and clonal, self-regenerative habit, E. oleracea is able to support a large palm heart industry in Brazil, worth US$ 120 million annually in domestic consumption and export value (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988).

An individual clump (genet) of E. oleracea may have up to 25 stems (ramets) of different ages, each of which can attain a height of 20 m and a diameter of 18 cm. A prominent crownshaft is formed when a stem reaches maturity. Young shoots sprout from buds in the clump (Wessels Boer, 1965; Henderson and Galeano, 1996). This clustered growth form is characteristic of palms growing in wet or saline conditions (Hallé et al., 1978). E. oleracea becomes dominant in hydrologically stressed biotopes that are subject to periodic, tidal-driven inundation (Anderson and Jardim, 1989). Even when a stem is felled for its palm heart, the individual clump will survive. The basal sprouts eventually grow into harvestable stems in about four years. Since E. oleracea is locally abundant and regenerates quickly after harvesting, it is relatively easy to extract palm hearts in an ecologically sustainable way (Calzavara, 1972; Anderson, 1988; Strudwick, 1990; Pollak et al., 1995). The extraction of palm hearts (and other NTFPs) is considered sustainable if it has no long-term deleterious effect on the regeneration of the population and the yield remains more or less constant throughout the years. Sustainability involves an equilibrium between harvesting and growth (Strudwick, 1990; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Pollak et al., 1995).

1. A more extensive version of this chapter was published as a Tropenbos-Interim report: van Andel, T.R., Huyskens, P.E. and K.C.A. Bröker. 1998. Palm heart harvesting in Guyana’s Northwest District: Exploitation and Regeneration of Euterpe oleracea swamp forests. Tropenbos-Guyana Interim Report 98-1. Utrecht University.

147 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

However, repeated harvesting with short rotation periods (high harvest pressure) may lead to the weakening of the individual clump and a slower regeneration (Pollak et al., 1995). These authors found that harvesting at short intervals (1-2 years) in Brazil caused clump mortality and a steady decline in production, while harvesting at longer intervals (4-5 years) caused less damage to the Euterpe population and produced a higher palm heart yield. The felling of mature stems may also affect the fish and bird populations that depend on Euterpe fruits for food (Johnson, 1995).

The study was carried out in the only concession for palm heart in Guyana. In 1990, the Company obtained a concession of 47,935 hectares for a period of 20 years from the Guyana Forestry Commission (G. Marshall, pers. comm.). They set up a canning factory at Drum Hill, Barima River, (7° 52' N, 59° 25' W), located in the centre of the Euterpe-dominated swamp forests of the North-West District (Figure 5.1). The Company started with commercial production in 1989 and established a network of agents in the areas where harvesting takes place. Independent ‘cabbage cutters’ sell their harvest to these agents, who then pile up the palm hearts on makeshift platforms on the riverbanks and sell them to the Company for a slightly higher price. The Company operates several boats, which travel along the main rivers according to a well-known schedule to collect palm hearts from the agents’ camps (Figure 5.1). Euterpe is not cultivated anywhere in Guyana; all extraction takes place in natural vegetation. Extractors are given the choice to either sell their palm hearts or exchange them for food and basic commodities (e.g., soap, machetes, kerosene, clothes, and cigarettes). As the Company supplies these goods at prices much lower than the local shops, bartering is very inviting. Commodities are transported by company boats and distributed among the agents when cabbage is collected. People not involved in palm heart harvesting are not allowed to buy these subsidised provisions (Johnson, 1995).

In 1994, the Company processed about 20,000 palm cabbages per day, six days a week. More than six million stems were felled that year. In 1995, export revenues were just over US$ 2 million (NGMC, 1996). The estimated number of cutters that year was about 600. All worked on a freelance basis, as the Company did not employ people to harvest palm hearts. The average cutter was estimated to produce 90 to 100 cabbages a day. At the factory, there were approximately 150 employees, 80 of whom were directly employed in the processing plant (Johnson, 1995). The majority of the palm hearts was (and still is) exported to France (NGMC, 1996, 1997).

Over the past decade, several researchers have started to question the ecological sustainability of palm heart harvesting in Brazil (Anderson and Jardim, 1989; Peters et al., 1989; Kahn and de Granville, 1992; Pollak et al., 1995). Furthermore, they have recommended several protection measures to guarantee a continuous supply of palm hearts in the future. For example, Euterpe populations should be allowed to regenerate for no less than four years between subsequent harvests (Calzavara, 1972), and at least one mature stem per cluster should be left intact to increase the chances of survival and the growth of new stems (Anderson, 1988). Other measures include careful cutting techniques to protect young stems and suckers (Calzavara, 1972), selective thinning of forest competitors (Anderson, 1988), minimum size regulations (Pollak et al., 1995), and sufficient control over harvested areas, following a strict management plan (Strudwick, 1990). It seems, however, that only a

148 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I handful of factories in Brazil have adapted their extraction techniques according to these recommendations (Anderson, 1988; Pollak et al., 1995).

After a one-week field study on the ecological impact of palm heart harvesting in Guyana, Johnson (1995) recommended several of the above-mentioned measures to the Company. He further urged for a ban on the extraction of the single-stemmed Euterpe precatoria, a palm at first glance very similar to E. oleracea. Not only is E. precatoria unable to produce new shoots from its root system after being felled, but it also grows very slowly and takes more than 50 years to reach maturity (Peña and Zuidema, 1999). The Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) has repeatedly asked the Company to conform to the policy of sustainable harvesting (Sunday Chronicle, 1993; Forte, 1995), but to date no management plan has been published.

The successful commercial extraction of NTFPs (including palm hearts) should not only be ecologically sound and economically viable, but also socially and politically acceptable (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). Previous research in the North-West District suggested that socio-economic conditions determine the underlying driving factors of palm heart harvesting (Forte, 1995; G. Ford, pers. comm.). The Company was frequently blamed in the Guyanese media for ‘indiscriminate cutting practices’, ‘destruction of manicole swamps’, and ‘low rates of pay’ (Catholic Standard, 1993a, 1993b; Sunday Chronicle, 1993). Extractors have complained that they have to travel longer distances every day to collect sufficient manicole to earn a living, while the price per cabbage remains the same. In certain areas, people have even considered to cease cutting as it is no longer economically viable (Johnson, 1995).

Palm heart harvesting is one of the main sources of income for Amerindians in the North-West District. In fact, many villages depend almost entirely on the factory for their cash income and food supply, as few other economic opportunities exist in the area (Forte, 1995; van Andel, 1998). Surpluses from subsistence agriculture are rarely sold, since low market prices seldom cover the transportation costs. Wildlife trapping provides some additional income, but then only during the official season from July to December (van Andel, 1998). Other employment options (gold mines, logging operations) are situated deep in the interior, requiring workers to stay away from their families for months (Forte, 1995).

Despite its economic significance, no in-depth scientific research has yet been conducted on palm heart harvesting in Guyana. In order to learn more about the ecological impact of current extraction methods and the socio-economic importance of the palm heart industry, we carried out a four-month field study in the manicole swamps of the North-West District. The objective of this pilot study was to obtain a general overview of the importance of palm heart harvesting in the region and to provide baseline data for further research. Specific objectives were not only to assess the regeneration ability and mortality of E. oleracea under different harvest pressures, but also to identify the main ecological and socio-economic problems concerned with the sustainability of the current harvesting system, and to provide recommendations to improve its management.

149 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Figure 5.1 Distribution of manicole swamps (dominated by Euterpe oleracea) in the North-West District. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

150 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The research questions of this pilot study were:

1. What is the extent and ecological impact of palm heart harvesting in the North- West District? 2. Are their significant differences in population structure, reproduction, yield and mortality of Euterpe oleracea between sites with different harvest pressures? 3. Can the current harvesting methods be considered sustainable? 4. Is a five-year fallow period sufficient for the regeneration of Euterpe populations? 5. What is the socio-economic importance of palm heart harvesting for Amerindian communities? 6. Which are the underlying causes for overharvesting of palm hearts?

The first findings of the pilot research were published in an interim report (van Andel et al., 1998). The contents of this report were discussed with the Tropenbos-Guyana Programme, Utrecht University, the Company and the Guyana Forestry Commission. The majority of their comments have been included in this chapter, which firstly gives an overview of the socio-economic aspects of the palm heart industry, and secondly elaborates on the ecological impact of harvesting on Euterpe populations. Finally, some recommendations are given for a better management of this valuable resource.

The present study is intended to provide a source of information to Government agencies, the Company, (indigenous) NGOs, Amerindian village leaders, and the cabbage cutters themselves. As the reader will discover, the results challenge all parties to improve the conditions for successful palm heart extraction in such a way that the conservation of the coastal swamps is guaranteed, while ensuring a steady income for the people of Guyana’s northwestern forests.

5.2 METHODOLOGY

5.2.1 Climate and topography The climate of the North-West District is wet tropical with an average precipitation of 2750 mm per year and a mean annual temperature of 26.5 ºC (Ramdass, 1990). There is a distinct dry season from February to April, while rainfall is at its greatest from May to July. The coastal area is characterised by extensive brackish swamps, which are subject to both seasonal and diurnal flooding. These swamps are composed of palm marsh forests dominated by Euterpe oleracea. These forests grow on peat soils underlain by a clay layer that inhibits drainage. These so-called ‘pegasse’ soils fluctuate in moisture and salt condition, but remain waterlogged for most of the year. Detailed descriptions of the floristic composition and the useful plants of Euterpe–dominated swamps are given in chapter 3.

5.2.2 Field inventories Ecological aspects The four-month pilot study was carried out from November 1997 to February 1998. To assess the ecological impact of palm heart extraction on Euterpe populations, we

151 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts compared vegetation structure, regeneration, and presence of dead clumps between areas with high and those with low harvest intensity. Our methodology was based on a study by Pollak et al. (1995), who compared sites with a harvesting cycle of 1-2 years (high harvest pressure) to sites with a fallow period of 4-5 years (low harvest pressure) on the island of Marajó in the Brazilian Amazon. Areas with fallow periods longer than two years were not found in Guyana, because extractors usually returned to the same part of the forest after one or two years to harvest again. Therefore, a low-pressure site (LP) was defined as an area that had been harvested once or twice, while a high-pressure site (HP) was an area where extraction had taken place more than two times. In other words, the number of consecutive harvests (the history of extraction) defined the harvest pressure, instead of the length of the fallow periods.

A total of nine plots were laid out, distributed over the coastal swamp region (Figure 5.1). The names and locations of the sites are given in Table 5.1. The plots were established near seven Amerindian villages where palm heart harvesting was the main source of income. The villages were selected according to their history of involvement with the palm heart industry, after consulting the Company and local cabbage cutters, and studying the existing literature (Forte, 1995; Johnson, 1995). On two occasions, more than one plot was established per village (Koriabo and Lower Kaituma), because both high and low harvest pressure areas were present. Plot sites were chosen in areas where people had recently been harvesting. Each plot had been harvested shortly before the measurements were taken. A previously undisturbed manicole swamp (Bullet Tree, no pressure, NP) was used as a control.

To get an idea of the amount of palm hearts extracted from a virgin swamp under normal circumstances, an area of 200 x 10 m was experimentally harvested in the control plot after the measurements had been taken on the undisturbed vegetation. Cutters were asked to fell palms as if they were working for themselves, and were observed during their work. The weight and size of harvested palm hearts were measured and the yield was extrapolated to one hectare.

Table 5.1 Location and size of the nine plots and number of consecutive harvests.

Harvest pressure Site Village River Location No. of Plot size no. harvests [ha]

No Pressure 1 Bullet Tree Waini 8° 05’ N 59° 21’ W 0 0.3 Low Pressure 2 Assakata Assakata 7° 44’ N 59° 04’ W 2 0.3 Low Pressure 3 Koriabo Barima 7° 37’ N 59° 38’ W 1 0.3 Low Pressure 4 Warapoka Waini 7° 48’ N 59° 15’ W 2 0.3 Low Pressure 5 Lower Kaituma Kaituma 8° 07’ N 59° 40’ W 1 0.15 High Pressure 6 Lower Kaituma Kaituma 8° 07’ N 59° 40’ W 3 0.15 High Pressure 7 Red Hill Barima 7° 52’ N 59° 26’ W 6 0.3 High Pressure 8 Black Water Barima 8° 05’ N 59° 28’ W 6 0.3 High Pressure 9 Koriabo Barima 7° 37’ N 59° 38’ W 3-4 0.3

152 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Seven of the nine plots had a surface area of 3000 m2 (300 x 10 m) and two a size of 1500 m2 (150 x 10 m, see paragraph 5.3.8). The total area sampled was 2.4 hectares. The following measurements were taken in each plot:

• Diameter at breast height (DBH) of all stems ≥ 2 m. • Diameter of harvested stems. • Number of E. oleracea clumps with at least one living stem ≥ 2 m. • Number of dead clumps. • Height of living clumps (from forest floor to stem base). • Number of reproductive stems of E. oleracea and E. precatoria. • Number of living and dead suckers per clump.

The height of living stems ≥ 2 m was estimated. Stems below 2 m were considered suckers. Similar measurements were carried out in a nursery owned by the canning factory. This nursery had been planted five years previously to study the growth and development of E. oleracea in cultivation. Data were taken from about half the nursery, with a total of 86 clumps and 234 stems (dead and alive).

Four causes of E. oleracea stem death could be distinguished (Figure 5.2):

1) Cut for cabbage (harvested trunks were recognized by their slant surface). 2) Cut for clearing (suckers and young stems cleared away in order to reach the mature stems). 3) Dead by felling other stems (stems broken by falling trunks). 4) Natural mortality (visible as long bare stems without a crown).

In order to get an idea about the recruitment of young Euterpe palms, the number of seedlings (< 1.50 m) of both E. oleracea and E. precatoria were counted in subplots of 2 x 2 m in every 100 m section of the plot. The total sample area for seedlings was thus 12 m2 per plot. Fertile specimens were collected of all palm species harvested for palm heart. Duplicates were deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Guyana (BRG) and the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (U). Euterpe specimens were identified by palm specialist A. Henderson of the New York Botanical Garden Herbarium (NY).

Since clump mortality has been mentioned as a clear sign of overharvesting (Pollak et al., 1995), the numbers of dead clumps in the study plots were compared with those in the control plot. A clump from which all stems and suckers have been removed may still be alive, even though no living sprouts are visible. Its root system might have sufficient food reserves to produce new suckers from dormant buds. Theoretically then, there is a small chance that one sucker could turn a clump into a vital individual again (Hallé et al., 1978). However, this chance seemed to be so minute that we defined a dead clump as an individual without any visible remains of living sprouts.

153 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Figure 5.2 Euterpe oleracea

Socio-economical aspects In order to gain information on the socio-economic aspects of palm heart harvesting in local communities, we employed two extractors in each village to act as local informants and assist with the fieldwork. Informal interviews were held with these informants, their families and several other people involved in palm heart extraction. Several topics were included in these interviews: the role of palm heart harvesting in daily life, other available means of cash income, subsistence activities (hunting, fishing, farming), harvesting techniques, types of palm heart collected, daily production and earnings (mean and maximum), number of consecutive harvests in the plotted areas, relations with agents and the company, availability of palm hearts in the area, and the distance to extraction sites. Following participatory research methods (Martin, 1995), we accompanied several extractors in the field to observe their daily work. In total we questioned more than 40 extractors.

154 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Additionally, several agents were interviewed to gather data on the number of extractors in the area, selection criteria for palm hearts, availability of the resource, and the relations with extractors and the Company. Piles of accepted and rejected palm hearts were counted and measured. The canning factory at Drum Hill was visited on several occasions to interview factory workers, boat drivers, and management personnel. The Company offered us a guided tour through the factory compound, to be able to study the canning process. The staff in Drum Hill supplied unpublished data on export volumes and quantities of palm heart collected per river. Meetings were held with members of the Company management in Georgetown, as well as a representative of the Guyana Forestry Commission. The outcomes of these interviews were cross- checked and discussed with the Company management, the extractors, and several anthropologists working in the North-West District at the time of our research (J. Forte, M. Reinders, and G. Ford).

Export and production data were compiled from the annual reports of the New Guyana Marketing Cooperation (1996, 1997, 1998), the Guyana Forestry Commission and unpublished Company data. Throughout the chapter, monetary values obtained in Guyana currency were converted into US dollars, using the official exchange rate in January 1998 (US$ 1 = G$ 142).

5.2.3 Data processing and statistical analysis In contrast to other palm species, Euterpe palms do show some secondary diameter growth. In their Brazilian study, Pollak et al. (1995) found an allometric relation between the height and DBH of a stem and the diameter and weight of its palm heart. To see whether their equations were also valid for Guyanese E. oleracea populations, a sample of 66 stems of varying age was felled. Total length and DBH were measured, as were crownshaft diameters with all leaf sheaths, with only three sheaths (as transported to the factory), and without sheaths (as found in a can). A linear multiple regression was used to test the newly found correlations. The slopes and intercepts of the equations were compared with the formulas by Pollak et al. After statistically analysing these equations, one of the formulas fit our data in such a way that it was used unaltered:

Palm heart weight [g] = 27.255 * (palm heart diameter [cm])2 + 37.517 * palm heart diameter - 16.603 (r 2 = 0.66; n = 180)

The following formulas were derived from our own data:

Palm heart diameter [cm] = 0.18 * stem DBH + 0.687 (r2 = 0.56; n = 66)

Stem height [m] = 11.7 * (stem DBH [cm])2 + 3.85 * stem DBH - 12.49 (r2 = 0.59; n = 66)

Stem height [m] = 0.0284 + 6.01 * palm heart diameter [cm] - 0.15 * (palm heart diameter)2 (r2 = 0.50; n = 66)

155 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Palm heart yield in kg/ha was calculated from the diameters of harvested stems in the extraction sites. The current potential yield, which is derived from standing stock at the time of measurement, was calculated using the above-mentioned equations of the palm heart size of mature trees that remained in the plots after harvesting. Assuming that each remaining mature stem in the plot was able to produce a commercial palm heart, the monetary value of the potential yield for the cutters was assessed using the January 1998 unit price of G$ 8 (US$ 0.056) per cabbage.

Parameter values of the nine plots were averaged first per sample plot, using an unweighed mean. Data were then averaged per pressure category (NP, HP, LP), using a weighed mean, since the numbers of measured palms differed among the sample plots. Because of the great variability in the height and diameter of palms, not only within the (rather large) plots, but also within one individual clump, we chose to use the palms as the unit of observation. Therefore, the number of measured palms was taken as N for the stem parameters, and the number of clumps was used as N for the clump comparisons. Mean values were compared between the pressure groups. Initially, a one-way ANOVA (Heath, 1995; Mead et al., 1995) was applied for the ordinal parameters. If significant differences were found, contrasts were used to detect differences between the three pressure categories. A Bonferonni correction was used to correct for the number of comparisons made. Since it was not possible to use the one-way ANOVA for the nominal parameters, a Chi-square test (Sokal and Rolf, 1995) was applied. The computer programme SPSS (Howitt and Cramer, 1996) was used for all statistical analyses.

5.3 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING OF PALM HEART HARVESTING

5.3.1 Types of palm heart harvested in the North-West District Local people involved in palm heart harvesting distinguish five different ‘types’ of Euterpe by their habit, palm heart size, and crownshaft colour (Figure 5.3): three multi-stemmed and two single-stemmed types. The most common multi-stemmed type is the ‘green manicole’. This type has a bright green crownshaft and is preferred by the canning factory. The rare ‘red manicole’ has an orange-red crownshaft, hard wood, and a soft heart that quickly falls apart in the can. The Company occasionally accepts this type. Finally, the ‘savannah manicole’ has a pale yellow crownshaft and a trunk that is difficult to cut. Because of its soft texture, this type of palm heart is seldom harvested. All multi-stemmed types have similar bifid seedlings. According to A. Henderson (pers. comm.), the three multi-stemmed types belong to Euterpe oleracea, but further taxonomic research is needed to see whether they can be considered different botanical varieties.

The two single-stemmed types are the common ‘winamoro’ or ‘big green manicole’, easily recognised by its large, bright green crownshaft, and the rare ‘abua’ or ‘dusty winamoro’, with its smaller, darker, drooping leaves and a yellowish-brown crownshaft covered with rusty brown scales. Both types have palmate seedlings and are classified as Euterpe precatoria.

156 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

They may, however, be considered as different genetic varieties (A. Henderson, pers. comm.). A fully sheathed abua crownshaft weighs about 10 kg and ca. 1 kg when all sheaths are removed.

Figure 5.3 Five different types of palm hearts, from left to right: green manicole, savanna manicole, red manicole (all three Euterpe oleracea), abua and big green winamoro (Euterpe precatoria).

The heart of a young winamoro (the same size as a mature heart of a green manicole) can only be distinguished from the green manicole by its slightly greener core. The Company rejects mature winamoro cabbages, because of their large size and soft texture. Our informants indicated that some cutters try to sell immature winamoro hearts, as they are not always recognised by the factory personnel. In general, winamoro and abua are harvested only for subsistence use, just like the hearts of Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa and Maximiliana maripa, other palms growing in the coastal wetlands.

5.3.2 Extraction techniques The following describes a typical extraction operation, based on our observation of palm heart harvesters in the field. A palm heart is obtained by cutting an individual stem with a machete and removing the crownshaft from the trunk. The leaves and the coarse outer layer of the crownshaft are then cut off. The soft edible part of the palm heart lies the centre, surrounded by concentric layers of older leaf sheaths. Petiole stubs and encircling leaf sheaths are sliced along their length, one at a time, so that the entire piece can be removed. The procedure is repeated until the two last fibrous leaf sheath cylinders remain (Figure 5.4). These are left to prevent the dehydration and discoloration of the hearts during transportation from the forest to the factory.

157 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

The cabbage, now a flexible white cylinder, is reduced to the standard length of 46 cm, the length of the iron blade of a standard machete. The bottom of the palm heart is cut off two inches below the actual heart to prevent rotting. Harvesting one palm heart takes about five minutes. When sufficient cabbages are cut, they are tied together in bundles of 25 to 50 and transported by canoe to an agent’s camp. Palm hearts can be stored for about three days before they turn brown and start decaying.

When entering a virgin swamp, cutters prefer to start with medium-sized stems (ca. 9-14 cm DBH), as these are the easiest to fell. When there are no more medium-sized stems, cutters shift to larger stems (DBH > 14 cm), which are harder to cut and often have crowns that are entangled in the canopy. Since stems with ‘fastened’ crowns may not fall after being chopped, they are usually ignored if there is enough manicole to choose from. In virgin swamps and low-pressure areas with large palm resources, cutters usually fell one to four stems per clump and leave the remaining mature stems as they are. Larger palms contain heavier cabbages, which means that more weight has to be carried for the same amount of money. When all the larger stems have been removed, cutters will start felling younger stems. These are easier to cut, but run the risk of being rejected because of their small-sized palm heart. Most extractors said they knew from experience whether a palm heart had the required size, just by looking at its crownshaft. This implies that immature cabbages are hardly ever cut without the cutter’s knowledge. The felling of mature stems often damages young manicoles or other small trees.

In addition, some cutters clear young stems and suckers around the clump before felling a mature stem. Chain saws are never used and large trees are hardly ever chopped down to facilitate palm heart extraction. Time and energy can be better spent searching for freestanding manicoles. In sites with abundant manicole resources, quite some mature palms remain in the vegetation after the forest is considered ‘worked out’ and abandoned. In areas with limited manicole resources, however, cutters seem to be felling every mature stem they can find, even those with ‘fastened’ crowns.

Sometimes, lianas are cut and small trees chopped with axes to liberate crowns. In heavily harvested swamps, very few mature stems are left when the area is abandoned. Figure 5.4 Cutting a palm heart out of a crown shaft.

158 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

5.3.3 Selection criteria Agents act as middlemen between the Company and the cutters. In 1998, they paid the harvesters US$ 0.056 per palm heart and sold them to the Company for US$ 0.063. According to a factory manager, the Company only buys fresh, straight palm hearts with a minimum diameter of 20 mm and a maximum of 35 mm. At least three undeveloped leaves (‘bones’) must be visible in the palm heart. Cabbages with fewer than three bones, a diameter less than 20 mm or a rotten bottom are rejected, as are those from the red and yellow manicole, winamoro, and abua. Some of these unsuitable palm hearts may slip through, as the cabbage boats travel day and night and selection often takes place in the dark. To avoid the waste of raw material, these ‘second-rate’ palm hearts are still processed when they reach the factory. At the time of our research, arguments among extractors, agents, and boat personnel were reported to be common, especially in the high-pressure areas. Cutters complained that cabbages were ‘rejected without reason’, while the factory employees argued that extractors ‘tried to cheat the Company’ by selling small or otherwise unsuitable cabbages. Rejected palm hearts were often cooked in stew or fed to domestic animals.

5.3.4 Provenance of the resource Figure 5.5 illustrates the provenance of palm hearts collected in 1997. As can be seen, the canning factory obtained the majority of its raw material in this period from the Barima and Waini Rivers. Absolute amounts collected per river were presented in van Andel et al. (1998). Only 2% of the cabbage were brought to the Drum Hill factory by people living in its immediate surroundings. The bulk of the resource was brought in by the five factory boats, each capable of containing some 9000 palm hearts. These vessels travelled day after day throughout the concession to collect palm hearts and to distribute provisions. They sailed from the Aruka River near the Venezuelan border to the upper Waini River in the southern part of the concession (Figure 5.1). Factory 2% Arawau Barima/Koriabo 6% 4% Aruka 8% Aruka-Koriabo Waini 3% 27%

Barama 1% Barima Baramanni 38% 10% Morebo 1% Figure 5.5 Percentage of palm heart collected by river in 1997. Source: unpublished Company records (1998).

159 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

According to the factory management, palm heart resources in the northern part of the concession (Aruka and Koriabo Rivers) have sharply declined during the last couple of years. The boat personnel confirmed this by saying that sometimes one third to one half of the cabbage offered for sale by Aruka extractors were rejected because of their size. Travelling to this area, therefore, was considered to be no longer economically feasible for the Company. Early in 1998, the Company planned to reduce its purchases from the lower Barima, Arawau, Aruka, and Koriabo Rivers, while intensifying extraction along the Barama, Baramanni, and Waini Rivers.

According to the transport manager, the Company advised people from the overharvested areas to move to the Waini and built several riverside camps to accommodate the newcomers. The Waini has the largest remaining Euterpe resources of the North-West District, but is rather isolated. In January 1998, there was still a lack of available workforce, although Aruka cutters were slowly migrating into the Waini area. The cabbage boats were used to transport both construction material and cabbage cutters.

As the transport manager further explained, some people were willing to ‘move behind the cabbage’, while others preferred to stay in their homeland. The latter group tried to convince the Company to continue its activities in the Aruka River, even though manicole resources had almost been depleted. The only option for the Company to stay in Aruka was to encourage people to harvest manicole from the Sebai area (Figure 5.1). Mature palms were still abundant there, but access to this river was limited in the dry season. In 1996, only two households were involved in palm heart harvesting (Sullivan, 1999). The transport manager said the Company was willing to pay US$ 0.007 extra per cabbage to cover transport costs. According to Forte (1999a), who attended a community meeting in Sebai in November 1998, the Sebai villagers expressed their concern about the fact that people from the Aruka River were increasingly coming over to cut palm hearts near their titled land.

According to recent information (J. Gérin, pers. comm.), the Company stopped purchasing cabbages from Koriabo River in 1999. After requests from politicians and Amerindian communities, the Company agreed to buy palm hearts again from Aruka and Hotoquai in mid 1999. The camps along the Koriabo River remained closed. In the beginning of 2000, more than 50% of the raw material was coming from the Waini River. More camps had been built for cabbage cutters and their families.

The route of the cabbage boats, therefore, both influences and reflects extraction patterns. In some areas, for example in Anabisi, Waini, and Barama, people were stimulated to cut palm hearts because the Company promised a regular boat service there. In other areas, such as Assakata, extraction already took place and cabbages were paddled to the nearest camp before a regular boat service was arranged in that direction. At the time of our research, some boat routes (e.g., Santa Rosa, Moruca River) had already been abandoned due to depletion of the resource.

At a factory meeting in January 1998, a manager announced that there would be no increase in cabbage production that year. The aim was to keep the annual production at 6 million palm hearts, which would mean a reduction of 10% compared to 1994- 1997. This was decided in order to prevent a further increase in pressure on the

160 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I swamps. The manager stated that when production at Drum Hill remained at its present level, there would be enough palm hearts left for future generations of cabbage cutters. A new canning factory opened along the Berbice River (eastern Guyana) in 1998, in order to meet sudden high demands from the world market. Early 2000, this second factory was producing 3200 cartons of palm heart cans per month (J. Gérin, pers. comm.).

5.3.5 Canals The palm heart cutters we interviewed indicated that they harvested 30 to 200 palm hearts per day, depending on the availability of mature stems, the distance to the extraction site, and the means of transport. Transport by foot strongly limits the daily harvest, as the bundles of cabbages are rather heavy (20-25 kg), and the water level in the swamps becomes waist-deep in the rainy season. Felled trunks in the swamps impede easy movement for the cutters. Extractors usually try to reach into the forest as far as possible by canoe to avoid walking long distances on the swampy ground. They said that although the flooded forest made walking more arduous, the need for cash urged them to continue their work in the wet season. The dry season was preferred for harvesting, since the accessibility of the swamps was much better.

In order to facilitate access to remote swamps, the Company paid local cutters to deepen some of the forest creeks in several areas along the lower Barima. Cutters welcomed these canals and used them frequently. Although hardly visible to the casual visitor, these canals enabled the cutters to go deeper inland, reduce walking distances, and transport the harvest by canoe. More palm hearts were cut per day, because the harvest did not have to be carried on the cutter’s back for long distances. This system seems to relieve the pressure on the riparian swamps in the wet season, since cutters paddle up the canals to cut on drier grounds further inland. Even though people work somewhat closer to the river in the dry season, the hinterland remains better accessible than it was before. According to a factory manager, preliminary plans exist to build a canal from the Kaituma to the Barima River, in order to gain access to the remote swamps between these rivers.

5.3.6 Processing of palm hearts The processing method described below is based on the information provided by Company officials during a guided tour in the factory in November 1997. The first step in the processing of palm hearts at the canning factory at Drum Hill is the removal of the last two outer leaf sheaths. There are preliminary plans to build a biogas installation capable of converting the waste that is produced in the processing into cooking gas or electricity. Currently, some of the palm heart waste is used as organic fertiliser at the factory farm (J. Gérin, pers. comm.), but most of it is still dumped in the factory yard. The tender cylindrical hearts are immediately cut into pieces of 10 cm long and placed in a solution of water, citric acid, and salt to prevent oxidation and discoloration. In the third step, the pieces are put into cans filled with the solution and hand-weighed to ensure the right content. The different types of cans are listed in Table 5.2.

161 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Table 5.2 Can types produced by the Company.

Type of can Content [g] No. of pieces No. of palm hearts per can

Normal large cans 500 12 3.5-3.8 Normal medium cans 220 5 1.6-1.8 Aluminium rip cans 220 9 1.8-2.0

Subsequently, the cans are covered with a loose cap and left to rest for 20 minutes to allow the palm hearts to absorb the citric acid. After preheating the cans to 80 °C for a few minutes, temperature and pH are measured and the cans sealed. Next, the cans are sterilised in a computerised oven for a maximum of 36 minutes. Cooling is done with river water, after which the cans are packed into cartons and shipped to Georgetown, where they are labelled. At the time of the study, a carton with 24 small cans or 12 large ones was exported for US$ 18.50 FOB (GFC, 2000). Several cans are opened each day to control diameter and quality.

The minimum diameter of a canned cabbage is 15 mm. Officially, only palm hearts with a diameter > 20 mm are accepted. Smaller pieces in cans come either from immature hearts that slipped through the selection or from large pieces from which rotten or fibrous parts have been removed. No more than one piece of ‘soft’ cabbage (from other types of Euterpe) is allowed in a small can. Large cans may contain at most two inferior pieces.

5.3.7 The economics of palm heart extraction According to a factory manager, a total of 160 employees (25% female) were working at the industrial unit in January 1998. The majority of the factory personnel were recruited from the neighbouring village of Red Hill and from Mabaruma and Santa Rosa, the larger Amerindian towns of the district (Figure 5.1). They were paid US$ 77 per month and received free food and lodging in large dormitories behind the factory. Several recreational activities were available to the employees, such as a video screen and a table tennis facility. Church services, dance parties, and sports days were also occasionally organised by the management.

At that time, a Company manager estimated the number of people selling palm hearts to the Company to be around 1000. All cutters worked on a freelance basis; none were officially employed by the Company. Most people extracted palm hearts only part-time and spent the rest of the week hunting, fishing, and farming. Most of the cutters said that the main reason why they got involved in palm heart harvesting was to benefit from the cheap food offered by the Company. Sullivan (1997) estimated the mean income of a cabbage cutter in 1996 to be US$ 4 per day, based on an average of ten palm hearts per hour and 80 per day, if working eight hours a day. She calculated that the mean annual sum earned by palm heart extraction per household in Assakata was US$ 396.

162 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The production of canned palm heart has increased since the beginning of the 1990s (Table 5.3). Export revenues and production in tons peaked in 1995, with more than US$ 2 million in export value. The following year the production in tons had slowed down by nearly 12%, but the number of palm hearts processed had increased. This may suggest that the palm hearts were smaller in size; according to the factory management, however, the decline was caused by the rusting of cans and a sudden dip in the world market. No Company profit figures were made available to the researchers.

In 1997, the rust problem had been solved by the introduction of aluminium rip cans and by submerging the other cans in an oily mixture. Unpublished factory figures revealed that more than 23,000 palm hearts were processed per day in 1997. The maximum capacity of the factory, 30,000 cabbages a day, was reached just before Christmas. According to a factory manager, extractors usually tried to earn a bonus for their holiday and increased their cutting activities at the end of the year. In 1997, a total of 2.3 million rip cans and 0.6 million large cans were said to be produced and almost seven million palm hearts processed. According to the Company, approximately 1,446 tons of canned palm hearts were produced that year; much higher figures (1,700 tons) were published by the New Guyana Market Corporation (NGMC), the national entity that monitors non-traditional agricultural export (NGMC, 1998).

The latest preliminary company figures point towards a considerable decline in production in 1999. The reason for this decrease was said to be a fall in demand on the world market, caused by the competition of palm heart from Bactris gasipaes plantations elsewhere (GFC, 2000).

Table 5.3 Production figures and exports via seaports (1991-1997). Sources: NGMC (1996, 1997, 1998), Johnson (1995), GFC (2000), and unpublished Company data. - = data not available.

Year Cabbages processed [n] Weight [tons] Export value [US$]

1990 162,679 - - 1991 - 734 - 1992 4,514,231 797 - 1993 5,278,923 941 - 1994 6,454,976 1,218 1,500,000 1995 6,461,779 1,648 2,071,162 1996 6,835,820 1,456 1,965,978 1997 6,789,104 1,446 - 1997 - 1,700 2,338,431 1998 6,936,983 - - 1999 4,538,664 - -

163 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Until 1996, palm heart was only exported to France and formed 35% of the total export volume of non-traditional agricultural produce from Guyana (NGMC, 1996). In 1997, this percentage had increased to 57%, and palm heart was the fourth most important vegetal export product of the country after rice, sugar, and timber (NGMC, 1998). According to a factory manager, palm hearts from Guyana comprised about 5% of the 1997 world trade. In 1998, the Company started exploring the palm heart market in the USA (LaRose, 1999). Only recently have cans entered the Guyanese market. No difference in quality or cabbage diameter is made between cans for export and those for the domestic market.

5.3.8 The role of palm heart harvesting in the village economy A great variation in the available Euterpe resources and existing alternative sources of income was found among the seven villages, reflected in the number of palm hearts harvested per day (Table 5.4). Daily income of extractors also varied greatly, from less than US$ 1 in high-pressure areas (Koriabo) to US$ 11.30 in low-pressure areas (Assakata), the latter being almost three times the shadow income of US$ 4 calculated by Sullivan (1997). Socio-economic conditions in the settlements seemed to be influenced not only by palm heart resources and the level of dependence on the palm heart industry, but also by the availability of alternative sources of income, population density, subsistence farming, and access to health and education.

Several household heads interviewed near vicinity of the factory (Red Hill, Black Water, and other lower Barima and Aruka communities) said they started with cutting the manicole directly around their homes when the Company started the commercial processing of palm hearts in 1989. Many of them decided to stop farming, because they were now able to buy their food. They said that at first they were not aware that full-time cutting would be needed to provide their families with daily staple food (rice). Soon the nearby stocks of Euterpe declined and the cutters had to search for palm hearts in more remote places. Over the years, more and more effort was needed to obtain the same income. This process continued until the distance to new virgin swamps became too large to make palm heart extraction economically viable. The transport of palm hearts over large distances by foot strongly limited the amounts that could be extracted per day. The swamp forest surrounding the settlements became severely overharvested, and, as they had no farms to fall back on, severe socio-economic stress and poverty were the result. Similar complaints were made by the cutters interviewed by Forte (1995), Johnson (1995), and G. Ford (pers. comm.).

At the time this study was conducted, the situation in Black Water seemed the most desolate of all areas visited. Cutters explained that before the Company started to buy palm heart, they had been working as wage labourers on the several agricultural grants along the Barima River. They also had small subsistence farms on which they grew their own food. In 1989, most of the farm labourers switched to cabbage cutting and gave up farming completely. The landowners interviewed said could no longer get labourers and, by the end of 1997, quite a few of them had reduced or abandoned their grants. The salary they offered ($ 2.8 per day) apparently could not compete with the revenues from palm heart harvesting (ca. $ 5.50). According to the cutters, however, even the latter salary was barely enough to sustain a family without a farm.

164 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 5.4 General socio-economic conditions in the villages near the study plots in January 1998.

1 = Forte and Pierre (1995) and G. Ford (pers. comm.). - = data not available

No Low High Harvest intensity Pressure Pressure Pressure Lower Lower Bullet Tree Assakata Koriabo Warapoka Red Hill Black Water Koriabo Kaituma Kaituma

Amerindian Reserve no yes yes yes no no yes no yes Subsistence farming no yes yes few farms large farms large farms few farms none yes Cabbage boat passes per week 3x 2x 1x 7x 3x 3x factory 3x 1x Population 1 - 300 262 262 ± 200 ± 200 203 70-200 262 No. of cutters per village - 8-20 6 90 20 20 37-60 - 3-6 Days per week spent cutting 5-6 1-2 3-4 3-6 3 3 3-6 4-6 3-4 70-100 No. of palm hearts / day (max.) 110 (200) 100 (200) 50 (60) 60-80 40-65 (100) 30-65 80 (115) 0-5 (140) Daily wage [US$] 6.2-11.3 5.6-11.3 2.8-3.4 3.4-4.5 2.3-5.6 1.7-3.7 3.9-7.9 4.5-6.5 < 1 Do cutters stay in camps? no sometimes sometimes yes no no often yes sometimes Distance to harvest site [km] 5 12 8 5-16 6.5 2-5 11-12 - 5 Distance in time 1 hr 2 hr 2 hr - 1½ hr < 1 hr - 3½ hr 1½ hr Means of transport foot + boat foot + boat foot foot + boat foot foot boat foot + boat foot First year of harvesting 1996 1992 1996 ± 1994 1996 1990 1989 1989 1992 No. of harvests in plot 0 2 1 1 1 6 7 6 4 Euterpe precatoria sold? no no yes some occasional occasional yes yes yes Length of fallow period - > 2 year 2 year 1-2 year 1-2 year 1 year 7 months < 1 year 1 year

165 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Drinking water was a problem in Black Water, since all of the creeks were brackish. According to the local agent and shopkeeper, weekly cabbage sales had dropped from around 3500 to 600 in the past years. He stated to have problems in getting payment for the goods he had given the cutters on credit and encouraged them to continue harvesting palm hearts. Black Water extractors had to travel the longest (3½ hours) to reach their harvesting site (Table 5.4). They said that of the maximum 115 cabbages they could cut per day, at least 20 would be rejected. To relieve the pressure on the heavily exploited riparian swamps, the Company had recruited villagers to deepen the head of a small Barima tributary.

According to Black Water cutters, arguments with factory personnel about immature palm hearts occurred regularly. There were few other means of income available in the area. The social distress in the community had already been noted by anthropologist G. Ford (pers. comm.), and the situation seemed to have changed little since she visited the area in 1996. Some household heads in Black Water indicated they were thinking of starting a farm again, but few had actually done so. They realised that farming meant food security and more independence, but said they could hardly allow themselves to take time off from cabbage cutting to burn a piece of forest, which would take several months before it started to produce. People also brought these aspects forward in Koriabo, Warapoka, and Red Hill. The situation in these settlements, however, was not to such an extent, since other means of employment were available, such as gold mining, wildlife trapping, trading food with mining camps, logging, and factory jobs.

People who did maintain their cassava fields were never obliged to cut cabbage full- time to provide for their daily needs. They worked on a part-time basis and spent the rest of the time hunting, fishing, and farming. Income earned by selling palm hearts was used to buy luxury items (e.g., kerosene, baking powder, and cigarettes) rather than staple food. In Assakata, where all households had a farm and 65% of the households were involved in cabbage cutting, people said they could harvest sufficient cabbage in two days to buy the weekly necessities for their families. Sullivan (1997) calculated that Assakata residents spent only 10% of their labour time harvesting palm hearts; the same amount of time they spent on craft making. More time was dedicated to fishing (17%), while farming turned out to be the most time-consuming activity (38%). The average size of the farms was 1.4 ha (Sullivan, 1999). These aspects may have contributed to the fact that Euterpe resources around Assakata were relatively abundant and the pressure on the forest was much lower than in the other study sites. Fallow periods indicated by the respondents in that area were also the longest in the entire study area.

In some villages, both high and low pressure areas were present. In Koriabo, for instance, villagers explained that cabbage resources had declined over the past years, as had the number of cutters (from 20 to 6). The village never had large Euterpe resources, because in the upper Barima the tidal Euterpe forest gave way to Mora swamps with only few scattered manicoles (Figure 5.1). When the palm hearts from the Mora forest were exhausted, people moved to the Euterpe-dominated creek depressions in the high forest back from the riverbanks. These swamps have been intensively exploited since 1992.

166 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

In December 1997, manicole was extracted some five kilometres inland from the last remaining virgin swamp, and no more than 50 to 60 palm hearts could be extracted per person per day, since the bundles had to be carried home on the cutter’s back. The Company said they were losing money on their weekly trip to Koriabo. The villagers said they were afraid to lose their opportunity to purchase cheap provisions from the Company. The few remaining cutters estimated that there would be enough palm hearts for another four years. After that, there would be no palm hearts left. At the time of this study, the Company was encouraging Koriabo residents to spend more time along the Anabisi River, which harboured large unexploited swamps; but cutters said they were reluctant to settle there, as there were no schools or suitable farmland in the vicinity.

In Red Hill, palm heart yields had declined from almost 15,000 per week in 1989 (Forte, 1995) to 2000 in 1997 (unpublished Company data, 1998). According to Forte, the swamps around the village were already exhausted in 1994. At the time of our survey, cutters reported that they extracted cabbage with very short intervals between harvests. They said they could obtain a maximum of 120 cabbages a day if they worked continuously for eight hours. They remembered that in the early days, they extracted 170-180 palm hearts daily. At the time of our visit, a total of 17 persons (predominantly women) were working in the processing plant. Most adult males had left home to harvest palm hearts along the Morebo and Anabisi Rivers and stayed in riverside camps for several weeks to months. Children were either taken along or left in the village to attend school.

The factory management was under the impression that no palm hearts had been harvested along the Kaituma River for five years, because their boats had stopped entering the Kaituma in 1992 when Barama Company Ltd. started to transport logs over the river. The logging firm used large pontoons that made other motorised river transport quite dangerous. A factory manager recommended Kaituma as a suitable to study Euterpe populations that had been regenerating for five years. Comparison of this forest with an undisturbed area could ascertain whether a five-year fallow period would be sufficient for a harvested population to recover from harvesting. However, after arriving at Kaituma, we found that cabbage cutting had continued in the area over the years. In fact, it had never slowed down, as the agent had been paddling his palm hearts to a camp on the Barima River for five years. Thus, conditions on the Kaituma were no different from other areas studied. Because of this, only two small plots (0.15 ha) were laid out to obtain additional data. One plot was set up in a high- pressure area close to the river, the other in a low-pressure site several kilometres inland.

There were about 20 cutters active in the village, who collected ca. 2500 palm hearts a week (Table 5.4). In the past, extractors used to cut 100-200 cabbages a day in the swamps close to the river. Now, they could harvest an average of 50 palm hearts a day and had to carry them on their backs for eight kilometres. Many immature cabbages had also been rejected lately. Villagers said they badly needed a canal in order to locate resources deeper inland.

167 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

The majority of the cabbage cutters were Amerindian males. In areas where farming was less practised, a substantial percentage of women and children participated in palm heart harvesting as well. Only 5% of the women in Assakata said they extracted manicole on a regular basis (Sullivan, 1997), while from our observations it seemed that in Warapoka, a much higher percentage of female cutters were active. Sullivan estimated that women extracted 50% less than men under the same conditions, while children harvested only half the amount of women. Schoolchildren in Warapoka said they helped their parents in the weekends. If families were staying in forest camps, all but the youngest members were involved in harvesting.

5.3.9 Opening the undisturbed areas Undisturbed ‘maiden’ swamps with large Euterpe resources were found at a one- hour walk inland from the lower Waini riverbanks. These dark forests had a high canopy and the manicole clumps seemed to be much larger than in swamps subject to repeated extraction. Due to the shortage of labour and the large available resources, the Company built several camps at the previously abandoned settlement of Bullet Tree. That same year (1997), the first cutters from the Aruka region moved there to work. They were reported to extract 100-120 cabbages a day from the virgin swamps, with an occasional maximum of 200. All cutters, even the local agent, worked full-time. No subsistence agriculture was practised and few fruit trees or home gardens were planted. The only school in the area was too far away for children to attend. Except for the wage labour on one commercial farm, the only employment was harvesting palm heart.

The migrated cutters said they were glad to escape the poverty of Aruka, where they could only cut 30-50 cabbages a day, many of which were too small to be accepted. They said cabbage resources were plenty along the Waini, as were wildlife and fish. Several kilometres up the Waini, however, Warapoka residents feared the influx of ‘homeless’ Aruka cutters. This was because cabbage resources in the Warapoka Amerindian Reserve had all been depleted and cutters had to travel up to 16 km per day or stay for months in riverside camps to make a living cutting palm hearts. Although they seldom came to harvest in Bullet Tree, Warapoka cutters were anxious about future competition.

5.3.10 Relationship between cutters and the Company We observed that the attitude towards the canning company varied greatly among the communities. In Red Hill, a positive relationship existed between the community and the Company, since the village had been donated a school building. The residents also benefited more directly from the employment in the factory. In villages with rapidly declining Euterpe resources and a lack of agricultural self-sufficiency (Black Water, Warapoka), the general opinion on the Company was quite negative. Residents were eager to utter their frustrations to the researchers. They blamed the Company for the decline in palm hearts and accused them of being unwilling to listen to their problems. Some communities seemed quite cohesive, in particular those with official land titles. These villages had achieved many things in the past, such as a health centre, a village boat, etc. However, when palm heart extraction was

168 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I concerned, it was still ‘everybody for himself’, as a Warapoka cutter formulated it. No feeling of unity existed among the cutters and no attempts were made to organise themselves into some sort of union. In general, however, people praised the fact that they had a steady income and were able to barter their palm hearts for the cheap goods distributed by the Company. As one cutter explained: ‘it is the foreign companies who provide jobs here, not the Government of Guyana. If it wasn’t for the Company, I don’t see how people could live in this place’.

One of the repeated complaints of extractors was that the Company seldom offered any help or compensation for injuries suffered during cabbage cutting. They said the Company refused responsibility, since they were not officially employed. Cutters considered palm heart harvesting to be hard and dangerous work, especially in the wet season when the aggressive labaria (Bothrops atrox) was frequently found between the clumps. This poisonous snake, whose bite can cause death within hours, was said to be the greatest risk of manicole harvesting. As most cutters walked barefoot, labaria bites were common.

Accidents from falling palms mostly happened during heavy rains, when extractors did not always hear the sound of breaking stems. Attempts to transport sick people to hospitals were often made too late. The cabbage boat occasionally transported patients to a hospital, but the Company did usually not cover the patients’ expenses. Forte (1995), Roopnaraine (1998), and G. Ford (pers. comm.) noted similar grievances. The Company contradicted these complaints and stated that snakebites were an extremely rare occurrence among manicole cutters and that they provided transportation for injured cutters and their families to the Mabaruma hospital (X. Richard, pers. comm.). The Company had donated first-aid boxes and snakebite kits to a number of villages. Unfortunately, these goods were often kept in the community health hut or the captain’s house, while cutters usually worked far from the village and snakebites require immediate treatment. Synthetic antiserum is not available outside the major hospitals of the North-West District, as storage at a low temperature is required to keep this medicine effective. The Brazilian antidote ‘Específico’, which does not need to be refrigerated, is frequently sold by interior shops, but it has a questionable reputation.

The year 1998 was extra burdensome for many Guyanese, because of the severe drought caused by the ‘el niño’ weather phenomenon. Unlike the southern part of the country, no massive forest fires occurred in the North-West District. However, farming was impossible and clean drinking water was extremely difficult to obtain. In the critical months of March and April, the Company distributed free drinking water along the main rivers. According to a factory manager, more people than ever were involved in palm heart harvesting during the el niño period, since there was no work to be found in mining, fishing, or agriculture. Fewer cabbages were harvested per person due to competition and limited access to remote swamps because of dry creeks.

169 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

5.4 QUANTITATIVE IMPACTS OF PALM HEART HARVESTING ON EUTERPE POPULATIONS

5.4.1 Population structure In the following section, we will concentrate on the effects of the different cutting practises on Euterpe populations. The results from the nine plots (Table 5.5) and the averages of these figures per pressure group (Table 5.6) show several trends. Euterpe stems in the high-pressure plots (HP) were significantly shorter than in the low- pressure plots (LP) and twice as small as the stems in the control plot (NP). The number of living stems per hectare in HP areas was also much smaller than in the LP and NP plots, although these data were not tested statistically.

The results from the nine plots (Table 5.5) and the averages of these figures per pressure group (Table 5.6) show several trends. Euterpe stems in the high-pressure plots (HP) were significantly shorter than in the low-pressure plots (LP) and twice as small as the stems in the control plot (NP). The number of living stems per hectare in HP areas was also much smaller than in the LP and NP plots, although these data were not tested statistically.

In Figure 5.6, the diameter distribution of living stems is presented for the different pressure groups. There were significant differences in the DBH of living stems (mature and juveniles > 2 m) between the pressure categories. Only a small difference in the DBH of harvestable stems was found between the NP and LP/HP plots. Stems in the virgin swamp were relatively equally distributed along size classes, while almost 50% in the HP plots had a DBH between 3 and 4 cm.

No pressure Low pressure High pressure

50 50 50 % of stems 40 40 40

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0 0 0 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-18 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 DiameterDiameter [cm [cm].]

Figure 5.6 Diameter distribution of living stems in the three harvest pressure groups.

170 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 5.5 Parameter values from the individual plots. - = data not available.

Parameter values No Pressure Low Pressure High pressure Bullet tree Assakatta Koriabo Warapoka L.Kaituma L. Kaituma Red Hill Black Water Koriabo mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std. mean ± std.

Height of living stems > 2 m [m] 10.36 ± 7.07 6.94 ± 3.81 9.36 ± 6.36 7.28 ± 5.46 6.72 ± 5.11 4.72 ± 3.16 5.19 ± 2.88 4.33 ± 2.73 4.43 ± 2.40 No. of living stems per ha 3290 1473 1210 1103 2100 1393 1177 1060 683 Dbh of living stems [cm] 7.98 ± 3.47 6.49 ± 2.67 8.01 ± 3.76 6.24 ± 3.26 6.28 ± 3.67 5.00 ± 2.81 5.15 ± 2.45 4.23 ± 2.46 4.91 ± 2.27 Dbh of harvested stems [cm] - 9.85 ± 1.97 11.78 ± 2.10 11.16 ± 1.96 10.28 ± 1.26 11.13 ± 1.90 10.12 ± 2.02 8.80 ± 2.46 13.17 ± 2.45 Dbh of dead stems (natural) [cm] 9.41 ± 2.79 9.47 ± 3.21 9.58 ± 3.23 8.41 ± 3.57 8.77 ± 2.74 9.24 ± 3.88 10.16 ± 2.01 9.01 ± 2.41 8.84 ± 2.97 % of reproductive stems 15.5 3.8 4.2 8 6.3 4.3 1.4 0 0.5 % of harvestable stems 39.4 33.3 29.6 25.2 27.2 7.2 13.6 6.0 2.5 Stems extracted last harvest [%] 0 29.9 56.2 64.4 21.2 34 81.5 73.2 65.2 No. of harvests in plot 0 2 1 1 1 6 7 6 4 No. of stems /clump (dead + alive) 10.11 ± 6.1 5.31 ± 3.60 6.21 ± 4.46 5.43 ± 4.46 3.45 ± 3.6 2.60 ± 2.64 3.14 ± 2.79 1.77 ± 1.66 4.98 ± 6.10 No. of harvested stems per clump 0 0.39 ± 0.91 2.15 ± 2.30 1.53 ± 1.88 0.04 ± 0.2 0.31 ± 0.96 0.69 ± 1.15 0.37 ± 0.87 1.79 ± 3.11 No. of dead (natural) stems /clump 1.31 ± 1.77 0.7 ± 1.09 0.54 ± 0.89 0.26 ± 0.59 0.15 ± 0.54 0.27 ± 0.93 0.14 ± 0.46 0.11 ± 0.55 0.22 ± 0.78 No. of living suckers per clump 10.42 ± 10.46 4.04 ± 3.69 3.52 ± 4.06 3.56 ± 3.08 3.61 ± 3.07 2.47 ± 2.41 5.25 ± 6.93 1.49 ± 1.95 3.37 ± 3.85 No. of dead suckers per clump 0.01 ± 0.09 0.03 ± 0.22 0.08 ± 0.41 0 ± 0 0.01 ± 0.10 0.02 ± 0.13 0.14 ± 0.75 0.10 ± 0.50 0.20± 0.47 No. of clumps / plot (dead + alive) 114 114 270 110 118 126 166 268 101 No. of seedlings per 4 m2 15 ± 18 2.7 ± 0.6 11.3 ± 9.9 10.6 ± 14 13.5 ± 7.5 -9.0 ± 7.8 1.0 ± 2.5 3.0 ± 3.5 No. of remaining mature stems/ha 1296 490 358 278 571 100 160 64 17 Potential harvest [US$ / ha] 73.0 27.6 20.2 15.7 32.2 5.7 9.0 3.6 1.0 Percentage of dead clumps [%] 3.5 0 4.4 4.5 6.3 10.3 6.0 19.0 5.9 Clump height [cm] 46.31 ± 24.17 29.31 ± 13.58 36.12 ± 18.79 36.45 ± 23.64 18.10 ± 12.49 15.0 ± 12.13 32.95 ± 21.83 14.41 ± 16.31 30.25 ± 18.26

171 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

The diameter distribution of harvested stems is shown in Figure 5.7. Hardly any palms were felled in the category 5-6 cm, since most of the hearts would probably be below the required diameter. It can be seen that fewer medium-sized stems (11-12 cm DBH) were harvested in HP plots when compared to LP plots. This could possibly be caused by the fact that most medium-sized stems had already been felled and cutters had shifted to felling larger and smaller stems. Therefore, the mean DBH of harvested stems in LP and HP plots was almost the same (Table 5.6). Still, over 20% of the stems harvested in the HP plots were close to the minimum diameter (ca. 8.4 cm), which corresponds with a palm heart diameter of ca. 2.0 cm (can size).

Much fewer stems in this risky size class were cut in LP areas. This selection standard seems to prevent the felling of immature stems; the mean DBH of harvested stems in HP plots would have otherwise been much lower than in LP plots.

Low pressure Highpressure

50 50 % of stems 40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-18 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 15-16 17-18 Diameter [cm]

Figure 5.7 Diameter distribution of harvested stems in low- and high-pressure plots.

Significantly fewer living stems per clump were found in HP plots than elsewhere. Figure 5.8 shows that clumps in the undisturbed plot often contained relatively large numbers of stems, while 50-80% of the clumps in extraction areas had only one or two living stems. The increased establishment of saplings (new clumps) under the open canopy may also have caused the high percentage of few-stemmed clumps in the HP plots. More clumps were found per ha in extraction areas than in the virgin swamp, but they had fewer mature stems per clump available for extraction (Table 5.6).

Clumps in the control plot were significantly taller than clumps in areas subject to extraction. Although the felling of stems might decrease the height of the clumps, the low clump height in harvested areas also result from a larger amount of young clumps. Besides harvest intensity and age, clump height might also be influenced by fluctuations in water level and soil characteristics.

172 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 5.6 Parameter values averaged per pressure group. Differences between values in a row are statistically significant when the superscript letter is not identical and the p-value is <0.05 - = no data available.

Parameter values No Pressure NP-LP Low pressure LP-HP High pressure NP-HP (NP) (LP) (HP) mean ± std. p-value mean ± std. p-value mean ± std. p-value

Height of living stems [m] 10.36 ± 7.07 a 0.000 7.59 ± 5.32 b 0.000 4.8 ± 2.52 c 0.000 Number of living stems per ha 3290 - 1472 ± 387 - 1078 ± 258 - Dbh of living stems [cm] 7.98 ± 3.47 a 0.000 6.78 ± 3.41 b 0.000 4.71 ± 2.84 c 0.000 Dbh of harvested stems [cm] - - 11.44 ± 2.11 a 0.226 11.15 ± 2.92 a - Dbh of dead stems [cm] 9.41 ± 2.79 a 0.088 9.31 ± 3.24 a 0.135 9.31 ± 2.98 a 0.205 DBH of harvestable stems 11.58 ± 1.53 a 0.000 10.71 ± 2.6 b 0.391 10.03 ± 2.32 b 0.001 [cm] % of reproductive stems 15.5 a 0.000 5.6 b 0.000 1.4 c 0.000 % of harvestable stems 39.4 a 0.000 29.2 b 0.000 8 c 0.000 % of all stems harvested - - 22.1 a 0.103 23.8 a - % of dead stems (natural) 12.89 8.2 5.98 No. of stems per clump 10.11± 6.10 a 0.000 5.24 ± 4.21 b 0.000 2.75 ± 3.34 c 0.000 (dead and alive) No. of living stems per clump 8.86 ± 5.51 a 0.000 3.36 ± 2.81 b 0.000 1.92 ± 1.64 c 0.000

No. of dead stems per clump 1.31 ± 1.77 a 0.000 0.43 ± 0.85 b 0.000 0.16 ± 0.66 c 0.000 No. of harvested stems/clump 0 ± 0.0 a 0.000 1.16 ± 1.87 b 0.013 0.65 ± 1.59 c 0.005 No. of living suckers/clump 10.42 ± 10.46 a 0.000 3.67 ± 3.55 b 0.023 2.89 ± 4.37 c 0.000 No. of dead suckers/clump 0.01 ± 0.09 a 0.158 0.04 ± 0.26 a 0.000 0.11 ± 0.53 b 0.004 No. of seedlings per 4 m² 15 a > 0.05 10.4 ± 4.59 a > 0.05 4.33 ± 3.40 a > 0.05 Total no. of clumps per ha 380 - 510 ± 225 - 551 ± 212 - (dead and alive) Percentage of dead clumps 3.5 a 0.070 3.8 a 0.001 10.3 b 0.002 Average height clumps [cm] 46.31 ± 24.17a 0.000 31.72 ± 19.0 b 0.000 24.28 ± 20.8 c 0.000 Number of harvests in plot 0 1.25 5.75 Yield of last harvests [kg / ha] - - 149.94 - 108.14 - Yield of last harvest [US$/ha] - 32.1 18.1 Potential yield [kg / ha] 383.01 - 108.03 - 20.53 - Potential harvest [US$ / ha] 73.0 24.2 4.9 Weight of harvested palm 292.63 286.74 -- 0.170 - heart [g] ± 70.95 a ± 98.93 a Weight of remaining palm 270.72 247.78 295.38 ± 51.87a 0.000 0.085 0.001 heart [g] ± 84.39 b ± 74.51 b

173 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

No Pressure Low Pressure High pressure 20 60 100

% of 50 80 clumps 40 60 10 30 40 20 20 10 0 0 0 1-2 5-6 9-10 13-14 17-18 19-20 1-2 5-6 9-10 13-14 17-18 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 3-4 7-8 11-12 15- 3-4 7-8 11-12 15-16 16 Number of stems

Figure 5.8 Number of living stems per clump in the three harvest pressure groups.

As Euterpe palms develop a crownshaft before producing inflorescences, all reproductive stems are in principle suitable for extraction. The removal of mature stems seemed to have consequences for the sexual reproduction of Euterpe populations. There was a large variation in the number of flowering and/or fruiting stems among the nine plots, varying from 15.5% in the virgin swamp to 0% at Black Water (Table 5.5). A low number of seedlings were present in the HP plots (Table 5.6), but differences in seedling density were not significant due to the patchy distribution of juveniles and the small sample size (12 m2 per plot). Clumps in the undisturbed plot had more than three times as many suckers than clumps in HP plots, which might indicate that the extraction of palm hearts has a negative effect on the vegetative regeneration as well.

5.4.2 Sucker and clump mortality Clumps in the HP plots had significantly more dead suckers than those in the LP and NP plots, although some dead sprouts might have been overlooked as they tend to rot quickly. The ratio between living and dead suckers was about 1000:1 in the control plot, 92:1 in the LP plots, and 26:1 in the HP plots. Increasing harvest pressure seemed to augment sucker mortality, a possible result of the clearing of clumps and removal of energy-producing ramets. Table 5.6 also shows that the percentage of dead clumps in the HP plots (10.3%) was almost three times as high as the natural mortality in the control plot (3.5%). The mortality in the LP plots was not significantly different from that in the control plot.

5.4.3 Palm heart yield The last reconstructed yield in the LP plots, calculated from the DBH of harvested stems, was more than 40 kg/ha higher than the last yield of the HP plots (Table 5.6). The current standing stock in the undisturbed plot was more than three times the potential yield of the LP plots and more than 18 times that of the HP plots. Although a slight downward trend was noticed in the average weight of harvested and remaining palm hearts, especially when compared to the standing stock in the virgin plot, no significant differences were found between the LP and HP plots. This is most probably the result of the minimum diameter (2.0 cm) required by the Company. As smaller palm hearts are not accepted, our data suggest that extractors can extract fewer mature palm hearts from the same sites at each subsequent harvest. If expressed in monetary value, this effect becomes even more obvious. The current

174 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I potential economic value of the undisturbed swamp was almost 15 times that of the high-pressure areas.

5.4.4 Effects of harvesting practices per study site Available Euterpe resources and socio-economic conditions obviously have a great influence on harvesting practises, as there was quite some variance in extraction methods within the pressure groups. To illustrate the effects of harvesting practices per study site, the absolute parameter values for the nine plots are listed in Table 5.5. Even though the plot in Assakata had just been harvested for a second time, many mature stems remained. The percentage of remaining mature stems after harvesting (33.3%) approached that of the undisturbed plot (39.4%). Cutters said they did not deliberately leave one mature stem per cluster to enhance regrowth, but this did seem to happen in practice. Since there was ample choice in mature stems, the cutters did not systematically eliminate all mature stems. They would fell one or two stems, walk a little further, and continue cutting from another clump. The absence of dead clumps, fallow periods of two years or more, and a maximum harvest of 200 palm hearts a day made Assakata the least affected area after the virgin swamp.

In most high-pressure areas, cutters regularly checked the swamps surrounding their village on their way back home from the distant extraction sites. These forests were heavily exploited as nearly all stems were felled just after reaching maturity. This practice is rather destructive, as it does not allow the population to recover from harvesting and strongly limits sexual reproduction. The Koriabo HP plot was laid out in such an exhausted swamp. Not only had four ‘crops’ of palm heart been extracted in five years, but mature stems were also extracted between harvests. Stem height and diameter were among the lowest of all plots (Table 5.5). Very few mature or reproductive stems were present and the number of dead suckers was relatively high. The canopy was very open and secondary pioneers had taken over the vegetation. Shrubs of Melastomataceae and Piperaceae and aggressive lianas competed with the recovering manicole for light and space. These secondary species usually do occur in Euterpe swamps (chapter 3), but they are less competitive in undisturbed conditions. The potential harvest in the Koriabo HP plot had been reduced to less than US$ 1 per hectare.

Cutters in high-pressure areas used undesired harvesting techniques, such as clearing young stems and suckers from a clump before felling a mature stem and rigorously cutting almost every mature stem they could find, except those ‘fastened’ with their crowns in the canopy. This is illustrated in Table 5.5 by the high percentage of stems felled during the last harvest. These intensively exploited areas require more time to regenerate than less rigorously harvested swamps, but their fallow periods were even shorter. The HP plot at Red Hill had been harvested seven times in eight years. The percentage of dead clumps was almost twice of that found in the virgin swamp. Red Hill cutters said they would leave a harvested swamp to regenerate for at least seven months. Then, they would return to cut the ‘seven-month cabbage’, the smallest palm heart still accepted by the Company. The effects of overharvesting were clearest at Black Water. The HP plot was harvested six times in the past five years. The mean height and diameter of Euterpe stems were the lowest of all plots, while the

175 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts percentage of dead clumps was the highest (19%). Clumps hardly contained any living suckers. No single reproductive stem was left in the plot.

5.4.5 Harvesting the virgin swamp To see how much palm heart could be extracted from a virgin swamp in a normal situation, an area of 0.2 ha was experimentally harvested in the control plot. In Table 5.7 these data were extrapolated to one hectare. Cutters collected 57 cabbages in one morning, with a total weight of 46 kg (the palm hearts still had two outer leaf sheaths). The extractors said that they had only cut the ‘first-choice stems’ that morning. Under normal circumstances, they would return the following day to harvest the palms that were less easy to fell. Thus, the total yield of one harvest would be higher than the actual yield listed in Table 5.7. The mean weight of the palm hearts (without outer leaf sheaths) from the virgin swamp was higher than that from previously harvested areas (ca. 319 gr vs. 248-271 gr, Table 5.6). The DBH of felled stems was also slightly higher; but then again the data from Table 5.7 do not represent the entire harvest. The potential value of palm heart in 1 ha of virgin swamp was approximately US$ 73, assuming that all mature stems in the plot (1296) were suitable for harvest. In practice, cutters would not fell every mature stem, as several palms were entangled in tree crowns and were impossible to bring down. When there was a wide choice of suitable stems, the cutting intensity was generally much lower. This was also observed at Assakata. Due to the small sample size and the experimental character of this harvest, parameters of harvested stems from the virgin swamp were not included in the statistical analysis.

Table 5.7 Parameter values from the virgin swamp.

Parameter values mean ± st. dev.

DBH of harvested stems [cm] 11.7 ± 1 .6 Height of harvested stems [m] 16.9 ± 2 .5 Diameter harvested cabbage [cm] 2.8 ± 1 . 4 Palm heart weight (can size) [gr] 319.1 ± 8 2.8 No. of mature stems /ha 1296 No. of stems harvested /ha 285 Potential yield [kg/ha] 383 Potential yield [US $/ha] 73.0 Actual yield (first day) [kg/ha] 230 Actual yield (first day) [US $/ha] 16.1

5.4.6 Harvesting of Euterpe precatoria Special attention was paid to the presence of Euterpe precatoria (winamoro or abua) in the plots. This single-stemmed palm species was much less abundant than E. oleracea. Few signs of extraction were notified in populations of E. precatoria. Moreover, E. precatoria was never sold in areas with extensive E. oleracea resources. People did not want to risk an argument with the Company and used the large palm hearts only in local stew dishes. Large E. precatoria palms remained after extraction in the LP plots in Assakata and Lower Kaituma. However, in regions with

176 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I rapidly declining palm heart stocks and a tense relationships with the Company (Koriabo, Black Water, Warapoka), people admitted that they occasionally tried to cheat the Company by secretly mixing winamoro cabbages with the other cabbages. Despite this, only six (10%) of the 57 individuals of E. precatoria found in all plots together had been felled for palm heart.

5.4.7 Growth of Euterpe oleracea in cultivation In 1993, a nursery with Euterpe oleracea seedlings was established in a cleared field next to the factory building in Drum Hill. This plantation was started for research purposes and was frequently weeded. No fertilisers or insecticides were used. The nursery offered a chance to study the growth of E. oleracea under plantation conditions. Results of the measurements from 86 clumps (about half of the nursery), with a total number of 234 stems (dead and alive), are shown in Table 5.8. Factory workers had secretly cut some of the stems in order to sell the palm hearts.

Table 5.8 Properties of Euterpe oleracea in the Company nursery

Parameter values (n = 234) Mean ± st. dev

Height of living stems [m] 3.3 ± 1.4 DBH of living stems [cm] 6.4 ± 3.0 DBH of harvested stems [cm] 9.2 ± 1.9 Percentage of reproductive stems [%] 5.9 Percentage of immature stems [%] 53.4 Percentage of harvested stems [%] 37.6 Percentage of dead stems (natural) [%] 1.7 Percentage of harvestable stems [%] 7.3 Number of suckers per clump 2.3 Palm heart weight [g] 217.9 Actual yield last harvest [kg] 19.2

Growing in full sunlight, the trunks were much sturdier than Euterpe stems in wild populations. Inflorescences were formed at no more than 2 m above the stem base. In January 1998, the clumps were almost five years old and looked healthy. As the largest stem was 7 m tall with a DBH of 17.1 cm, the maximum growth rate per year under these conditions would be 1.4 m in height and 3.4 cm in DBH. It was impossible, however, to determine which stems were indeed five years old and which had sprouted later.

These growth rates are thus merely an indication, but do confirm the theory that stems invest less in height when planted in the open. Diameters of 17 cm were seldom found in wild E. oleracea populations. The results from the nursery proved that manicole can be easily grown in plantations and that it produces harvestable palm hearts within five years. However, with such extensive wild resources at hand, it would be rather senseless to establish large plantations. Nevertheless, enrichment plantings in open areas are an option, considering the rapid growth of the species.

177 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

5.4.8 Effects of palm heart harvesting on other NTFPs No direct negative effects were noticed of palm heart harvesting on the availability of other NTFPs, although no quantitative data were collected on this subject. Rumours that cabbage cutters were destroying troolie palms (Manicaria saccifera, the major source of roof thatch in coastal Guyana) were not based on reality. Cutters seldom damaged troolie leaves when extracting palm hearts and the palm was still present in large numbers along the Waini and Barima Rivers. Increasing prices for troolie leaves were probably the result of high transport costs, rather than of the scarcity of the product.

Wildlife is another important NTFP of the coastal Euterpe swamps. In fact, many cabbage cutters earn some additional cash by selling parrots, macaws, snakes, aquarium fish, wild meat, and living mammals to wildlife traders. Since many birds feed on Euterpe fruits, extraction of reproductive palms was thought to lead to declining bird populations (Forte, 1995; Johnson, 1995). However, extractors said they had not noticed a decrease in the number of birds or other animals since they had started to cut manicole. They said that most birds did not depend entirely on manicole, but also fed on the fruits of Euterpe precatoria, Jessenia bataua, Mauritia flexuosa, and Inga spp. This corresponds with Galetti and Aleixo (1998), who found no decline in parrot populations in Brazilian Euterpe edulis forests after exploitation.

5.5 DISCUSSION

5.5.1 Impact of palm heart harvesting on Euterpe populations Although there were no detailed aerial photographs of the coastal manicole swamps available at the time of this survey, we estimate that most of the swamp forest directly alongside the large rivers of the North-West District (Barima, Aruka, Koriabo, Kaituma and Waini Rivers) can be considered high-pressure areas. Depending on the particular area, low-pressure areas are found several kilometres inland from the riverbanks, behind the heavily extracted riverine swamps. The majority of the low-pressure areas can be found in the lower Waini, the Baramanni, and the lower Barama regions.

The significantly higher percentage of dead clumps in the HP plots compared to the undisturbed plot could be interpreted as a sign of excessive pressure on the Euterpe populations. The percentage of dead clumps in the LP plots was not significantly different from that of the control plot, suggesting that extraction in LP sites had not yet led to higher mortality rates. More dead stems were present in the control plot than in the harvested plots, but probably the stems are felled in the harvested plots before they get a chance to die by natural causes. Age, wind damage, insect attacks, and competition for light and nutrients are all probable causes of natural mortality of stems (Calzavara, 1972; Hallé et al., 1978). Stems in all size classes run the risk of a natural death; however, since juvenile ramets decay much faster than larger ones, the latter are more obvious to the observer. Our data do not indicate that felling a mature stem has an effect on the fitness of the remaining stems on that particular clump.

178 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

There were some differences in the depth of the pegasse layer between the plots (van Andel et al., 1998), and there might also have been some variety in the salinity, length, and intensity of the flooding. However, the vegetation of the manicole swamps seemed rather comparable throughout the North-West District (chapter 3). Moreover, since the variety in soil and hydrology was present both within and between the pressure groups, we do not consider them to have a great influence on the outcomes of this study.

The extraction of palm hearts appeared to have a negative effect on the vegetative regeneration, since less living suckers and more dead suckers per clump were found in the HP plots. According to Strudwick (1990) and Pollak et al. (1995), palm heart extraction is considered sustainable if it has no long-term deleterious effect on the regeneration of the population and the yield remains more or less constant throughout the years. Since the results of this study showed a steady decline in the height and diameter of stems, clump vitality, reproduction, and palm heart yield, the current methods of palm heart extraction cannot be considered ecologically sustainable.

5.5.2 Fallow periods and growth rates The Company has been operating under the assumption that when all mature stems of an Euterpe population are felled, a second harvest can be conducted in about five years (Johnson, 1995). Results from this study point out that harvest cycles in the study area are not much longer than two years and often are even shorter. It also became clear that extraction in the area with the longest fallow periods (Assakata) seemed to have the least impact. The time needed for full regeneration is determined by the number of palm hearts extracted per harvest and the growth rate of the species. Although Euterpe oleracea is frequently cultivated in Brazil (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988), few studies have been done on the growth rates of the palm, and their results are quite different. Calzavara (1972), for example, estimated a stem increment of ca. 1 m per year in wild populations, while Ricci (1987) measured a maximum annual growth of 24 cm in height and 0.59 cm in diameter for young stems (DBH 3- 5 cm). In Ricci’s experiment, Euterpe stems showed an initial stage of secondary growth, but after reaching a DBH of 8 cm, annual diameter increase was minimal.

Higher light intensities caused by the removal of mature stems resulted in a slight acceleration in the growth of young ramets. Nevertheless, the stress inflicted by too intensive harvests had a negative effect on growth rates (Ricci, 1987). Anderson (1988) found that the removal of adult stems stimulated sucker growth. In this study, extraction had a strongly negative effect on the number of suckers per clump and even seemed to enhance sucker mortality; the effects on sucker growth have not been measured. Calzavara (1972) warned for the clearing of debris around Euterpe clumps, as this practice seriously damaged suckers and slowed down regeneration. Removal of adult ramets of the clonal palm Geonoma congesta also resulted in higher mortality of the suckers (Chazdon, 1991).

Cabbage cutters in Guyana estimated that it would take five years for a sucker to grow into a mature stem. This more or less corresponds with the outcomes of the nursery experiment, although growth conditions in the open field are without doubt

179 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts much different than those in a natural environment. On the other hand, a sucker from a clump might grow much faster than a seedling, since the latter lacks the photosynthetic support of its fellow ramets. Calzavara (1972) recommended a harvest cycle of at least four years for Brazilian Euterpe swamps, as did Ricci (1987, 1989) for French Guiana. Although our results do not allow for a clear indication of the required fallow periods to ensure sustainable harvest, an interval of four to five years seems reasonable for a population to recover from cutting damage. Extraction cycles of five years are relatively short compared to other wild species used for palm heart. For instance, a report by PROMAB (1998) recommends fallow periods of 30 years between harvests of E. precatoria in Bolivia. It also states that only 20% of the single-stemmed adults should be extracted per harvest and that silvicultural treatments are needed to guarantee sufficient regrowth. However, these extraction rates would still lead to declining populations. Because of the high management costs and long fallow periods, the authors conclude that sustainable extraction of E. precatoria would not be economically feasible.

5.5.3 Decline in production: Guyana versus Brazil After several years of exploitation, the Euterpe populations studied in the North- West District have shown a steady decline in height, diameter, reproductivity, potential, and actual yield. This indicates that with the current extraction levels and short fallow periods, the harvesting of palm heart is not sustainable. When comparing our results with those of Pollak et al. (1995), there were several striking differences with the situation in Brazil (Table 5.9). Guyanan palm hearts were required to have a minimum diameter of 2.0 cm, while Brazilian factories accepted immature cabbages of 1.3 cm diameter. Low-grade or small-sized palm hearts, which would have been rejected or discarded in Guyana, were kept for the national market in Brazil (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988; Pollak et al., 1995). The Brazilian Environmental Agency IBAMA had proposed a minimum size of 2.0 cm, but regulations were not enforced and many ‘illegal’ palm hearts were being processed (Pollak et al., 1995). At the time of that study, Brazilian extractors were being paid according to the size of their palm hearts. They received US$ 0.04 for a small cabbage (< 2 cm), $ 0.05 for a medium cabbage (2-3 cm), and $ 0.07 for a large palm heart (> 3 cm). In Guyana, the standard price for all palm hearts was ca. $ 0.06. The slightly higher prices in Brazil resulted in a daily income of $ 8-10 for Marajó extractors, more than in most areas in the North-West District (Table 5.4).

Table 5.9 Comparison of palm heart harvesting between Guyana and Brazil.

Parameters North-West District Marajó Island, Brazil < 2 times > 2 times 4-5 yrs fallow 1-2 yrs fallow harvested harvested period period DBH of harvested stems [cm] 11.44 11.15 10.6 6.2 DBH of living stems > 2 m 6.8 4.7 6.3 4.9 Palm heart diameter [cm] 2.75 2.69 2.6 1.3 Palm heart weight [g] 293 287 262 76 Actual yield [kg/ha] 149.9 108.1 192.3 43.9 No. of stems needed for this yield 512 377 734 577 Percentage of dead clumps 4 10 11 25

180 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The average palm heart weight of the Brazilian plots with short fallow periods was more than three times lower than in the Guyanese HP plots (harvested more than 2 times). The Company’s strict size control, therefore, is a good instrument to prevent a strong decline in palm heart weight due to the harvesting of immature stems. Although they were difficult to find in Marajó, Pollak et al. showed that fallow periods of 4-5 years led to a higher net yield than short periods of 1-2 years (Table 5.9). No direct comparisons could be made between the low-pressure plots in Brazil (with a fallow period of 4-5 years) and LP plots in Guyana, since areas with fallow periods longer than two years were not found in Guyana. The Brazilian LP plots also had a slightly higher yield than LP plots in Guyana, probably because of the higher numbers of small cabbages collected. The fallow periods in the Brazilian and Guyanese HP plots were more or less equal in length, which enables a more direct comparison. Although many more stems were cut in the Brazilian HP plots, the yield in those plots was much lower than in Guyanese HP plots. As Pollak and co-workers did not calculate potential yield, nothing is known about the number of stems remaining in the field after harvest in Marajó Island.

One quarter of all the clumps was dead in the Brazilian stands subject to frequent harvest, while clump mortality was around 10% in Guyanese HP plots. Palm heart extraction in Brazil started in the 1970s, and Euterpe resources in the area have certainly dwindled since then. Pollak et al. (1995) predicted that the economic boom in the palm heart industry would be short-lived, since many of the hundreds of canning factories in the Amazon estuary were closing down in the early 1990s. Overharvesting in the study area of Pollak et al. appeared to be more severe than in our study plots in Guyana; population parameters in Marajó low-pressure plots seemed more similar to HP plots in Guyana. Nevertheless, if extraction continues at the current level of intensity, in 10 years from now, Guyana may face similar problems with future yields as Brazil.

Overharvesting and low-quality palm hearts have already weakened Brazil’s position on the world market (Richards, 1993). In the 1990s, other Latin American countries (e.g., Costa Rica, Ecuador) started to harvest palm hearts from Bactris gasipaes plantations and filled the gap in the export market to France. This multi-stemmed species only needs two years to produce adequately sized palm hearts. If properly managed, a Bactris plantation can yield ca. 4500 palm hearts annually per hectare in the first ten years (PROMAB, 1998). According to Arkcoll and Clement (1989), plantations of B. gasipaes can produce palm hearts at six times the rate of E. oleracea in experimental plantations.

5.5.4 Socio-economic benefits of palm heart harvesting According to Forte (1995), the traditional Amerindian culture in Guyana is threatened by the long periods of absence of able-bodied males. Women can plant and tend their subsistence farms only after men have cut and burned a piece of forest. If heads of households work in remote cities, mines, or logging concessions, the farms will be neglected. When the men return, their earnings rarely last to feed the family until the next paycheque. The socio-economic advantages of palm heart harvesting are that it provides locally available cash income and allows most extractors to return home every day and maintain their indigenous lifestyle. Those

181 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts who stay in forest camps for long periods usually take their families with them. In fact, spending time in temporary camps during fishing and hunting trips has always been part of Amerindian life (Roth, 1924). Commercial NTFP extraction is one of the few employment opportunities available within the Amerindian reservations (Forte, 1995; van Andel and Reinders, 1999). Although cabbage cutters have neglected their farms in some areas, they still spend considerably more time at home with their families than men who found work in remote logging or mining camps. Therefore, it is of great socio-economic importance that the Company continues its activities in the North-West District.

5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS

5.6.1 Management plan Harvesting palm hearts is not only socially more acceptable than the gold and timber industry, it also appears to be less environmentally destructive. Flying over the North-West District, we immediately noticed large openings in the forest cover when passing logging or mining operations. In the palm heart region, the canopy appeared quite intact from the air, even in high-pressure areas. According to Johnson (1995), Euterpe swamps represent a concentrated resource that is potentially simple to manage compared to more species-rich heterogeneous forests. To guarantee a continuous supply of palm hearts in the future, the Company must develop a management plan as soon as possible. It should be based on adequate resource inventories and include post-harvest monitoring. The Company should design a strategy to continue processing manicole while relieving the pressure on overharvested areas. The Company has already announced informally that they want to keep production in the North-West District at its present level to prevent further pressure on the forest. According to manager X. Richard (pers. comm.), the Company tries as much to minimise its effects on the ecological and social environment in the region. He further states that within the framework of globalisation, food processors have to be guided by the rules of the international market with regards to competition and marketing. In his opinion, the Company has experienced a strong influence of currency valuation, trade agreements, and mergers. A publicly available management plan, however, would give the Company a better image and lessen the suspicion felt by the Guyanese public. The plan might also serve as an instrument to monitor the sustainability of the extraction practices. After the publication of the interim report by van Andel et al. (1998), the Guyana Forestry Commission requested the Company again to develop a management plan for the next five years (G. Marshall, pers. comm.).

5.6.2 Further research For valid statements on regeneration periods and sustainable harvesting levels, further research is needed on the population dynamics of E. oleracea. Repeated measurements on recovery are necessary to assess the long-term effects of different harvest pressures. Experimental cutting at different intensities should be carried out in permanent sample plots. Regeneration should be measured for several years in order to develop growth models and sustainable harvest levels. These models, accompanied by resource mapping made through aerial photographs and GIS

182 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I systems, should form the basis of a sustainable management plan. Attention should further be paid to the optimum relationship between the ecological limits of palm heart extraction and the socio-economic subsystem.

5.6.3 Certification Canned palm heart is consumed mainly in developed countries like France and the USA, where ‘green’ products from rainforests are popular among environmentally minded people. These consumers are willing to pay a higher price for a product if it is harvested in a sustainable way and guarantees a better income for extractors in developing countries (Browder, 1992; Clay, 1992). Once the Company succeeds in developing an ecologically sustainable management system, in which attention is paid to the social needs of the cabbage cutters, the Company could market its palm heart as a ‘sustainably harvested rainforest product’. This would benefit the marketing position of the Company and ultimately lead to better living conditions for the cutters. Currently, the company is only certified to produce palm heart without fertilisers and pesticides (J. Gérin, pers. comm.).

5.6.4 Large-scale rotation systems From an ecological viewpoint, the best solution for overharvesting would be to stop buying palm hearts from heavily exploited areas. If the Company would withdraw from those areas and intensify extraction in less-disturbed areas, the damaged populations could regenerate and perhaps permit harvesting again in another five years. An adequate control system is needed to prevent illegal cutting in overharvested areas. A large-scale rotation system, however, may have severe socio- economic consequences. Local employment opportunities would suddenly be limited and cheap commodities would no longer be available in closed areas. With few food reserves grown at home, this could lead to extreme poverty and malnutrition among cabbage cutter families. These cutters should either be offered alternative sources of income or stimulated to migrate to less-disturbed areas. Adequate housing, health and education facilities would make it more attractive for people to move to new extraction sites. In addition, newcomers should definitely be encouraged to combine palm heart harvesting with subsistence farming, in order to prevent resource depletion and forced migration in the future. This is especially relevant in the Lower Waini, where migrants from the Aruka and Barima Rivers have already started harvesting on a full-time basis. Food security is essential to prevent a total dependency on the canning industry and the consequent destruction of Euterpe swamps.

Several authors have designed large-scale management systems for the Brazilian palm heart industry. Calzavara (1972), for example, presented results from a plantation in which palm hearts were harvested every four years, felling 30% of the stems > 10 m and 30% of the stems between 2 and 5 m during each harvest. Anderson and Jardim (1989) reported a system in which three large palm hearts were extracted from each clump every third year, combined with selective thinning of weeds and vines and girdling of canopy trees without local uses. Strudwick (1990) gave an example of a successful management plan in Marajó, in which a palm heart factory divided an area of 5 x 2 km into smaller rectangles of 200 x 500 m. These plots were harvested every four years and actively managed by the Company.

183 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Undesirable vegetation and palm leaf debris where cleared to provide sufficient light and a better germination of E. oleracea. The forest was thus maintained in an optimum state for the future production of palm heart. This system supplied approximately 700 harvestable stems per ha. It was estimated that it would take just over two years to harvest the entire area. Upon completion, the project would go to another area and return two years later, when the palms had reached a sufficient size to harvest again. To encourage the cutters to follow this management scheme, they were paid two times the standard payment. Palm heart operations of the same company, using similar methods in other areas, had been in practice for over ten years, thus demonstrating the apparent sustainability of the system (Strudwick, 1990). In the North-West District, 1296 harvestable stems per ha were counted in the control plot, while ca. 400 mature stems per ha were left after harvest in the low- pressure plots. If a sustainable system allows the felling of 700 stems per ha every four years, extraction rates would still be lower than in the present LP plots. Further research should be conducted to see if this management system could be applied in Guyana as well.

At first glance, these harvesting systems look rather costly and complicated. However, Pollak et al. (1995) argued that low- and high-intensity management systems both resulted in significant long-term savings for factories, when compared to the costs of purchasing wild palm hearts from independent extractors. The management of forests dominated by economically important species could be a successful venture, if the product value is high and conflictive land uses are few (Anderson, 1988; Peters et al., 1989b). This seems to apply for northwest Guyana as well, since commercial agriculture would require drastic changes in the swampy, saline environment of the coastal wetlands, while the absence of commercial timber species and valuable minerals make them unsuitable for logging or mining. The harvesting of palm hearts (and other NTFPs) seems to be the most viable land use in this region, provided that an adequate management plan is developed. Strudwick (1990) predicted that if the Amazonian coastal wetlands would be carefully managed, a steady, renewable source of palm heart could result, while at the same time helping to conserve the native forests and soils.

5.6.5 Small-scale rotation systems From a socio-economic standpoint, the best solution for overharvesting would be the development of rotation systems at community level. This would enable people to earn a living in their near surroundings, without having to move away from their families or homelands. As villages differ from each other in resource availability, each should make its own management plan. In such a system, some areas are predestined for harvest, while others are left to regenerate for at least four years. Whichever occurs, at least one mature stem per clump should be spared and marked with paint in order to enhance the growth of suckers and young stems. Other recommended silvicultural measures are: 1) avoid the cutting of suckers and young stems when felling large stems; and 2) selective clearing of lianas and shrubs that inhibit the growth of seedlings and young stems.

184 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Strict agreements among cutters are needed to avoid extraction in regenerating areas. However, guaranteed land or access rights are a prerequisite for the success of such a system. In high-pressure areas, subsistence agriculture should be stimulated to guarantee food security.

Training programs should focus on the following subjects:

• Improving agricultural techniques in subsistence farming • Designing village-based management plans for palm heart extraction • Developing community administration skills

At the time of this research, no attempts had ever been made by cabbage cutters to organise themselves. Everyone was a direct competitor of his neighbour, a factor that strongly weakened his or her bargaining position. In addition, hardly any agreements were made among villagers on the division of working space. Extractors were inclined to harvest palm hearts as soon as possible, instead of waiting for the stems to reach larger size and thus losing them to other cutters. When a small-scale rotation system was discussed with extractors from Warapoka, they rejected the idea. They considered the palm heart resources around their village too limited to establish a rotation system with such long fallow periods. People said they were too dependent on cabbage cutting to slow down harvesting. They needed the cash to meet their daily needs. They also wondered who would control the regenerating areas.

Since in the end it is the extractor who decides which stems to cut and which to leave for future harvests, he exercises the ultimate control over whether or not the activity is sustainable (Pollak et al., 1995). For this reason, conditions must be made favourable for the extractor to carry out his job in a way that protects the natural resource against over-exploitation. According to Schwartzman (1990), the palm heart industry in Brazil was a clear case where land reform would result in sustainable management practices. This should happen through the combination of extractive reserves and cooperative marketing.

In Guyana, a system to relieve the pressure on the Euterpe swamps would only work if alternative resources were available to the cutters. To ensure food security and overcome the loss of income, self-help days could be organised during which villagers work together establishing farms in exchange for food. Similar programs have been executed successfully by SIMAP in other communities in the North-West District (Forte, 1995). Community-based management systems should first be tested in low-pressure areas, where sufficient manicole resources are still available. Village councils should always be fully involved in this process, as well as local agents and representatives from the Company. The lack of communication between the Company and communities involved in palm heart harvesting has often led to tense relations and mutual distrust. Therefore, it has been suggested that an intermediary be employed to start a dialogue between cutters and the Company and to explain company policies (G. Ford, pers. comm.).

185 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

Communities should try to organise themselves and take a responsible attitude towards the future. Harvest quota should be set for vulnerable areas. Village administration is essential in order to control the amounts of palm hearts extracted. Cutters must be registered, both at the Company and in at village itself. More creeks should be deepened to avoid further depletion of riparian Euterpe stocks. These activities should be co-ordinated by village councils and stimulated by the Company, the Guyanese government, SIMAP, and other (Amerindian) NGOs concerned with rural welfare.

5.6.6 Safety Palm heart harvesters repeatedly mentioned snake bites as the greatest risk of their work. Ideally, every cutter should carry a personal snakebite kit, containing a suction pump, a razor blade, and a bottle of anti-venom. This is of course quite expensive, but local health huts are often badly equipped for emergencies and hospitals may be as far as a day’s travel in a fast boat. The cheapest option is to minimise the risk of snakebites. Distribution of free rubber boots to all cabbage cutters would greatly reduce injuries. When we recommended this in our interim report (van Andel et al., 1998), the Company replied that cutters found it impractical to wear boots in the forest (X. Richard, pers. comm.). When the GFC later urged the Company to provide safety gear for extractors, the general manager answered that cutters were not employed by the Company (LaRose, 1999). LaRose also noted that neither cutters nor agents were insured by the country’s National Insurance Scheme.

5.6.7 Utilisation of Euterpe fruits In Brazil, a popular drink (‘açai’) is made from the fruits of Euterpe oleracea. People harvest the fruits by climbing the palms, cutting the inflorescences, and extracting the pulp by hand. Açai supports a huge domestic economy in the Brazilian Amazon: in 1987 it had become the most important extractive product (by value) in the Brazilian economy (Richards, 1993). The liquid is processed into ice cream, pastries, and other food items. Mixed with cassava flour, rice, or sugar, açai is consumed in huge quantities by the poor section of the Amazonian population. In some areas, people consume over two litres a day (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988; de Castro, 1993). E. oleracea has a major fruiting season from August to December in Brazil (Kahn and de Granville, 1992), but nothing is known about its phenology in Guyana. In this study, reproductive adults were frequently observed between October and February, and locals said that fruits and flowers were produced throughout the year.

For some reason, the Guyanese do not fancy Euterpe juice, although a similar drink from the fruits of Jessenia bataua is very popular. In this way, a product with such an enormous potential remains unused, because it lacks opportunities on the domestic market. The Company was not very positive about processing Euterpe fruits (X. Richard, pers. comm.), but once a stable external market is found, they might reconsider developing a conserving system for fruit pulp export. Using the existing infrastructure for palm heart collection, the revenues from manicole swamps could then increase significantly, resulting in more income and employment for local people. Palm heart harvesting does not necessarily have negative consequences for

186 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I fruit collection (Peters et al., 1989b; Richards, 1993). Leaving intact one mature stem per cluster increases the vitality of the clump and supplies the extractor with fruits.

Once Euterpe fruits are considered valuable, fewer reproductive trees will be felled. In Surinam and Brazil, local people widely cultivate E. oleracea for its fruits. Anderson and Jardim (1989) found that pruning a few mature Euterpe stems per clump for palm heart did not have negative effects on the fruit production of the remaining stems and that selective thinning of forest competitors significantly increased fruit productivity. Alternative land use practices that permit both fruit harvest and palm heart extraction are being increasingly implemented by the rural population in Amazonia (Anderson and Jardim, 1989). Since malnutrition is not uncommon in the North-West District (Forte, 1995), the use of Euterpe fruits in the local diet should be promoted.

5.7 CONCLUSIONS

After several years of exploitation, Euterpe populations in the coastal wetlands of northwest Guyana showed a steady decline in the height and diameter of stems, clump vitality, reproduction, and palm heart yield. The main reason for this phenomenon is that the fallow periods between subsequent harvests are too short. Our data suggest that the present level of palm heart harvesting will lead to severe problems with sustainability in the near future, in particular when harvest cycles remain shorter than the generally recommended four to five years. Information about the growth rates of E. oleracea is needed to confirm the evidence presented here.

Amerindians in the coastal swamp region rely heavily on the employment and cheap commodities provided by the canning company. Declining Euterpe resources and neglect of traditional farming have caused severe socio-economic problems. Fallow periods in these high-pressure sites were very short, leading to a very limited time for the vegetation to regenerate. In areas where people combined palm heart harvesting with subsistence farming, hunting, and fishing, less damage was done to the vegetation and harvest cycles were longer. This suggests a link between the availability of alternative sources of income and subsistence and the intensity of palm heart extraction.

No significant decline in the mean weight of palm hearts and diameter of harvested stems could be established. This was probably caused by the minimum palm heart size required by the Company. This requirement appears to be a powerful method to prevent the extraction of immature stems, a practice that has led to severe overharvesting in Brazil. Populations of Euterpe precatoria do not run much risk of being depleted nor does the harvesting of manicole seem to have a strongly negative effect on other NTFPs.

187 5. Commercial extraction of palm hearts

It is of great economic and social importance that the Company continues its activities in the North-West District. However, a detailed management plan, based on adequate resource inventories and post-harvest monitoring, is needed to ensure the future supply of palm hearts, since sustainable harvesting of this resource is of vital importance to the country’s well-being. Palm heart extraction seems to be the most viable land use for the coastal wetlands of Guyana, since the vegetation is dominated by a fast-growing, economically important species with a lasting market value. Moreover, the potential for competitive land uses is minimal.

In the near future, the Company will probably implement large rotation systems that allow the regeneration of overharvested areas, while intensifying extraction in undisturbed areas. To avoid the migration of extractors in the future, community- based rotation systems should also be encouraged. Subsistence agriculture should be stimulated to guarantee food security. The Company, extractors, and the government should consider palm heart harvesting in the context of the social, economic, and ecological realities of the North-West District. This implies that each party should assume its responsibilities in ensuring that palm heart harvesting continues to play its current important role.

188 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

6. COMMERCIAL EXPLOITATION OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS IN GUYANA’S NORTH-WEST DISTRICT1

6.1 INTRODUCTION

One of the ways to ensure that Guyana can profit from its natural resources without plundering them, is to diversify the forest-based portion of the national economy (Sizer, 1996). An increased commercial extraction of NTFPs, for example, could add more economic value to the forest, generate income for forest-dwelling people, and provide economic incentives for conservation and sustainable resource management (Vasquez and Gentry, 1989; FAO, 1991; Clay, 1992; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Broekhoven, 1996). Guyana’s vast potential of NTFPs has only partly been developed commercially. Many plant and animal products are gathered from natural forests in Guyana, but the majority is used for subsistence purposes only. Few NTFPs are extracted on a commercial basis and even less are harvested for export purposes.

NTFPs are often viewed as a promising forest use, as they can often be harvested without much damage to the ecosystem (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). The impact of their extraction is minimal compared to logging, mining, or cattle ranching (Nepstad and Schwartzman, 1992). It was suggested that the long term potential value of NTFPs, including plants, animals, ecotourism and pharmaceutical prospecting, could outstrip the value of the timber itself (Sizer, 1996). Therefore, only the commercial extraction of NTFPs, in contrast to extraction for subsistence, has the potential to contribute to the economic development of forest-dependent people (Boot, 1997).

Furthermore, the labour-intensive, capital-extensive approach is well suited to local conditions in many tropical countries (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). Economically successful NTFPs must have a permanent market appeal. Harvesters should receive a good price for the product in order to prevent destructive extraction techniques, wasting, or abandoning the product altogether. Distributors must be guaranteed a consistent supply of the product and therefore its harvest should be ecologically sustainable (Pollak et al., 1995).

1. Parts of this chapter have been published in the two following articles: van Andel, van T.R. 1998. Commercial exploitation of Non-Timber Forest Products in the North-West District of Guyana. Caribbean Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources 2 (1): 15-28 van Andel, T.R. and M.A. Reinders. 1999. Non-Timber Forest Products in Guyana’s Northwest District: Potentials and pitfalls. In M.A.F. Ros-Tonen (ed.): Seminar Proceedings ‘NTFP Research in the Tropenbos Programme: Results and Perspectives’, 28 January 1999. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands: 47-62.

189 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District

Figure 6.1 Commercial extraction of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

190 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Amerindians in Guyana have traded forest products among each other since their very existence (Butt, 1973). Nowadays, substantial amounts of NTFPs are still traded on local village markets (Forte, 1996c), but quantitative data on NTFPs from Guyana are scarce (Sizer, 1996; Sullivan, 1999). Apart from recent research on aerial roots harvesting (Hoffman, 1997) and on the availability of useful plants in the Iwokrama Reserve (Johnston and Gillman, 1995; Johnston and Culquhoun, 1996; Johnston, 1998), and the household surveys of Sullivan (1999), there is little known on the habitats and ecology of commercially important NTFPs, the amounts harvested, their importance for the local and national economy, or the impact of their extraction on the forest.

The commercial exploitation of the interior forests is regulated by the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC). Inadequate facilities, finance, and personnel have forced the GFC to limit its activities to the allocation of harvesting rights, control of the timber export, and revenue collection (Sizer, 1996). Only recently, under the influence of international donor agencies and NGOs, Guyana is beginning to consider its Amerindian inhabitants as stakeholders in the decision-making process in forestry issues (Government of Guyana, 1996). Guyana now faces the challenge to set up sustainable land use plans for its interior, in which commercial extraction of NTFPs should be fully integrated with other forest uses (Sizer, 1996). According to Conservation International, the country’s opportunities for harmonising economic development with biodiversity conservation are extremely promising (Parker et al., 1993).

Marketing efforts for NTFPs should focus initially on products for which there are already markets (Clay, 1992). Record keeping is essential to facilitate the public access to the information of species harvested from the wild and the status of their populations (Edwards et al., 1994). This chapter will focus on those NTFPs from the North-West District that are currently extracted for commercial purposes. The general aspects of their trade are discussed, after which some recommendations are given that might help to realise their sustainable extraction.

6.2 METHODOLOGY

During the fieldwork period of 1995-1998, regular surveys were held at the regional markets of Charity, Mabaruma, and Georgetown. Local Amerindian markets (Santa Rosa, Kariako), craft shops (Santa Rosa, Hossororo, Kabakaburi) and furniture producers (Haimaracabra, Pomeroon, Hossororo) were visited as well. Interviews were held with NTFP harvesters, middlemen, and craftspeople in each of these places, including some of the larger furniture factories and craft shops in Georgetown. Export figures of NTFPs were calculated from commercial export invoices present in the archives of the Guyana Forestry Commission. Additional information was derived from crude company figures, agricultural export reports, published, and unpublished literature.

191 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District

Table 6.1 Major commercial NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West district and Pomeroon region. Prices are given in US$. The exchange rate in 1997 was 1 US$ = 142 Guyana dollars.

Product Species Extraction region End use Markets Price/unit Price/unit (harvester) (end user) wildlife birds, mammals, entire North West District pets, skins, food Georgetown, USA, Europe $ 2.50-10 / animal up to $ 10,000/ reptiles, fish, wild meat and Pomeroon animal palm heart Euterpe oleracea coastal swamps canned delicacy France, USA, Georgetown $ 0.06 / palm heart $ 1.5 / can nibi & kufa roots Heteropsis flexuosa Pomeroon, Mabaruma furniture, basketry Georgetown, Caribbean, USA, $ 5-10 / bundle $ 20-700 / Clusia spp. coastal Guyana $ 0.14-0.35 / root furniture troolie leaves Manicaria saccifera Pomeroon, coastal swamps roofs, walls NWD, West Coast Essequibo $ 0.03-0.11 / leaf $ 127-408/ roof mangrove bark Rhizophora mangle Mabaruma, Waini mouth leather tanning Georgetown $ 0.04 / kg $ 0.13 / kg (tannery) tibisiri fibre Mauritia flexuosa Pomeroon, Moruca crafts, carpets, Georgetown, Caribbean, USA $ 0.35 / basket $42 / carpet Mabaruma hammocks, $ 7 / hammock $ 18 / hammock car seats mokru Ischnosiphon arouma Pomeroon, Moruca basketry, crafts Georgetown, USA Caribbean, $ 0.20-$4 / basket $ 4-10 / basket I. obliquus Mabaruma NWD, medicinal plants various species occasionally from NWD medicine Georgetown, USA, UK $ 0.07-0.14 - crab oil Carapa guianensis entire North West district medicinal oil Georgetown, NWD $ 3.5 / litre $ 7 / litre

192 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

6.3 RESULTS

6.3.1 Total export revenues of NTFPs Several NTFPs already account for a share in Guyana’s exports and many of those are harvested in the North-West District. Species and unit prices of the most important commercial NTFPs (both concerning the national and the international market) are listed in Table 6.1. Unfortunately, even for products that have been traded for years, little information is available on revenues earned and number of people employed in the collection, processing, and trade. When the limited published information (Edwards et al., 1994; World Bank, 1995; Sizer, 1996; NGMC, 1996, 1997, 1998), GFC tax forms, and unpublished production figures were all compiled, total export figures of NTFPs could only be calculated with some accuracy for 1996 (Table 6.2). This sum still might be a conservative estimation, as exporters often give low product values for reasons of tax evasion and wildlife products are smuggled out of the country in substantial quantities (Sizer, 1996). Nevertheless, these figures at least provide some insight in the export of commercial NTFPs from Guyana.

As taxes had to be paid and licenses had to be issued before products were sent abroad, export revenues are the only data available on the NTFP trade in Guyana. Except for the harvesting of mangrove bark, of which records were kept by the GFC, there was no quantitative information available on NTFPs produced for the national market. At the time of the research there were no entities monitoring the volumes of NTFPs put up for sale at local or regional markets. Except for the heart of palm industry, it was not known how many people benefited from the NTFP trade in Guyana. Most commercial NTFPs in the North-West District were harvested close to transportation facilities and regional markets (e.g., Mabaruma and Charity). More detailed accounts on the main products are given below, in order of importance.

Table 6.2 Annual export values in US$ of the major commercial NTFPs in Guyana, in order of importance. Figures are given in tons if revenues were not available. - = Data not available; * = Harvested in the North-West District only. Sources: Edwards et al. (1994), World Bank (1995), Sizer (1996), Thomas et al. (1996), NGMC (1996, 1997, 1998), and GFC (unpublished data). Revenues do not include export taxes.

Product 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Wildlife 1,500,000 1,871,000 banned banned - 2,100,000 - Palm heart * 734 tons 797 tons 941 tons 1,500,000 2,071,162 1,965,978 2,338,431 Nibi and kufa * - - - - 190,133 137,120 125,165 Tibisiri - - - - 11,209 10,401 4,850 Medicinal plants - - 0.33 tons 1.96 tons 5,361 6,213 2,313 Mokru - - - - 1,823 131 75

Total - - - - 2,279,688 4,219,843 -

193 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District

6.3.2 Wildlife Wildlife is by far the most important commercial NTFP in Guyana, both regarding the foreign trade and the national market. The legal export of animals was estimated to be worth around US$ 2 million annually, more or less equalling the palm heart export (Table 6.2). However, this sum seems to be a moderate guess, since profits generated by the domestic trade and illegal export of live animals and game meat would add significantly to this estimate (Sizer, 1996; Forte, 1996c). Guyana’s wildlife exports are significant on a global scale. The country ranks among the world’s leading bird exporters, with Psittacidae (parrots, macaws and parakeets) as main commercial product (Edwards et al., 1994). In 1986, more than 30 thousand parrots, over 5300 live primates and 52,000 reptile skins were exported from Guyana (Broekhoven, 1996). The trade of ornamental fish with the USA was estimated to have generated more than $ 250,000 in 1992 (World Bank, 1995).

The Wildlife Division under the Office of the President registers and monitors the legal export of animals, but has little statutory authority to support the management of wildlife. The Division is understaffed, ill equipped and inadequately funded to carry out its responsibilities effectively (Brown, 1992; Thomas et al., 1996). The animal trade is scarcely monitored and reports of highly predatory collecting and export methods are common (Sizer, 1996). In 1977, Guyana signed an agreement with CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). In 1987, quotas were set for all species legally exported, but these were only assumed to be below the levels at which wild populations might be threatened. Except for the caiman (Caiman crocodrilus crocodrilus) and a preliminary survey of boid snakes, baseline population data and management plans were lacking (Edwards et al., 1994; De Souza, 1997).

Concerns over the sustainability of the commercial wildlife extraction prompted the government in 1993 to suspend temporarily exports of wild species (Edwards et al., 1994). The export prohibition was said to last until a better system for harvesting levels was established and administration and control procedures were improved (Stabroek News, 1993). The ban caused great consternation among wildlife exporters, Amerindian trappers and Government officials (Guy, 1993; Persaud, cited in Stabroek News, 1993; Bisnauth, 1993). A detailed framework to conserve and manage wild species for sustainable use was provided to the Government by the IUCN (Edwards et al, 1994). In this report, guidelines for all stakeholders were clarified and scientific surveys were strongly recommended before the ban should be lifted again.

The trade was reopened in November 1995, but according to De Souza (1997), there were still no estimates of sustainable harvest levels for the majority of the wild animals. The quota were in most cases not based on population surveys, nor location specific, which could lead to a local extinction of species if the situation was not mentioned clearly (De Souza, 1997). A closed season for trapping was set from January to April for birds and from June to August for mammals (Edwards et al., 1994). This system could enhance the recovery of populations, although it was not

194 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I known if the periods referred to breeding seasons of marketable species (De Souza, 1997).

In spite of the country’s official CITES agreements, Georgetown souvenir shops were still selling the skins of jaguar (Panthera onca) and puma (Puma concolor) in 1998 (see Plate 31 of Part II of this thesis). These animals are listed on Appendix I and thus officially banned for international trade (CITES, 1973). The trade in species mentioned on Appendix II (toucans, monkeys, parakeets and macaws) is only permitted if this does not threaten their continued survival. Guyana has been exporting these animals in large quantities, regardless of the fact that little research has been done on the effects of harvesting on their populations. In 1999, after the country failed to adopt a law that regulated the export of species listed on the Appendices, CITES recommended international wildlife dealers to suspend the animal trade with Guyana (CITES, 1999). After a survey of the status and distribution of Psittacidae, in which recommendations where made concerning harvest quota, scientific research, protected areas, and captive breeding, the temporary export ban was lifted again by the end of the year (CITES, 1999).

Between 6000 and 54,000 people are estimated to earn a living in the wildlife trade in Guyana, the great majority of which are Amerindians (Catholic Standard, 1992; Forte et al., 1992). It remains unknown how much the North-West District contributes to the international trade. The wildlife business certainly generates considerable income and employment in the region (ECTF, 1993; Edwards et al., 1994), but it is not clear how many trappers and middlemen are directly supported by this trade. In the household surveys conducted by Sullivan (1999) in three Amerindian communities in the North-West District, it appeared that in some villages up to 61% of the animals and 42% of the fish caught were sold. A total of 1600 parrots were reported to be caught in Sebai in 1996, while 2300 parrots and 1200 macaws were trapped in Karaburi, all for the purpose of trade. These figures greatly outweighed the numbers of animals caught for home consumption. However, the annual earnings of commercial trapping in these villages could not be recovered, as Sullivan summed these figures with hypothetical market values of wildlife caught for food. Living and dead mammals, reptiles, and birds are being sold to shopkeepers in the interior or directly to traders at the regional markets of Santa Rosa, Mabaruma, and Charity, from where they are sometimes flown out by chartered aircraft. The large profits, however, seem to stay in the hands of foreign traders. A trapper might receive US$ 10 for a rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria), while the animal is offered for sale in the USA for over $ 200.

In spite of the low prices received by the trappers, wildlife is generally more lucrative per unit than any other non-timber forest product. Even if it takes a whole day to catch a macaw, it still pays more than an average day of nibi or palm heart harvesting (Hoffman, 1997; van Andel et al., 1998). Animals are often the only NTFPs worthwhile to bring from remote areas. Song birds, in particular the lesser seed finch or towa towa (Oryzoborus angolensis), were among the few NTFPs profitable enough to catch in Kariako (Barama) and bring out all the way to the coast to sell. Other forest products, such as nibi, kufa, crafts or medicinal plants, were definitely not worth the transportation costs. Merchants in Charity were selling caged call birds for US$ 28 to Amerindians travelling to the interior and offered $ 7

195 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District to 14 for each finch they would bring back (van Andel, 1998). In Europe a towa towa would cost at least US$ 80.

In 1996, the trade in aquarium fish was concentrated along the Barima River, where businessmen were buying among others the small silver-hatchet (Gasteropelecus sternicla), captured by local people in creeks and ponds in the beginning of the dry season. Buyers distributed plastic containers and collected them again when full, paying $ 4 to $ 7 for a thousand fishes, depending on the species. The dealers maintained that this trade did little ecological damage, as the fish would die anyway during the dry season when the creeks stayed without water. However, no surveys have been conducted and little is known about the impact of the extraction on the populations of these species. There is neither a harvest quota nor a closed season for the ornamental fish trade. In 1992, the potential value of export quota for aquarium fishes was calculated at $ 251,002 (Edwards et al, 1994).

Almost no regulation or monitoring takes place in the domestic wildlife trade, even though bush meat and fish are the major protein source in the interior. In villages with little access to markets, the majority of the catch is consumed within the household, but communities more integrated into the money economy may sell up to 61% of their catch (Sullivan, 1999). Bush meat and fish are commonly traded among villagers, gold miners, and loggers and at local markets. An increasing number of restaurants in Georgetown offer wild meat on their menu as a delicacy. There also exists a significant domestic market for parrots, monkeys, and songbirds (Forte, 1996c). At the annual revenues earned from domestic wildlife trade can only be guessed (Thomas et al., 1996). Sullivan (1999) estimated the total amount of bush meat caught in Assakata (pop. 176) at 27,735 kg per year and fish at 26,213 kg. However, these figures were based on questionnaires and only two weeks of fieldwork. Seasonal variety in hunting and fishing yields was assumed to be minimal. Since quantitative data are lacking, it is impossible to estimate the impact of wildlife harvesting on animal populations.

Changing settlement patterns, resulting in large Amerindian towns (e.g., Santa Rosa and Mabaruma), have increased the local demand for fresh meat and fish. Wildlife resources around these villages seem to be rapidly declining, and people now depend heavily on salted sea fish. At the same time, Amerindians in remote gold mining areas complained that the silting of rivers by land and river dredges diminished their fish resources (van Andel and Reinders, 1999). In order to establish sustainable management systems for commercial species, extensive surveys are needed to assess population sizes, spatial distributions, extraction rates, mortality, and breeding seasons of (potentially) commercial species (Edwards et al., 1994; Nasir et al., 1997; Iwokrama 1998). Only with these data sustainable extraction models can be designed, in which the rate of removal by humans does not exceed the rate of natural reproduction (Redford and Robinson, 1987; van Wieren, 1999). The first steps in this direction for Guyana are taken by Iwokrama, by means of organising workshops to bring together all stakeholders in the wildlife business to discuss critical issues relating to wildlife harvesting in the Guiana Shield and the Rupununi in particular (Iwokrama, 1998).

196 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

According to Ziegler and Zago (1993), the export of wildlife from Guyana could be a profitable and sustainable use of renewable natural resources, if properly regulated. Problems of wastage, cruelty, and dishonesty characteristic for this trade should be addressed and resolved. Edwards et al. (1994) states that benefits from using Guyana’s wild resources could contribute to the country’s development and provide incentives to conserve its biodiversity. Sizer (1996), however, argues that trapping is an inherently unsustainable activity that does lasting damage to the forest. It may provide significant short-term employment for collectors, and certainly generates large profits for exporters and retailers abroad, but unless this trade can be adequately regulated and monitored, with quota based on scientific research, it should be prohibited again.

6.3.3 Palm heart The second most important commercial NTFP of Guyana is palm heart, harvested from Euterpe oleracea and worth around US$ 2 million annually in export (Table 6.2). In contrast to wildlife, the domestic market for canned palm heart is negligible, although the fresh product is occasionally consumed as a snack in the forest. Export figures of palm heart are much more transparent, as there is only one processing company involved and the marketing overseas is closely monitored by the New Guyana Market Cooperation (NGMC). The extraction patterns and problems concerning the sustainability of the palm heart harvest have been discussed at length in the previous chapter and in van Andel et al. (1998). Compared to wildlife, palm heart is relatively easy to manage, since the species occurs in huge quantities, regenerates quickly and nearly forms monospecific stands. Still, there are strong indications that current palm heart harvesting is not sustainable. The neglect of traditional farming and a total dependency on the palm heart industry has led to short harvest cycles and subsequent overharvesting of Euterpe oleracea. This has caused socio-economic problems in many Amerindian communities, as the canning industry is a major source of income in the coastal swamp region. It is of vital socio- economic importance that the canning company continues its activities in the North- West District. Management plans are badly needed to guarantee the continuous supply of palm hearts in the future, while ensuring the recovery of overharvested areas.

6.3.4 Nibi and kufa furniture After wildlife and palm hearts, the most important NTFPs in Guyana are the aerial roots of several hemi-epiphytes that provide the raw materials for the furniture industry. The most important species are Heteropsis flexuosa (‘nibi’), Clusia grandiflora and C. palmicida (both known as ‘kufa’). The mature aerial roots of these species are pliable, strong, and serve as plaiting material for sturdy baskets and furniture. The woody kufa roots are bent into frames, while the flexible nibi roots are woven around these frames, in designs similar to rattan furniture. In the interior the strong roots of Thoracocarpus bissectus (‘scraping nibi’ or ‘mamuri’) are also used for the manufacture of heavy duty baskets (‘warishis’), when H. flexuosa is scarce. Heteropsis roots, also known as ‘peeling nibi’, are of finer structure and easy workable. The cortex from the roots can be peeled off by hand and therefore the peeling nibi is preferred for commercial furniture. Thoracocarpus roots are sturdier and less workable, since the cortex must be scraped off with a knife. Roots of the

197 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District scraping nibi are occasionally sold, when furniture producers place special orders for it, but they are mostly used for subsistence only. Both nibi species are very important as binding material in local house construction and as a general ‘bush rope’. In remote areas, locally made warishis are sold for about US$ 4 to gold miners, who use them for carrying provisions and gasoline into their mines. As few Amerindians in the interior posses elaborate furniture, kufa is of less commercial importance here. The roots are sometimes employed in cassava storing baskets and the cortex is used as a remedy against back pain (see Part II of this thesis).

The main area of commercial extraction and processing of nibi and kufa is the Pomeroon River. The trade subsists on a smaller scale in the Hosororo area (near Mabaruma) and in Haimaracabra and Manawarin (near the Moruca River). Especially along the Pomeroon, the furniture business benefits a large number of people. Most of the cheaper furniture is made here in small workshops by Amerindian and East Indian craftsmen. Some is sold locally (at about US$ 20-25 per chair), but the bulk is transported to Georgetown. The more elaborate furniture (up to US$ 700 a piece) is made in small factories in the capital. These firms send out middlemen to purchase the raw material in Charity. Nibi and kufa harvesting is the major source of income for Amerindian families in the lower Pomeroon. Collectors may stay in the forest for weeks, combining root harvesting with hunting and fishing. Nibi is sold per bundle of 100 root pieces of ca. 4.5 m each. A person can cut one or two bundles of nibi per day (Hoffman, 1997). Extractors are paid $ 5-8 per a bundle, depending on the length and quality of the roots. Kufa is sold in pieces of ca. 4 m, for $ 0.35 (a thick root) or $ 0.14 (thinner roots). Middlemen reject roots that are immature, cracked, or bent.

Extractors generally consider the price they receive too low for the hard work and the long distance to harvesting sites. Tense relationships often exist between Amerindian extractors and middlemen, who are mainly of East Indian origin and have better access to markets and credit (Verheij, 1998). They may take advantage when possible, but no extremely abusive relations were observed (Hoffman, 1997). Sometimes Caribbean traders travel directly to the Pomeroon to place their orders. Although they are willing to pay higher prices and offer advancements to the collectors, complaints were heard about the reliability of the orders (Verheij, 1998). Because of the higher transport costs, furniture workshops in Mabaruma can hardly compete with the mass production in the Pomeroon and Georgetown.

No more than 30% of the nibi and kufa crafts are sold on the domestic market, the remaining 70% is exported. In 1996, more than 30 craft shops in Georgetown were exporting furniture and crafts. The two main exporters were responsible for 74% of the total export value (van Andel, 1998). Liana Cane Interiors Ltd., one of the largest enterprises of this kind, used some 60,000 nibi and 20,000 kufa roots in 1997, employing 56 persons on the work floor. Only a small percentage (5%) was exported to Canada and the United States; the majority went to Barbados (29%), Trinidad (18%), and other Caribbean countries (48%). On these islands, furniture is used in tourist accommodations, while nibi crafts are sold again in souvenir shops for much higher prices. The craft business in Guyana seems to be triggered more by the tourist industry in the Caribbean than by tourism in the country itself. Although craft shop owners in Georgetown predicted a growing market, export figures seemed

198 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I to be dropping (Table 6.2). This is possibly caused by the fierce competition among producers, a shortage of the raw material, or by declining demands. Total export revenues are probably higher than those listed in Table 6.2, as exporters tend to report low values on their invoices to avoid taxes.

All species of nibi and kufa are hemi-epiphytes, growing high in the treetops and sending down aerial roots, which eventually reach the soil to take up nutrients. The majority of the roots wrap around the tree trunk or contain many knots, which makes them unsuitable for plaiting. The roots preferred for craft production are the ones that drop straight from the branches of the tree to the ground. According to Hoffman (1997), the present harvest techniques of nibi and kufa roots are unlikely to decimate populations, because people harvest much less roots than they leave behind. Research in Venezuela on Heteropsis spruceana, used for similar purposes as H. flexuosa, indicated that when all roots of a single plant were harvested, its survival chance was reduced to only 5%. But when only half of the roots were cut off, the survival was 100% (Romero, 1993). Hoffman considered the ecological sustainability of nibi and kufa to be promising, since the plants occurred in relatively high abundance, roots could be removed without killing the plant and there was a year-round availability. When aerial roots are cut off, the epiphytes will form new ones and some the cut roots grow back. Hoffman mentioned growth rates of 26 cm per month for H. flexuosa. Roots required approximately five years to reach the soil, after which they matured within six months and became suitable for craft making.

Nibi and kufa are common, but patchily distributed throughout the northwestern forests. The plants seem to have a preference for well-drained primary forest, as fewer individuals were found in swamp forests. Only a couple of mature roots were present in 60-year-old secondary forest and none were recorded in 20-year-old forest (chapter 4). This indicates that it takes decades before the epiphytes have settled in treetops. The maintenance of ‘terra firme’ forest is thus essential for the future supply of aerial roots. Unfortunately, most primary forest along the Pomeroon has been given out as timber concession. Logs are also felled in Amerindian reserves and sold to sawmills (Forte, 1995). Companies sometimes offer extractors to harvest all suitable nibi and kufa before they start logging, but since trees full of nibi or kufa may be worth more in aerial roots over a few years than they are once by timber, host trees should better be spared from felling. Because of uncontrolled commercial extraction, logging of host trees, and the destruction of young roots, mature nibi and kufa roots are getting scarce around the Pomeroon villages. The epiphytes may be still there, but only with young or unsuitable roots (Hoffman, 1997). Extractors complained they had to cover larger areas of forest than before to harvest the necessary amounts. Hoffman (1997) estimated the revenues of H. flexuosa extraction in the lower Pomeroon mixed forest at US$ 2.4 per ha (62 mature roots/ha). Much more nibi and kufa roots were found in the remote Barama mixed forests (105 mature roots/ha), than in the densely populated Pomeroon and Moruca area. However, the Barama nibi resources are too far away from the Pomeroon market to render their harvest economically profitable.

In 1998, Liana Cane Interiors planned to increase production. The firm said they were willing to cooperate in sustainable harvesting, and with the help of Conservation International, they organised a workshop for local extractors in the

199 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District

Pomeroon. The company agreed to pay a higher price for large kufa roots to prevent the harvesting of immature ones. Local craft making for the export market was also encouraged, as this would increase the revenues of nibi and kufa in the villages (F. Alfonso, pers. comm.). It was also mentioned that extractors could earn a larger share of the profits by forming an organisation that sells directly to Georgetown factories. The Charity market bond should play a role in monitoring the volumes of raw material put up for sale. A storage facility for roots is also needed, so harvesters could wait for a better price instead of having to choose between taking a middlemen’s first offer or paddling back home with their harvest (Verheij, 1998). Export of nibi and kufa furniture is likely to become more important in the future, since Asian rattan resources are declining steadily as a result of overharvesting and deforestation, while the demand for ‘natural’ furniture is still rising (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). Given the economic importance of nibi and kufa, the possibilities for sustainable harvesting, and the increasing international demand, there is an urgent need for adequate management plans for these species.

6.3.5 Tibisiri Tibisiri is name of a fibre obtained from the young leaves of the ité palm (Mauritia flexuosa). The outer skin of the leaves is rolled into a soft but strong twine and woven into hammocks, tourist basketry, car seats, furniture seats, and carpets. The palms also have a local economic value, as hammocks and mats are used in rural households, the fruits are eaten and made into drinks. Ité leaves are also used for roof thatch in the Rupununi. The species occurs in large quantities on the flooded coastal plains (chapter 3 and 4), in swamp forests and on the Rupununi savannas. The majority of the handicrafts are made around Moruca, Santa Mission (Demerara) and St. Cuthberts (Mahaica River). Crafts are sold in shops in Moruca, Mabaruma, Charity, and Georgetown, where a hammock costs US$ 18 (retail) and a carpet between $ 7 and $ 30. Again, the export is predominantly directed to the Caribbean Islands. Overseas sales dropped substantially in recent years (Table 6.2), but it is unclear whether this resulted from a dwindling market or from the low product values reported to the GFC. On some tax forms wholesale prices of no more than US$ 1 were given for a hammock. Tibisiri harvesters complained that because of the frequent burning of ité savannahs in the dry season they could not approach the palms and had to travel further each year to obtain their raw material. Although probably beneficial at first, (the surrounding vegetation is eliminated and seed germination is enhanced), the burning of the savanna eventually becomes fatal to the Mauritia saplings (chapter 3). Overharvesting through felling of Mauritia palms for craft material was reported from St. Cuthberts (DeFilipps, 1992), but this was not observed in the North-West District.

6.3.6 Mokru Mokru is the name for two species of Marantaceae, Ischnosiphon arouma and I. obliquus (see Part II of this thesis). Both are shrubs of several meters high, growing in secondary or disturbed primary forest. The stem is split into thin strips, which are used as plaiting material for basketry and tourist souvenirs. I. arouma is preferred because it yields a stronger fibre and its crafts tend to last longer. I. obliquus is used when there is a local scarcity of I. arouma, or when the basketry does not have to serve heavy-duty purposes. Mokru is of great importance for the Amerindian

200 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I society, because it provides the fibre for the manufacture of matapis, sifters, and fans. This equipment is indispensable for the processing of the staple food bitter cassava (Manihot esculenta). Mokru basketry is made by traditional craft workers and sold in nearly all indigenous villages for ca. US$ 3.5 (a matapi) to $ 0.70 (a fan). The larger Amerindian towns (Mabaruma, Karakaburi, and Santa Rosa) have local craft centres where mokru and tibisiri items are produced. The craft business of the North-West District is concentrated along the Pomeroon, where the basketry is sold to middlemen and transported to Georgetown. Mokru souvenirs are exported in very small quantities, mostly together with nibi and tibisiri basketry (Table 6.2). It could not be deduced from the invoice forms what percentage of the exported tibisiri and mokru crafts was produced in the North-West District. Mokru crafts may have a limited export value, but they contribute substantially to the local household economy in Amerindian Reserves. Traditionally, the cassava basketry is made by men, but since the craft shops are mostly run by women, they offer initiatives for empowerment on a small, but manageable scale (van Andel and Reinders, 1999). The craft industry could become more important when tourism in Guyana would increase. However, other options for export should not be overlooked. Recently, furniture and basketry from Guyana are being offered for sale on the Internet (www.artscraftsGuyana.com/basketry).

6.3.7 Medicinal plants A wide array of medicinal plants is used in the interior, but the great majority of the species are gathered for subsistence only. Money is occasionally involved when services are offered by herbal healers or in the case of specifically prepared medicinal or magic brews (chapter 8). There is a modest, but steady demand for herbal medicine in the capital. The use of ‘bush teas’ is common among coastlanders. More than 15 stalls at the Georgetown markets sell a variety of dried and fresh medicinal plants. Although modern medicine is widely available, people prefer to treat some diseases with herbal medicines. Bush tea is also very cheap: prices vary between US$ 0.07 to 0.14 for a bundle of medicinal herbs. Some stalls are selling seven days per week, but a few of them stay open for 24 hours a day. During the market surveys, a total of 85 medicinal species were recorded, of which almost 60% were of wild origin. A list of all species and uses of medicinal plants found in northwest Guyana and at the Georgetown markets is given in chapter 8.

Most medicinal plants are harvested along the Lynden highway and the Timehri area. Some species are cultivated (e.g., Aloe vera, Jathropa curcas), while many of the others are common weeds in secondary shrubland. There seems to be little danger of overharvesting. The market stalls also sell a number of medicinal barks and roots gathered from primary forest, like Pinzona sp., Smilax schomburgkiana, Strychnos sp., Curarea candicans, and Clusia spp. Few of them are brought from the Moruca and Pomeroon area. Prices are generally too low to make extraction from remote areas economically feasible. The barks and roots are mostly used as ‘builders’ or aphrodisiacs. They are either sold per piece or processed into milk shakes and tonics, which cost from $ 0.70 to $ 4.2 a bottle. The stands also sell crab oil, extracted from of the seeds of the crabwood tree (Carapa guianensis). Because of its complicated processing method, the oil costs as much as $ 7 per litre. It is used

201 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District as internal and external medicinal oil, as hair oil and mosquito repellent. Crab oil is one of the few herbal remedies frequently sold in the North-West District. At present, some pharmacies in Georgetown are taking initiatives to process the oil industrially into soap, candles, and insecticidal washes.

Fresh and dried medicinal herbs and barks are exported in small quantities (Table 6.2). No distinction into species was made in the export documents, probably to avoid custom problems. The exported plants were mentioned as ‘tea bush and bark’, ‘plant parts’ or ‘medicinal herbs’ (NGMC, 1998). According to the New Guyana Marketing Cooperation (pers. comm.), the bulk of the exported volume consisted of cultivated lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and wild caryla vines (Momordica charantia), harvested in coastal sugarcane fields. These herbs are dried and exported to the United Kingdom and the USA, where they are processed into tea bags. Export peaked in 1996, when 14.65 tons of medicinal herbs were sent abroad. It remains unknown which other species are involved in this international trade. The diversity of Guyanese medicinal plants, barks, roots, oils, and resins could have a much larger potential for the foreign market, if they would be processed in a more sophisticated manner and sold as ‘rain forest medicines’. Initiatives are being taken at the moment by small businesses (e.g., Family D’lite and Caledonia Canning Co.) to bottle certain aphrodisiacs industrially.

6.3.8 Mangrove bark Another commercially harvested product in the North-West District is the bark of the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), commonly used for tanning leather. The bark is collected by Amerindians along the estuary of the Waini and Aruka Rivers. Entire trees are cut down and skinned, the bark is sliced into manageable pieces and sold to middlemen in Mabaruma for US$ 0.04 per kg. These traders ship the produce with the fortnightly ferry to the capital, where the actual leather production takes place in small tanning industries. Hardly any tanning is done in northwest Guyana, as cattle are virtually absent here. In the 1940s, the bark was exported to the West Indian islands (Fanshawe, 1948). In the 1960s, more than 250 tons were harvested annually for the domestic market. Since the 1970s, mangrove has lost its economic importance, probably as a result of the decline in cattle production in the Rupununi. Production dropped to 8 tons in 1991, but increased again to 53 tons in 1996. In 1998, the production remained at 35 tons (GFC, unpublished data).

Requests for permission to harvest mangrove bark on larger scale in the North-West District were recently submitted to the Guyana Forestry Commission. According to a GFC official, some tanners nowadays prefer mangrove bark above synthetic substitutes. However, the GFC does not want to hand out permissions before a proper management plan is developed and criteria for harvesting techniques have been established. The GFC predicted that the bark could be exported again in the near future if the necessary permits were issued. Although the species occurs in near monospecific stands along the coast, felling of trees could have certain risks. Mangrove forests play an essential role in protecting the seashore and riverbanks against damage by tidal movements. The dense aerial roots form a natural barrier against the waves and prevent the soil from being washed away. To minimise the damage, the GFC advised harvesters not to fell trees growing directly along the

202 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I waterfront. No studies have yet been done on the impact of mangrove harvesting on tidal ecosystems in Guyana.

6.3.9 Palm leaves Palm leaves are widely used as roof thatch in the interior. These forest products hardly ever reach Georgetown and are not exported, but they still are of considerable commercial importance in the interior. Troolie (Manicaria saccifera), dhalebana, (Geonoma baculifera), and to a lesser extend manicole (Euterpe oleracea) are the main palm species used in roof construction in the North-West District. A well-made roof could last up to 12 years and is waterproof and cool. Special traditional skills are needed to construct such roofs, so Amerindians are often hired to harvest palm leaves and build roofs for shopkeepers, gold miners, commercial farmers, and restaurant owners.

Dhalebana grows in dense patches in the understorey of the riverine Mora forest, deep in the interior. Dhalebana roofs last long (6 to 12 years), but the plaiting is labour intensive. In Barama, prices of US$ 50-60 were paid for construction of a roof of 4.5 x 3 m, containing some 80 kg of leaves. The price included one day of collecting and half a day of paddling to the place where the dhalebana was harvested, since near to Amerindian villages the palm was rather scarce (chapter 3). No dhalebana is transported to the coastal areas.

Troolie is absent in the deep interior, but common in the coastal wetlands, where dhalebana does not occur. Troolie roofs are made easier and quicker, but last shorter than dhalebana roofs (4 to 8 years). Troolie provides an income for quite a number of Amerindians, paddling with boats full of leaves from remote brackish swamps to regional markets and towns. Troolie grows in the same swamps as Euterpe oleracea, but rather occurs in narrow patches instead of in solid belts (chapter 3). Traditionally used for roofs and walls of indigenous dwellings, troolie roofs are gaining popularity for tourist accommodations and poultry farms. Most commercial extraction takes place along the upper Pomeroon, where leaves are sold in bundles of 50 at the Charity market.

According to their size, $ 0.03 to $ 0.11 is paid per leaf. Every week several truck loads full of troolie leave Charity to various destinations along Essequibo and Demerara Coast, where the bundles are sold for $ 2.5 to $ 9, mostly to commercial poultry farmers. Prices paid for the raw material and the plait work together vary from $ 127 for a small beer garden top in Charity to $ 400 for a chicken pen roof in Georgetown. In the coastal swamp region, the roof of an average Amerindian house costs $ 35 (without labour costs).

Due to the patchy distribution of troolie, leaves are not always widely available. Troolie does not occur around the large Amerindian towns of Santa Rosa and Mabaruma, so it has to be brought from elsewhere to meet the large demand in these settlements. In the dry season, when transportation is difficult, the price of troolie rises. People in Santa Rosa grumbled that troolie had become as expensive as corrugated iron. Palm heart cutters were blamed for damaging troolie trees, causing a shortage of the product. But these accusations were not based on reality, as troolie

203 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District palms were seldom destroyed during palm heart harvesting. The palm is still present in large quantities along the Waini and Barima River, and no signs of overharvesting were observed. The reason for the higher price should be sought in the transport costs rather than in the scarcity of the product.

6.3.10 Other NTFPs There exists a substantial trade in wooden crafts (furniture, sculptures, and souvenirs), but these are hardly produced in the North-West District and thus fall beyond the scope of this research. Balata, the latex of the bulletwood tree Manilkara bidentata, used to be Guyana’s most important NTFP. It was exported as raw material for the rubber industry, but has lost its economic importance since the invention of synthetic substitutes and the establishment of Hevea plantations in Asia (Fanshawe, 1948; Pennington, 1990). Recently, a successful project in the Rupununi has reintroduced the use of balata for making handicrafts, sold at Georgetown tourist shops (Conservation International, 1998). No balata products were made in the study area. In the capital there also exists a small business in jewellery made out of wild seeds, such as horse eye (Ormosia coutinhoi), lucky seed (Ormosia coccinea), and job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), the latter an introduced weed species. These products are mostly made around the capital or in southern Guyana.

The trade in living orchids from the North-West District is concentrated around Christmas. The living plants are sold to merchants in Parika (Essequibo) for up to US $ 20 per individual. According to Edwards et al. (1994), the Guyana Forestry Commission authorises the export of orchids and bromeliads that are listed under CITES. No permits are issued for these species, in contravention of the treaty. The following species from the North-West District were said to be occasionally marketed: Brassia verrucosa, Catasetum spp., Encyclia diurna, Oncidium baueri, Rodriguezia lanceolata, and Zygosepalum labiosum. These orchids are rather common elements in the coastal wetlands. None of them are listed on the CITES Appendices. Taxes paid by orchid exporters were reported as very low, while the specimens were valued at hundreds of dollars in the USA (Edwards et al., 1994). Bromeliads were not mentioned as commercial items in the study area. No figures could be found concerning the marketing of wild ornamental plants from Guyana, but various Heliconia species are commercially grown for the export market (DeFilipps, 1992). However, since these plants are multiplied in special nurseries, they cannot be considered as NTFPs.

A variety of non-timber forest products are offered for sale at the regional markets of the North-West District, in particular those of Kumaka (Mabaruma), Santa Rosa, and Charity. Except for wild meat, living animals, and fish, these NTFPs are not commercialised in huge quantities. The most frequently found products at the markets were mokru basketry and paddles made from Aspidosperma spp. or Tabebuia insignis (sold for $ 2-4, depending on the size). Other items included arrows, fishing rods (from Duguetia pycnastera, $ 0.70), Lonchocarpus roots for fish poisoning (at $ 0.22 per kg), bird cages from Mauritia flexuosa ($ 0.70), wild honey ($ 8 per litre) and firewood from Chrysobalanaceae ($ 0.25 per basket). Canoes were not sold on markets, but rather ordered from specialised boat builders. Dugouts made from valuable wood species (e.g., Carapa guianensis, Hymenaea

204 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I courbaril, Diplotropis guianensis, and Hyeronima alchorneoides) were valued at around $ 55, depending on their size.

Although a wide variety of wild fruits are consumed in the region (see Part II of this thesis), few of these are actually commercialised. The small numbers of fruits that appear on local Amerindian markets are mostly prepared into (alcoholic) drinks. The consumption of fermented fruit drinks has always been popular among indigenous peoples in Guyana (Schomburgk, 1848; Roth, 1924). These drinks can be kept for some days, while unprocessed fruits tend to spoil quickly. An ample assortment of home made fermented drinks was available on the Saturday market of Santa Rosa. Most were made from cultivated food crops (e.g., cassava, sweet potato), but some were prepared from wild fruits, such as Anacardium giganteum, Spondias mombin, or Syzygium cumini, the latter from both cultivated and wild (escaped) trees. The palm fruits of Maximilliana maripa and Astrocaryum aculeatum that were put up for sale also originated from wild and domesticated individuals.

6.3.11 Importance of non-commercial NTFPs The vast majority of NTFPs extracted in Guyana are not marketed, and their importance tends to be underestimated. For the subsistence economy of most Amerindian communities, however, these NTFPs provide a vital source of food, shelter, household equipment, medicine, and fuel. From the household surveys held by Sullivan (1999) in Karaburi (near Santa Rosa), Assakata, and Sebai, it appears that 24 to 74% of the households interviewed were regularly hunting. In addition, 38-70% said they collected medicinal plants from the forest, 27 to 94% were fishing, 19-54% made crafts, 30-92% collected wild forest plants for food, and all but one household collected firewood. Even if products are not directly exchanged for cash, their commercial value should not be overlooked. Without palm leaves for roof thatch, medicinal plants, or mokru to construct the cassava-processing equipment, life would be virtually impossible for most forest-dwelling people in Guyana. Those who cannot afford zinc sheets, prescription medicine, sawn boards, or plastic household items are heavily dependent on forest products. The deeper one goes into the interior, the more expensive the transport costs. Inevitably, commodity items become extremely costly or simply unavailable. It is rarely worth the effort for remote communities to harvest NTFPs commercially, but the local use of NTFPs in the far interior is often much higher than on the coast. Moreover, Amerindians in those places live a more traditional life and retain an intensive knowledge of the use of plant and animal products. For example, in the far away village of Kariako, people used over 120 different wild plants for medicine, while only one species (Carapa guianensis) was commercialised.

6.4 DISCUSSION

6.4.1 Monitoring of NTFP harvesting and export The export revenues of NTFPs from Guyana are certainly dwarfed by the figures of countries like Indonesia, Ecuador, Brazil, and Bolivia (Broekhoven, 1996; de Beer and McDermott, 1996). But when figures are recalculated for population size, a small country like Guyana exports more NTFPs per capita ($ 5) than Indonesia ($

205 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District

1.4), Bolivia ($ 3.9), or Brazil ($ 0.4). Nonetheless, the NTFP export contributes much less to the Guyanese economy than the timber industry, which increased from $ 3 million in 1993 to over $ 30 million in 1995 (Sizer, 1996). And then again, logging still forms only a small part (2% in 1994) of the total exports from Guyana, which consist mainly of gold, sugar, bauxite and rice (Sizer, 1996; Haden, 1999).

Table 6.3 Export figures of several leading countries on the world market of NTFPs.

Country Total export of NTFPs Year Remarks [million US$]

Guyana 4.2 1996 Indonesia 238 1987 $ 138 million by rattan alone Ecuador 13 1990 $ 25 million in Brazil nuts Brazil 53 1990 $ 10 million in palm hearts Bolivia 23 1990

In spite of its small contribution to the Gross Domestic Product, the extraction of NTFPs is still an important factor in the economy of the North-West District. Therefore, it deserves a place in the regional land use planning, especially in the coastal wetlands, where NTFP harvesting (troolie, tibisiri, wildlife, orchids, mangrove, palm hearts) seems to be the most viable form of land use. Due to waterlogged soils and the absence of valuable timber or minerals, the potential for commercial farming, mining, or logging is minimal here. However, the lack of information on export volumes, domestic and international trade, makes it difficult for the Guyanese government to include NTFPs in their economic planning or to develop sustainable harvesting policies for these products.

Not only the Wildlife Services Division in Guyana is under-staffed. In 1993, the Fisheries Department had only one part-time person to oversee the ornamental fish trade. No staff was assigned to oversee the harvest of NTFPs under the Guyana Forestry Commission (Edwards et al., 1994). In 1996, the GFC planned a national symposium on NTFPs to assess the potential for developing and managing ‘new’ forest products, but in the end this event never took place. It is hoped that with their Code of Practice for Forest Operations (GFC, 1998), the Commission will be able to address the issue of NTFPs and hinterland communities more effectively. Their efforts may be supported by the National Biodiversity Action Plan, set up by the recently created Environmental Protection Agency to act as a overall framework for biodiversity related aspects (EPA, 2000, ter Steege, 2000).

The absence of entities monitoring the quantities of harvested and commercialised NTFPs is a problem in many developing countries (Broekhoven, 1996; Ros-Tonen et al., 1995; de Beer and McDermott, 1996). However, even if clear guidelines exist, such as the management framework for wildlife produced by Edwards et al. (1994), the implementation of management plans still requires considerable political and financial commitment. Harvest rules may be difficult to implement in remote areas, but since the trade is concentrated on regional markets, price regulations and control

206 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I of illegal practices should start here. More effort should also be put to raise public awareness for the protection of endangered species.

6.4.2 Social advantages of commercial NTFP extraction One of the great socio-economic benefits of commercial NTFP extraction is that it allows most harvesters to return home every day. People involved in wildlife trapping, hunting, fishing, the harvesting of palm heart, troolie, nibi, kufa, or tibisiri, spend considerable more time with their families than labourers in logging or mining concessions. The NTFP trade allows harvesters to combine their work with traditional subsistence activities and maintain their indigenous culture. This trend was also noted by Hoffman (1997), Sullivan (1998), and Rivière (1984). The latter author also stated that the NTFP trade accorded much with the individual lifestyle of Guyanese Amerindians. The decision to harvest NTFPs can be made on an ad-hoc basis, whenever a family is in need of cash. NTFP extraction minimises the contact with ethnic groups outside their own social sphere, so there is less fear for abuse or discrimination (van Andel and Reinders, 1999). Despite the stressful relations that may exist between extractors and buyers, most Amerindians prefer the independent NTFP harvesting above the monotony of wage labour (Forte, 1995). Daily earnings may be variable, ranging from $ 2.5 (nibi) to $ 11 (palm heart and wildlife), but these are often higher than wages offered by other available employment (farming, mining, logging).

6.4.3 NTFP extraction: development or underdevelopment? The commercial extraction of NTFPs is contributing significantly to the income of forest-dwelling people and certainly stimulates the economic development of the North-West District. However, often the poorest indigenous families are involved in NTFP collection. Indigenous harvesters seem to perform a job that most other Guyanese are not willing to do (Hoffman, 1997). For most urban citizens, the interior forests are an unknown and dangerous place, which should be ‘developed’ as soon as possible (van Andel and Reinders, 1999). Amerindians are on the lowest step of the social ladder in Guyanese society, and are looked down upon in social, economic, and political sense (Sanders, 1972). They encounter many obstructions to an equal participation on the regional markets, often are unfamiliar with prices and transport costs, and do not have access to credit or storage facilities. The distrust between the different ethnic groups operating in the market hinders the development of durable trade relations (Verheij and Reinders, 1997). The lack of functioning Amerindian organisations or market cooperatives inhibits their independence in trade.

According to Forte (1997), the indigenous peoples in Guyana cannot fully benefit from the economic potential of the forests, as they are handicapped by a failing educational system, precarious health conditions and poverty. She further argues that with approximately 88% of the Guyanese Amerindians living below the poverty line, some inherent contradictions in Guyana’s society seem to impede the potential role of NTFPs in the improvement of people’s livelihoods. Therefore, the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources in this region can only be realised if development projects include the support of basic human needs.

207 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District

6.4.4 Land tenure Of Guyana’s 16 million hectare of forested lands, some 1.4 million is legally under the control of Amerindians (Haden, 1999). Unlike the State Forests, which are under the control of the GFC, the Amerindian Reserves are regulated by elected village captains and councils. The GFC has neither jurisdiction over resources within titled Amerindian lands, nor on arrangements made between village councils and private companies (Colchester, 1997). Most State Forests have already been leased to timber and mining companies (Sizer, 1996). Because of the inefficient forest laws, Amerindian reserves are an easy option for new enterprises looking for remaining land. Private businessmen and logging companies were reported to hand out free chain saws and buy the logs without any legal contract (Forte, 1995). Royalties are seldom paid for products harvested from indigenous lands, and reservation boundaries are not clearly marked (Colchester, 1997). Amerindians often lack the know-how and financial means to effect binding contracts or seek legal recourse when agreements break down. Amerindians cannot request the GFC for legal advice, but have to deal with the Regional Democratic Council, whose bureaucracy scares off many people to lodge complaints. Unfortunate deals are usually announced too late for any practical intervention to be effective (Forte, 1995; van Andel and Reinders, 1999).

The extent of lands allocated to Amerindian communities under the Amerindian Act was not based on sustainability studies of their subsistence patterns (Toppin-Allahar, 1995). Twenty years after the publication of the Act in 1977, several communities have grown to such an extent that agricultural land has become scarce (Forte, 1995; van Andel and Reinders, 1999). The Act neither contains provisions for the protection of wildlife or vulnerable habitats (Iwokrama, 1998). Apart from those communities living within reservation boundaries, at least 30% of the indigenous groups have not yet been granted official land titles (Haden, 1999). As control of resources is a prerequisite for sustainable management (Freese, 1998), communal ownership should be arranged for those communities lacking land rights. As long as the property rights of forest areas are not clearly defined, even the most sustainable forms of resource use are highly subject to disruption (Peters et al., 1989b).

6.4.5 Participatory forest management Since Guyana lacks a credible institutional and legal base for the management of NTFPs, especially when located in Amerindian reserves, indigenous communities have little other options than designing their own management plans (Iwokrama, 1998). Community-based resource management would allow people to continue NTFP extraction, without having to move away to search for jobs elsewhere. Rotation systems for NTFPs should be designed, with some areas predestined for harvest and others set aside for regeneration. Strict agreements among villagers are needed on the division of working space and to avoid harvesting in recovering areas (see chapter 5). But communal systems are fragile in the face of strong commercial markets, and the lure for large profits causes a breakdown in social cohesion and management rules within the community (Freese, 1998). Until today, no association of NTFP extractors has ever existed in the North-West District; every harvester stays a direct competitor of his neighbour. Differences in tribal background and church affiliation further obstruct successful organisation. The ‘Tragedy of the Commons’

208 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I is still a topical phenomenon among Guyana’s rural poor (van Andel and Reinders, 1999; Sullivan, 1999).

Subsistence agriculture techniques should definitely be improved to guarantee food security and relieve pressure on NTFP resources. Village administration is essential to control the amounts of NTFPs marketed by the community. Extractors must be registered and harvest quota should be set for vulnerable populations. Training is needed in administration, law, marketing, farming techniques community strengthening, contract negotiation, and finance (Sizer, 1996). These activities should be stimulated by the government, the GFC, Amerindian organisations, and other NGO’s concerned with rural welfare. Currently, forest service extension into rural areas is weak and national forest policy is often unclear to local communities. Development programmes should provide basic technical assistance to communities interested in developing forest-based enterprises, including the access to small loans (Sizer, 1996). Finally, this participatory forest management depends on cooperation among all stakeholders: extractors, village councils, traders, and exporters.

6.4.6 Future commercial NTFPs Existing products offer the best chance of quickly creating and benefiting from (inter-) national markets (Clay, 1992). Therefore, further research is needed on growth rates, population sizes, and optimum harvest levels for those NTFPs that already proved to be economically viable: palm heart, wildlife, nibi, kufa, troolie, tibisiri, and mangrove bark. However, a diversification of the market reduces the risk of commercial failure (Sizer, 1996). There are several NTFPs that are currently harvested for subsistence only, which have a promising potential for commercial extraction. In particular the so-called ‘oligarchic forests’, dominated by few species, offer interesting possibilities for the sustainable harvesting of NTFPs, provided that the dominant species generate useful products. Several of the successfully commercialised NTFPs in the North-West District (palm heart, troolie, tibisiri) are already being harvested from oligarchic vegetation types (manicole swamp and ité savannahs). These ‘natural monocultures’ also produce large volumes of edible fruits (e.g., Euterpe oleracea, E. precatoria, Marlierea montana, Mauritia flexuosa, Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa, Spondias mombin, and Humiriastrum obovatum). Unfortunately, too few Guyanese are familiar with these fruits. In this way an abundant resource is left untouched.

In Iquitos, Manaus, and other large Amazonian towns, tons of these fruits (in particular M. flexuosa, Spondias mombin, and Euterpe spp.) are processed annually into juices, ice creams and preserves (Padoch, 1987; Peters et al., 1989b). A high- quality oil is extracted from Jessenia fruits and marketed as hair oil and medicine (Balick, 1988). If a stable export market for these products could be developed or local consumption would be stimulated, the coastal wetlands of Guyana could bring in much more economic revenues. Commercial fruit harvesting should primarily focus on palm fruits (as these species produce the largest volumes) and on species- poor seasonal swamps and alluvial plains, since these forests generally yield more fruits per hectare than more diverse primary forests (Phillips, 1993). Fruit collection does little damage to the forest ecosystem (Peters, 1989), but programmes for controlled extractivism and non-destructive harvesting techniques should be

209 6. Commercial exploitation of NTFPs in Guyana’s North-West District implemented (Peters et al., 1989b). This would imply a ban on the felling of fruit- producing trees and on the annual burning of ité savannas and quackal forest. At present, large numbers of reproducing Euterpe oleracea stems are being harvested for palm heart (chapter 5). In Brazil, however, the monetary value of Euterpe fruits has proved to stimulate the protection of reproductive individuals and even lead to the cultivation of the palm (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988). Natural populations of Mauritia flexuosa in Peru, however, have dwindled due to the felling of trees for their fruits (Padoch, 1988).

A problems is that many NTFPs are harvested far away from major markets, and processing facilities, which often implies high transport costs and spoiling of perishable products (Padoch, 1987; Peters et al., 1989b; Johnston, 1998). The establishing of cottage industries near productive forests could possibly solve this problem (Phillips, 1993). With local residents being responsible for the harvesting and processing of fruits (freezing, canning, candying or oil extraction), this would increase the share of the product value (Peters et al., 1989b). Producers should also consider ‘eco-certification’, to distinguish their products from others and improve the marketing. Consumers are willing to pay a premium for products from well- managed forests, where environmental and social impacts are reduced to a minimum, laws are respected, and employment conditions are fair (Clay, 1992; Richards, 1993).

Market-oriented research is needed to introduce these ‘new’ NTFPs, as well as the development of innovative processing techniques. Other suggestions for commercialisation of new NTFPs are the reproduction of locally abundant orchids and other ornamental plants (DeFilipps, 1992; Sullivan, 1999), bee keeping (Forte, 1995), and breeding wildlife for consumption and export (Edwards et al., 1994; Sullivan, 1998; Iwokrama, 1998). Products and market development, training, and investment in this sector may take several years to bear fruit on a scale comparable to logging, but the pay-off will be commensurate (Sizer, 1996).

6.4.7 The potential contribution of NTFPs to forest conservation Even if the extraction of NTFPs from forests dominated by one or few species would be done on a sustainable basis and provide substantial income for local people, it does not help to conserve the biodiversity of these forests (Boot, 1997). This can only be achieved if NTFP extraction is capable of preventing or reducing deforestation, and when these products yield more revenue than other land uses. In the case of nibi and kufa, where primary forest is essential to gather the required products, their extraction could indeed contribute to forest preservation. But if prices for the raw material are low, the products are either overharvested or extractors may shift to timber cutting again.

Commercial NTFP extraction has also little chance to compete with the large-scale forest exploitation by multinational logging and mining companies. Particularly those NTFPs from highly diverse forests that are located far away from the market towns can hardly compete with similar products extracted closer to the market. Products from remote areas offer few incentives for forest conservation, unless they are highly exclusive or heavily supported by external subsidies.

210 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

6.5 CONCLUSIONS

Commercial NTFPs provide an important source of income for Amerindians in northwest Guyana. However, these indigenous groups do not fully enjoy the profits made in the NTFP business. Some communities heavily depend on NTFPs for their survival. The main commercial products are wildlife, palm heart, nibi and kufa furniture, tibisiri crafts, troolie leaves, and mangrove bark. The latter two products are only important on the national and regional market. The annual export of NTFPs from Guyana was estimated at US$ 4.2 million. Real export revenues are probably higher, as illegal export of wildlife is to be expected and traders often declare low prices for their goods to avoid taxes.

The main obstructions for the successful commercialisation of NTFPs in the North- West District are the low prices paid for the raw material, the lack of storage facilities for perishable products, the little organisation among harvesters, and the high transportation costs. Most commercial NTFPs are extracted close to the regional markets and transportation facilities. These markets are essential places where monitoring of volumes, price regulation, and control of illegal trade should take place.

Most commercial NTFPs have an ecological potential for commercial extraction. However, more research is needed on population densities, growth rates, and sustainable harvest levels. The absence of land use planning and government control has so far prevented the development of management plans for these products.

NTFPs can play an important role in participatory forest management, especially in areas where the possibilities for conflictive land uses are minimal. Several other products present in the northwestern forests, some naturally occurring in large quantities, have a potential for commercial extraction. Unfortunately, the present forest laws and land tenure system in Guyana make it difficult for indigenous peoples to manage their reserves in a sustainable way.

211 7. The diverse uses of fish poison plants

7. THE DIVERSE USES OF FISH-POISON PLANTS IN NORTHWEST GUYANA1

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Although the use of certain plants to poison fish has been documented on all continents, the indigenous tribes of South America use the greatest variety of plant species (Howes, 1930; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 1990). Poisoning methods may vary from place to place, but they usually consist of throwing macerated material of ichthyotoxic plants into creeks or shallow ponds. After a while, the stupefied fish start to float to the surface, where they can be easily collected by hand or shot with bow and arrow.

One of the main chemical compounds of ichthyotoxic plants is rotenone. This isoflavonoid is extremely toxic to cold-blooded animals, but less active in birds and animals. Rotenone is much more toxic to warm-blooded animals when applied directly in the bloodstream than when taken orally. Due to its low toxicity when ingested, fishes stupefied by rotenone can be eaten by humans without any adverse reaction (Acevedo-Rodríguez, 1990). Rotenone causes respiratory depression in fish, forcing them to gasp for breath with wide-open gills at the water surface. The poison is also highly toxic to insects. Rotenone has two major advantages: (1) humans can digest it relatively safe, and (2) it is unstable in light and heat, loosing almost all its toxicity after 2-3 days (Matsumura, 1985; Leslie, 1994; Hamid, 1999).

In contrast to other flavonoids, rotenone has a rather limited taxonomic distribution. It occurs mainly within the Fabaceae, especially in the genera Lonchocarpus, Paraderris, and Tephrosia. When rotenone was isolated for the first time from Peruvian Lonchocarpus roots by Clark (1929) and its effectiveness as an insecticide became known, a significant export trade in Lonchocarpus utilis and L. urucu developed in Peru and Brazil. The roots, locally known as ‘barbasco’ or ‘cube’, were processed industrially into insecticides (Krukoff and Smith, 1937). As commercial extraction quickly depleted wild plants, they are now grown almost exclusively on plantations. The region around Iquitos (Peru) is currently the world’s largest producer of Lonchocarpus (Rehm and Espig, 1991). Nowadays, the dried, pulverised roots are gaining renewed interest, since natural insecticides with rapid biological degradation are very well received by both ecologists and consumers.

1. A slightly different version of this chapter was accepted for publication by Economic Botany.

212 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

The use of fish poisons by indigenous tribes in Guyana was described comprehensively in the first half of this century (Roth, 1924; Howes, 1930; Archer, 1934; Gillin, 1936; Martyn and Follett-Smith, 1936; Fanshawe, 1948, 1953). Based on the idea of commercial trade, some planting trials with Lonchocarpus nicou and an unidentified Lonchocarpus species were carried out in Guyana’s North-West District in 1929. These species were identified later as L. martynii and L. chrysophyllus (Krukoff and Smith, 1937). However, due to the low rotenone content, the species never became an export product (Archer, 1934; Martyn and Follett-Smith, 1936). In their search for South American rotenone-yielding plants, Krukoff and Smith (1937) also considered the rotenone content of the Guyanese Lonchocarpus species too low to be commercially competitive with those of Peru and Brazil: the fresh roots of the Brazilian species contained 5-12% rotenone, while those of the Guyanese species L. martynii and L. chrysophyllus possessed only 2.4% of the compound.

Local Amerindians have apparently been cultivating ichthyotoxic plants for a long time. This can be deduced from field labels of early L. chrysophyllus collections from the upper Essequibo (A.C. Smith 2823) and Berbice regions (Krukoff 7699) and from the early reports by Howes (1930) and Archer (1934) on the cultivation of the ichthyotoxic species Euphorbia cotinifolia (syn.: E. cotinoides), Tephrosia sinapou (syn.: T. toxicaria), Clibadium sp., and Phyllanthus sp. in Guyana. In fact, this cultivation might even have a pre-Columbian origin, as species within these genera were already domesticated in Amazonia at the time of the first European contact (Chevalier, 1925; Clement, 1999).

Although prohibited by law since the 1950s, recent anthropological studies indicate that fish poisoning is still an important activity in the life of Guyanese Amerindians today (Reinders, 1993; Forte, 1996a; Sullivan, 1997; Riley, 1998). The indiscriminate poisoning of creeks and ponds, however, has caused a decline in fish stocks around Amerindian settlements and has increased mortality among cattle that drink from poisoned pools (Forte et al., 1992; Forte, 1996a; Iwokrama, 1998). Since these anthropological studies did not always combine the recording of local names with plant collections, it remains unclear which kinds of fish poisons are currently being used in Guyana.

When collections did take place, specimens were often lost or could not be identified properly due to incomplete sampling, resulting in few reliable scientific names for the fish poisons mentioned by indigenous informants. Unfortunately, no recent, comprehensive studies on fish poisons have been conducted in Guyana, like the one by Moretti and Grenand (1982) in French Guiana. Furthermore, the scientific names listed in older publications are not always up-to-date and are often based on sterile collections (Martyn and Follett-Smith, 1936), making it rather difficult to compare present-day plant use with that of the past.

Although reports from other countries have noted that plants with ichthyotoxic activity are also used as arrow poisons, soap substitutes, and medicines (Acevedo- Rodríguez, 1990), very little is known of these additional uses in Guyana. As stated above, few ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in Guyana (Austin and Bourne, 1992), and not many authors have documented the use of fish poisons other

213 7. The diverse uses of fish poison plants than for stupefying fish or killing insects. This chapter presents an overview of the ichthyotoxic plant species currently being used by three Amerindian tribes of Northwest Guyana (Carib, Arawak, and Warao). Special attention is paid to the species’ state of domestication and their importance in activities other than fishing. Voucher specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Guyana (BRG) and the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (U). The preliminary results of this study point out that, in present-day Amerindian life, fish poisons are not only important in providing food, but also play an important role in religion and traditional medicine.

7.2 FISH POISONS PRESENTLY USED IN NORTHWEST GUYANA

Specimens of 11 plant species used as fish poison were collected in northwest Guyana: five are only known from cultivated sources, four are harvested exclusively in the wild, and two are collected in the forest, but also propagated by cuttings taken from wild plants (Table 7.1).

The fast-growing shrubs Clibadium surinamense and Phyllanthus brasiliensis are the most frequently used species to poison fish and are cultivated on the majority of Amerindian farms. A large basket full of leaves and branches is stuffed into a hole in the ground and crushed with a wooden pestle into a pulpy mass. The pulp is then simply thrown in the water or immersed along with the basket in a creek. According to informants, both species are capable of stunning only small fish and Phyllanthus brasiliensis is especially effective in catching huri (Hoplias malabaricus). P. brasiliensis seems to be more potent when in flower or fruit (Roth, 1924; Acevedo- Rodríguez, 1990), therefore adult individuals, which are fertile most of the time, are most often used. Two cultivars were collected (one with green twigs and leaves and one with purplish stems), but local users did not indicate any difference in efficacy between the two types. Clibadium and Phyllanthus occasionally ‘escape’ from cultivation. The ‘wild’ Clibadium is considered less poisonous and thus less powerful.

Carib Indians living along the Barama River prepare ‘kunami balls’ as fish poison. They first pound Clibadium leaves mixed with freshly grated, but unsqueezed cassava roots, then roll the mixture in leaves and bake it in a fire. Ashes of burnt Cecropia leaves and sometimes some peppers are added to the sticky paste, after which the mass is pounded in a mortar and kneaded into small balls. These balls are then rolled in flour to make them white and, thus, more visible to fish. When the kunami balls are thrown in the water, the fish eat them whole. Soon thereafter the fish start floating belly upwards.

Leaves of the shrub Solanum leucocarpon are sometimes mixed with Clibadium leaves. Since S. leucocarpon is only used in combination with another poison, it is not clear whether the plant itself contains ichthyotoxic ingredients. Therefore, it was not included in the table. Tephrosia sinapou used to be one of the most common and effective piscicides in Guyana (Martyn and Follett-Smith, 1936). Today, however, the shrub is only sporadically grown in northwest Guyana. Its black roots are

214 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I pounded with a club or hammer and thrown in a creek, giving the water a whitish appearance. The poison is capable of killing hassa (Hoplosternum littorale) and yarau (Hoploerythrinus unitaeniatus), but hardly affects huri.

Euphorbia cotinifolia is probably the most toxic of all fish poisons. Its white latex causes blisters on human skin and temporary blindness if it comes in contact with the eyes. A few branches are placed in an old basket and beaten after being submerged in the water, to prevent the poisonous latex from touching the body. Guts and scales should be removed from the fish immediately, so that the toxic triterpenes cannot affect the consumer (Killip and Smith, 1935; Prance, 1972). The fish tends to spoil even before it is removed from the water (Fanshawe, 1953). For this reason, E. cotinifolia is rarely used as fish poison anymore. Every now and then, however, the species is cultivated in home gardens for ornamental, medicinal, or magical purposes. Two cultivars were collected for this study: one with green twigs and leaves (white kunaparu) and one reddish variety called ‘purple kunaparu’. The latter is said to be more poisonous than the white variety. Although E. cotinifolia will be divided in two subspecies in the near future (Christenhusz, 1999), both cultivars fall within the same subspecies.

The wild plants providing the most effective fish poisons belong to the genus Lonchocarpus, locally known as haiari. In the past, there was some confusion about the exact species utilised, since the absence of flowering and fruiting material on the collected specimens made it difficult to identify them to species level (Howes, 1930; Killip and Smith, 1935; Krukoff and Smith, 1937; Moretti and Grenand, 1982). In fact, the identification of Lonchocarpus remains a problem, as no comprehensive revision of the genus exists for South America. Fortunately, taxonomic research is currently being conducted on this genus by Mr. Sousa Sánchez of the National Herbarium of Mexico (MEXU) and Mr. Poppendieck of the Institüt für Allgemeine Botanik in Hamburg (HBG).

Four species of Lonchocarpus are used as fish poison in northwest Guyana. The black haiari, Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus (see Part II of this thesis) is considered the strongest of all. The stem of this large canopy liana can reach a diameter of 20 cm. It is distinguished vegetatively from the other species by having darker twigs and leaves and fine golden hairs on young twigs and leaves. Both the stems and roots are used for poisoning, although the latter are said to be stronger. Black haiari is particularly efficient in stunning yarau. In the past, several other species were collected in Guyana under the name black haiari, e.g. L. rariflorus (A.C. Smith 2161) and L. nicou (Killip and Smith, 1935). These species were not found during the present study.

215 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 7.1 Species used as fish poisons in northwest Guyana. Active components taken from Acevedo-Rodriguez (1990).

Species Family Part used Medicinal uses Wild or cultivated Active components

Clibadium surinamense Asteraceae leaves cold, snake bites cultivated ichthyocthereol

Euphorbia cotinifolia Euphorbiaceae leaves ant deterrent, sores cultivated triterpene branches disinfectant, magic

Phyllanthus brasiliensis Euphorbiaceae leaves ant bites cultivated cyanogenics, triterpene branches

Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus Leguminosae-Pap. root skin sores, AIDS wild and rotenone, saponins stem cancer, eczema cultivated

Lonchocarpus martynii Leguminosae-Pap. root skin sores, AIDS wild and rotenone, lonchocarpin cancer, eczema cultivated

Lonchocarpus spruceanus Leguminosae-Pap. root head ache cultivated rotenone, lonchocarpin

Lonchocarpus sp. (TVA1247) Leguminosae-Pap. root cancer, AIDS wild rotenone, lonchocarpin

Tephrosia sinapou Leguminosae-Pap. root cancer, eczema cultivated rotenone, tephrosine

Serjania paucidentata Sapindaceae stem thrush, aphrodisiac wild saponins

Talisia cf. guianensis Sapindaceae wood none wild saponins

Talisia hexaphylla Sapindaceae wood none wild saponins

217 7. The diverse uses of fish poison plants

The white haiari, Lonchocarpus martynii, is also a canopy liana, but has glabrous, lighter coloured twigs and leaves. Only its roots contain the poisonous substance. Most collections of white haiari in the North-West District were identified as L. martynii, although L. nicou was collected under that name by Martyn and Follett- Smith (1936). The ‘fine kind of haiari’, L. spruceanus, is less known. This shrubby tree with its small leaves was only observed once on an abandoned farm in a Warao village along the Waini River. Fanshawe (1948) identified the rare red haiari as L. rariflorus, while another red haiari, collected along the Barima River by Archer (2520a), was identified in 1997 as L. utilis. A sterile specimen of red haiari was collected in Barama during the present study, but could not be identified to the species level (Lonchocarpus sp. TVA1247).

Figure 7.1 Bundle of Lonchocarpus roots collected from the forest, sufficient to poison a medium-sized creek.

The lateral roots of the haiari species are dug out and cut into pieces about 75 cm long (Figure 7.1). About 15 pieces are needed to poison an average creek. The roots are pounded with a wooden club on a trunk at the water’s edge, preferably at the head of a forest creek (Figure 7.2). After a while, a white, milky juice is released from the roots. The shredded fibers are then soaked in the water and the creek bottom is stirred with the feet in order to mix the mud with the poison. After several minutes, the first fish start coming to the surface. Although clearly stupefied, they disappear quickly when touched. It still requires great expertise to kill these fish by striking them on the head with a machete.

Larger fish like the haimara (Hoplias macrophtalmus) tend to sink when poisoned, forcing the fishermen to dive down and catch them by hand. To intercept fish floating downstream, a wicker fence made from mokru stems (Ischnosiphon spp.) is used to close off the creek mouth.

218 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

If the fish reach the fresh river water, the poison rapidly loses its effect. Baskets full of fish are caught with this method, and the surplus is often sold to villagers. Local fishermen advise washing the fish well and carefully removing the gills, “because that is what sucks up the poison”.

Deeper in the interior, where population pressure is relatively low, informants said they needed one day to collect the required amount of haiari to poison a creek. As quite a distance must be covered in the well- drained upland forest to find enough roots, the search is often combined with hunting or gold prospecting. Cuttings from L. martynii and L. chrysophyllus are occasionally planted in farms or home gardens.

Figure 7.2 Beating the roots till they become fibrous and release the white juice that contains the rotenone.

In the more densely populated coastal villages, wild haiari lianas have become so scarce that they are predominantly found in cultivation. It seems that the wild lianas are wrenched from the ground and do not survive the harvesting of the roots. Much more care is taken with the cultivated plants; in fact, some of the plants that are now large lianas were planted in home gardens more than 20 years ago. Cuttings are put in the ground during the wet season, in a shadowy place, with a fruit tree as support. Owners of a haiari liana sporadically allow their neighbours to dig out some roots to use for poison.

The ribbed liana Serjania paucidentata is occasionally used by Arawaks and Warao to poison small streams or ponds in the coastal savannas. The stem is chopped into small pieces and the saponins released from the bark and wood kill the smaller fish by asphyxiation (Moretti and Grenand, 1982).

The name ‘sand mora’ has been given to two rare tree species in mixed upland forests: Talisia hexaphylla and T. cf. guianensis. According to Carib Indians, the wood is extremely poisonous. In order to catch fish, wood chips are thrown into the water and apparently turn it pitch-black. Guts, scales, and skin of the fish must be

219 7. The diverse uses of fish poison plants removed as quickly as possible and the flesh thoroughly cleaned with lime to avoid poisoning the consumer. Although used more commonly in the past (Gillin, 1936), people are now reluctant to use these species. The wood is even considered to be too poisonous for use in house construction or as firewood.

Apparently, the various poisons all have a different mode of action and vary in their ability to stupefy certain species of fish. Otherwise, why would people make the effort to walk large distances to collect Lonchocarpus, if Phyllanthus or Clibadium are available within the village boundaries and have the same effect? Unlike in the study of Moretti and Grenand (1982), no correlation was found between the salinity of the water and the type of fish poison used. Many other Guyanese plant species have been mentioned as fish poisons (Killip and Smith, 1935; Fanshawe, 1948, 1953). Some of these species occur widely in Northwest Guyana (e.g., Mora excelsa, Bauhinia spp., Alexa imperatricis, Clathrotropis brachypetala, Gustavia augusta, Macrolobium acaciifolium, Paullinia pinnata, Pentaclethra macroloba, and Ryania pyrifera), but they are not utilised by the local population for this purpose.

7.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF FISH POISONS IN AMERINDIAN SOCIETY TODAY

Poisoning is considered to be a very productive fishing method in northwest Guyana, more effective than hooks or fish traps (Sullivan, 1997). Nets, however, are preferred above poisoning and are used most frequently, although not everyone can afford them. It seems that poisoning is more important in traditional, isolated settlements, where 16% of the fishermen said they used this method most. In larger and more acculturated villages, only 5.3% of the fishermen said they used poison more than any other fishing method (Sullivan, 1997).

In gold mining areas, where land dredges and hydraulic pumps have disrupted the riverbeds and increased water turbidity and pollution, fish in the large rivers have become so scarce that people are being forced to revert to poisoning forest creeks. Pounding holes for kunami leaves can be seen all along the creeks bordering the villages. In densely populated Amerindian areas, where fish tend to be overharvested, poisoning remains an easy option for poor families unable to buy fish or fishing gear. These people are very well aware that poisoning implies the killing of many small fish, but often see it as an emergency method to relieve hunger. Or as one informant put it: “Without this kunami, Amerindians would never live”.

Roots of L. chrysophyllus and L. martynii are regularly sold for US$ 0.10 per lb. at the regional market in Mabaruma. Since approximately 25 lbs. of roots are needed to poison a medium-sized creek, then US$ 2.5 is needed per event. Buyers are Amerindians living in the brackish coastal swamps, where Lonchocarpus does not grow. They live predominantly from commercial palm heart harvesting and many have abandoned the practice of slash-and-burn agriculture (van Andel et al., 1998). Since home gardens are not common in these communities, Clibadium and Phyllanthus are seldom grown.

220 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Even though the Guyanese law prohibits the use of fish poison, people are only incidentally arrested for using it. In fact, in the largest Amerindian Reserve of Santa Rosa (Moruca River), Clibadium and Phyllanthus are grown in the vicinity of the police station. Deeper in the interior, there is no control at all.

7.4 FISH POISONS IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

Fish poisons are used in various traditional remedies, not only by the indigenous population, but also by the Creoles and East Indians living in Guyana. The juice from the leaves of Clibadium surinamense is squeezed into a cup, mixed with a few drops of kerosene, and drunk as a remedy for snake bites, in particular bites by the deadly labaria or fer-de-lance (Bothrops asper) and the bushmaster (Lachesis mutus). The kerosene is probably added to extract alkaloids that are only fat-soluble. Dried branches are boiled in water and drunk as tea to treat colds. A decoction of the whole plant is also used to wash out cuts and sores.

The leaves of Serjania paucidentata are boiled and given to babies suffering from thrush. Thrush is an infection of the mouth caused by the fungus Candida albicans, resulting from unhygienic milk bottles or dirty nipples (Lachman-White et al., 1992). The liana is also an ingredient of a popular aphrodisiac. For that purpose the woody stem is boiled with one or more of the following products: the roots of cockshun (Smilax schomburgkiana), kupa (Clusia spp.), and sarsparilla (Dioscorea trichanthera), the wood of kapadula (Tetracera sp., Pinzona sp., or Doliocarpus sp.), granny backbone (Curarea candicans), and devildoer (Strychnos spp.), and locust bark (Hymenaea courbaril var. courbaril). These ‘builders’ are said to protect against a variety of diseases and stimulate the sexual activity of both men and women. Medicinal herb stalls in Georgetown sell dry branches of Clibadium surinamense, wood of Serjania paucidentata, and a wide assortment of ready-made tonics and aphrodisiacs.

The macerated leaves of Phyllanthus brasiliensis are heated above a fire and applied as a poultice to the painful bites of the munuri ant (Pariponera clavata). The biting sap of Euphorbia cotinifolia is dropped on inflamed fingernails to get rid of the infection. A whole branch of E. cotinifolia is boiled in water into a thick syrup and applied to persistent skin sores caused by bacteriosis or leishmaniasis parasites.

By far the most remarkable medicinal application of fish poisons is the use of Lonchocarpus and Tephrosia roots in the treatment of cancer and AIDS. Concentrated root juice is applied externally to sores and lesions caused by skin cancer and AIDS. The poison is also dissolved in a bucket of water and used to bathe patients with skin cancer and eczema. Small doses of the poison, varying from three drops in a glass of water to one spoonful of undiluted sap, are taken orally in the treatment of AIDS and cancer of the skin, stomach, liver, and intestines. These medicines are taken on a daily basis. People believe the fish poison ‘to kill the germs causing cancer and AIDS’. People from different ethnicity and provenance in northwest Guyana are enthusiastic about the healing properties of the fish poisons. They tell stories about miraculous recoveries after using this treatment, both of

221 7. The diverse uses of fish poison plants terminally ill patients and people in the early stages of the disease. AIDS patients from Georgetown have even been reported to visit Amerindian reserves, seeking to be cured with haiari poison.

Only the roots of Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus, L. martynii, and Tephrosia sinapou are used in this treatment. The side effects of the poison are obviously quite bad. Incidents have been reported of desperate patients taking an overdose of a whole calabash full of haiari juice. After suffering from heavy nausea, fainting, and vomiting for a few days, the patients were said to recover and feel much better. In several cases, this therapy extended the lives of terminally ill patients for several months, long after the hospital had given up on them. However, since most patients could no longer be traced back, the exact diagnosis and history of their illness could not be studied during this investigation.

The juice of Lonchocarpus spruceanus is not mentioned as a cancer medicine, but it is applied to the forehead to relieve headaches. The red haiari (Lonchocarpus sp. TVA1247) is also not associated with cancer treatment. Lachman-White et al. (1992) reported that the bark of L. martynii is used in coastal Guyana as a tranquilliser and a decoction of the root to treat venereal diseases. The stems and roots are roasted, ground, and mixed with oil and applied externally for the relief of pain. The authors also mentioned that the bark of L. chrysophyllus is used to treat labaria bites and that a decoction of the bark mixed with the stems of Costus scaber, Justicia pectoralis, and a little alum is used as a suppressant for severe coughs. None of these uses, however, were mentioned in Northwest Guyana.

7.5 ADDITIONAL USES OF ICHTHYOTOXIC PLANTS

In the 1930s, Gillin (1936) saw Caribs pouring haiari juice around the roots of their tobacco plants to kill the grubs infesting them. Nowadays, the use of fish poisons as insecticides in northwest Guyana is very limited. High quantities of haiari juice are said to kill leaf cutter ants (Atta sp.), but people prefer to use the fruit pulp from the abundantly growing herb Renealmia orinocensis for this purpose. The toxic sap of Euphorbia cotinifolia is also mentioned as an effective repellent for these ants (Dance, 1881, Grenand et al., 1987; Reinders, 1993). However, people said they did not like to jam the branches of this plant into ants nests, because they feared skin injuries by the vesicant sap. The custom of planting these shrubs in cassava fields to prevent the ants from building their nests was not observed during this study. The indigenous people of Northwest Guyana rub the oil of Carapa guianensis or the bark juice of Alexa imperatricis on their bodies to eradicate lice and scabies, instead of using fish poisons like other indigenous groups do (Moretti and Grenand, 1982; Acevedo-Rodríguez, 1990; Lachman-White et al., 1992). Nevertheless, the possibilities of producing cheap insecticides from haiari roots to handle local insect plagues should not be underestimated.

Finally, fish poisons play a role in the magical beliefs and practices of Amerindian life, although informants seldom admit this when asked. If somebody dies unexpectedly under suspect circumstances, people may believe that the person was

222 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I poisoned or murdered, or that death was caused by a magic spell cast by an enemy. To find the offender, a cross of Euphorbia cotinifolia leaves is carefully placed in the coffin before the deceased is laid down in it. A few days after the funeral, the murderer will betray him self by contracting a terrible itch over his body, which will subsequently lead to his death. Despite its vesicant latex, this might be one of the reasons Euphorbia cotinifolia is still cultivated.

An evil spirit much feared by many Amerindian tribes is the Kenaima, a ruthless murdering ghost who seeks innocent victims in order to practice his revenge for injustice done to him in the past. To complete his task, the Kenaima must visit the grave of its victim and suck the fluids from the dead body through a hollow reed inserted in the ground. If he does not succeed in drinking the liquids of the deceased, he will die a horrible death (Gillin, 1936). To deceive and frighten the Kenaima, a bowl with haiari juice mixed with some body fluids of the dead person is placed on the grave. This custom is still sporadically practised among the Barama River Caribs when a person is believed to have died from an attack by the Kenaima spirit.

7.6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Although over 3000 plants are used in various parts of the world for the treatment of cancer (Hartwell, 1967-1971), few South American fish poisons appear on this list. Kosteletzky (1831-1836) mentions the use of Tephrosia sinapou roots to combat tumours and scirrhosities in Brazil, while the roots of the Brazilian Lonchocarpus peckoltii have been reported to treat glandular tumours (Peckolt, 1868). Peculiarly, some plants with proven antitumor activity (Hartwell, 1976) are used by the Guyanese to treat diseases other than cancer. For instance, Catharanthus roseus is prescribed for diabetes and heart failure, Allamanda cathartica for constipation, and Heliotropum indicum for venereal diseases. However, this might be explained by the fact that the alkaloids with antitumor activity are present in lower concentrations than other effective chemical compounds in these plants.

Spjut and Perdue (1976) screened 254 ichthyotoxic species, belonging to 64 plant families from all over the world, for anticancer properties. They found that some 39% of the species and 66% of the 158 genera proved to be active against tumours. Unfortunately, the authors did not provide a list of the species that were screened nor the outcome of the tests. They just gave a number of references they used to select plants. Howes (1930) is the only reference in this list that mentions fish poisons being used in Guyana. Since he cited Tephrosia sinapou, it is likely that this species was screened for its antitumor properties. Howes was unable to identify the black and white haiari to the species level; thus, it is possible that the Lonchocarpus species mentioned in this chapter have never been screened for active compounds. Spjut and Perdue (1976) argue that most poisonous plants are likely to have antitumor properties, especially those that are used in folk medicine, and that plants used as arrow poisons generally show a higher percentage of activity than fish poisons because of their effectiveness on warm-blooded animals.

223 7. The diverse uses of fish poison plants

The most known active ingredient of Lonchocarpus and Tephrosia is rotenone, which could be responsible for the alleged antitumor effect. Hartwell (1976) tested rotenone in a chemotherapy program of the National Cancer Institute and found it to be active against two types of tumours. He did not, however, consider this result particularly interesting. Fang and Casida (1998) reported that the 11 rotenoid constituents present in cube insecticide (made from Lonchocarpus utilis) showed clear anticancer activity in rats and mice. They also predicted that rotenoid concentrations would be potent in vivo against cultured human breast cancer cells. Intense cytotoxic activity of rotenone was observed in lymphocytic leukaemia, carcinoma of the nasopharynx, and a number of human cancer cells (e.g., fibrosarcoma, lung cancer, colon cancer, melanoma and breast cancer cell lines). Hamid (1999) therefore evaluated rotenone as a potential antitumor agent.

Confusing is that Gosalvez and Merchan (1973) classified rotenone as an oncogenic agent, that induced mammary tumours in 60-100% of the female rats injected with the substance. Apparently, numerous plant compounds have been shown to be oncogenic in animals, including certain antitumor agents. According to Farnsworth et al. (1976), this is not unexpected, since almost all clinically useful antitumor agents, both natural and synthetic, are also carcinogenic. It is known that rotenone has a rat oral LD50 that ranges from 60 mg/kg to 1500 mg/kg, depending on the carrier (Leslie, 1994). Although equivocal evidence exists on the carcinogenic activity of a diet containing rotenone fed to rats and mice (NCTR, 1999), little is known about the carcinogenic effects of the oral intake by humans regularly eating poisoned fish.

Screening of fish-poison plants or rotenone against HIV or AIDS has not been mentioned in the literature at all. AIDS is spreading rapidly among female prostitutes in the Guyanese capital, as a result of inadequate information services, the refusal of using condoms, and severe poverty. More than 10% of these women are Amerindian, a rather disproportionate number, since they form only 1% of the population in Georgetown (Carter, 1993). The disease is brought into the interior by gold miners from the coast and by the prostitutes travelling with them to work in mining camps. Since interior clinics are generally ill-equipped with regard to staff and medicines, cancer and AIDS patients from remote areas often try to seek treatment in Georgetown hospitals. However, since these people are usually not aware that they are infected with HIV until they start to develop AIDS, the disease is often in a late stage at the time of diagnosis. Furthermore, since most indigenous people can hardly manage to pay for an aeroplane ticket to the capital and often lack proper insurance, a long-term treatment for cancer or AIDS is not within their means. Many then return to their village to be treated with traditional medicine or to die in peace.

The question remains whether treatment with rotenone-yielding fish poisons is only a desperate attempt to cure a mortal disease or indeed successful in relieving (some of) the symptoms of cancer and AIDS. Plants used in traditional medicine tend to have active ingredients and are far more likely to be useful as pharmaceuticals than randomly collected species (Mendelsohn, 1997). Therefore, more detailed pharmacological research on the effectiveness of rotenone on cancer and HIV is strongly recommended.

224 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

More ethnobotanical studies are needed to find out if fish poisons are used for similar purposes in other parts of the Guianas. Detailed ethnobotanical studies have been carried out in French Guiana (Moretti and Grenand, 1982; Grenand et al., 1987), while no such studies exist for Surinam and southern Guyana. Furthermore, since only six of the 18 species listed by Moretti and Grenand (1982) coincide with those used in northwest Guyana, a considerable diversity in utilisation, species preference, and domestication can be expected within the Guianas. The region counts 15 species of Lonchocarpus, 25 species of Phyllanthus, and six species of Tephrosia (Boggan et al., 1997) and harbours several indigenous tribes knowledgeable about traditional medicine. Since vernacular names differ from place to place and one name may include several species, plant collections should definitely be included in this research. The genus Lonchocarpus is especially in need of good fertile collections. The use of ethnobotany to identify promising plants could substantially reduce the costs for the search of at least some pharmaceutical drugs (Mendelsohn, 1997).

It can be concluded that fish poisons play an important role in the lives of indigenous tribes in northwest Guyana. They serve not only as a quick method of providing (emergency) food, but also as important ingredients in magical practices and traditional medicine. Conservationists calling for stricter laws and increased control on fish poisoning should realise that a ban on the cultivation and use of fish poisons would also deprive Amerindians of some essential medicines. Artificial fish ponds and community-based poisoning rules may be a better alternative than preventing people from using plants they have been gathering and growing for centuries - plants that one day might prove to have unexpected values for mankind in general.

225 8. Medicinal plant use

8. MEDICINAL PLANT USE

8.1 INTRODUCTION

Whereas forests have for long been regarded more or less exclusively as a source for timber extraction, non-timber forest products, in particular plant products used for herbal medicine, have only recently gained attention. Medicinal plants, used since the early ages by traditional peoples, are assumed to be potential sources of new drugs and thus hold a great value for international industries developing pharmaceutical products, phytomedicines, and dietary supplements (King et al., 1999). Nowadays, 25 to 50% of all synthetic drugs prescribed in the USA is plant- based, although only 1% of the higher plant species has been screened for active compounds (Sheldon et al., 1997; Swerdlow, 2000). This percentage will continue to grow, since the pharmaceutical industry continues to investigate (and confirm) the efficacy of many medicines and toxins used by indigenous peoples (Posey and Dutfield, 1996).

The most effective way of finding new drugs is to follow the indigenous knowledge on medicinal plants. This experience, passed down from generation to generation, is gained from thousands of years of trial and error with plant remedies (Spjut and Perdue, 1976; Mendelsohn and Balick, 1995; Swerdlow, 2000). The longer the history and the more common the use of a certain plant among indigenous groups, the more it is likely to be effective (Milliken, 1997; King et al., 1999). Using ethnobotany to identify promising plants could substantially reduce the costs for developing at least some pharmaceutical drugs (Mendelsohn, 1997). As many as 80% of the world’s population rely on traditional medicine, since for them nothing else is affordable or available (Farnsworth et al., 1985). Especially in remote areas in developing countries, medicinal plants may form the only available source of health care (Kasparek et al., 1996).

Guyana is no exception to this phenomenon. The better hospitals are all located in the capital Georgetown and the densely populated coastal region. Infant mortality is high (48/1000 live births) and by 1992, an estimated 23% of children under 5 years of age were classed as undernourished (Government of Guyana, 1995). The health situation in the forested interior of the country is generally worse. The few hospitals and health centres in the interior are often ill equipped and suffer from a lack of medicines and trained staff (ECTF, 1993). No commercial pharmacies exist in the interior. Although many of the large Amerindian communities in the North-West District have a trained Community Health Worker (CHW), most small indigenous settlements have not acquired this benefit (Forte, 1995). The few persons who can afford it travel to the hospitals in the capital when they need medical assistance, instead of seeking treatment in local health centres. For the majority of indigenous people in the interior, however, these facilities are out of reach. Many of them are not even insured by the country’s National Insurance Scheme (LaRose, 1999), and lack the financial means to search treatment in private hospitals. The major health problems in the North-West District are created by malaria, malnutrition, and

226 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I diarrhoea caused by waterborne parasites. The prevention of malaria and parasitic infections is very low. The whole area has the notoriety of a fever hole (Forte, 1995). There is an urgent need for preventative medicine, more and better medical facilities and staff, improved sanitary conditions and pit latrines (ECTF, 1993).

Although in many Amerindian communities medicinal plants form the only available source of medical treatment, it seems that local indigenous remedies are less used now than before (ECTF, 1993; Forte, 1999). Due to the process of acculturation and the antipathies to Amerindians expressed by other ethnic groups in Guyana, traditional knowledge is rapidly being lost (Forte, 1999). This is a global process, and in many tropical regions indigenous knowledge is at risk of extinction just as is biodiversity (Slikkerveer, 1999).

Ethnobotanical research can play a key role in the revitalisation and revaluation of indigenous knowledge (Martin, 1995; Posey, 1999). Guyana has received much less ethnobotanical attention than many of its smaller neighbours (Austin and Bourne, 1992). Several anthropological and ethnographical studies have been conducted on the indigenous tribes present in Guyana (e.g. Im Thurn, 1883; Roth, 1924; Gillin, 1936; Yde, 1965; Wilbert, 1970, 1976; Coles et al., 1971; Adams, 1972; Butt, 1973, 1976, 1977; Wilbert and Layrisse, 1980; Forte, 1988; Forte et al., 1992; Mentore, 1995). Most of these studies have paid some attention to traditional health care, but little effort has been done to verify the scientific names of the medicinal plants mentioned by local informants. Most works have just cited vernacular plant names, without supporting them with herbarium collections. The few extensive studies on the region’s useful plants that were combined with professional herbarium collections (Stahel, 1944; Fanshawe, 1948), unfortunately lack up-to-date botanical information. In some of the recent ethnomedicinal studies for Guyana in which plant collection was part of the research methods (Matheson, 1994; Forte, 1996a; Riley, 1998), many specimens were lost or could not be identified properly due to incomplete sampling. The few research projects that provided rather adequate species lists are only available from the ‘grey literature’ (Lachman-White et al., 1992; Reinders, 1993). Only a handful of ethnobotanical studies has been published in international journals (Austin and Bourne, 1992; Johnston and Culquhoun, 1996; Johnston, 1998).

To highlight the importance of herbal medicine in the indigenous communities of northwest Guyana, this chapter will deal with the variety of medicinal plants and their uses recorded during the two-year survey of NTFPs in that region. Detailed species descriptions and preparation methods are given in Part II of this thesis, but the general aspects of present-day traditional health care and the role of medicinal plants in this system will be discussed here. The main research questions with regard to the use of herbal medicine were:

1. Which plant species are being used for which diseases? 2. What is the present role of herbal medicine in the health care system of indigenous communities? 3. Are there differences in medicinal plant use between the two major ethnic groups (Carib and Arawak)? 4. In what ways are medicinal plants commercialised in Guyana?

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One would expect that the relatively isolated and traditional communities have a greater knowledge of traditional medicine, because there is a greater need to practise it than in the more ‘westernised’ areas, which have better access to government health facilities and prescription medicines.

It is hoped that the documentation of this herbal knowledge, which is often not present in an organised structure but rather spread among communities and individuals, may contribute to the conservation of both cultural and biological diversity in Guyana. By compiling and spreading this knowledge, many other groups in the region could benefit from this locally abundant, relatively safe, effective, and cheap resource.

8.2 METHODOLOGY

The main part of the research on medicinal plants took part during the plant collection in the seven hectare plots (chapters 2 and 3) and in the areas surrounding these plots. Using the ‘walk-in-the-woods’ method (Prance et al., 1987), special collecting trips were organised with people involved in traditional healing, local midwives, schoolteachers, and village elders. Children and adolescents were also asked to venture what they knew about herbal medicine. Informal interviews were mostly conducted during these collection trips. Most information was double- checked with other informants. In some cases, however, unconfirmed information was retained, since for many informants their personal experience was an important factor in their perception of efficacy of herbal medicines. Direct observation of the effectiveness of medicinal plants in the field was in most cases not possible, so the information was largely based on the reports of informants.

Local hospitals and community health huts, which often served a double purpose as village guesthouse, were frequently visited. The researcher witnessed several medical expeditions of the Malaria Eradication Programme, US army volunteers and the Raleigh International team, and offered assistance during their vaccination and malaria detection activities. In this way, a general impression of the local status of the Primary Health Care was obtained.

All plants (trees, lianas, shrubs, herbs, epiphytes, and fungi) that were considered by local people to have medicinal properties were collected and identified. These plants included not only wild species (NTFPs), but also cultivated plants and wild plants that had been taken from the forest and planted in home gardens or agricultural fields. Plants used specifically for magic rituals or (hunting) charms were not included in the medicinal category, but are dealt with in Part II of this thesis. Medicinal plants and uses mentioned in other ethnobotanical studies (Gillin, 1936; Coles et al., 1971; Lachman-White et al., 1992; Reinders, 1993) were checked with informants as well. Botanical specimens were collected of all useful plants. One voucher of each specimen is deposited at the Herbarium of the University of Guyana; another complete collection exists in the Herbarium of Utrecht University (U). Additional vouchers were sent to international specialists for identification. The information was stored in a FilemakerPro database, including scientific and local

228 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I plant names, uses, recipes, collection numbers, locations, ethnicity, and provenance of the informants. The screening of medicinal plants on their therapeutic chemicals was not part of this study.

8.3 STUDY AREA

The majority of the medicinal plants were collected in Kariako and Santa Rosa. Additional information on medicinal plant use was gathered in Koriabo, Assakata and Warapoka. Plants were also collected at the two major herbal markets in Georgetown (Stabroek and Bourda), and interviews were held with the plant vendors. Supplementary information on herbal medicine was obtained from community health workers, gold miners, schoolteachers, and the numerous other people that I met during my travels through the North-West District.

8.4 RESULTS

8.4.1 General health conditions in Kariako The Caribs of the remote settlement of Kariako make a living of fishing, hunting, slash-and-burn-agriculture and gathering forest products for subsistence. Cash income is earned by small-scale gold mining. The region has a relatively high protein intake, since wildlife is still abundant (Forte, 1994). Nearly all villagers still speak their native language, while many elder people (especially women) speak little or no English. Their access to the market is limited to a few gold miner shops. Due to the discovery of gold close to Kariako at the end of the 19th century, there has been an irregular influx of (mostly Afro-Guyanese) miners from the coast. Many Amerindian families had mixed feelings about the gold mining culture. At one hand it offered the opportunity of earning fast money and the access to luxury goods, but on the other hand it brought about the abuse of alcohol and drugs, prostitution, venereal diseases (including AIDS/HIV), typhoid, malaria, and the pollution of rivers and creeks.

At the time of this research, health facilities in Kariako were very limited. A medical team visited the village about once a year to administer malaria prescriptions, worm and vitamin tablets, and vaccinations (DTP, German measles, polio, and whooping cough). There was one local miner who owned a microscope and who was able to detect malaria in blood smears. He distributed free malaria tablets, but lived several hours paddling upriver from the village. The few medicines that were sold in the nearby shops (painkillers, malaria tablets, and one type of antibiotic) were fairly expensive and not always in stock. The nearest hospital, which still offered limited services, was located at Kwebanna (Waini River), some 150 km downstream from Kariako. Only in emergency cases, people took the effort to carry out a patient to Kwebanna. Gold miners sometimes offered a ride down to the Waini, but not every motorised boat was willing to bring out sick people from the village. Except for miners and shopkeepers, hardly anybody in the region could afford the costs to visit one of the better hospitals in Georgetown.

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Malaria, malnutrition, diarrhoea, and other gastrointestinal complaints caused by waterborne parasites (e.g., typhoid, amoebas) seemed to be the major health problems in the area (Forte, 1995; Reinders and van Andel, 1996). In the dry season from February to April, drinking water was a major problem. Forest creeks ran dry and people depended on river water for washing clothes, bathing, and drinking. Few people had water tanks or zinc roofs to collect rain water, and hardly anyone boiled the water before drinking it. Pit latrines were a rarity.

In 1997, the Tropenbos scientists working in Kariako constructed a building, which was donated to the community as a health hut annex guesthouse. In 1997, a boat and an outboard motor were given to the village. In the same year, after long efforts of the community, two Kariako villagers participated in a training course in the district hospital in Santa Rosa to become a community health worker. The future health workers also received instruction in microscope reading. This enabled them to detect and treat malaria in their own community, since registered microscopists will receive free malaria medicines from the Guyanese government.

In spite of these recent activities, the Kariako Caribs were still much deprived of modern medical facilities. For the majority of diseases, people entirely depended on herbal medicine and the traditional healing skills of the village elders. The last ‘piaiman’ (shaman) died more than ten years ago, but he seemed to be more involved in witchcraft and spiritual healing than in herbal medicine. Although people were somewhat ashamed to admit they used ‘bush medicines’ and preferred synthetic tablets when available, medicinal plants were widely used in Kariako. Particularly elder men and women had a thorough knowledge of herbal medicine, which they still passed on to the younger generations. Since the Carib language was still spoken in many households, children had an ample opportunity to learn about indigenous plant names, their uses, and healing properties. However, the recent introduction of the Assemblies of God Church (locally known as ‘handclap church’), which prohibited the use of alcohol and tobacco, has accelerated the process of acculturation and the subsequent loss of traditional Carib culture, language, and use of medicinal plants. The church leaders, Amerindians from Kwebanna who stayed in close contact with North American evangelists, urged people to pray first when suffering from illnesses. They discouraged the use of ‘uncivilised’ healing practices or visiting the nearby rum shops or gold mines to obtain medicine. Although it was too early to conclude that this resulted in a decline in the use of medicinal plants and an increase in illnesses, this may happen in the near future.

The villages of Kariako and Koriabo are situated in the logging concession of Barama Company Ltd. The firm has promised a more regular health service to the Amerindian settlements within their concession boundaries (ECTF, 1993), but prior to the publication by Forte (1994) on the village of Kariako, the company was not even aware of the existence of this settlement (chapter 1). Logging is supposed to start in the area within a period of 10 years, which may bring a further disruption of traditional subsistence economy in the area, as well as a possible increase of venereal diseases and AIDS (ECTF, 1993).

230 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

8.4.2 General health conditions in Moruca The Santa Rosa Amerindian Reserve is the largest indigenous village in Guyana. Its principally Arawak population is still increasing, because of the attractiveness of Santa Rosa as a centre of government, commerce, and religion. The Moruca district hospital offers its services not only to the Santa Rosa villagers, but also to people from faraway settlements. Although recently refurbished by a US army team, the hospital has only one trained doctor. Wealthy Morucans go for medical treatment to the larger regional hospitals (Charity, Suddie) or the clinics in the capital. At the time of this research, the medical staff posted at the Santa Rosa hospital had a very negative attitude towards herbal medicine. Patients were sent away or verbally abused if it appeared they had been using medicinal plants prior to visiting the clinic.

As a result, people were reluctant to go to the hospital. They denied using traditional medicine towards the staff or waited long before seeking medical treatment. Others, often dissatisfied by the hospital treatment, preferred to consult the various herbalists in the region. These herbalists were elder men and women, very knowledgeable in the field of medicinal plant use, but also familiar with the so- called ‘Spanish prayers’. These prayers were spoken and sometimes written during the medical treatments. Remarkably, they were not Spanish at all, but turned out to be traditional Arawak healing rituals, much valued because of their healing powers, but surrounded by mystery and not shared easily with outsiders. These Moruca herbalists were occasionally consulted by people from the urban region. In many cases, the complaints of their patients concerned ailments that ‘the hospital could not treat’, such as mental illness, paranoia, psychosomatic complaints, fertility problems, thrush, impotence and possession by evil spirits. In spite of their reputation, none of these herbalists called themselves a traditional healer, piaiman, or ‘obeiahman’. To trivialise their activities, they preferred to say they ‘helped some people out some time’.

In spite of the antipathy of the local hospital staff towards traditional healing practises, the general attitude of the villagers with regard to medicinal plants was quite positive. One of the local herbalists, an Arawak lady of 93 years old who had helped hundreds of women with problematic births, earned great respect among the community members. The Catholic Church, quite powerful in Santa Rosa, openly praised her knowledge. The growing number of Gospel and Protestant churches neither reacted negatively on the use of herbal medicine. Even though there was no cooperation between the two systems of health care in Moruca, local residents had at least the opportunity to choose and compare between the traditional and the modern system.

Although malaria was not frequent in Moruca, young men returning from interior gold mines and logging concessions often brought back the disease with them. Pit latrines were more common in Santa Rosa, but drinking water facilities were far from hygienic. Malnutrition and infant diarrhoea were common. Synthetic drugs (painkillers, malaria tablets, antibiotics, and anti-flu medicine) were widely sold in the village shops.

231 8. Medicinal plant use

In the remaining three villages studied, the general health conditions were somewhat in between the situation of Kariako (almost no access to Primary Health Care) and Santa Rosa (reasonable health facilities). Warapoka, Assakata and Koriabo all had a trained community health worker and a health hut built by the national NGO Futures Fund. Community health workers receive a regular supply of medicines from the district hospital, but in the dry season, transport is difficult and supplies are few. Again, malaria, gastro-intestinal diseases, and malnutrition were common in these communities. Each community counted with one or more persons that acted as traditional healers. The mother of the Koriabo village captain had a good reputation as a midwife, and was frequently asked to offer her services to women in labour. Since most local health workers were indigenous community members, they did not disapprove herbal medicine, but they neither were too enthusiastic about it. In all three villages, subsistence activities (hunting, fishing, and farming) were important, while cash income was earned by small-scale gold mining (Koriabo) and the harvesting of palm hearts (Assakata, Koriabo, and Warapoka). People involved in gold mining regularly became infected by malaria and typhoid, while those working in the palm heart industry often contracted snake bites and injuries caused by falling trees (chapter 5).

8.4.3 Medicinal plant use in the North-West District. A total of 294 medicinal plant species were found in the North-West District, belonging to 214 genera and 99 families, and involved in more than 800 different treatments and recipes. Several animal species were involved in healing practises as well, but these fell outside the scope of this research. A complete list of all plant species used for medicinal purposes is given in the Appendix of this chapter. Most plants were used for more than one illness. The mean number of diseases treated per plant species was 2.5. The most widely used medicinal plant species were Carapa guianensis (15 different ailments), Senna occidentalis (12), Irlbachia alata subsp. alata (11), Desmodium barbatum (10), Costus scaber (10), and Stigmaphyllon sinuatum (8). The main plant families involved in herbal treatments were Papilionaceae (19 medicinal species), Euphorbiaceae (11 spp.), Araceae (10 spp.), Compositae (9 spp.), Annonaceae, Guttiferae, and Caesalpiniaceae (each 8 spp.). Detailed use descriptions and recipes are given in Part II of this thesis.

In general, people made a distinction between plants that only provided symptomatic relief and those that actually cured the illness. However, the opinions about the efficacy of certain species differed among informants. People often warned for the side effects caused by certain bark concoctions (e.g., Aspidosperma spp., Alexa imperatricis, Strychnos spp., and Lonchocarpus spp.). The obvious toxicity of these plants should be taken into serious consideration when encouraging their local use. Stories were told about persons that became seriously ill or died after taking an overdose or by confusing the poisonous bark with another (aphrodisiac) species. In case toxic plant parts were used as ingredients in herbal medicine, detailed accounts were given of the quantities needed and the possible side effects. When the species were not toxic, the amount of plant material in the recipe was often less precise, like ‘a handful of leaves’, ‘some roots’, or ‘a piece of bark’. Along with the recipes, informants often provided stories about patients that were cured after using a certain plant remedy. In general, people seemed quite objective

232 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I on the effectiveness of a particular species. When they had tried a plant that did not work, they would mention this sceptically and doubted its usefulness. Plants were used for a wide variety of ailments, varying from headache and hair loss to cancer and AIDS (Figure 8.1).

8.4.4 Diseases treated with herbal medicine Figure 8.1 shows that the highest number of plants were used to treat fairly common diseases, such as colds, skin sores, wounds, cuts, and diarrhoea. This was the case by both Caribs and Arawaks, although these diseases were ‘ranked’ in a slightly different order in each group.

Common colds A total of 48 plant species was used to treat common colds, accompanied with a sore throat, cough, and a running nose. Most remedies consisted of a decoction of leaves (less frequently bark or shoots), that was drunk as tea. Apart from their curing capacities, these brews may also supply the patient with some extra vitamins or other nutritious elements usually found in green vegetables. These herbal teas were sometimes boiled down with sugar into thick (cough) syrup. Some plants were specifically used to treat children’s cold. Whooping cough, bronchitis, pneumonia, and tuberculosis were clearly distinguished from common colds and treated differently. Some plant species, however, such as Hebeclinium macrophyllum, Aloe vera, and Pityrogramma calomelanos, were said to be effective against ‘every heavy chest cold’, including the more severe lung ailments.

Wounds, cuts, and sores Spiny lianas, razorgrass, and machetes frequently cause skin cuts when walking in a forest. Cuts soon become infected and may develop into deeper wounds and even skin sores (bacteriosis), a very common ailment in tropical regions. Proper disinfecting is a must, and quite a number of barks and leaves appeared to contain antiseptic elements. Common treatments included squeezing the sap from heated leaves directly in the cut, or cleansing the wound with a decoction of bark or leaves. Sores were put in a different disease category, since they were considered more severe and included ‘lifetime sores’ or ‘bush yaws’ (leishmaniasis), persistent sores caused by a protozoan spread by means of the bite of a phlebotomine sand fly (Fournet et al., 1994).

Malaria If the number of plant species used against a certain disease could be interpreted as an indicator for the frequency and importance of that disease, malaria occupies an alarming third place in the North-West District. As many as 30 plants were used to treat or prevent malaria in the study area. Caused by Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum parasites, spread by Anopheles mosquitoes that breed in (gold mine) ponds and swamps with stagnant water, the disease is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Guyanese interior (Forte, 1995, 1996b). Malaria occurred mostly in the wet season from May to July, but cases were known throughout the year. The disease seemed to have a weakening effect on the overall fitness of both the indigenous and coastlander population in gold mining areas. In 1994, close to one out of three of the blood smears taken by the government Malaria Eradication

233 8. Medicinal plant use

Personnel had tested positive for malaria (Forte, 1995). Even though the common synthetic anti-malarial drugs (fansidar, halfan, and chloroquine) were regularly available in the interior, patients often took these medicines too late, did not finish the therapy, or did not understand the complicated prescriptions.

A large number of plants were used against malaria, but few species were said to cure the disease completely. Most treatments only lowered down the fever or enhanced the general resistance against malaria. Some of the most effective remedies, (e.g., the decoction of Aspidosperma bark), were said to be poisonous if drunk in excess. Many of the anti-malarial brews were distinctly bitter, (‘bitter like quinine itself’), which was believed to indicate their effectiveness against the parasite. It was a widespread practise to drink bitter tasting tonics or decoctions made from a mixture of barks, roots, woods, and herbs (e.g., Quassia amara, Scoparia dulcis, and Curarea candicans).

People suffering from diabetes, regular malaria outbreaks, or quickly developing skin sores were said to have ‘sweet blood’, a condition that called for a regular intake of ‘bitters’. These tonics were also taken to prevent malaria, skin sores, or diabetes. Mosquitoes and ‘germs’ were said to dislike bitter blood. Laxatives were also thought to ‘clean out’ the body from the malaria parasites. Gold miners were often quite knowledgeable on the preparation of malaria medicines and actively exchanged recipes with local Amerindians to combat the disease. Some of them said that Amerindians had a greater resistance against malaria because of their frequent use of bitters. The constant presence of alkaloids and other secondary plant compounds in the body might indeed prevent certain diseases.

Diarrhoea Often caused by amoebic or bacterial dysentery, typhoid, cholera, or other gastrointestinal parasites, diarrhoea is particular fatal to young infants. Most of these common disorders are attributable to poor sanitary practises (lack of pit latrines) and drinking water infected by parasites. Although people in the study area tried to drink rainwater as much as possible, few boiled their water before consumption. In the dry months, there was little choice than using the water from shallow pools or rivers. Heavy outbreaks of diarrhoea may occur in this season, which in some years have lead to the death of many children.

The year 1998 was extra burdensome for many Guyanese, since the severe drought caused by the ‘el niño’ weather phenomenon made clean drinking water extremely difficult to obtain. Bark and root decoctions are specifically used to treat all sorts of diarrhoea. Some treatments were said to be effective against ‘diarrhoea with blood’, which indicates amoebic or bacterial dysentery. The term ‘operation’ was locally used for diarrhoea accompanied with vomiting. The use of laxatives to treat intestinal disorders was common, as in this way the body was purified from all sorts of ‘dirt’ causing the illness.

234 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43

Figure 8.1 Number of plant species used for different illnesses in the North-West District. 1. common colds and coughs, 2. skin sores, 3. malaria, 4. diarrhoea, 5. wounds and cuts, 6. thrush, 7. snake bites, 8. haemorrhage, 9. sore eyes, 10. fever, 11. headache, 12. abscesses, 13. whooping cough, 14. stomach ache, 15. sprain, 16. aphrodisiac, 17. general pain, 18. swelling, 19. laxative, 20. biliousness, 21. venereal diseases, 22. hypertension, 23. heart problems, 24. back pain, 25. skin fungi, 26. diabetes, 27. mouth sores, 28. hair loss, 29. abortifacient, 30. tuberculosis, 31. skin burns, 32. scorpion bites, 33. kidney problems, 34. ground itch, 35. disinfect navel cord, 36. ant bites, 37. itches, 38. induce vomiting, 39. toothache, 40. pneumonia, 41. eczema, 42. ease birth, 43. botfly larvae.

235 8. Medicinal plant use

Thrush Trush is the local Guyanese term for an infection caused by the fungus Candida albicans, which commonly occurs in the mouths of young babies (Lachman-White et al., 1992). Symptoms are a rash on the whole body, sores bursting on the neck and between the legs, and a sore (white) mouth. Thrush is mostly caused by unhygienic feeding habits (dirty bottles or nipples). Local people also associated thrush with the stomach cramps of a baby as a reaction on breast milk, after the mother had eaten certain foods. In most cases, babies with thrush were given small quantities of leaves macerated in water. Meanwhile, the mother had to refrain from eating hot peppers, garlic, or catfish.

Snakebites The ferocious labaria snake (Bothrops asper) is a common snake in the North-West District, especially in swamp forests. When a person is bitten in the upper parts of the body, the bite can be deadly within hours. A famous medicine against labaria bites was obtained by rubbing the crushed eyes and brains of the same snake within five minutes after its bite. It was said that the animal’s own anti poison worked for humans as well. The bark of Unonopsis glaucopetala was considered as the most effective herbal cure for snakebites. The skin was sliced open, and some of the inner bark was applied to the bite. Meanwhile, the patient had to suck on some of the juicy bark scrapings. The victim should drink the clear sap from the kapadula liana (Dilleniaceae spp.), instead of river- or rainwater, since this would worsen the symptoms. All herbal medicines had to be taken as soon as possible after the bite. Synthetic antiserum was not available outside the major hospitals of the North-West District, as storage at a low temperature was required to keep them effective. The Brazilian antidote ‘Específico’ did not need to be refrigerated. It was frequently sold in interior shops, but had a questionable reputation.

Haemorrhage Quite some plants that were used to stop haemorrhage (a term used for excessive bleeding during child birth or severe injuries), were also involved in the treatment of ‘lining cold’ (puerperal fever), womb cramps, to prevent miscarriages and to keep down the menstruation flow. Many of those species were also used by women to ‘clean out the womb and tubes’, which implies widening the mouth of the uterus and initiating a curettage. Drinking high doses of these herbal teas in an early stage of pregnancy was said to cause abortions. They could even bring about complete sterility. In remote areas, where there was no doctor to stitch a woman’s vagina after it had been ruptured in childbirth, local midwives washed the women’s genitals with a warm decoction of astringent barks and leaves. This remedy was said to be very effective, as shortly afterwards the bleeding would stop and the birth channel would close back. The effectiveness of some remedies against haemorrhage and general weakness of blood (anaemia) was explained by the red colour of the particular herbal tea or exudate (‘red like blood itself’), which would help to replenish the blood lost by the patient.

Sore eye Sore or red eye is an inflammation of the conjunctiva, causing a red, itchy eye (Lachman-White et al., 1992). Sore eye was very common in the study area, especially among children. People believed that it was caused by diving in the river

236 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I with the eyes open. This could be true if the water would be polluted by bacteria, but sore eyes were mostly caused by rubbing the eyes with dirty hands or clothes. This highly contagious ailment was often treated by squeezing plant latex or sap directly into the affected eye.

Aphrodisiacs Quite a number of barks, roots, and woods were used to prepare aphrodisiacs or ‘builders’. These concoctions were drunk (mostly by men) ‘to cure a weak back’ (impotence) and to stimulate their sexual activities. Aphrodisiacs were popular in the capital and among coastlanders working in gold mines and logging operations in the interior. Amerindians sometimes classified these beverages as ‘pork-knocker medicine’ or ‘black man’s tea’, implying that they were not familiar with them. Yet many Amerindians knew exactly how to prepare these beverages. They were often asked to collect the ingredients from the forest when coastlanders could not identify the required species. Young Amerindian men admitted that they tried out these drinks and told wild stories about their effects. The kapadula liana (represented by six species of Dilleniaceae) was the most notorious ingredient in these aphrodisiacs.

Abortifacients The clear sap of the kapadula lianas can be drunk, but pregnant women were warned that this could cause abortion. The sap was sometimes deliberately drunk for this purpose. Several other plant parts were said to provoke abortions, such as unripe pineapples (Ananas comosus), calabash fruits (Crescentia cujete), the seeds of Gnetum nodiflorum, and the bark tea of Aristolochia daemoninoxia. It was believed that even cutting the stems of the latter two lianas with a machete during pregnancy was sufficient to cause a miscarriage.

Disinfecting umbilical cords Several species were used to disinfect the umbilical cord of a newborn. Infection of the navel could lead to the baby’s death, so precautions were needed to make sure that the navel dried up rapidly. The leaves of several species were burned; their ashes ground to powder and rubbed on the navel remains after cutting the umbilical cord with a razor blade. This ash quickly dried the navel and prevented inflammation. This practise was only mentioned in remote settlements, where women delivered their babies at home. In the areas within reach of a hospital, pregnant women preferred to give birth in the clinic.

Cancer and HIV/AIDS A remarkable aspect of herbal medicine was the involvement of several fish poisons in the treatment of cancer and AIDS. The roots of Tephrosia sinapou and Lonchocarpus spp., known to possess the chemical compound rotenone and generally used to stupefy fish, were mentioned as effective treatments for these lethal diseases. To treat intestinal cancer and AIDS, people drank small quantities of the sap from the roots of these species. The same liquid was applied externally on the skin lesions caused by skin cancer and AIDS. This treatment was practised throughout the North-West District, by both coastlanders and Amerindians. Although the patients were said to suffer from heavy side effects (nausea, unconsciousness), cases were mentioned of the miraculous healing of terminal patients. The strong poison was believed to ‘kill the cancer germs in the body’.

237 8. Medicinal plant use

More information about the use and probable effectiveness of fish poisons in the treatment of cancer and AIDS is given in chapter 7.

Illnesses caused by spirit attacks Although most people were aware that there existed certain ‘germs’ in the body that caused diseases, there were also cases of mysterious illnesses caused by malicious forces. Some of these complaints had to be treated by an herbal specialist, but there also existed numerous ‘household’ remedies and ceremonies to ward off evil spirits. These included burning the foul-smelling leaves of Jacaranda copaia under the hammock of a sick person, bathing children with a decoction of strong-scented leaves (Crescentia cujete), rubbing them with the aromatic rhizome of Cyperus odoratus, or burning the fragrant resin of Protium spp. According to one informant, this resin was also used as incense in the Santa Rosa Catholic Church, ‘to chase away bad spirits and invite the good ones’.

Babies and toddlers were often thought to be attacked by bad spirits. ‘Sometimes they cry all night with fever and you don’t know what is wrong with them’, one woman explained. Laxative teas were also believed to loosen the grip which spirits have taken on the bowels. One of the most powerful evil spirits was the ‘water woman’, a large anaconda disguised as a beautiful white woman, which lured people into the water to drown them. Menstruating women bathing in the river and young babies were extremely vulnerable to the attacks of these water ghosts. Spirits strongly disliked the smell of certain strong-scented plants. Newborn babies were often adorned with amulets made from scented plants to protect them against evil forces. In contrast, large strangler figs were believed to be inhabited by benevolent spirits. The trees were occasionally consulted by people in extreme despair about sick family members. If properly addressed, these spirits could cause miracles.

8.4.5 Collection and preparation of medicines The most common method of preparing medicines was cutting the particular bark, roots or leaves in pieces and boiling them in water. The decoction was then drunk as tea, sometimes mixed with milk and sugar to camouflage its unpleasant taste. Decoctions were also used as steam baths or to bathe the body. Few infusions (solutions of plant material in cold water) were used. When the undiluted sap from herbs was needed to disinfect cuts or sores, leaves were briefly heated over a fire until they became soft, and then rolled firmly between the hand palms and squeezed. Amerindians used most plants singly.

Complicated mixtures of several different species were prescribed only occasionally. As is shown in Figure 8.2, most herbal treatments included leaves (34%), followed by bark (15%), the whole plant (12%, mostly in the case of smaller herbs), roots (10%, including tuberous rhizomes and bulbs), and exudate (8%, including latex, resin, or gum).

238 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

300

250

200

150

100

s k t t e s p d it t s s s a roo s fru ud bar woo stem b leave seed shoo lower thorn exudat f hole plan w

Figure 8.2 Number of recipes including the different plant organs.

From the 294 species of medicinal plants recorded in the North-West District, some 80% was collected exclusively from the wild (Figure 8.3). These were all plants naturally occurring in different vegetation types (primary and secondary forest, secondary shrubland, swamp forest, and open savanna). Some 12% of these species were also taken from the forest and planted in home gardens or agricultural fields (e.g., Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus and Martinella obovata). This ‘semi- domestication’ reduced the need to cover long distances in the forest to search for rare plants. The high percentage of medicinal species collected from the wild illustrates the importance of non-timber forest products in traditional health care.

wild, but also planted in home gardens 12% 11% cultivated for food 6% cultivated for medicine 3% cultivated for other purposes

68% wild

Figure 8.3 Provenance of medicinal plant species used in the North-West District.

239 8. Medicinal plant use

Around 20% of the species involved in herbal healing practises were cultivated plants. Although most of these (11%) were cultivated primarily as a food crop (e.g., Manihot esculenta and Carica papaya), they were valued for their healing properties as well. Only 6% of the medicinal species were cultivated exclusively for their medicinal value. Many of those were renowned herbal medicines throughout the continent, like Jathropa curcas and Bryophyllum pinnatum. A small percentage (3%) of non-food cultivated plants, such as cotton (Gossypium barbadense), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), and fish poison (Clibadium surinamense), was mentioned to have healing capacities as well.

8.4.6 Differences in medicinal plant use between Carib and Arawaks A total of 236 medicinal plant species were recorded among the Arawaks, while the Caribs mentioned only 138 species (Table 8.1). The higher number of ‘Arawak’ medicinal plants might have several reasons. Firstly, the Arawak region in the North-West District had a greater variety in habitats (e.g., primary and secondary forest, open savanna, manicole, mangrove, and quackal swamps). The Carib area was only characterised by Mora swamp, primary and secondary forest (chapters 2 and 3). Secondly, Carib uses were only recorded from the small, relatively isolated communities of Kariako and Koriabo. In contrast, Arawak knowledge was recorded from the large village of Santa Rosa, and from the smaller communities Assakata and Koriabo. Thus, in total, more Arawak persons were interviewed than Caribs. Furthermore, the Arawaks have a longer history of contact with the urban region. Many coastlanders of East Indian or African origin have introduced medicinal (and non-medicinal) plants from their countries of origin. Examples of these exotic plants include Aframomum melegueta and Catharanthus roseus from Africa, and Syzygium cumini and Asystasia gangetica from Asia. These species had entered the local pharmacopoeia of Santa Rosa, but they were not (yet) observed in the inland Carib communities.

The general knowledge on medicinal species, however, seemed to be greater in the Carib communities. As modern health care facilities in the deep interior were almost non-existent, a greater number of people had to rely on medicinal plants than in the coastal Amerindian areas. While most adults in Kariako and Koriabo had a relatively broad knowledge on herbal medicine, in Santa Rosa this information was restricted to a few ‘bush medicine specialists’. Since these herbalists were actively involved in this study, the outcomes of this study seem to point at a higher medicinal plant use among the Arawaks than among the Caribs. However, since Santa Rosa citizens had a much greater access to hospital facilities and prescription medicines, it is likely that they made use of medicinal plants less often than people living in the deep interior.

Although the settlement of Kariako was surrounded by secondary forest, the primary forest was not far away and was visited frequently by nearly all the villagers. The Caribs harvested 84% of their medicinal plants from the wild (117 species), of which 25% were species that only occurred in primary forest (Table 8.1). Secondary vegetation types harboured 75% of the medicinal plants. The Caribs

240 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I cultivated only five medicinal species, all of which were grown in coastal Guyana as well.

Table 8.1 Provenance of medicinal plants used by Caribs and Arawaks

Forest type Caribs Arawaks

Primary forest only 25% (35 spp.) 22% (51 spp.) Secondary forest only 16% (22 spp.) 15% (36 spp.) Primary and secondary forest 23% (32 spp.) 11% (25 spp.) Open savanna 0.7% (1 sp.) 3% (7 spp.) Secondary shrubland 19% (26 spp.) 22% (51 spp.) Cultivated 16% (22 spp.) 27% (64 spp.)

Total 100% (138 spp.) 100% (236 spp.)

The Arawaks used much more agricultural species in their healing practises (27%) and cultivated 18 medicinal plant species (8%). They harvested less plant products from the wild (73%), but the percentage of wild plants that was taken from the forest and cultivated (14%, 33 spp.), was higher than by the Caribs (7%, 10 spp.). Although the percentage of primary forest species was nearly equal to that of the Caribs, the absolute values were even higher. This could be explained by the fact that the communities of Assakata and Koriabo were located at a much shorter distance from the primary forest than Santa Rosa. In particular the Assakata villagers collected many medicinal plants in the (primary) manicole swamp forest (chapter 4). The percentage of primary forest-harvested medicinal plant species in Santa Rosa was much lower, since logging and slash-and-burn agriculture have severely reduced the area of undisturbed forest around Santa Rosa (chapters 2 and 4).

The particular plant part needed for a medicine also determines in which vegetation type the species is harvested. For instance, lianas with healing properties (Dilleniaceae, Strychnos spp., Curarea candicans, etc.) were present as juveniles in secondary forest. However, since their wood was needed, people harvested the larger individuals that grew in primary forest. On the other hand, as was shown in chapter 4, distance is a decisive factor in plant collection. If the desired medicinal product could be collected from nearby secondary forest, people preferred to take it from there, instead of walking all the way to the primary forest.

The Warao during this study mentioned 50 medicinal plant species. However, since most of the time spent at Warao communities was reserved for the research on palm heart harvesting, no detailed description could be given on the Warao pharmacopoeia. For more information on this subject, the reader should consult the report by Reinders (1993) or the publications of Wilbert (1970, 1976) and Wilbert and Layrisse (1980).

241 8. Medicinal plant use

8.4.7 Commercialisation of medicinal plants

North-West District Of the 294 species of medicinal plants recorded in the study area, only one was commercialised on a regular basis. Crab oil, extracted from the seeds of the crabwood tree (Carapa guianensis), was the sole herbal medicine offered for sale in the interior shops. The oil is used throughout the country as mosquito repellent, hair oil, and medicinal oil; both for internal and external use (see Part II of this thesis). Because of its complicated processing method, crab oil is relatively expensive. A litre bottle was sold for US$ 3 in the interior and for $ 7 in the capital. Raw medicinal plant materials were seldom marketed in the interior; people simply refused to pay for goods they could easily collect themselves.

Money was occasionally involved in traditional healing practises in the North-West District. In small communities where the bartering principle was still prevalent, patients brought small gifts in the form of food when they came to be treated. But in most cases, medicinal plants were collected and administered by the patients themselves or by their family members. In the surroundings of Santa Rosa, however, herbalists were not only consulted by fellow community members, but also by people from the urban region. They often required a payment for their services; in particular when they were asked to prepare specific medicinal or magic brews. When their help was required to get rid of an evil spell or ‘obeiah’ (black magic), put on a patient by another person (in most cases an enemy or rival shaman), their fee could even be pretty high. Most healing sessions were held in strict secrecy.

Decoctions of herbal medicines for heart problems, venereal diseases, and diabetes were sold by a traditional healer in Moruca for up to US$ 7 per litre, although many of his neighbours accused him of cheating. The bark of the kakarawa tree (Pradosia schomburgkiana), growing only in remote quackal swamp and supposedly very effective in the treatment of tuberculosis, was occasionally sold in Moruca for US$ 7 a rice bag (± 50 kg).

Urban areas Medicinal herbs, barks, and roots were not only used by Amerindians, but also by the Afro-Guyanese and East Indian population in the urban areas. There was a modest, but steady demand for medicinal plants in the capital. Although modern medicine was commonly available in the major urban centres, some diseases were preferred to be treated with ‘bush medicine’. Medicinal plants were also very cheap; prices varied between US$ 0.07 to 0.14 for a bundle of dried leaves or a piece of bark. A total of 85 species were offered for sale by more than 15 different market vendors in Georgetown (Table 8.2).

242 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Table 8.2. Dried and fresh medicinal plants sold at the Georgetown herbal markets

Family Species Family Species Acanthaceae Justicia pectoralis Lauraceae Cinnamomum verum J. secunda Persea americana Ruellia tuberosa Leguminosae-Caesalp. Hymenaea courbaril Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos Senna alata Agavaceae Aloe vera S. alexandria Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera S. bicapsularis Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica S.occidentalis Annonaceae Annona muricata S. reticulata Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus Leguminosae-Papil. Bauhinia guianensis Araceae Montrichardia arborescens Desmodium sp. Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete Loganiaceae Strychnos spp. Boraginaceae Cordia curassavica Malvaceae Gossypium barbatum Heliotropium indicum Sida rhombifolia Cactaceae Opuntia cochenillifera Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata Menispermaceae Curarea candicans C. sciadophylla Moraceae Artocarpus altilis Combretaceae Terminalia catappa Myrtaceae Eucalyptus camaldulensis Commelinaceae Tripogandra serrulata Eugenia uniflora Compositae Bidens cynapiifolia Pimenta racemosa Clibadium surinamense Psidium guajava Cyathillium cinereum Syzigium cumini Mikania micrantha Palmae Euterpe oleracea Sphagneticola trilobata Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida var. hispida Struchium sparganophorum Passiflora laurifolia Unxia camphorata Phytolaccaceae Microtea debilis Costaceae Costus scaber Petiveria alliacea Cucurbitaceae Luffa cylindrica Pinaceae Pinus caribea Momordica charantia Piperaceae Piper reticulatum Dilleniaceae Doliocarpus sp. Rubiaceae Chinchona sp. Tetracera sp. Morinda citrifolia Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea sp. Sapindaceae Cardiospermum halicacabum Ebenaceae Diospyros discolor Serjania paucidentata Euphorbiaceae Caperonia palustris Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis Croton trinitatis Simaroubaceae Quassia amara Jatropha curcas Smilacaceae Smilax schomburgkiana Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata Solanaceae Physalis cf. angulata Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris Solanum stramoniifolium Cymbopogon citratus Sterculiaceae Waltheria indica Eleusine indica Verbenaceae Citharexylum spinosum Guttiferae Clusia sp. Lantana camara Labiatae Hyptis pectinata Lippia alba Leonotis nepetifolia Stachytarpheta cayennensis Ocimum campechianum

243 8. Medicinal plant use

Thirteen of these species were not found in the North-West District. In contrast to the Amerindian recipes, herbal vendors in Georgetown often prescribed mixtures of several different species. Some of the medicinal herb stalls stayed open for seven days a week. A few of them, mostly those selling aphrodisiac brews, were even selling for 24 hours a day.

About half of the medicinal plants on the Georgetown market were cultivated. Most of the wild species were common herbs in secondary shrubland (e.g., Unxia camphorata, Stachytarpheta cayennensis). There seemed to be little danger of overharvesting. Most species were harvested along the Lynden highway and the national airport. The barks and roots from lianas and epiphytes (e.g., Pinzona sp., Smilax schomburgkiana, Strychnos sp., Curarea candicans, and Clusia spp.) were gathered from primary forest. They were either sold per piece for home preparation or processed into milkshakes and tonics. These species were mostly used as aphrodisiacs. Recently, some initiatives were taken by small businesses (e.g., Family D’lite and Caledonia Canning Co.) to bottle these aphrodisiacs on a larger scale. Some pharmacies in Georgetown have started to process crab oil industrially into soap, candles, and insecticidal washes. A very small percentage of the medicinal species sold in the capital came from the Moruca and Pomeroon area. The majority of the primary forest species was harvested in the nearby Essequibo and Demerara forests. The prices paid for the raw material were too low to make extraction from remote areas economically feasible. Although Amerindian men occasionally carried a bag full of ingredients for aphrodisiacs with them when travelling to the capital, there was no regular trade in medicinal plants with the North-West District. Fresh and dried medicinal herbs and barks were exported in small quantities (chapter 6), but export documents did not provide information on the particular species and plant parts marketed abroad.

8.5 DISCUSSION

8.5.1 The importance of herbal medicine in the North-West District The ancient system of indigenous health care and religion seems to have disappeared in the North-West District. In the past, each indigenous community counted with a piaiman, who played the double role of medicine man and priest. He possessed supernatural powers and was able to communicate with spirits that caused diseases. Through the medium of dreams and visions, enhanced by the use of a rattle with magic stones, smoking tobacco and drinking a hallucinating infusion of tobacco leaves, the piaiman was able to diagnose the source of the evil. He then performed ritual healing ceremonies to combat the spirits that had possessed the patient (Gillin, 1936; Forte, 1996a). Nowadays, not many of these piaiman remain in Guyana (Forte, 1996a), and if they do, they keep quiet not to upset the church or other authorities. However, in the past, only the serious cases of illness (often combined with psychological complaints) were cured by medicine men. For the less-complicated diseases, people consulted elder women or men, who constituted a group of minor healers in the community (Gillin, 1936; Coles et al., 1971). The results of this study already proved that this part of the traditional healing system is still very much alive in the North-West District. As was already mentioned by

244 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Lachman-White et al. (1992), Austin and Bourne (1992), and Reinders (1993), medicinal plants are still widely used by both indigenous and non-indigenous groups in Guyana. In the economic surveys of Sullivan (1999), 38 to 70% of the households said they collected medicinal plants from the forest, usually twice per month. The annual weight of collected plants used for medicinal purposes was estimated at 19 to 59 kg per household. According to Sullivan, a large proportion of the villagers she interviewed claimed that they preferred treatments with medicinal plants above those using synthetic medicine. As long as many people in Guyana’s interior do not have access to good medical facilities, herbal medicine will continue to play its important, often life-saving role in traditional healing systems.

The belief that any manifestation of illness results from the presence of an evil spirit, as was noted among others by Forte (1996a) among the Macushi and by Gillin (1936) among the Barama Caribs, was not widespread (anymore) in the study area. In the past, much more plants seemed to be used to ward off away evil spirits than today. Many of the magic plants listed by Gillin (1936) and Coles et al. (1971) for upper and middle Barama were not recognised as such by Barama Caribs during this survey. Only certain complaints were thought to be caused by evil forces. The use of pungent smelling plants to chase away bad spirits was noted among many indigenous tribes in the region (Coles et al., 1971; Reinders, 1993; van ‘t Klooster, 2000).

8.5.2 Comparisons with other regional studies on medicinal plant use To see whether the pharmacopoeia of the North-West District had common characteristics with those of neighbouring regions, the results of this study were compared with the medicinal plants and uses found by other authors (Table 8.3). Both wild and cultivated medicinal species were taken into account.

Although the general patterns of plant use recorded during this survey were expected to show the greatest overlap with other ethnobotanical studies from the North-West District, this could not be verified with the existing literature. In the earlier Barama Carib studies (Gillin, 1936; Coles et al., 1971; Adams, 1972), plant collection was minimal and botanical names were few and inaccurate. Comparisons had to be based on vernacular (Carib) names only.

The expedition report of Coles et al. (1971) provided valuable information on the ethnomedicine of the upper Barama Caribs. Many of their recipes and ideas about illnesses and healing were similar to those in Kariako: for instance, the variety of herbal medicines for cuts and skin lesions, the common use of decoctions as a way to administer medicine, and the food taboos for the nursing mother in the case of infant thrush. Unfortunately, botanical verification of the plant material was limited.

245 8. Medicinal plant use

Table 8.3 Number of medicinal plant species mentioned in other ethnobotanical studies in the Guiana Shield. The number of plant species with one or more identical uses is given between brackets.

Researchers (year) Location Indigenous Medicinal Species in group species used common (# of uses in common) North-West District Kariako, Koriabo, Arawak, Carib This study Assakata, Santa Rosa, 294 - Warao Warapoka Gillin (1936) Sawari (Barama River) Carib + 35 20 (16) Coles et al. (1971) Baramita (Barama River) Carib + 109 + 72 (15) Adams (1972) Baramita (Barama River) Carib + 29 + 15 (13) Reinders (1993) Wauna, Mabaruma Warao + 164 + 102 (72)

Coastal Guyana Austin and Bourne Kuru kururu (1992) (Lynden highway) unknown 55 36 (21) Lachman-White et al. Coastal Guyana diff. ethnic (1992) groups 167 94 (75) Central Guyana Johnston and Culquhoun (1996) Kurupukari (Iwokrama) Arawak 130 37 (22) Matheson (1994) Great Falls (Essequibo) Akawaio 58 + 27 (18)

Southern Guyana Forte (1996a) North Rupununi Macushi + 139 + 19 (10) St. Ignatius Riley (1998) Macushi + 95 + 24 (10) (North Rupununi)

Total Guyana diff. ethnic Fanshawe (1948) 127 100 (61) groups

French Guiana Palikur, Wayãpi, Grenand et al. (1987) 487 112 (52) Creoles Raghoenandan (1994) Suriname Hindu 154 59 (38)

Brazil (Roraima) different Milliken (1997) 99 24 (8) (anti-malaria plants only) ethnic groups

A substantial number of species and uses found among the Warao by Reinders (1993) were also recorded during this study. However, the overlap would have been greater if more of Reinders’ plants had been identified. In general, the results of her study corresponded most with the plant lore of the coastal Arawaks. Only 11 of the 83 recipes mentioned by the Warao in this study coincided with those found by Reinders. This is probably a matter of geographical difference, as Reinders conducted her studies in the forested hills near Mabaruma, where there is a large influence of non-Warao Indians and coastlanders. The Warao interviewed in this study lived in rather isolated settlements in the dense manicole swamps (Warapoka and lower Waini River).

Many of the plant uses found in Santa Rosa were also mentioned in the coastal Guyana studies (Lachman-White et al., 1992; Austin and Bourne, 1992). Most similarities were found with regard to the uses of ruderal herb species, common in

246 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I areas with a long history of cultivation. Many of these herbs (e.g., Hebeclinium macrophyllum and Waltheria indica), were less common or absent in the remote interior. The pharmacopoeia of the North-West District also showed a substantial overlap with the study of Fanshawe (1948), who deposited an excellent plant collection in several of the large herbaria in the world (Ek, 1990). Remarkably, the present study shared most medicinal plants with the pharmacopoeia of French Guiana, composed by Grenand et al. (1987). Since there are substantial differences in vegetation between French Guiana and the North-West District, the degree of overlap in plant lore with other studies seemed to be more a result of the plant collection efforts of the particular researchers, than of similarities in indigenous health care. The extensive list of medicinal plants from the North-West District includes a large number of species that has not yet been reported for medicinal purposes. Many other plants were used distinctly than by indigenous groups. The discovery of so many medicinal plants in a region that harbours only three indigenous tribes suggests that further research among the remaining six indigenous groups in Guyana’s interior would yield a vast amount of so far unrecorded information.

8.5.3 Differences in medicinal plant use between indigenous groups According to Prance et al. (1987), differences in plant use between indigenous groups might be more a reflection of plant endemism within the tropical forest than intercultural differences per se. This may be true when indigenous plant uses from distinct regions are compared, but it seems less relevant when plant lore is compared between neighbouring groups. Although there existed a substantial overlap in vegetation types and plant uses among the different northwestern tribes (chapter 4), recipes for medicinal plants varied not only between ethnic groups, but also between villages and even between households. Still, it was hard to make out if these differences were caused by cultural heritage (e.g., Arawak vs. Carib), by differences in contact with outsiders (traditional vs. ‘modern’), or simply by differences in living standards and access to health facilities (using leaves to disinfect umbilical cords vs. giving birth in a clinic).

It seems that a complex set of factors, such as migration and contact patterns, the geographical occurrence of certain plants, and individual experience of the efficacy of different cures has moulded the present pattern of dissemination of curative knowledge (Coles et al., 1971). Milliken (1997) also states that the depth of knowledge on medicinal plants depends on the degree and nature of contact between the group and neighbouring groups, the relative importance of phytotherapy in the group’s traditional medicine, and the occurrence of effective medicinal plants in the area. Furthermore, Table 8.3 shows that the number of medicinal plants mentioned in ethnobotanical publications does not necessarily reflect the real number of species used in a particular region. These figures are strongly influenced by the amount of time the researcher has spent with the tribe, the accuracy of the plant collections, the scope of the research, the number of communities visited and people interviewed.

Milliken (1997) further argues that the number of plants and recipes used to treat illnesses depends on the length of the time that a certain indigenous group has been

247 8. Medicinal plant use exposed to these diseases, and the seriousness of the epidemics when they came. He found that tribes in Roraima which came into contact with malaria long ago, knew more plant species to combat this infection than groups that only recently contracted the disease (Milliken and Albert, 1997; Milliken, 1997). The fact that the Arawaks in this study knew more anti-malarial species (26) than the Caribs (16), may possibly be explained by the fact that the first group has a longer history as a labour force in gold mines than the second, even though the majority of the gold mines in the North-West District are located in Carib territory. According to Forte (1999) and Reinders (pers. comm.) the Barama Caribs have only recently started mining themselves.

The regularity at which certain illnesses occur in a community also seems to influence the number of plant species used to treat it. The wide array of plants used against colds, cough, and cuts, may indicate that people have spent more time in searching for plant cures for common ailments than for rare diseases like cancer or epilepsy. However, it could also be that more plant species contain simple antibacterial chemicals useful to disinfect cuts than complicated compounds that work against tumours or epilepsy. Finally, the desire to treat a certain ailment, as opposed to consider it a ‘fact of life’ and not paying attention to it, can also have a cultural origin (Slikkerveer, pers. comm.).

Contact with outsiders may have negative effects on a group’s traditional knowledge due to acculturation, but it can also broaden their knowledge due to the exchange of information and plants (Milliken, 1997). Gold prospectors may have introduced malaria to even the most remote areas in the North-West District, but they have also played an important part in transmitting medical practises of different tribes and groups (Coles et al., 1971). The famous ‘pork-knocker medicines’ are examples of the transculturation process of African and Asian ideas and techniques and Amerindian knowledge and ingredients. Especially on the coast, where most Afro-Guyanese and East Indians live, Guyana’s medicinal plant lore is a carryover of Amerindian, Asian, and African medical and spiritual traditions (Im Thurn, 1883; Lachman-White et al., 1992; Austin and Bourne, 1992). This was illustrated by the fact that herbalists in Georgetown more frequently recommended mixtures of plants (as is common in Africa), while the use of medicinal plants singly (or in combination with few other species) appears to be a characteristic of Amazonian medicine (Grenand et al., 1987; Milliken, 1997). Another aspect is that through the commercialisation of medicinal plant products, people may ultimately gain greater knowledge of those NTFPs exported from the village economy to the non-local world (Godoy et al., 1998). This was illustrated by the wide knowledge of plants by some of the (commercial) herbal healers in the Moruca area.

Some of the indigenous perceptions of illness and healing in the North-West District seemed to be cosmopolitan in nature, for instance the connection between bitterness and supposed effectiveness against internal parasites. This concept was not only voiced by many indigenous groups in the Guianas (Stahel, 1944; Fanshawe, 1948; Coles et al., 1971; Veth and Reinders, 1995; Milliken, 1997; Milliken and Albert, 1997), but it was also noted among indigenous groups in Namibia (VanDamme et al., 1992), and it even forms part of the traditional Dutch folklore. However, the common use in the Guianas of herbal teas and tonics to ‘bitter the blood’ as a

248 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I preventive medicine against malaria and other parasites, was hardly practised by indigenous groups in Roraima (Milliken, 1997).

8.5.4 Loss of traditional knowledge As long as traditional cultures are stigmatised as backwards, savage or old- fashioned, indigenous people will be ashamed to speak their native language and live according to their cultural heritage. The knowledge on medicinal plants, especially those with only indigenous names and uses, may even disappear sooner than the plants themselves. If a tribe forgets its language, it also looses most of its indigenous classification system of plant species, diseases, and treatments. Research in several primary schools in the North-West District proved that many children were still able to identify medicinal plants and give recipes, but the present knowledge on traditional healing practices can be lost within a few decades if further pressure is put on indigenous tribes to become ‘civilised’. The fact that many parents in the region were ashamed that their children ate small forest berries and disdainfully called them ‘monkey food,’ and that most people denied using medicinal plants when first asked, illustrates the embarrassment of many indigenous people about the use of forest products. The neglect of traditional food and medicines, however, may seriously deteriorate the health and well being of indigenous peoples. Although often regarded as supplementary to local peoples diet, wild food and medicine is essential in times of crisis, and plays an important nutritional role (FAO, 1992; IIED, 1994). Guyanese often referred to the use of certain plants ‘during Burnham times’. When former president Burnham’s socialist government banned the import of luxury goods in the 1970s, many Guyanese were forced to fall back on their knowledge of plants to substitute soap, toothbrushes, medicines, and other imported goods.

8.5.5 Incorporating medicinal plants in Primary Health Care The neglect of traditional health care systems in Guyana is in great contrast to the increasing importance of medicinal plants in western medicine and the worldwide movement towards the revaluation of natural products and interest in indigenous plant use (Attisso, 1983; Posey and Dutfield, 1996; Ellen and Harris, 1999). In the early 1980s, the World Health Organisation recommended each state to utilise its natural medicinal resources in the framework of its Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000 (WHO, 1993). Several health organisations and local NGOs in the third world now promote the use of herbal medicine in Primary Health Care, since medicinal plants are cheap, locally available and more appealing to the philosophy of local peoples (Richards, 1993; Slikkerveer and Slikkerveer, 1995; King et al., 1999).

Community health workers in Guyana should be made aware of the great possibilities of medicinal plants and incorporate elder community members with traditional knowledge in the diagnosis and treatment of patients. Medicinal gardens could be planted around community health centres for education purposes and when certain herbs are not available in the neighbourhood. Since the supply of prescription medicines to health facilities in the interior is often hampered, the need to include herbal medicines in remote health centres is essential. Schoolteachers in the interior should also pay more attention to indigenous knowledge and culture.

249 8. Medicinal plant use

The documentation of ethnobotanical practises, including local names of plants and diseases, not only helps to conserve cultural diversity by revitalising local knowledge, it also contributes to the protection of biodiversity, since more importance is attached to a great number of useful plant species. However, the printed or published ethnobotanical knowledge should by all means be made freely available to the communities that provided the information. Furthermore, pharmacological companies and research institutes should find out ways to share their economic benefits from ethnobotanical research with the indigenous peoples involved. The quantity of compensation may depend on the stage in which indigenous knowledge and resources have contributed to the final product, but these aspects should be negotiated with the particular communities themselves. Money is not always the most useful form of compensation for biogenetic resources and traditional knowledge. According to the needs of the particular communities, donations could be done in an adequate form (community development funds, creation of protected areas, providing legal assistance for the demarcation of traditional lands), ensuring that compensation is shared equitably between and within existing indigenous groups and future generations (Posey and Dutfield, 1996; King et al., 1999).

8.5.6 The commercial potential of Guyanese medicinal plants The enormous diversity of Guyanese medicinal plants, barks, roots, oils, and resins could have a much larger potential for the national and regional market if they would be processed in a more sophisticated manner, such as ready-to-use tonics, powders, tablets, ointments, or pre-packed ingredients for herbal teas and baths. In countries like Indonesia, where the use of medicinal plants is much more accepted and appreciated than in Guyana, the government even promotes the cultivation and use of indigenous medicinal plants to enhance the self-reliance of rural communities. The local manufacture of certain mixtures of herbal medicine proved to be so successful that part of it became commercialised into modern factories. The medicinal plant trade in Indonesia is now a million-dollar industry (Slikkerveer and Slikkerveer, 1995; de Beer and McDermott, 1996). If laboratory studies on pharmacological and phytochemical properties and clinical trails are carried out in the developing country itself, as it is done in Indonesia, it requires much less time to develop a phytotherapeutic medicine from a medicinal plant than if the same species is processed into a patented medicine in one of the industrialised countries (Attisso, 1983).

In Guyana, this process is still in its infancy, although a few medicinal plants are exported to the U.K. (chapter 6) and some basic screening and bioprospecting attempts have been done in the past (Lachman-White et al., 1992; Forte, 1999a). Guyana’s neighbouring country Suriname exports substantial volumes of fresh, dried, and frozen medicinal plants to the Netherlands, where they seem to play a key role in the health care of Surinamese immigrants. Van ‘t Klooster (2000) found more than 180 wild and cultivated plant species in an Amsterdam shop owned by Saramaccan Bush Negroes specialised in traditional Winti religion. Many of the species successfully marketed by Suriname also occur in Guyana, but it seems that

250 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I this country still has to discover the commercial potential of its ‘medical rain forest’ on the world market.

At the same time, Suriname has reached an agreement with Bristol Myers Squibb, in which medicinal plants used by traditional Bush Negro communities are sold to the company for testing. Sales-based royalty payments will be deposited in a special ‘Forest Peoples Fund’, controlled by the leaders of the country’s traditional peoples and used to promote sustainable forest use and conservation (Sizer, 1996; FAO, 2000). Up to now, Guyana’s enormous wealth of plant and animal products of pharmaceutical value has practically been left unexplored. Bioprospecting was recently mentioned as an opportunity to obtain extra benefits from the country’s biodiversity (Sizer, 1996; Iwokrama, 1999). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is now developing a policy and institutional framework to regulate the collection of specimens by scientists and pharmaceutical companies in Guyana (EPA, 2000). However, bioprospecting can only act as an innovative way to ‘save the forests’ if it is carried out according to the guidelines of the Convention of Biological Diversity (launched in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro). These include the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and a fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources (Posey and Dutfield, 1996; King et al., 1999; Dutfield, 2000).

8.6 CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study have shown that indigenous tribes in the North-West District use a large number of medicinal plants for a wide variety of diseases. Although malaria and gastrointestinal diseases were the most precarious ailments in the area, the largest number of plant species was used to treat common diseases, such as colds, skin cuts and sores. Many indigenous communities are almost completely dependent on medicinal plants for their health care, since modern health facilities are limited and prescription medicine is either unavailable or too expensive. Therefore, community health workers in the interior should include traditional healers in their work. Medicinal plants have a great potential for rural health care improvement, as they are cheap, locally available, and agree more to local people’s viewpoints than synthetic medicines.

The extensive list of medicinal plants used in the North-West District is remarkable not only for its substantial number of species that have not previously been reported for medicinal purposes or have uses distinct from those of other indigenous groups, but also for its botanical and cultural diversity. The discovery of so many medicinal plants in a region that harbours only three indigenous tribes suggests that further research among the remaining indigenous groups in Guyana’s interior would yield a tremendous amount of so far unrecorded information.

However, since the indigenous tribes in Guyana’s interior are under great pressure from the western society (logging, mining, churches, and prescription medicine), the present knowledge of herbal medicine may rapidly be lost. There is a great need for the documentation and revitalisation of indigenous knowledge, as this may help to

251 8. Medicinal plant use preserve both cultural and biological diversity. Efforts should be made that the documented knowledge is made available to the indigenous groups and economic benefits from ethnobotanical research are shared with the communities involved.

The great diversity of Guyanese medicinal plants could have a much larger potential for the (inter-) national market than it has today, if it would be processed in a more sophisticated way. However, commercial harvesting of medicinal plants and bioprospecting should be carried out according to the guidelines of the Convention of Biological Diversity: conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of natural resources, and respecting traditional resource rights.

252 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

8.7 APPENDIX

Medicinal plant used in the North-West District of Guyana: Ar = Arawak, Ca = Carib, W = Warao, GT = Georgetown uses (coastlanders). X = similar plant use. w = wild, c = cultivated, w (c) = wild, sometimes cultivated; c (w) = cultivated, sometimes wild

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Acanthaceae Asystasia gangetica cough/cold whole plant X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia calycina cough/cold leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia calycina sore eye leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia calycina whooping cough leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia pectoralis haemorrhage whole plant X X c (w) Acanthaceae Justicia pectoralis whooping cough whole plant X X X c (w) Acanthaceae Justicia secunda anaemia leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia secunda cough/cold leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia secunda fever leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia secunda malaria leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia secunda measles leaves X w (c) Acanthaceae Justicia secunda whooping cough leaves w (c) Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos asthma whole plant X w Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos cough/cold whole plant X X w Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos pneumonia whole plant X w Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos tuberculosis whole plant X X w Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos whooping cough whole plant X w Adiantaceae Pityrogramma calomelanos wound/cut leaves X X X w Amaryllidaceae Crinum erubescens biliousness root X w Amaryllidaceae Crinum erubescens induce vomiting root X w Amaryllidaceae Crinum erubescens laxative root X w Amaryllidaceae Hippeastrum puniceum asthma root X w (c)

253 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Amaryllidaceae Hippeastrum puniceum biliousness root X w (c) Amaryllidaceae Hippeastrum puniceum induce vomiting root X w (c) Amaryllidaceae Hippeastrum puniceum laxative root X w (c) Amaryllidaceae Hymenocallis tubiflora headache leaves X w Amaryllidaceae Hymenocallis tubiflora induce vomiting root X w Amaryllidaceae Hymenocallis tubiflora sprain leaves X w Amaryllidaceae Hymenocallis tubiflora swelling leaves X w Amaryllidaceae Hymenocallis tubiflora swelling root X w Anacardiaceae Anacardium giganteum diarrhoea bark X w (c) Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale diarrhoea bark XXXX c Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale diarrhoea fruit X c Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale diarrhoea leaves X c Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale thrush bark X X c Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica diabetes leaves X X X c Anacardiaceae Spondias mombin cough/cold bark X w (c) Anacardiaceae Spondias mombin diarrhoea leaves X w (c) Anacardiaceae Spondias mombin haemorrhage bark X w (c) Anacardiaceae Spondias mombin haemorrhage leaves X w (c) Anacardiaceae Spondias mombin sores leaves X X w (c) Anacardiaceae Spondias mombin sores bark X w (c) Anacardiaceae Tapirira guianensis sores bark X X w Anacardiaceae Tapirira guianensis wound/cut bark X X w Annonaceae Annona montana fever leaves X w (c) Annonaceae Annona montana headache leaves X w (c) Annonaceae Annona muricata headache leaves X X X c Annonaceae Annona muricata heart problems leaves X X c Annonaceae Annona muricata hypertension leaves X X c

254 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Annonaceae Duguetia megalophylla snake bite bark X w Annonaceae Duguetia pauciflora snake bite bark X w Annonaceae Duguetia pycnastera cough/cold bark X w Annonaceae Duguetia yeshidan snake bite bark X w Annonaceae Rollinia exsucca fever bark X w Annonaceae Rollinia exsucca haemorrhage bark X X w Annonaceae Unonopsis glaucopetala snake bite bark X X X w Apocynaceae Allamanda cathartica biliousness leaves X X X w (c) Apocynaceae Allamanda cathartica laxative leaves X X w (c) Apocynaceae Allamanda cathartica malaria leaves X X w (c) Apocynaceae Aspidosperma cf. cruentum malaria bark X w Apocynaceae Aspidosperma excelsum malaria bark X w Apocynaceae Aspidosperma marcgravianum headache bark X w Apocynaceae Aspidosperma marcgravianum malaria bark X w Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus urinary tracts leaves X w (c) Apocynaceae Forsteronia guyanensis cough/cold root X w Apocynaceae Odontadenia sandwithiana pain leaves X w Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana disticha scorpion bite bark X w Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana disticha sore eye exudate X w Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana undulata headache root X w Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana undulata munuri ant bite exudate X w Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana undulata sore eye exudate X w Araceae Caladium bicolor botfly larvae root X X w (c) Araceae Dieffenbachia cf. humilis botfly larvae exudate X w Araceae Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana abscess leaves X w Araceae Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana pain leaves X X w Araceae Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana scorpion bite shoot X w

255 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Araceae Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana snake bite shoot X w Araceae Montrichardia arborescens cough/cold sap X X w Araceae Montrichardia arborescens diabetes leaves X X w Araceae Montrichardia arborescens stingray bite stem X w Araceae Montrichardia arborescens tuberculosis leaves X X w Araceae Montrichardia arborescens wound/cut stem X X w Araceae Philodendron cf. brevispathum scorpion bite shoot X w Araceae Philodendron deflexum munuri ant bite root X w Araceae Philodendron fragrantissimum aphrodisiac root X X w Araceae Philodendron linnaei skin fungi exudate X w Araceae Philodendron linnaei swelling leaves X w Araceae Philodendron pedatum back pain leaves X w Araceae Philodendron scandens munuri ant bite leaves X w Araceae Philodendron scandens snake bite leaves X X w Araceae Philodendron scandens sore eye leaves X w Araceae Philodendron scandens sores leaves X X w Araceae Philodendron scandens wound/cut leaves X w Araliaceae Schefflera morototoni scorpion bite bark X w Araliaceae Schefflera morototoni sores bark X X w Araliaceae Schefflera morototoni wound/cut bark X X w Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia daemoninoxia abortive stem X X w Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia daemoninoxia contraceptive stem X X w Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia daemoninoxia female sterility stem X w Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia daemoninoxia fever stem X w Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia daemoninoxia stomach ache stem X w Auriculariaceae Laetipous sp.TVA 1997 menstruation whole plant X w Auriculariaceae Pycnoporus sanguineus menstruation whole plant X w

256 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete abortive fruit X X c Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete eases birth fruit X c Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete evil spirits leaves X c Bignoniaceae Jacaranda copaia ssp. copaia evil spirits leaves X X X w Bignoniaceae Jacaranda copaia ssp. copaia fever leaves X w Bignoniaceae Macfadyena cf. unguis-cati female sterility whole plant X w Bignoniaceae Macfadyena cf. unguis-cati haemorrhage whole plant X w Bignoniaceae Martinella obovata sore eye rootXXXX w (c) Bignoniaceae Martinella obovata sores root X X w (c) Bignoniaceae Schlegelia violacea sore eye sap X X w Bignoniaceae Tabebuia insignis malaria bark X X X w Blechnaceae Blechnum serrulatum abscess leaves X w Bombacaceae Catostemma commune snoring seed X w Bombacaceae Pachira aquatica diarrhoea bark X w Boraginaceae Cordia nodosa headache leaves X w Boraginaceae Cordia nodosa hypertension leaves X X X w Boraginaceae Cordia nodosa whooping cough leaves X w Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum diabetes whole plant X w (c) Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum venereal disease whole plant X w (c) Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus abortive fruit X X X c Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus fractures leaves X c Bromeliaceae Araeococcus micranthus thrush leaves X w Burseraceae Protium decandrum arthritis exudate X w Burseraceae Protium decandrum skin burns bark X w Burseraceae Protium decandrum wound/cut bark X w Burseraceae Protium sp. TVA 1038 skin burns bark X w Burseraceae Protium sp. TVA 1038 sores bark X w

257 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Burseraceae Protium sp. TVA 1038 wound/cut bark X w Cactaceae Epiphyllum phyllanthus back pain leaves X w (c) Cactaceae Epiphyllum phyllanthus cough/cold leaves X w (c) Cactaceae Epiphyllum phyllanthus laxative leaves X w (c) Cactaceae Epiphyllum phyllanthus whooping cough leaves X w (c) Cactaceae Opuntia cochinellifera spleen problems leaves X c Campanulaceae Centropogon cornutus bed wetting leaves X w Campanulaceae Centropogon cornutus sore eye exudate X X X w Campanulaceae Centropogon cornutus urinary tracts leaves X w Caricaceae Carica papaya diarrhoea bark X c Caricaceae Carica papaya diarrhoea leaves X c Caricaceae Carica papaya hypertension fruit X X X c Caricaceae Carica papaya venereal disease flower X c Caricaceae Caryocar microcarpum back pain bark X w (c) Cecropiaceae Cecropia obtusa back pain leaves X X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata abcess shoot X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata back pain leaves X X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata kidney problems leaves X X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata sickness (general) leaves X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia peltata wound/cut shoot X X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia sciadophylla abcess bark X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia sciadophylla heart problems leaves X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia sciadophylla kidney problems bark X X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia sciadophylla liver problems leaves X w Cecropiaceae Cecropia sciadophylla wound/cut bark X w Celastraceae Goupia glabra chickenpox bark X w Celastraceae Goupia glabra eczema bark X w

258 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Celastraceae Goupia glabra toothache bark X X w Celastraceae Maytenus cf. guyanensis skin burns bark X w Chrysobalanaceae Licania heteromorpha venereal diseases bark X w Chrysobalanaceae Parinari rodolphii snake bite bark X X w Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa biliousness whole plant X w Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa hair fall whole plant X w Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa kidney problems whole plant X w Commelinaceae Commelina diffusa malaria whole plant X w Commelinaceae Tripogandra serrulata biliousness whole plant X X X w Commelinaceae Tripogandra serrulata hair fall whole plant X w Commelinaceae Tripogandra serrulata kidney problems whole plant X w Commelinaceae Tripogandra serrulata clean womb & tubes whole plant X w Compositae Bidens cynapiifolia diabetes whole plant X w (c) Compositae Bidens cynapiifolia ground itch whole plant X w (c) Compositae Bidens cynapiifolia sore eye sap X w (c) Compositae Bidens cynapiifolia thrush whole plant X w (c) Compositae Clibadium surinamense snake bite leaves X c (w) Compositae Erechtites cf. hieracifolia sores leaves X w Compositae Hebeclinium macrophyllum asthma whole plant X w Compositae Hebeclinium macrophyllum bronchitis whole plant X w Compositae Hebeclinium macrophyllum cough/cold whole plant X w Compositae Hebeclinium macrophyllum pneumonia whole plant X w Compositae Hebeclinium macrophyllum tuberculosis whole plant X w Compositae Hebeclinium macrophyllum whooping cough whole plant X w Compositae Mikania micrantha eczema whole plant X w Compositae Mikania micrantha malaria whole plant X X X w

259 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Compositae Sphagneticola trilobata cough/cold whole plant X X w Compositae Struchium sparganophorum thrush whole plant X w Compositae Struchium sparganophorum thrush leaves X w Convolvulaceae Ipomoea batatas measles leaves X c Costaceae Costus arabicus cough/cold shoot X w Costaceae Costus arabicus cough/cold stem X w Costaceae Costus arabicus sores stem X w Costaceae Costus erythrothyrsus cough/cold shoot X w Costaceae Costus scaber cough/cold leaves X w Costaceae Costus scaber cough/cold shoot X w Costaceae Costus scaber cough/cold stem X X w Costaceae Costus scaber groin rupture flowers X w Costaceae Costus scaber groin rupture root X w Costaceae Costus scaber haemorrhids flowers X w Costaceae Costus scaber haemorrhids root X w Costaceae Costus scaber malaria whole plant X X w Costaceae Costus scaber pneumonia leaves X w Costaceae Costus scaber sore eye flowers X w Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum cough/cold leaves X X X c Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum sore eye leaves X X X c Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum sores leaves X X c Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum wound/cut leaves X c Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo scrotal hernia leaves X X c Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita moschata haemorrhage leaves X c Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia malaria leaves X X X c (w) Cyatheaceae Cyathea cyatheoides strained back stem X w Cyperaceae Cyperus articulatus stomach ache root X w

260 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Cyperaceae Cyperus digitatus sore eye root X w Cyperaceae Cyperus ligularis cough/cold stem X w Cyperaceae Cyperus ligularis earache stem X w Cyperaceae Cyperus ligularis sore eye stem X X w Cyperaceae Cyperus odoratus evil spirits root X c Cyperaceae Cyperus odoratus fever root X c Cyperaceae Cyperus odoratus stomach ache root X X c Cyperaceae Rhynchospora cephalotes pain whole plant X w Cyperaceae Rhynchospora cephalotes hair fall whole plant X w Dilleniaceae Davilla kunthii abortive sap X w Dilleniaceae Davilla kunthii aphrodisiac wood X X w Dilleniaceae Davilla kunthii desinf. navel bark X w Dilleniaceae Doliocarpus cf. dentatus abortive sap X w Dilleniaceae Doliocarpus cf. dentatus cough/cold sap X w Dilleniaceae Doliocarpus cf. dentatus desinf. navel leaves X w Dilleniaceae Doliocarpus cf. dentatus snake bite sap X w Dilleniaceae Doliocarpus sp. TVA 1914 aphrodisiac wood X w Dilleniaceae Pinzona coriacea aphrodisiac wood X X X w Dilleniaceae Pinzona coriacea desinf. navel leaves X w Dilleniaceae Pinzona coriacea diabetes whole plant X X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera asperula desinf. navel leaves X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera tigarea abortive sap X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera tigarea aphrodisiac wood X X X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera tigarea desinf. navel bark X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera tigarea desinf. navel leaves X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera volubilis aphrodisiac wood X X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera volubilis diabetes sap X w

261 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Dilleniaceae Tetracera volubilis snake bite sap X X w Dilleniaceae Tetracera volubilis sore eye sap X w Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea trichanthera aphrodisiac root X X X w Dryopteridaceae Cyclodium meniscioides var. meniscioides abcess root X w Dryopteridaceae Cyclodium meniscioides var. meniscioides whooping cough root X w Dryopteridaceae Polybotrya caudata abcess root X w Euphorbiaceae Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus evil spirits bark X w Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cotiniifolia var. kunapalua infected nail exudate X X c Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cotiniifolia var. kunapalua sores whole plant X c Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia neriifolia cough/cold leaves X X X c Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia neriifolia diabetes leaves X c Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia neriifolia fever leaves X c Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia neriifolia infected nail leaves X c Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas abscess leaves X X c (w) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas cough/cold leaves X c (w) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas heart problems leaves X c (w) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas pain leaves X c (w) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas sores leaves X c (w) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas toothache leaves X c (w) Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypifolia bruises leaves X c Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypifolia headache leaves X X c Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypifolia heart problems leaves X X c Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypifolia sores leaves X X c Euphorbiaceae Jatropha gossypifolia swelling leaves X X c Euphorbiaceae Mabea piriri sore eye exudate X X w Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta abcess root X X X c Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta evil spirits root X c

262 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta sores root X X X c Euphorbiaceae Maprounea guianensis itches leaves X w Euphorbiaceae Maprounea guianensis sores leaves X w Euphorbiaceae Microstachys corniculata headache whole plant X w Euphorbiaceae Microstachys corniculata heart problems whole plant X w Euphorbiaceae Microstachys corniculata sores whole plant X w Euphorbiaceae Microstachys corniculata thrush whole plant X w Euphorbiaceae Microstachys corniculata wound/cut whole plant X w Euphorbiaceae Pedilanthus tithymaloides warts exudate X c Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus brasiliensis munuri ant bite leaves X c Flacourtiaceae Casearia aff. acuminata ground itch bark X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata bete rouge sap X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata biliousness leaves X X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata cough/cold leaves X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata eczema sap X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata evil spirits leaves X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata fever leaves X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata ground itch leaves X X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata itches sap X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata laxative whole plant X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata malaria leaves X X w Gentianaceae Irlbachia alata subsp. alata sores leaves X X X w Gesneriaceae Codonanthe crassifolia improve eyesight leaves X w Gesneriaceae Codonanthe crassifolia sore eye leaves X w Gnetaceae Gnetum nodiflorum abortive nuts X w Gramineae Axonopus compressus heart problems whole plant X w Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris abcess shoot X c (w)

263 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris eases birth leaves X X c (w) Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris heart problems leaves X c (w) Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris malaria leaves X X c (w) Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris malaria shoot X c (w) Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris rheumatism stem X c (w) Gramineae Cymbogopon citratus contraceptive root X c Gramineae Cymbogopon citratus cough/cold leaves X X X c Gramineae Cymbogopon citratus fever leaves X X c Gramineae Cymbogopon citratus malaria leaves X X c Gramineae Cymbogopon citratus venereal disease leaves X X c Gramineae Eleusine indica contraceptive leaves X X w Gramineae Eleusine indica haemorrhage leaves X w Gramineae Eleusine indica hair fall leaves X w Gramineae Gynerium sagittatum snake bite stem X X w (c) Gramineae Panicum pilosum eases birth leaves X w Gramineae Saccharum officinale cough/cold sap X c Gramineae Saccharum officinale snake bite sap X c Guttiferae Clusia grandiflora back pain root X X w Guttiferae Clusia grandiflora botfly larvae exudate X w Guttiferae Clusia palmicida back pain root XXXX w Guttiferae Clusia palmicida botfly larvae exudate X w Guttiferae Clusia palmicida impotence root X X X w Guttiferae Clusia pana-panari back pain root X w Guttiferae Mammea americana fleas/lice seeds X c Guttiferae Mammea americana jiggers seeds X c Guttiferae Symphonia globulifera abcess exudate X X w Guttiferae Symphonia globulifera diarrhoea bark X w

264 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Guttiferae Symphonia globulifera sickness (general) bark X w Guttiferae Symphonia globulifera skin fungi seeds X w Guttiferae Symphonia globulifera thrush bark X X w Guttiferae Vismia guianensis ground itch exudate X X w Guttiferae Vismia guianensis skin fungi exudate X X w Guttiferae Vismia guianensis sores bark X X w Guttiferae Vismia guianensis warts exudate X w Guttiferae Vismia laxiflora eczema bark X w Guttiferae Vismia laxiflora itches bark X w Guttiferae Vismia laxiflora skin fungi exudate X X w Guttiferae Vismia laxiflora skin fungi bark X w Guttiferae Vismia macrophylla diarrhoea leaves X X w Guttiferae Vismia macrophylla skin fungi exudate X X w Guttiferae Vismia macrophylla skin fungi bark X w Haemodoraceae Xiphidium caeruleum swelling root X w Haemodoraceae Xiphidium caeruleum wound/cut root X w Humiriaceae Sacoglottis aff. cydonioides diarrhoea bark X w Icacinaceae Poraqueiba aff. guianensis itches bark X w Iridaceae Eleutherine bulbosa female infertility root X c Iridaceae Eleutherine bulbosa haemorrhage root X c Labiatae Coleus amboinicus cough/cold leaves X c Labiatae Hyptis pectinata lining cold whole plant X w (c) Labiatae Ocimum campechianum film on eye seeds X c Lauraceae Persea americana biliousness leaves X X X c Lauraceae Persea americana diarrhoea bark X c Lauraceae Persea americana diarrhoea leaves X c Lauraceae Persea americana heart problems leaves X X c

265 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Lauraceae Persea americana hypertension leaves X X c Lauraceae Persea americana malaria leaves X X X c Lauraceae Persea americana stomach ache leaves X c Lecytidaceae Lecythis corrugata diarrhoea bark X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia guianensis aphrodisiac wood X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia guianensis diarrhoea root X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia guianensis diarrhoea sap X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia guianensis pain wood X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia guianensis venereal disease stem X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia scala-simae diarrhoea root X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia scala-simae diarrhoea wood X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia scala-simae malaria wood X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Brownea latifolia cough/cold flowers X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Brownea latifolia haemorrhage bark X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Brownea latifolia haemorrhage flowers X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Brownea latifolia tuberculosis flowers X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Brownea latifolia whooping cough flowers X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Hymenaea courbaril aphrodisiac bark X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Hymenaea courbaril cough/cold bark X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Mora excelsa diarrhoea bark X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata bete rouge leaves X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata diarrhoea leaves X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata laxative flowers X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata laxative leaves X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata skin fungi leaves X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata sores leaves X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna alata worms flowers X w

266 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis cough/cold leaves X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis cough/cold whole plant X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis diarrhoea root X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis fever leaves X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis haemorrhage seeds X X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis haemorrhage leaves X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis headache leaves X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis kidney problems seeds X X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis lining cold whole plant X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis thrush leaves X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis clean womb & tubes seeds X X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna occidentalis worms seeds X X c (w) Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna reticulata fever leaves X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna reticulata laxative flowers X X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna reticulata laxative leaves X X w Leg. Caesalpiniaceae Senna reticulata pneumonia leaves X w Leg. Mimosaceae Inga alba female sterility bark X X w Leg. Mimosaceae Inga alba swelling bark X w Leg. Mimosaceae Inga lateriflora sores bark X X w Leg. Mimosaceae Inga lateriflora wound/cut bark X w Leg. Mimosaceae Macrosamanea pubiramea fractures bark X w Leg. Mimosaceae Macrosamanea pubiramea sprain bark X w Leg. Mimosaceae Mimosa polydactyla bruises leaves X X w Leg. Mimosaceae Mimosa polydactyla cough/cold leaves X w Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba chickenpox leaves X w Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba measles leaves X w Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba snake bite bark X X w

267 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba sores bark X X X w Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba sprain bark X w Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba toothache bark X X X w Leg. Mimosaceae Pentaclethra macroloba wound/cut bark XXXX w Leg. Mimosaceae Zygia cataractae sprain bark X w Leg. Mimosaceae Zygia latifolia pain bark X X w Leg. Mimosaceae Zygia latifolia sickness (babies) bark X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis dandruff exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis fleas/lice exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis ground itch bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis malaria bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis munuri ant bite bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis snake bite bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Alexa imperatricis sores bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Andira surinamensis mouth sores exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala abcess bark X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala itches exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala pain sap X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala pain bark X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala snake bite bark X X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala sores bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Clathrotropis brachypetala swelling bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium adscendens hair fall leaves X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum cramps (babies) whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum fever whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum haemorrhage whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum hair fall leaves X w

268 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum heart problems whole plant X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum impotence whole plant X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum menstruation whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum pain whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum prevent miscarriage whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium barbatum stomach ache whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium incanum haemorrhage whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Desmodium incanum wound/cut whole plant X w Leg. Papilionaceae Dioclea scabra diarrhoea exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Dioclea scabra mouth sores exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Dioclea scabra stomach ache exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Hymenolobium flavum sores bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Indigofera suffruticosa fever leaves X c Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus aff. martynii AIDS root X X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus aff. martynii cancer root X X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus aff. martynii sores root X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus AIDS root X X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus cancer root X X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus sores root X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus sp. TVA 1247 AIDS root X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus sp. TVA 1247 cancer root X w (c) Leg. Papilionaceae Lonchocarpus spruceanus headache root X w Leg. Papilionaceae Machaerium cf. floribundum diarrhoea exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Machaerium cf. floribundum haemorrhage exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Machaerium cf. floribundum thrush exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Machaerium sp.TVA 921 malaria wood X w Leg. Papilionaceae Mucuna cf. urens itches seeds X w

269 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Leg. Papilionaceae Pterocarpus officinalis diarrhoea exudate X w Leg. Papilionaceae Pterocarpus officinalis mouth sores exudate X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Pterocarpus officinalis thrush exudate X X w Leg. Papilionaceae Tephrosia toxicaria cancer root X c Leg. Papilionaceae Vatairea guianensis eczema seeds X w Leg. Papilionaceae Vatairea guianensis scabies bark X w Leg. Papilionaceae Vatairea guianensis scabies seeds X w Leg. Papilionaceae Vatairea guianensis sores seeds X w Liliaceae Aloe vera abcess leaves X c Liliaceae Aloe vera asthma leaves X X c Liliaceae Aloe vera cough/cold leaves X X c Liliaceae Aloe vera laxative leaves X c Liliaceae Aloe vera malaria leaves X c Liliaceae Aloe vera pneumonia leaves X X c Liliaceae Aloe vera sores leaves X c Loganiaceae Strychnos erichsonii aphrodisiac bark X X X w Loganiaceae Strychnos mitscherlichii aphrodisiac wood X X X w Loganiaceae Strychnos mitscherlichii aphrodisiac bark X w Lomariopsidaceae Lomariopsis japurensis abcess root X w Loranthaceae Phoradendron perrottetii malaria leaves X w Loranthaceae Phoradendron perrottetii sprain leaves X w Loranthaceae Phoradendron perrottetii thrush leaves X w Loranthaceae Phoradendron perrottetii venereal disease leaves X w Loranthaceae Phthirusa pyrifolia malaria leaves X w Loranthaceae Phthirusa pyrifolia sprain leaves X w Loranthaceae Phthirusa pyrifolia thrush leaves X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum abortive leaves X w

270 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum eases birth leaves X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum fever leaves X X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum headache leaves X X X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum heart problems root X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum skin burns leaves X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum skin fungi leaves X w Malpighiaceae Stigmaphyllon sinuatum swelling root X w Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus dandruff leaves X c Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus eases birth fruit X c Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus sore eye fruit X c Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus stingray puncture leaves X c Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense diarrhoea leaves X X c Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense laxative leaves X X c Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense thrush leaves X X c Malvaceae Hibiscus bifurcatus cough/cold leaves X w Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis abcess leaves X c Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis induce vomiting leaves X c Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis whooping cough flowers X c Malvaceae Malachra alceifolia sores leaves X c Malvaceae Sida rhombifolia kidney problems whole plant X w (c) Malvaceae Sida rhombifolia menstruation whole plant X w (c) Malvaceae Sida rhombifolia clean womb & tubes whole plant X w (c) Malvaceae Urena lobata lining cold whole plant X w (c) Marantaceae Calathea cyclophora cough/cold sap X w Marantaceae Calathea cyclophora skin burns leaves X w Marantaceae Calathea cyclophora sore eye sap X w Marantaceae Ischnosiphon foliosus warts leaves X w

271 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Marantaceae Ischnosiphon foliosus wound/cut leaves X w Marcgraviaceae Marcgravia coriacea sore eye sap X w Marcgraviaceae Norantea guianensis diarrhoea wood X w Marcgraviaceae Norantea guianensis stop vomiting wood X w Marcgraviaceae Souroubea guianensis venereal disease whole plant X w Melastomataceae Aciotis annua cough/cold whole plant X w Melastomataceae Aciotis purpurascens cough/cold whole plant X w Melastomataceae Clidemia japurensis sores leaves X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis cough/cold seedsXXXX w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis diarrhoea bark X X X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis groin rupture seeds X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis haemorrhids seeds X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis insect bites seedsXXXX w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis malaria seedsXXXX w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis malaria bark X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis skin burns bark X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis sores bark X X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis sores seedsXXXX w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis stomach ache bark X X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis thrush seedsXXXX w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis whooping cough seedsXXXX w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis wound/cut bark X X w Meliaceae Carapa guianensis wound/cut seeds XXXX w Meliaceae Cedrela cf. odorata sores bark X w Meliaceae Guarea guidonia induce vomiting bark X w Meliaceae Guarea pubescens biliousness root X w Meliaceae Guarea pubescens induce vomiting root X w

272 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Menispermaceae Curarea candicans aphrodisiac wood X X w Menispermaceae Curarea candicans malaria wood X X w Menispermaceae Curarea candicans sores wood X w Menispermaceae Telitoxicum sp. TVA 1265 diabetes wood X w Menispermaceae Telitoxicum sp. TVA 1265 fever wood X w Menispermaceae Telitoxicum sp. TVA 1265 malaria wood X w Monimiaceae Siparuna guianensis munuri ant bite barkXXXX w Monimiaceae Siparuna guianensis sickness (babies) bark X w Monimiaceae Siparuna guianensis wound/cut leaves X w Moraceae Artocarpus altilis abcess exudate X c Moraceae Artocarpus altilis bruises exudate X c Moraceae Artocarpus altilis sprain exudate X c Moraceae Artocarpus altilis urinary tracts leaves X c Moraceae Ficus amazonica abcess exudate X w Moraceae Ficus amazonica pain exudate X w Moraceae Ficus amazonica swelling exudate X w Moraceae Ficus caballina sprain exudate X w Moraceae Ficus caballina wound/cut exudate X w Moraceae Ficus nymphaeifolia fractures exudate X w Moraceae Ficus nymphaeifolia sprain exudate X w Moraceae Ficus paraensis sprain exudate X w Moraceae Ficus paraensis wound/cut exudate X w Moraceae Ficus vs. roraimensis fractures exudate X w Moraceae Ficus vs. roraimensis sprain exudate X w Moraceae Ficus sp. TVA 892 sprain exudate X w Musaceae Musa paradisiaca fits (epilepsy) fruit X c Musaceae Musa sp. TVA 1720 wound/cut shoot X c

273 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Musaceae Musa sp. TVA 1854 haemorrhage sap X c Musaceae Musa sp. TVA 1854 lining cold sap X c Musaceae Musa sp. TVA 1854 strained back sap X c Myristicaceae Iryanthera juruensis mouth sores exudate X w Myristicaceae Iryanthera juruensis thrush exudate X w Myristicaceae Iryanthera juruensis wound/cut exudate X w Myristicaceae Virola calophylla mouth sores exudate X w Myristicaceae Virola calophylla thrush exudate X w Myristicaceae Virola cf. elongata mouth sores exudate X X w Myristicaceae Virola cf. elongata thrush exudate X X w Myristicaceae Virola sebifera mouth sores exudate X w Myristicaceae Virola surinamensis mouth sores exudate X w Myristicaceae Virola surinamensis thrush exudate X w Myristicaceae Virola surinamensis toothache exudate X w Myrtaceae Calycolpus goetheanus hypertension leaves X w Myrtaceae Psidium guajava diarrhoea bark X X c Myrtaceae Psidium guajava diarrhoea leaves X X X c Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini diabetes seeds X c (w) Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini diarrhoea bark X X c (w) Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini diarrhoea fruit X c (w) Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini diarrhoea leaves X c (w) Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini stop vomiting bark X X c (w) Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini teeth whitening branch X c (w) Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea ampla warts leaves X w Ochnaceae Sauvagesia erecta cough/cold whole plant X w Oleandraceae Nephrolepis biserrata wound/cut leaves X w Oxalidaceae Averrhoa carambola cracks in feet fruit X c

274 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Palmae Astrocaryum gynacanthum desinf. navel leaves X X w Palmae Astrocaryum gynacanthum thrush leaves X X w Palmae Cocos nucifera haemorrhage root X c Palmae Cocos nucifera hypertension fruit X c Palmae Cocos nucifera skin oil seeds X X X c Palmae Euterpe oleracea haemorrhage sap X w Palmae Euterpe oleracea scorpion bite sap X w Palmae Euterpe oleracea wound/cut sap X X w Palmae Manicaria saccifera diarrhoea fruit X w Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida cough/cold whole plant X X w (c) Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida tuberculosis whole plant X w (c) Passifloraceae Passiflora foetida worms whole plant X X X w (c) Passifloraceae Passiflora nitida bowel disorders leaves X w (c) Phytolaccaceae Microtea debilis cough/cold leaves X w (c) Phytolaccaceae Microtea debilis fever leaves X X w (c) Phytolaccaceae Microtea debilis thrush leaves X X w (c) Phytolaccaceae Petiveria alliacea fever leaves X c Piperaceae Piper avellanum cramps leaves X w Piperaceae Piper avellanum snake bite leaves X X w Piperaceae Piper avellanum stomach ache leaves X w Piperaceae Piper vs. berbicence snake bite leaves X w Piperaceae Piper cf. glabrescens snake bite leaves X w Piperaceae Piper cf. hostmannianum scorpion bite leaves X w Piperaceae Piper cf. hostmannianum snake bite leaves X w Piperaceae Piper nigrispicum snake bite leaves X w Piperaceae Piper sp. TVA 2666 scorpion bite leaves X w Piperaceae Piper sp. TVA 2666 snake bite leaves X w

275 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Piperaceae Piper sp. TVA 2666 stomach ache leaves X w Piperaceae Pothomorphe peltata abcess leaves X w Piperaceae Pothomorphe peltata cough/cold leaves X w Piperaceae Pothomorphe peltata haemorrhage leaves X w Piperaceae Pothomorphe peltata headache leaves X X X w Piperaceae Pothomorphe peltata swelling leaves X X w Piperaceae Pothomorphe peltata clean womb & tubes leaves X X w Polygonaceae Coccoloba marginata diarrhoea bark X X w Polypodiaceae Polypodium adnatum whooping cough buds X w Pterophytae Pterophytae TVA 1774 whooping cough stem X X w Rapataceae Rapatea paludosa var. paludosa+B670 hair fall exudate X w Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mangle diarrhoea root X w Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora mangle diarrhoea bark X w Rubiaceae Coffea liberica headache leaves X c Rubiaceae Coffea liberica sore eye leaves X c Rubiaceae Geophila repens skin fungi fruit X w Rubiaceae Psychotria poeppigiana var. barcellana cough/cold flowers X X w Rubiaceae Psychotria poeppigiana var. barcellana cough/cold leaves X X w Rubiaceae Sabicea glabrescens female sterility whole plant X w Rubiaceae Sabicea glabrescens haemorrhage whole plant X w Rubiaceae Uncaria guianensis cough/cold leaves X w Rubiaceae Uncaria guianensis tuberculosis leaves X w Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia dandruff fruit X c Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia ground itch fruit X c Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia haemorrhage root X c Rutaceae Citrus aurantifolia venereal disease root X c Rutaceae Citrus aurantium biliousness fruit X c

276 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Rutaceae Citrus medica cough/cold fruit X X X c Rutaceae Citrus medica malaria fruit X c Rutaceae Citrus reticulata splinter thorns X c Sapindaceae Paullinia capreolata desinf. navel leaves X w Sapindaceae Paullinia capreolata sores bark X w Sapindaceae Paullinia capreolata sores leaves X w Sapindaceae Paullinia capreolata wound/cut bark X w Sapindaceae Paullinia capreolata wound/cut leaves X w Sapindaceae Serjania paucidentata thrush leaves X w Sapotaceae Manilkara zapota diarrhoea fruit X c Sapotaceae Pradosia schomburgkiana cough/cold bark X w Sapotaceae Pradosia schomburgkiana tuberculosis bark X X w Schizaeaceae Lygodium volubile back pain leaves X w Schizaeaceae Lygodium volubile thrush leaves X X w Scrophulariaceae Capraria biflora gal stones leaves X c Scrophulariaceae Mourandia cf. erubescens arthritis root X c Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis biliousness whole plant X X w Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis cough/cold whole plant X w Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis laxative whole plant X w Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis malaria whole plant X X X w Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis sores whole plant X X X w Scrophulariaceae Scoparia dulcis venereal disease whole plant X X w Simaroubaceae Quassia amara biliousness wood X c Simaroubaceae Quassia amara fever leaves X X c Simaroubaceae Quassia amara malaria seeds X c Simaroubaceae Quassia amara malaria wood X X c Simaroubaceae Quassia amara sores wood X c

277 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Smilacaceae Smilax schomburgkiana aphrodisiac root X X X w Smilacaceae Smilax schomburgkiana back pain root X X X w Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens cough/cold fruit X X c Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum botfly larvae leaves X c Solanaceae Physalis angulata skin diseases whole plant X w (c) Solanaceae Physalis pubescens ground itch whole plant X w (c) Solanaceae Physalis pubescens kidney problems whole plant X w (c) Solanaceae Physalis pubescens swelling leaves X w (c) Solanaceae Physalis pubescens worms whole plant X w (c) Solanaceae Solanum leucocarpon sores leaves X X w Solanaceae Solanum stramoniifolium fever root X X X w Solanaceae Solanum stramoniifolium malaria root X X X w Solanaceae Solanum stramoniifolium malaria leaves X w Solanaceae Solanum stramoniifolium stomach ache leaves X w Solanaceae Solanum stramoniifolium venereal disease root X X w Solanaceae Solanum subinerme pain leaves X w Solanaceae Solanum subinerme fever whole plant X w Solanaceae Solanum subinerme malaria whole plant X w Sterculiaceae Waltheria indica cough/cold leaves X X w (c) Sterculiaceae Waltheria indica hypertension leaves X w (c) Sterculiaceae Waltheria indica thrush leaves X w (c) Tectariaceae Tectaria incisa f. vivipara female infertility leaves X w Tiliaceae Apeiba petoumo snake bite bark X w Tiliaceae Triumfetta altheoides haemorrhage leaves X w Turneraceae Turnera ulmifolia hair fall leaves X c (w) Turneraceae Turnera ulmifolia thrush leaves X c (w) Ulmaceae Trema micrantha sore eye sap X w

278 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Umbelliferae Eryngium foetidum cough/cold leaves X w (c) Umbelliferae Eryngium foetidum fits (epilepsy) leaves X w (c) Umbelliferae Eryngium foetidum haemorrhage whole plant X w (c) Umbelliferae Eryngium foetidum headache leaves X w (c) Urticaceae Laportea aestuans bed wetting leaves X w (c) Urticaceae Laportea aestuans haemorrhage leaves X w (c) Verbenaceae Lantana camara cough/cold leaves X X w (c) Verbenaceae Lantana camara haemorrhage leaves X w (c) Verbenaceae Lantana camara sores leaves X w (c) Verbenaceae Lippia micromera cough/cold leaves X c (w) Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta cayennensis diabetes leaves X w (c) Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta cayennensis hypertension whole plant X X w (c) Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta cayennensis malaria leaves X w (c) Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta jamaicensis hypertension leaves X w (c) Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta jamaicensis skin burns leaves X w (c) Vitaceae Cissus verticillata sores leaves X w (c) Vitaceae Cissus verticillata swelling leaves X w (c) Vochysiaceae Vochysia cf. guianensis toothache bark X w Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta cough/cold seeds X X c Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta fits (epilepsy) seeds X c Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta pain seeds X X c Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta sore throat seeds X c Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta stomach ache seeds X c Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta wind seeds X c Zingiberaceae Curcuma xanthorrhiza pain root X c Zingiberaceae Curcuma xanthorrhiza sprain root X c Zingiberaceae Renealmia alpinia hypertension leaves X w

279 8.7 Appendix

Family Species Illness Plant part Ar Ca W GT wild/cult. Zingiberaceae Renealmia alpinia snake bite shoot X w Zingiberaceae Renealmia alpinia stomach ache shoot X w Zingiberaceae Renealmia alpinia strained back root X X w Zingiberaceae Renealmia orinocensis stomach ache shoot X w Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale haemorrhage root X c Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale malaria root X c

280 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1 HECTARE PLOTS VS. ‘WALK IN THE WOODS METHOD’

A total of 587 useful plant species was recorded from northwest Guyana during this study. Some 61% of these species (357 species) were found in the seven hectare plots. Of the 230 NTFP species that were found outside these plots, the majority (44%) was encountered in secondary shrubland, pastures, and abandoned fields (Table 9.1). Many of them also occurred as ‘weeds’ in cultivated fields and gardens. The ‘remaining’ NTFPs found in mixed and secondary forests were often quite rare (e.g., Manilkara bidentata, Disteganthus lateralis), while those from Mora forest were mostly found directly along the riverbank (e.g., Inga nobilis, Cydista aequinoctialis). A total of 11 species were only found in cultivated state (e.g., Annona montana, Inga pilosula, Buchenavia grandis), although they were explicitly referred to as wild species in literature (Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana, 1995- 1999; Boggan et al., 1997; Pennington, 1997). Their status as NTFPs in Guyana is thus open to discussion. Finally, some additional NTFPs were encountered in vegetation types that were not included in the hectare plots, such as flooded savanna, mangrove forest, and white sand shrubland.

Table 9.1 Provenance of the NTFP species found outside the hectare plots.

Vegetation type No. of species found (%)

Secondary shrubland 102 (44%) Riverbank Mora forest 30 (13%) Mixed primary forest 30 (13%) Flooded savanna 18 (8%) Secondary forest (> 20 years old) 12 (5%) Only found cultivated 11 (5%) Manicole swamp 11 (5%) White sand shrubland 7 (3%) Quackal swamp 5 (2%) Mangrove forest 4 (2%)

Total 230 (100%)

The majority (134 spp.) of the plants found outside the study plots were used for medicinal purposes. These included many herbs and shrubs growing in pastures and roadsides, such as Stachytarpheta cayennensis and Eleusine indica. Some 60 species of the remaining NTFPs were used for food, some of which were rare but highly esteemed primary forest trees (Anacardium giganteum, Caryocar nuciferum), while others were common berries in secondary shrubland (Solanum stramoniifolium,

281 9. Discussion and conclusions

Miconia spp.). In the miscellaneous category (55 spp.), magic and fish bait plants were often found outside the plots. Magic plants or ‘binas’ are sporadically found in the wild and mostly confined to house yards, while species used for fish bait often occur in overhanging riverbank and creek vegetation. The remaining species used for construction (19 spp.) were mostly rare primary forest trees. If we compare the use categories of the plants found outside and inside the plots, we see that construction material is an important commodity harvested from the forest plots (34- 56% of the species, Table 4.1), while little of these NTFPs are found in secondary shrubland or savannas. The same accounts for firewood. Food and medicine are important categories in the forest plots (23-33% resp. 31-39%), but these species are obviously not confined to these vegetation types.

We may conclude from these results that the seven hectare plots surveyed in the North-West District only yielded a narrow majority of the available NTFP species in the region. The species-area curves presented in the chapters 2 and 3 (Figures 2.4 and 3.2) already suggested that enlarging the sample area (within a certain forest type) would bring about more species. This was in particular the case in the better- drained forest types, and indeed, the search for useful plants outside the hectare plots yielded several ‘new’ NTFPs.

Although two plots of succession forest were sampled (20- and 60-year-old secondary forest), a large number of useful secondary species seemed to occur only in earlier stages of forest regeneration. Establishing hectare plots in young secondary forest is quite complicated, because of its patchy structure, the uncertainty of its age, and the habit of ‘cleaning up’ secondary shrubland by villagers.

Hectare plots force the researcher to examine (nearly) every single species in an enclosed space, while the ‘walk in the woods method’ offers the opportunity to find species that have a limited distribution or just grow outside the sampling area. Inconspicuous species, however, are often overlooked by this technique. The combination of two methods proved to be successful in obtaining the most complete overview of useful plants in the study area. Although it seems likely that the great majority of NTFPs from the North-West District is covered in this thesis, it is by no means totally exhaustive. Further research in less accessible areas of the North-West District, such as the upper tributaries of the Barama, Barima, Waini, and Aruka Rivers, which have a high potential of endemic richness (ter Steege, 2000), might yield thus far unrecorded species and uses.

With regard to the size of the one-hectare plots, the 10 x 1000 m plots used in this study showed to be less suitable to assess the distribution of NTFPs within a certain forest type. Particularly in the secondary forests, the elongated hectare strips included a range of microhabitats, so smaller plots had to be laid out next to each other to cover a more homogeneous area. To be sure that a plot covers a uniform forest type instead of forming a belt transect, rectangles of 20 x 500, 50 x 200 or even square plots may be more functional (Martin, 1995). However, sample areas with square dimensions are less easy to survey, require more time in the field, and there is a larger effect of ‘roads’ in the plots.

282 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

9.2 SECONDARY FOREST AND ENRICHMENT PLANTING

Results of this study point out that secondary forest, both of natural (gaps) and man- made origin, is an important vegetation type for NTFP extraction. Succession forest harbours a wide variety of useful plant species, it is found close to the settlements (which implies low transport costs), and its floristic composition is generally well known (due to its proximity). This is especially the case in the more densely populated areas like Santa Rosa, where the primary forest may be too far away for many NTFP collectors (in particular women and children). Although the area of secondary forest is rapidly extending in the tropics and many products are collected from this vegetation, this does not mean that the role of primary forests in NTFP extraction is minimal (de Beer and McDermott, 1996; van Rijsoort, 1999). Certain useful plants and animals may be more abundant in succession forest (Elliot and Brimacombe, 1986; Grenand, 1992; van Dijk and Wiersum, 1999), but many valuable species are refined to primary forest (Whitmore, 1980; Jessup and Peluso, 1985). This is also the case in Guyana, where most commercial NTFP extraction takes place in primary forest (including climax swamp forests), such as palm heart, troolie, nibi and kufa, mangrove, dhalebana, canoes, and a variety of animal species. When primary forest is found much at closer distance to the village, like in the more remote Amerindian communities (e.g., Kariako, Assakata), it is also more frequently visited by NTFP collectors of different age and gender groups.

Enrichment planting is frequently suggested to increase the production of NTFPs and relieve the pressure from natural forests (Anderson, 1990; Richards, 1993; Dubois, 1996; van Valkenburg, 1997; Wiersum, 1999). In forests where the majority of NTFPs has a low density (< 5 individuals per ha), it is often seen as the only possibility to harvest NTFPs on a commercial scale (Browder, 1992; Boot, 1997; van Dijk, 1999). During the present research, it was frequently observed that people stimulated the growth of valued wild species by planting their roots or cuttings in their yard, sparing them when weeding or cutting the surrounding vegetation, or actively sowing their seeds. Examples are the propagation of rare fish poison plants (Lonchocarpus spp.), the protection of medicinal herbs in house yards (Stachytarpheta spp.), and the planting of valuable forest fruit trees (Caryocar nuciferum, Annona montana). The Santa Rosa Arawaks were clearly more involved in the domestication of NTFPs than the Barama Caribs, which may be explained by the relative high population density and scarcity of primary forest in the Moruca area. Evidently, enrichment planting is only an option if the plants are scarce in natural forest, if they are frequently needed, easily propagated, and their product value is high enough to make these investments worthwhile (Sheldon et al., 1997).

9.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF NTFPS FOR LOCAL INDIGENOUS TRIBES

One of the main conclusions of this research is that the Amerindian communities in the North-West District rely heavily on their surrounding forest for subsistence. This is illustrated by the enormous amount of useful plants found during this study and

283 9. Discussion and conclusions the remarkably high use percentages in the forest plots: 90 to 99% of the individuals in the tree layer were considered useful (Table 4.1). Although the well-drained forest harboured more useful species per hectare, swamp forests were also regularly visited to gather forest products. The nested sampling method has shown that 35 to 65% of the species in the undergrowth of the hectare plots were utilised. These percentages and the numerous NTFPs found in secondary shrubland (Table 9.1) demonstrate the importance of smaller growth forms in the ethnobotany of local indigenous groups. Although many NTFPs are used only occasionally, they may serve as an emergency buffer during times of famine and seasonal or economic scarcity. The total harvest on a yearly basis may be small, but subsistence NTFPs often play a vital role in helping people through lean times (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). According to Falconer and Arnold (1989), fruits and seeds consumed between meals might be one of the most significant dietary contributions of wild plants, especially for children. This is certainly true for northwest Guyana, where children were often seen searching for small berries in the secondary forest (chapter 4). The surveys of Sullivan (1999) in Assakata, Sebai, and Karaburi, showed that 43 to 62% of the labour time of the households was spent on collecting and processing NTFPs, including hunting and fishing.

The variation in NTFP use between the Caribs, Arawaks and Warao was caused by several factors: local floristic diversity, socio-economic conditions, and cultural differences. We have seen in the chapters 4 and 8 that (among others) the greater variety in habitats in the Moruca area resulted in a higher number of plant species used by the Arawaks than by the Barama Caribs. Another explanation for this outcome is that Arawaks have a longer history of contact with outsiders, which has led to the exchange of ethnobotanical knowledge (chapter 8). The deeper in the interior, the less available and the more expensive commodity items and medicines become. It was obvious that on average, the Barama Caribs depended more on the forest for their primary needs than the residents of Santa Rosa. The Moruca district hospital also reduced the need for certain herbal medicines. For instance, plants used during childbirth or to set broken limbs were only used far from the hospital. For quite a number of diseases, however, Moruca people still preferred to search for traditional cures (chapter 8). Moreover, for the poorer section of the Moruca population (which was still the great majority), NTFP harvesting was still a part of every day life, as synthetically manufactured goods were largely beyond their means. With regard to the cultural differences, it seems that several of the ancient tribal specialities in NTFP use and craft making as reported by Im Thurn (1883) and Roth (1924) still exist today. The Caribs remain the best potters, the Warao continue to build good canoes, and the Arawak tibisiri hammocks have become a popular tourist craft. But then again, the craftspeople in the larger Amerindian towns mostly belong to the less fortunate classes (Jara and Reinders, 1997).

The tendency towards substitution with cultivated or synthetic alternatives under better socio-economic conditions is often mentioned as a potential pitfall of NTFP harvesting (FAO, 1989; Richards, 1993; van Valkenburg, 1999; Ros-Tonen, 1999). An increased degree of exposure to the market is thought to lead to foraging specialisation, resulting in the extraction of fewer (types of) NTFPs and less time spent in forest-related activities (Godoy et al., 1998; Overman and Demmer, 1999). It was also suggested in this study that the greater access to the market and the loss

284 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I of traditional culture in coastal Amerindian villages would reduce the need for NTFPs (chapter 1). Wealthier households in Santa Rosa did not depend (anymore) on NTFPs for their income and subsistence, but the poorer ones still did. Consistent with what Pearce (1989) and de Beer and McDermott (1996) found in South East Asia, it seems that even when commercial alternatives are available, rural people continue to use foods and material from the forest. In most cases, and certainly in Guyana, NTFPs are free and easily available, which is of great relevance to people who lack the cash for purchases. Furthermore, NTFPs are more familiar and culturally more attractive to local peoples than industrial substitutes (Slikkerveer and Slikkerveer, 1995; de Beer and McDermott, 1996). This phenomenon was illustrated by the steady demand of herbal medicine in Georgetown, even though the city counted several modern pharmacies and hospitals (chapter 8).

The easier connection with the coastal market did enhance the possibilities for the marketing NTFPs in the North-West District, but the influx of luxury goods did not reduce the need to harvest NTFPs, as was assumed in the introduction of this thesis. Forte (1988) already noted that in spite of their constant exposure to the ‘modern’ coast and their incorporation in the money economy, the coastal way of living has not completely replaced Amerindian traditions in Santa Rosa. A web of indigenous customs and beliefs still survives among Guyanese Arawaks, which was demonstrated by the varied use of NTFPs in the region. It seems that in Guyana, higher standards of living do not reduce the need for NTFPs, but rather cause a shift in the demand for certain products. For example, nibi and kufa furniture is hardly used in traditional indigenous villages, but it is gaining popularity in coastal Amerindian towns. Canned palm heart was recently launched on the Guyanese market, troolie roofs for holiday facilities are becoming trendy along the coast, and an increasing number of restaurants in the capital offer wild meat on their menu (chapter 6). The development of a tourist industry in Guyana would only further increase the demand for NTFPs (e.g., crafts, furniture, wild fruit juices, wild meat, and rustic cottages).

Integration into the market through the sale of NTFPs also seems to have a positive influence on the retention of indigenous knowledge (Godoy et al., 1998). During their research in two Honduran indigenous villages with different degrees of exposure to the market, they found that integration into the market through the sale of agricultural crops and labour was associated with the loss of knowledge on wild plants and animals. However, people who were specialised in the commercialisation of NTFPs seemed to have a wider ethnobotanical knowledge. Spending more time harvesting these goods in the forest than villagers not involved in NTFP extraction expanded their understanding of the forest environment. This phenomenon was also noticeable in the North-West District. People in Santa Rosa that were not involved in palm heart extraction did not know the difference between the single-stemmed winamoro (Euterpe precatoria) and the multi-stemmed manicole (E. oleracea), while cabbage cutters in Assakata distinguished two genetic types winamoro and three types of manicole (chapter 5).

285 9. Discussion and conclusions

9.4 THE FUTURE OF COMMERCIAL NTFP HARVESTING IN GUYANA

The annual world trade in NTFP was estimated at several billion US dollars, including nearly three billion in rattan products from Southeast Asia (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). With just US$ 4 million in export revenues per year, Guyana is just a very small actor in this play. But taking into account its modest population size, the export of NTFP per capita is much higher in Guyana than in most other exporting countries (chapter 6). In general, the relatively species-poor mixed forests of the Guiana Shield offer better opportunities for the sustainable harvesting of NTFPs than those of the middle and eastern Amazon Basin, which are characterised by an extremely high diversity and a low density of conspecific species (Johnston, 1998). Guyana’s large forest resources, its wide array of useful plant and animal products, and its relatively low deforestation rate, further enhance the possibilities for the development of commercial NTFP harvesting. Within Guyana, the oligarchic forests of the North-West District (chapter 4) seem to offer much better possibilities for sustainable single-species harvesting than the more species-rich mixed forests. In the coastal wetlands, where the potential for logging, mining, and agriculture is minimal, commercial NTFP extraction even appears to be the most viable form of land use.

The main obstacles for the marketing of NTFPs are the poor infrastructure (resulting in high transport costs), the low prices paid for the raw material, and the lack of information on market opportunities and sustainable management systems. These limitations seem to be typical to the extractive industry in the Amazon Basin (Richards, 1993). Products that have already shown to be economically viable offer the best chances of success (Clay, 1992), so policy makers and researchers should focus on the trade in palm heart, wildlife, nibi, kufa, troolie, tibisiri, and mangrove bark. All presently marketed NTFPs seem to have a potential for commercial extraction, and apart from certain species of wildlife, increasing demands have not yet led to a severe degradation of resources. Further research is needed on growth rates, population sizes, environmental impacts of extraction, and optimum harvest levels for these NTFPs, as well as the development of community management systems. Although this sounds like a huge investment in time and money, management systems for NTFPs are generally much easier in their application than those for timber products. In contrast to most timber species, NTFPs generally have shorter harvest cycles, many providing products annually over long periods (Peters and Hammond, 1990).

Since the diversification of the market reduces the risk of commercial failure, marketing efforts should also pay attention to ‘new’ NTFPs, which may now only be harvested for subsistence, but have a potential for commercial extraction (chapter 6). The establishment of small-scale processing units near productive forests could solve the problem of high transport costs and the spoiling of perishable products. A working example of such an industry is the palm heart processing plant, located in the centre of the coastal manicole swamps. The collection of fresh palm hearts by the factory boats strongly reduces the transport costs for the individual harvester and

286 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I thereby enables remote communities to participate in the marketing of NTFPs as well.

To be able to cope with unstable demands, variation in product quality, and fluctuating prices, marketing strategies should not focus merely on the export market to Europe and the USA, but also include the domestic and regional economy (the Guianas, Brazil, and the Caribbean). Products and market development, training, and investment in this sector may take several years to produce results on a scale comparable to logging, but the reward will be equal (Sizer, 1996). Producers should definitely consider to obtain a certification of environmental sustainability for their products, to improve their chances on the growing ‘green market’ in Europe and the United States (Clay, 1992; Richards, 1993).

A key factor in the development of a successful NTFP trade is the improvement of the institutional and legal base for the management of NTFPs. The Guyana Forestry Commission, the Wildlife Services Division, and the Environmental Protection Agency should be more involved in the monitoring of harvested volumes, land use planning, price regulation and control of illegal trade. Further aspects that require attention are the absence of storage facilities for harvested products, the low level of organisation among extractors, and the lack of information about prices and marketing opportunities among local extractors. Hoffman (1997) calculated that the value of a bundle of nibi roots increased more than 35 times in moving from an indigenous harvester to becoming a component of export-quality furniture. Harvesters could get a larger share of the profits by forming an organisation that sells directly to the Georgetown furniture shops, evading the chains of middlemen. Training programs are needed for designing village-based management plans for NTFP extraction and developing community administration skills (chapter 5). These programs should make an effort to include women, since they are important actors in the harvesting and processing of NTFPs (van Andel and Reinders, 1999; Sullivan, 1999). Finally, one should keep in mind that the development of the NTFP trade offers no guarantee that rural people receive benefits (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). Moreover, in the more remote communities in the forested interior, commercial trade in NTFPs only plays a minor role in the livelihood strategies.

9.5 NTFP EXTRACTION AS A POTENTIAL FOR FOREST CONSERVATION

9.5.1 Can NTFP extraction prevent forest destruction? Another conclusion of this study is that extractivism can only act as a potential saviour of the rain forests if it is able to prevent or reduce deforestation. There are strong indications that this process has already taken place and is still going on in the North-West District. Before the canning company started processing palm hearts, logging was the primary economic activity of the indigenous communities in the coastal swamplands. Large Virola logs were rolled out of the manicole swamps by manpower to be sold to the Surinamese Company Bruijnzeel for plywood production. From the upper Barima, Mora excelsa, Goupia glabra, and other valuable timbers were floated down in rafts to the Aruka sawmill (Forte, 1995). The

287 9. Discussion and conclusions introduction of palm heart harvesting has put an end to this practise. However, in the more remote areas, commercial logging was replaced by a much more profitable land use than commercial NTFP extraction: mining. Until a few decades ago, local Amerindians used to float crabwood logs (Carapa guianensis) down the Barama to a sawmill along the Waini. At the beginning of the 20th century, almost all crabwood in the riverine forest along this river had been felled for timber (Anderson, 1912). Nowadays, gold has become the major source of income in this region, and it seems obvious that few NTFPs have such a high unit values that they can compete with this resource.

Apart from the use of cyanide to extract gold and the total removal of forest cover in the gold pits, land and river dredges also seem to have drastic environmental consequences, as was indicated by the decline in fish stocks in the Barama River (van Andel and Reinders, 1999; Reinders, in prep.). The impact of mining and logging on the availability of NTFPs was not quantitatively measured during this study. The secondary forest sampled was caused by slash-and-burn agriculture instead of by commercial logging, although wood from the forest farms may have been commercialised. No hectare plots were established in logged-over forest or abandoned mining sites. Logging and mining operations are known to scare away wildlife and increase the hunting and fishing pressure, caused both by their labourers and by local Amerindians (Sullivan, 1999; ter Steege, 2000). An example was provided by the community of Sebai, which found a steady market for its bush meat and fish in Port Kaituma, the centre of the logging activities of Barama Company Ltd. The majority of the Sebai villagers thought that the numbers of animals in the region had declined over the past 10 years (Sullivan, 1999).

Direct competition between logging and NTFP collection was reported from the Pomeroon River, where host trees for furniture fibres were regularly felled for timber (chapter 6). Not only has most primary forest outside the Amerindian Reserves been designated as timber concession, logs are also felled in Amerindian reserves and sold to sawmills (Forte, 1995). Companies sometimes offer extractors to harvest all suitable nibi and kufa roots before they start logging, but the host trees can be worth more in aerial roots over a few years than they are once by timber. In addition, the timber species themselves often produce valuable NTFPs (e.g., Carapa guianensis, Aspidosperma spp., and Catostemma commune). The harvesting of epiphyte roots has a great potential for forest conservation, since standing forest is essential to provide the particular product. This aspect was also brought forward by Gentry (1992) with regard to Heteropsis crafts around Iquitos, and by Whitehead and Godoy (1991), who stated that the rattan-like furniture in Brazil was one of the few highly promising NTFPs in the Neotropics. Unfortunately, the prices paid for nibi and kufa roots in Guyana are often too low to convince the harvester to spare the host tree from felling and selling its timber. Further research on nibi and kufa harvesting should include the possibilities to combine timber and aerial root extraction in logging concessions.

Changing settlement patterns in northwest Guyana have resulted in larger Amerindian towns (e.g., Santa Rosa, Mabaruma). These population concentrations were stimulated by the government to allow easy access to education, church, and health facilities. However, they have increased the local demand for agricultural soil

288 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I and for wild meat, fish, craft materials, and other frequently used NTFPs (Forte, 1988; van Andel and Reinders, 1999). Common Amerindian management practises, such as the burning of swamp forests, are getting out of hand. We have seen in the chapters 3 and 4 that the fibre extraction from Mauritia flexuosa is not capable of preserving its natural habitat. On the contrary, the original quackal swamp is destroyed in order to facilitate the harvest of the desired product. Although this practise might enhance the germination of palm seedlings at first, it becomes fatal after a few years when juvenile palms are killed by the annual fires.

9.5.2 NTFP harvesting in high-diversity forests There is a need to create economic activity at the edge of rainforests to provide incentives for sustainable resource management (Sheldon et al., 1997). It was often stressed that harvesting plants in the increasingly prevalent secondary forest could help deflect some of the development pressure from primary forest (Gentry, 1992; van Dijk, 1999; Wiersum, 1999). Some authors even state that non-timber forestry should not be initiated in forests of exceptionally high diversity, as the chances for sustainable extraction are minimal (Pendelton, 1992). Others have the opinion that harvesting NTFPs from species-poor (swamp or secondary) forests does not help to conserve the species-richness of tropical forests (Boot, 1997). Without the added financial value of NTFPs, there would be even less motivation for the protection of primary forest (Richards, 1993; LaFrankie, 1994; de Beer and McDermott, 1996).

The mixed primary forests of this research ranked among the most diverse plots studied in Guyana so far (chapter 2), which should have its influence in the planning of protected areas in Guyana. Since several of the sampled forest types were threatened, either immediately by local timber harvesting and shifting cultivation (Moruca), or by (future) commercial logging and mining (Barama), there is an urgent need for protection measurements and sustainable management plans. The (relatively) diverse mixed forests have shown to harbour a wide array of useful plant products (chapter 4), but since product value for vegetable NTFPs in Guyana is generally low, the only viable option for these forests would be multiple-species extraction (Clay, 1992; Richards, 1993; La Rotta, 1992; Johnston, 1998). If the harvest of a large number of products is combined simultaneously under a scheme of ‘high diversity forestry’, the productivity of searching would increase and the economic portrait may greatly improve (LaFrankie, 1994; van Valkenburg, 1999). However, it is essential to conduct socio-economic research on existing activities to see how new approaches can be integrated into existing livelihood systems (Richards, 1993).

An example of this product diversification could be the harvesting of barks, roots, and lianas for medicinal purposes (e.g., Strychnos spp., Dioscorea trichanthera, Dilleniaceae spp.). Medicinal plants offer great possibilities, since the worldwide demand for plant-derived medicine still increases. Although in some cases researchers have been able to synthesise the active components of medicinal plants, there are numerous important species which are either to difficult to domesticate or too expensive to synthesise and thus continue to be harvested from the wild (Sheldon et al., 1997). We have seen in chapter 8 that medicinal forest products were sold in Georgetown at very low prices per volume. Therefore, processing is needed

289 9. Discussion and conclusions close to the extraction sites to increase the local share of the product value and prevent spoiling of the material on its way to the market. This could include oil extraction (e.g., Carapa guianensis), and the preparation of herb- or resin-based ointments, dried mixtures for herbal baths, alcoholic tinctures, or aphrodisiacal tonics like the ones listed in Part II of this thesis. This production could be combined with the manufacture of crafts (in stead of harvesting only the raw materials) and preserved food products (e.g., cooking oil from Jessenia bataua, candying forest fruits or preparing cassareep from cultivated cassava roots). For the remote mixed forests of the North-West District, such incentives would only become successful with the help of external subsidies. In this way, the products have the capacity to compete with NTFPs harvested from forests closer to the capital. In Brazil, government subsidies for rubber extraction have avoided the negative external effects of alternative (more destructive) land uses (Richards, 1993).

9.6 THE CONTRIBUTION OF COMMERCIAL NTFPS TO RURAL DEVELOPMENT

We can conclude from this study that the commercial extraction of NTFPs is contributing significantly to the income of forest-dwelling people of northwest Guyana and certainly stimulates the economic development in the region. However, the indigenous extractors do not fully benefit from the profits made in the NTFP trade. It are often the poorest indigenous families that are involved in the collection of forest products. Indigenous harvesters seem to perform a job that most other Guyanese are not willing to do (Hoffman, 1997). For most urban citizens, the interior forests are an unfamiliar and hazardous place, and both Amerindians and NTFP extraction are looked down upon. As a result, many young people are ashamed of being Amerindian and living in the forest, by believing that it is another link with poverty, backwardness, and underdevelopment (Forte, 1988). Unlike other forested areas in South America and Southeast Asia (Richards, 1993; de Beer and McDermott, 1996; Assies, 1997; van Valkenburg, 1997), the North-West District is not subjected to an influx of urban-based seasonal labour gangs getting engaged in NTFP extraction and thereby replacing and marginalising the forest-dwelling extractors. Only in the case of palm heart harvesting in the previously sparsely inhabited lower Waini River, the NTFP business opened a structure for permanent settlement in the forest. But this concerned just a small number of Amerindian extractors moving from one indigenous settlement to another.

A crucial factor limiting the potential of NTFPs to improve local people’s income is that extractors are seldom paid in cash for their work. Instead they are advanced goods by the buyers or middlemen, so that many labourers find themselves unable to escape from the contractual obligations with their employers (Hoffman, 1997; Forte, 1999a). This was illustrated in chapter 5 by the canning company, which offered low-priced food to extractors, but only when exchanged for palm hearts. This form of ‘bonded labour’ was considered by Forte (1999a) as a form of debt-peonage, a highly regressive credit and marketing system which is still prevalent in many (more and less exploitative) forms in the Amazon Basin (Richards, 1993; Ros-Tonen, 1999). However, one should keep in mind that in Guyana, these in-debt relationships

290 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I are not confined to NTFP extraction. They are also quite common in other labour sections, such as cash crop agriculture and gold mining. Furthermore, the canning company supplies food at relatively low prices, while in most debt-peonage systems (such as the mining industry), market goods are supplied on credit at inflated costs, while low prices are offered for the extractive products. Richards (1993) affirms that this system maintains extractors in severe deprivation, but he points out that it also has the capacity to bridge the gap between the remote, non-market subsistence economy and the market economy. Furthermore, the system forces extractors to maximise the time devoted to the collection of NTFPs and leaves little time for subsistence agriculture. According to Richards (1993), this structure is thus more environmentally sound than alternative, more autonomous labour relationships. The situation in the North-West District is just the reverse, since apart from the areas around the major Amerindian towns like Santa Rosa and Mabaruma, deforestation due to subsistence agriculture is not a major problem. In the coastal swamp region, the bonded labour and the consequent neglect of traditional agriculture has led to the destruction of palm heart resources.

NTFP extraction has often been mentioned as a viable alternative to slash-and-burn agriculture (Peters et al., 1989a; Richards, 1993; LaFrankie, 1994), but in many cases, extractors need to combine NTFP harvesting with subsistence agriculture in order to make a decent living (Mori, 1992; Richards, 1993). If one of the extractive activities declines in importance, they need to compensate the loss by expanding their agricultural activities. Commercial NTFP extraction can hardly be defined as a separate land use type (Ros-Tonen, 1999). One of the key elements in the rural household economy is the provision of nutrition and food security (de Beer and McDermott, 1996), but in most cases, the natural forest is unable to produce the human staple food, while the NTFP harvest is too unpredictable to provide for all needs. The concept of this ‘agro-extractive cycle’, which was introduced with reference to Brazil nut gatherers in Bolivia (Assies, 1997), is very relevant for Guyana as well, although the situation in the two countries seems to be quite different. In Bolivia, the conversion of forest to farming land threatens the sustainability of the agro-extractive cycle, while in Guyana, the pressure on NTFP resources should be relieved by improving subsistence agriculture techniques and guarantee food security (chapter 5). This is in accordance with Richards (1993), who stated that for indigenous groups with a historical tradition of extractivism and swidden farming, their indigenous technical knowledge provides a firm basis for sustainable forest management, incorporating multi-species extractivism and traditional swidden management techniques.

Moreover, we have seen in the chapters 5 and 6 that commercial NTFP extraction has the great advantage that it allows most harvesters to earn a living while spending most of their time within their traditional dwelling-grounds. The NTFP harvest allows for a combination with subsistence activities (hunting, fishing, and slash-and- burn agriculture), while this opportunity is not offered by other means of employment in the North-West District. In communities where most men have found work in distant logging and mining camps, women are performing male activities, such as burning pieces of forest for farms, weaving cassava processing equipment from mokru, and hunting (van Breugel, 1998). The workload for women has increased even more, as children are attending school and cannot assist with the

291 9. Discussion and conclusions farm work. When their men return, their earnings rarely last to feed the family until the next pay cheque (Forte, 1995).

9.7 LAND TENURE

The lack of secure land tenure in tropical forest countries brings into question the broad applicability of non-timber forestry (Pendelton, 1992). As long as the property rights of forest areas are not clearly defined, even the most sustainable forms of resource use are highly subject to disruption (Peters et al., 1989b). Although Amerindian Reserves comprise about 16% of Guyana’s surface, as many as 41 Amerindian communities (home to more than 8000 people) have not been officially recognised (Forte, 1990b; Sizer, 1996). For those indigenous groups that live within a logging or mining concession and have not (yet) been granted official land rights, direct action is required to make sure their forest is still available to them in the future. The situation is most urgent for groups like the Kariako Caribs, who heavily depend on the biodiversity of the surrounding forests, but find their traditional dwelling grounds covered with logging and mining claims.

The Guyanese law states that Amerindians have the right to enter state lands and to extract forest products for their own uses (Pierre and Marco, 1992). But since NTFPs are still an open-access resource, nobody feels responsible for the management of the resource. The overharvesting of palms hearts (chapter 5) and the depletion of fish and wildlife around the larger indigenous villages (chapter 6) has made clear that secure land tenure is not a guarantee for sustainable resource management in Amerindian Reserves. One of the reasons for this phenomenon is that the extent of lands designated to Amerindian communities under the Amerindian Act of 1977 was not based on sustainability studies of their subsistence patterns (Toppin-Allahar 1995). Furthermore, many communities have grown to such an extent that agricultural land has become scarce (Jara and Reinders, 1997). The Act neither contains provisions for the protection of wildlife or vulnerable habitats (Iwokrama, 1998), and there is a lack of clear land demarcation due to inaccurate surveying of reserve boundaries (Sizer, 1996; Colchester, 1997). As Forte (1995) argued, there is a threshold of poverty below which the poor become disproportionally destructive, damaging the very resources that could nurture them for years. She further states that without the most basic improvements in social conditions, development more specific to resource use appears to be mostly wishful thinking.

Since indigenous communities have little other options than designing their own management plans (Iwokrama, 1998), increasing harvester’s political power and marketing efficiency by means of cooperative organisations would be a crucial step towards responsible management (Hoffman, 1997). Development programmes should provide basic technical assistance to communities interested in developing forest-based enterprises, including the access to small loans. Training is needed in administration, law, marketing, subsistence farming techniques, community strengthening, contract negotiation, and finance (Sizer, 1996).

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There is an obvious task here for the government, the Guyana Forestry Commission, the Environmental Protection Agency, indigenous and non-indigenous NGOs concerned with rural welfare. The Iwokrama programme has already begun to develop land use systems that incorporate biodiversity conservation, in close cooperation with indigenous communities (Iwokrama, 1998). International donors should therefore continue to support institution building in these sectors. Finally, all stakeholders in the NTFP trade (extractors, village councils, traders, and exporters) are challenged to assume their responsibilities and make sure that NTFPs can continue to play their present important role in Guyana’s forested interior.

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Stahel, G. 1944. De nuttige planten van Suriname. Dept. Landbouwproefstation in Suriname. Bulletin No. 59, Paramaribo, Suriname. Steege, H. ter, Ek, R.C., van Andel, T.R. 2000a. ‘A comparison of diversity patterns of tree and non-tree groups’, pp. 131-138 in H. ter Steege (ed.), Plant Diversity in Guyana. Tropenbos Series 18, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Steege, H. ter. (ed.) 2000. Plant Diversity in Guyana. Tropenbos Series 18, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Steege, H. ter. 1993. Patterns in tropical rain forest in Guyana. PhD thesis, Utrecht University. Tropenbos Series 3, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Steege, H. ter. 1998. The use of forest inventory data for a National Protected Area Strategy in Guyana. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 1457-1483. Steege, H. ter., Jansen-Jacobs, M.J. and Datadin, V.K. 2000b. Can botanical collections assist in a National Protected Area Strategy in Guyana? Biodiversity and Conservation 9: 215-240. Steege, H. ter., Lilwah, R., Ek, R.C., van Andel, T.R., van der Hout, P., Thomas, R. van Essen, J. and Ramdass, I. 2000c. ‘Diversity at different scales: a comparison of large-scale forest inventories and smaller plots’, pp. 117-130 in H. ter Steege (ed.), Plant Diversity in Guyana. Tropenbos Series 18, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Steege, H. ter., Sabatier, D, Castellanos, H., van Andel, T.R., Duivenvoorden, J.F., Adalardo De Oliveira, A., Ek, R.C., Lilwah, R., Maas, P.J.M. and Mori, S. 2000d. ‘A regional perspective: analysis of Amazonian floristic composition and diversity that includes the Guiana Shield’, pp. 19-34 in H. ter Steege (ed.), Plant Diversity in Guyana. Tropenbos Series 18, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Steege, ter H., Lilwah, R., Ek, R.C., van der Hout, P., Thomas, R., van Essen, J. and Jetten, V. 2000e. Composition and diversity of the rain forest in Central Guyana. Tropenbos-Guyana Reports 2000-1. Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Stoffle, R.W., Halmo, D.B., Evans, M.J. and Olmstedt, J.E. 1990. Calculating the cultural significance of American Indian plants: Paiute and Shoshone ethnobotany at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. American Anthropologist 92: 416-432. Strudwick, J. 1990. Commercial Management for Palm Heart from Euterpe oleracea Mart. (Palmae) in the Amazon Estuary and Tropical Forest Conservation. Advances in Economic Botany 8: 241-248. Strudwick, J. and Sobel, G.L. 1988. Uses of Euterpe oleracea Mart. in the Amazon Estuary, Brazil. Advances in Economic Botany 6: 225-253. Sullivan, C. 1997. Calculating the Gross Village Product of an Amerindian Village: the example of Assakata, N.W. Guyana, with particular reference to the contribution of GVP made by NTFP from the forest. Tropenbos Interim report 97-4. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Sullivan, C. 1998. Forest resource use in Amerindian villages in Guyana: Implications for development policy. Paper presented to the Conference on resources, planning and environmental management, Mona, Jamaica, July 1998. University of the West Indies and Keele University, Staffordshire, UK. Sullivan, C. 1999. Valuation of non-timber forest products: a case study for three Amerindian villages in Guyana. PhD thesis, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK. Sunday Chronicle. 1993. Team dispatched to check heart of palm company. Friday 21 May. Swerdlow, J.L. 2000. Nature’s medicine: plants that heal. National Geographic Magazine, April.

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Theunissen, P.A. 1993. ‘Vegetation and vegetation succession of the freshwater wetlands’, pp. 77-98 in P.E. Ouboter (ed.), Freshwater ecosystems of Suriname. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands. Thomas, C., Forte, J., Culpepper, D., Campbell, S., and Rutherford-Rodrigues, B. 1996. Guyana: Human Development Report 1996, University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana. Toppin-Allahar, C. 1995. A report on Forestry Law and Policy. Government of Guyana, Guyana Forestry Commission and Rapid Environmental Assessments Ltd. Georgetown, Guyana. Tropenbos. 1991. Guyana and Tropenbos. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Tropenbos. 1999. Proposal Phase III. Tropenbos programme 2000-2004. Wageningen, the Netherlands. Turner, N.J. 1974. Plant taxonomic systems and ethnobotany of three contemporary Indian groups of the Pacific Northwest (Haida, Bella Coola and Lillooet). Syesis 7: Supplement 1. Turner, N.J. 1988. The importance of a rose. Evaluating the cultural significance of plants in Thompson and Lillooet Interior Salish. American Anthropologist 90: 272-290. Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. van. 1997. Non-timber forest products of East Kalimantan: potentials for sustainable forest use. Tropenbos Series 16. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Valkenburg, J.L.C.H. van. 1999. The potential for commercial NTFP extraction in East Kalimantan’, pp. 131-143 in M.A.F. Ros-Tonen (ed.), Seminar Proceedings ‘NTFP Research in the Tropenbos Programme: Results and Perspectives’, 28 January 1999. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. VanDamme P., van den Eynden, V. and Vernemmen, P. 1992. The Ethnobotany of the Topnaar. University of Gent, Belgium. Vasquez, R. and Gentry, A.H. 1989. Use and misuse of forest-harvested fruits in the Iquitos area. Conservation Biology 3 (4): 350-361. Verheij, B. 1998. Ethnicity and economic integration of Amerindians on a market place in Guyana: An analysis of present ethnicity in exchange relationships between Guyanese Amerindians and traders. MSc thesis, Dept. of Cultural Anthropology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Verheij, B. and M.A. Reinders. 1997. The Status of the Extraction and Marketing of Timber and Non-Timber Forest Products by Amerindians in the Guyanese context. Bos Newsletter 16 (1): 15-22. Veth, B. and Reinders, M.A. 1995. Planten zijn als mensen: genezen met medicinale planten bij de Warao en de Wayana in de Guyana’s. Indigo 5: 4-7. Waterton, C. 1825. Wanderings in South America. London, UK. Wessels Boer, J.G. 1965. The indigenous palms of Suriname. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. Whitehead, B.W. and Godoy, R. 1991. The extraction of rattan-like lianas in the New World tropics: a possible prototype for sustainable forest management. Agroforestry Systems 16: 247-255. Whitehead, N.L. 1988. Lords of the tiger spirit: a history of the Caribs in colonial Venezuela and Guyana, 1498-1820. Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal- en Volkenkunde, Carribean Series 10. Foris Publications, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.

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Whitmore, T.C. 1980. Potentially economic species of Southeast Asian forests. Tree Crops Journal 1: 171-181. WHO (World Health Organisation). 1993. Implementation of the Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000. Eighth Report on the World Health Situation. Geneva, Switzerland. Wieren, S. van. 1999. ‘Towards the sustainable use of wildlife in tropical forests’, pp. 175-178 in M.A.F. Ros-Tonen (ed.), Seminar Proceedings ‘NTFP Research in the Tropenbos Programme: Results and Perspectives’, 28 January 1999. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Wiersum, F. 1999. ‘Understanding diversity in NTFP management: a neglected issue in NTFP research’, pp. 161-165 in M.A.F. Ros-Tonen (ed.), Seminar Proceedings ‘NTFP Research in the Tropenbos Programme: Results and Perspectives’, 28 January 1999. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Wilbert, J. 1970. Folk literature of the Warao Indians. Narrative material and motif content. Latin American Studies 15. University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Wilbert, J. 1976. Manicaria saccifera and its cultural significance among the Warao Indians of Venezuela. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 24 (10): 275-335. Wilbert, J. (ed.) 1993. Mystic Endowment: Religious Ethnography of the Warao Indians. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, USA. Wilbert, J. and M. Layrisse (eds.) 1980. Demographic and biological studies of the Warao Indians. Latin American Studies 45. University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Williams, D. 1989. The Archaeic of north-western Guyana. History Gazette 7. University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana. World Bank. 1995. Technical Report: Guyana environmental management project preparation mission. Sustainable financing options for the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Environmental Resources Management, Washington DC., USA. Yde, J. 1965. Material culture of the Wai wai. National Museum of Copenhagen. Nationalmuseets skrifter Ethnografik Roekke X, Copenhagen, Denmark. Ziegler, A.P. and Zago, S. 1993. Preparatory Study for the Creation of a Protected Area in the Kanuku Mountains Region of Guyana. Agriconsulting and European Union, Rome, Italy.

312 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

11. SUMMARY

This thesis describes the use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) by the indigenous peoples of northwest Guyana. It provides a complete survey of the NTFP-producing plant species and their uses, the harvest and processing methods used by local communities, the role of these plants in the local economy and their abundance in different forest types. This thesis consists of two parts. In Part I, a general analysis is made of the present status of NTFP harvesting in the North-West District and Pomeroon region. Part II is a field guide of the useful plants in the study area and is published in a separate volume.

In Part I, the variations in plant use among Amerindian groups are discussed, which can be ascribed to differences in ethnicity, surrounding vegetation types, distance to market and health facilities, and level of acculturation. It was expected that relatively isolated communities had a greater traditional plant knowledge than more westernised groups. This study may contribute to a better understanding of the floristic diversity in northwest Guyana, and the traditional and (potential) commercial use of this resource. It will also provide baseline data for subsequent ecological and economical studies on NTFP extraction as a sustainable forest management system.

The adequate protection and management of a tropical rain forest requires a good knowledge of its biodiversity. Considerable parts of Guyana’s North-West District have been allocated as logging concessions, but little has been published on the forest types present in this region. Chapter 2 reviews the floristic composition, vegetation structure, and diversity of well-drained mixed and secondary forests in northwest Guyana. Trees, shrubs, lianas, herbs, and hemi-epiphytes were inventoried in four hectare plots: in primary forest, 20-year-old secondary forest, and 60-year- old forest. The primary forests largely corresponded with the Eschweilera-Licania association described by Fanshawe (1952, 1954), although there were substantial variations in the floristic composition and densities of dominant species. The late succession forest had the highest number of species and was not yet dominated by Lecythidaceae and Chrysobalanaceae. There is a great need for updating the existing vegetation maps of the region. Previous studies based on large-scale forest inventories predicted a general low diversity for the North-West District, but the present forest plots turned out to rank among the most diverse studied in Guyana so far. These results are important for the planning of protected areas in the country.

Flooded forests cover a considerable part of Guyana, but little is known of the different types of swamp vegetation present in the North-West District. Chapter 3 reviews the floristic composition, vegetation structure, and diversity of three types of swamp forests. Trees and smaller life forms were inventoried in three hectare plots in Mora forest, quackal and manicole swamp. The Mora forest, flooded annually by white water, was dominated by Mora excelsa. The quackal swamp, almost permanently flooded by black water, was characterised by Tabebuia insignis and Symphonia globulifera and contained few Mauritia flexuosa palms. The manicole swamp, flooded regularly by brackish water, was distinguished by large numbers of

313 11. Summary the palm Euterpe oleracea. Although the three swamps showed little overlap in floristic composition and densities of dominant species, they represent some of the lowest diversity forests in the Neotropics. These low-diversity wetlands are quite important for the extraction of commercial NTFPs. Furthermore, they form the last stretch of natural coastline in Guyana and play an important role in the protection of riverine ecosystems. Adequate management and conservation strategies must therefore be developed for the area.

The usefulness of a forest for indigenous peoples is a strong reason for its conservation. For the design of appropriate management plans, however, quantitative data are needed on the population densities and distribution patterns of useful species. They can also be used for calculating the forest’s economic value. Chapter 4 provides a quantitative assessment of the useful species in the seven hectare plots, of which the vegetation was described in chapters 2 and 3. The numbers and percentage of NTFPs are given in the different use categories (food, construction, technology, medicine, firewood, etc.). A total of 616 species were found in the seven plots, of which 357 (58%) were utilised. Between 20 and 60% of these NTFPs were found in the understorey.

Species with the highest use-value included Carapa guianensis, Hymenaea courbaril, Symphonia globulifera, Mauritia flexuosa, and Inga alba. The most important NTFP-producing families were Mimosaceae, Guttiferae, Annonaceae, and Palmae. Variations in the number of useful species between the plots were caused by floristic diversity, socio-economic and cultural differences. The species-rich mixed forests contained more useful species and had a higher overall use value than the species-poor swamp plots. High floristic diversity, however, is not a prerequisite for economically and ecologically sustainable NTFP extraction. Craft-producing hemi- epiphytes are among the few species that have a potential to preserve this diverse forest, as standing forest is needed for the required products. The low-diversity forests, in particular the manicole swamp, offered the best opportunities for sustainable NTFP harvesting, since the vegetation was dominated by economically important species.

All forest types were of great importance to the local residents. High use percentages (especially in the tree layer) indicated that people had a great knowledge of their surrounding forest. Since several of the sampled forest types are threatened by timber harvesting, slash-and-burn agriculture, mining or forest fires, there is an urgent need for protection measurements and sustainable management plans. Some of the highly valued NTFPs were produced by commercial timber species. Selective logging of these species would deprive local Amerindians from these products.

Chapter 5 deals with the most important vegetal NTFP of Guyana: palm hearts from the multi-stemmed Euterpe oleracea. Supporting a canning industry worth US$ 2 million annually in export value, the harvesting of palm hearts is the principal source of income for Amerindian communities in the coastal wetlands. To assess the impact of the current extraction on Euterpe populations, population structure, regeneration, and clump mortality were compared between areas with a high and with a low harvest pressure. An undisturbed area was used as a control. Extractors, factory personnel and canning company staff were interviewed to get a general idea

314 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I of the socio-economic aspects of palm heart harvesting. The study revealed that, after several years of exploitation, Euterpe populations showed a steady decline in height and diameter of stems, clump vitality, reproduction, and expected palm heart yield. It was suggested that the main reason for this is that harvesting took place at much shorter intervals than the generally recommended four to five years. The present extraction procedures will lead to severe problems with future yields, because the palm populations are not given sufficient time to regenerate.

Neglect of traditional farming and total dependency on the palm heart industry have led to high pressure on the forest and to socio-economic problems in several communities. In areas where extraction was combined with subsistence farming, however, fallow periods appeared to be longer and Euterpe populations were subject to lower extraction intensity. Maintaining a minimum diameter for palm hearts prevented the extraction of immature stems to a certain extent. A management plan is needed to ensure the future supply of palm hearts, since the sustainable harvest of this resource is of vital importance to the country’s well being. Not only are large- scale rotation plans necessary to allow adequate regeneration, community-based rotation systems should also be encouraged. Subsistence agriculture should be stimulated to guarantee food security. The abundance and rapid growth of E. oleracea offer good opportunities for sustainable extraction and the potential for conflictive land uses is minimal.

Non-timber forest products still remain a neglected natural resource in Guyana. The lack of information on export and domestic markets obstructs the potential role of NTFPs in land use and economic planning. In chapter 6 an overview is given on the present commercial extraction of the major NTFPs in the region: palm hearts, wildlife, craft fibres, palm leaves and mangrove bark. Total export revenues were estimated at US $4.2 million per year. Most products have an ecological potential for commercial extraction, but more studies on the impact of harvesting on the forest and monitoring of harvested quantities are needed to develop sustainable management policies.

Commercial NTFP extraction offers indigenous peoples an income without having to move far from home. Harvesting can be combined with subsistence activities and helps to maintain the social cohesion and indigenous culture, although the low social status of Amerindians in the Guyanese society prevents them to fully benefit from the available resources. Low prices for the raw material, insecure land tenure, little organisation among harvesters, high transport costs and unequal participation in the market economy are the main problems in commercialising their NTFPs. Another key factor for a successful NTFP trade is the improvement of the institutional and legal base for the management of NTFPs. Community-based management plans should be designed for NTFPs. To minimise the chances of exploitative contracts between companies and indigenous communities, training is needed in village administration, law and marketing. Additionally, diversification of the trade and certification of responsibly harvested products could enhance the potential of NTFPs to improve local people’s livelihood in the region.

Although prohibited by law, fish poison plants are still widely used by indigenous tribes in Guyana. Chapter 7 attempts to clarify the taxonomy and ethnobotany of

315 11. Summary the fish poisons, in particular those containing rotenone, currently used in northwest Guyana. Specimens were collected from 11 species known to be ichthyotoxic, both from wild and cultivated sources. It was found that fish poisons not only serve as a quick method of providing food in times of shortage, but also play an important role in magic rituals and traditional medicine. Particularly striking was the use of Lonchocarpus spp. and Tephrosia sinapou in the treatment of cancer and AIDS. Further ethnobotanical and pharmacological research should focus on the medicinal applications of rotenone-yielding plants.

The importance of herbal medicine for the indigenous communities in the study area is further highlighted in chapter 8. The general health conditions in the study area are discussed, as well as the local attitude towards medicinal plants and traditional healing practices. A total of 294 medicinal plant species were found, used in more than 800 recipes. Many of these species have not previously been reported as medicinal or have uses distinct from those of other indigenous groups. Some 80% of these species were harvested from the wild. The highest number of plants (48 spp.) was used to treat common colds and coughs, followed by skin sores (38) and malaria (30), the latter being a major health problem in the area. The most common method of preparing a medicine was boiling the ingredients as a tea. Leaves were by far the most used plant organs, followed by bark, the whole plant (e.g., herbs) and roots.

Although quite some medicinal species are being sold in the capital, very few are commercialised within the interior. Nevertheless, many indigenous communities are almost completely dependent on medicinal plants for their health care, since modern health facilities are limited and prescription medicine is unavailable or expensive. Community health workers should cooperate with traditional healers, because medicinal plants have a great potential for rural health care improvement.

Since indigenous tribes in Guyana are under great pressure from the western society, the present knowledge of herbal medicine may rapidly be lost. Documentation and revitalisation of indigenous knowledge may help to preserve both cultural and biological diversity. The great variety of Guyanese medicinal plants could have a much larger potential for the (inter-) national market than it has today, if it would be processed in a more sophisticated manner and collected in a sustainable way, while respecting traditional resource rights.

In chapter 9, the main outcomes of this study are discussed. The efficacy of the two research methods (‘walk-in-the woods’ and hectare plots) is compared. It appeared that 39% of the NTFPs were found outside the plots. Most of these grew in secondary shrubland, an important habitat for NTFP collection and enrichment planting. It can be concluded that a combination of the two methods provides the most accurate picture of local plant use.

From the large numbers of useful plants and the high use percentages in the plots, it can be concluded that the Amerindian communities rely heavily on their surrounding forest for subsistence. An easier connection with the coastal market enhances the possibilities for the marketing NTFPs, but the influx of luxury goods does not necessarily reduce the need to harvest NTFPs, as was assumed in the introduction of this thesis. Even when synthetic alternatives are available, indigenous people

316 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

(especially the poorer households) continue to use foods and material from the forest, as they are free, easily available, and culturally more accepted than industrial substitutes.

The species-poor swamp forests have the highest potential for large-scale single- species extraction. For the highly diverse mixed forests, commercial extraction can only become successful if several products are harvested simultaneously. With the help of external subsidies, NTFPs from remote forests may be able to compete with similar products harvested closer to the capital. Another conclusion of this study is that extractivism can only act as a potential saviour of the rain forests if it is able to prevent or reduce deforestation. However, extractors need to combine NTFP harvesting with subsistence agriculture in order to guarantee their food security.

Part II of this thesis contains scientific and vernacular plant names, short botanical descriptions and uses of 471 NTFP-producing species. For the 85 NTFPs of major importance, detailed species and use descriptions are provided, as well as illustrations and information on habitat preference and seasonal availability.

317 12. Samenvatting

12. SAMENVATTING

Dit proefschrift beschrijft het gebruik van niet-hout bosproducten (bosbijproducten, NTFPs) door de inheemse bevolking van noordwest Guyana. Het bevat een complete inventarisatie van nuttige plantensoorten en hun gebruik, en verstrekt bovendien informatie over de plaatselijke oogsten verwerkingsmethoden, de rol van bosbijproducten in de lokale economie en hun voorkomen en dichtheden in verschillende bostypes. Dit proefschrift bestaat uit twee delen. In Deel I wordt de huidige situatie wat betreft de oogst van NTFPs in het Noordwest District en de Pomeroon regio geanalyseerd. Deel II is een veldgids voor de nuttige planten in het onderzoeksgebied en wordt apart gepubliceerd.

In Deel I wordt nagegaan of het verschil in plantgebruik tussen Indianengroepen kan worden toegeschreven aan de etniciteit, de plaatselijke vegetatie, de toegang tot de markt en de moderne gezondheidszorg en/of de mate van acculturatie. Verwacht werd dat bij relatief geïsoleerde groepen meer traditionele kennis van planten aanwezig zou zijn dan bij de meer ‘verwesterde’ groepen. Dit onderzoek draagt bij aan de kennis van de floristische rijkdom van noordwest Guyana, alsmede van het traditionele en (toekomstig) commercieel gebruik van deze diversiteit. Deze studie levert de basisgegevens voor verder ecologisch en economisch onderzoek naar de exploitatie van NTFPs als duurzaam systeem voor bosbeheer.

Voor de adequate bescherming en het beheer van tropisch regenwoud is een goede kennis van de lokale biodiversiteit essentieel. Grote delen van Noordwest Guyana zijn uitgegeven als kapconcessie, maar er is weinig bekend over de bostypen in de regio. Hoofdstuk 2 behandelt de floristische samenstelling, de vegetatiestructuur en de diversiteit van goedgedraineerde primaire en secundaire bossen in noordwest Guyana. Bomen, struiken, lianen, kruiden en hemi-epiphyten zijn geïnventariseerd in vier hectare plots in primair bos en secundair bos van 20 en 60 jaar oud. Het primaire bos kwam grotendeels overeen met de Eschweilera-Licania associatie beschreven door Fanshawe (1952, 1954), ondanks de variatie in floristische samenstelling en dichtheden van dominante soorten. Het laat-secundaire bos had het hoogste aantal soorten en werd nog niet gedomineerd door Lecythidaceae en Chrysobalanaceae. Het is noodzakelijk de bestaande vegetatiekaarten van de regio te herzien. Eerdere studies, gebaseerd op grootschalige bosinventarisaties, voorspelden een lage diversiteit in het Noordwest District. De huidige onderzoeksplots behoren echter tot nog toe tot de meest soortenrijke van Guyana. Deze resultaten zijn van belang voor het plannen van beschermde gebieden in het land.

Vloedbossen beslaan een groot deel van Guyana, maar er is weinig bekend over de verscheidene types moerasbos in het Noordwest District. Hoofdstuk 3 behandelt de floristische samenstelling, de vegetatiestructuur en de diversiteit van drie moerasbossen. Bomen en kleinere planten zijn geïnventariseerd in drie hectare plots: in Mora bos, ‘quackal’ en ‘manicole’ moeras. Het Mora bos, jaarlijks overstroomd door sedimentrijk (‘wit’) water, werd gedomineerd door Mora excelsa. Het quackal moeras, bijna permanent geïnundeerd door voedselarm (‘zwart’) water, werd gekarakteriseerd door Tabebuia insignis en Symphonia globulifera en een enkele

318 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I

Mauritia flexuosa palm. Het manicole moeras, regelmatig overstroomd door brak water, werd gekenmerkt door grote aantallen Euterpe oleracea palmen. Hoewel de drie moerasbossen weinig overeenkomsten vertoonden op floristisch gebied, behoren ze wel tot de minst soortenrijke bossen in de Neotropen. Deze soortenarme bossen zijn vrij belangrijk voor commerciële NTFP exploitatie. Bovendien vormen ze het laatste stuk natuurlijke kustlijn van Guyana en spelen ze een belangrijke rol in de bescherming van het delta ecosysteem. Een adequaat beheersplan is van groot belang voor dit gebied.

De bruikbaarheid van een bos voor de inheemse bevolking is een belangrijk argument voor de bescherming ervan. Voor het ontwerpen van aangepaste beheersplannen zijn echter kwalitatieve gegevens nodig over de populatiedichtheden en verspreiding van nuttige planten. Met deze gegevens kan ook de economische waarde van het bos berekend worden. Hoofdstuk 4 bevat een kwantitatieve analyse van de nuttige soorten in de zeven hectare plots, waarvan de vegetatie is beschreven in de hoofdstukken 2 en 3. De aantallen en percentages NTFPs zijn berekend voor de verschillende gebruikscategorieën (voedsel, constructie, technologie, medicinaal, brandhout, etc.). In totaal zijn er 616 soorten in de zeven plots gevonden, waarvan er 357 (58%) als bruikbaar werden geregistreerd. Zo’n 20 tot 60% van deze planten kwamen alleen voor in de struiken kruidlaag. Soorten met de hoogste gebruikswaarde waren Carapa guianensis, Hymenaea courbaril, Symphonia globulifera, Mauritia flexuosa en Inga alba. De belangrijkste NTFP families waren de Mimosaceae, Guttiferae, Annonaceae en Palmae. Het aantal bruikbare planten per plot werd bepaald door de floristische diversiteit, maar ook door de sociaal- economische en culturele achtergrond van de lokale gebruikers.

Het rijke, primaire bos bevatte meer nuttige soorten en had een hogere gebruikswaarde dan de armere moerassen. Een hoge diversiteit is echter geen voorwaarde voor een economisch en ecologisch duurzame oogst van NTFPs. De luchtwortels van hemi-epiphyten, gebruikt in de meubelindustrie, zijn één van de weinige producten die de potentie hebben dit diverse bos te beschermen, aangezien deze wortels alleen in hoge bomen voorkomen. De soortenarme moerasbossen (met name het manicole moeras) bieden de beste mogelijkheden voor duurzame NTFP oogst, omdat de vegetatie gedomineerd wordt door economisch belangrijke soorten.

Alle bostypes zijn van groot belang voor de lokale bevolking. De hoge gebruikspercentages (vooral in de boomlaag) duiden op een grote lokale kennis van het bos. Aangezien verscheidene van de bestudeerde bossen bedreigd worden door houtkap, landbouw, mijnbouw en bosbranden, zijn beschermingsmaatregelen en duurzame beheersplannen op korte termijn gewenst. Een aantal belangrijke NTFPs is afkomstig van commerciële hardhoutsoorten. De selectieve kap van deze bomen zou de lokale Indianen van deze producten beroven.

Hoofdstuk 5 gaat in op het belangrijkste plantaardige bosbijproduct van Guyana: de palmhart van de klonale palm Euterpe oleracea. Jaarlijks wordt voor 2 miljoen dollar aan geconserveerde palmharten geëxporteerd. Het oogsten van palmharten vormt de belangrijkste inkomstenbron van Indianen in het noordwestelijke deltagebied. Om de impact van deze oogst op de Euterpe populaties te meten, zijn de populatiestructuur, de regeneratie en mortaliteit van de palmen vergeleken tussen

319 12. Samenvatting gebieden met een hoge extractiedruk en gebieden die minder vaak werden geoogst. Een ongestoord moeras diende als controle. Verzamelaars, fabriekspersoneel en bedrijfsleiders zijn geïnterviewd om een idee te krijgen van de sociaal-economische aspecten van de palmhartindustrie. Het onderzoek wees uit dat de gemiddelde hoogte, diameter, vitaliteit en reproductie van palmen steeds verder daalde naarmate er langer achtereen werd geoogst. De belangrijkste reden hiervoor is het feit dat de rotatieperiodes veel korter waren dan de aanbevolen vier tot vijf jaar. Het huidige kapregime zal leiden tot ernstige problemen met de toekomstige opbrengst, aangezien de palmen te weinig tijd krijgen om te herstellen van de kap.

Het verwaarlozen van de traditionele landbouw en de totale afhankelijkheid van de palmhartindustrie heeft in een aantal gebieden geleid tot een hoge kapintensiteit en sociaal-economische problemen. Daar waar men extractie afwisselde met kleinschalige landbouw werden de Euterpe populaties minder intensief geoogst. De kap van juveniele palmen werd tot op een zekere hoogte voorkomen door de handhaving van een minimum diameter voor palmharten. Toch is een beheersplan noodzakelijk om de toekomstige aanvoer van palmharten te verzekeren, aangezien een duurzame productie van groot belang is voor de werkgelegenheid en het welzijn van de bevolking van Noordwest Guyana. Er is behoefte aan grootschalige rotatiesystemen, waarin de moerassen voldoende tijd krijgen om te regenereren. Kleinschalige, door de gemeenschap zelf gecontroleerde rotatiesystemen zouden ook moeten worden gestimuleerd. Het aanleggen van landbouwgrondjes zou aangemoedigd moeten worden om voedselzekerheid te garanderen. De abundantie en snelle groei van E. oleracea bieden goede mogelijkheden voor duurzame exploitatie, ook omdat de potentie voor ander landgebruik (commerciële landbouw, houtkap en mijnbouw) minimaal is.

Bosbijproducten blijven een ‘verwaarloosde’ natuurlijke hulpbron in Guyana. Het gebrek aan informatie over de export en de nationale markt belemmeren de rol die NTFPs zouden kunnen spelen in de economische landgebruiksplanning. In Hoofdstuk 6 wordt een overzicht gegeven van de huidige handel in de belangrijkste commerciële NTFPs in de regio: palmharten, wilde dieren, vlechtvezels, palm bladeren en mangrove bast. De jaarlijkse exportopbrengsten zijn geschat op 4.2 miljoen dollar. De meeste producten hebben de ecologische potentie voor commercieel gebruik, maar er is meer onderzoek nodig naar het effect van de oogst op het bos. Bovendien moeten de geoogste hoeveelheden geregistreerd worden om een duurzaam beheersplan te ontwikkelen.

Commerciële extractie van NTFPs biedt de inheemse bevolking een inkomen in hun directe woonomgeving. Het verzamelen kan worden gecombineerd met zelfvoorzienende landbouw, vissen en jagen, wat bijdraagt aan de sociale cohesie en goed past binnen de Indiaanse cultuur. De lage status van Indianen binnen de Guyanese samenleving belemmert hen echter om optimaal gebruik te maken van de aanwezige hulpbronnen. De belangrijkste obstakels voor de marketing van NTFPs zijn de lage prijzen voor de producten, de onzekere landrechten, de hoge transportkosten, het gebrek aan organisatie onder verzamelaars en hun ongelijkwaardige positie in de markteconomie. Een andere voorwaarde voor de succesvolle handel in bosbijproducten is de verbetering van de institutionele en wettelijke basis voor het beheer van deze natuurlijke hulpbron. Gemeenschappen

320 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part I zouden zelf kleinschalige beheersplannen moeten opzetten voor NTFPs. Hiervoor is training op dorpsniveau nodig op het gebied van administratie, marketing en wettelijke aangelegenheden, zodat de kans op wurgcontracten tussen bedrijven en Indianengemeenschappen beperkt blijft. Bovendien zou de productdiversificatie en de certificering van duurzaam geoogste NTFPs de levensomstandigheden van lokale bewoners kunnen verbeteren.

Hoewel het bij de wet verboden is, wordt visgif nog steeds regelmatig gebruikt door Indianen in Guyana. In Hoofdstuk 7 wordt een uiteenzetting gegeven van de taxonomie en de ethnobotanie van de voor vissen giftige planten die vandaag de dag in noordwest Guyana worden gebruikt, met name de soorten die rotenon bevatten. Elf soorten visgif werden verzameld, zowel wilde planten als gecultiveerde. Het bleek dat visgif niet alleen dienst doet als een snelle manier van voedsel verzamelen in tijden van schaarste, maar dat visgif ook een rol speelt in magische rituelen en de traditionele geneeskunst. Opvallend was het gebruik van Lonchocarpus spp. en Tephrosia sinapou in de behandeling van kanker en AIDS. Toekomstig ethnobotanisch en farmacologisch onderzoek zou zich moeten richten op de medicinale toepassing van rotenon-houdende planten.

Het belang van medicinale planten voor inheemse volkeren in noordwest Guyana wordt verder belicht in Hoofdstuk 8. De algemene gezondheidstoestand in het onderzoeksgebied wordt besproken, alsmede de lokale houding ten opzichte van medicinale planten en traditionele geneeswijzen. In totaal werden er 294 medicinale plantensoorten gevonden, die in meer dan 800 recepten werden verwerkt. Veel van deze soorten waren nog niet eerder als medicinale plant vermeld in de literatuur, of ze werden op een andere manier gebruikt. Ongeveer 80% van de planten werd uit het wild geoogst. Het grootste aantal planten werd gebruikt tegen verkoudheid en hoesten (49 soorten), gevolgd door huidzweren (38) en malaria (30), een van de ernstigste gezondheidsproblemen in de regio. Meestal werd een medicijn bereid door een thee te trekken van de ingrediënten. Bladeren werden het vaakst gebruikt, gevolgd door de bast, de hele plant (in het geval van kruiden) en de wortel.

Hoewel een flink aantal geneeskrachtige planten in de hoofdstad te koop is, worden ze in het binnenland nauwelijks verhandeld. Veel inheemse gemeenschappen zijn niettemin grotendeels afhankelijk van medicinale planten voor hun gezondheidszorg, aangezien moderne faciliteiten en medicijnen ontbreken of te duur zijn. Lokaal ziekenhuispersoneel zou meer moeten samenwerken met traditionele genezers, omdat medicinale planten de mogelijkheid bieden voor het verbeteren van de gezondheid op het platteland. Aangezien de inheemse volkeren van Guyana onder grote druk staan zich aan te passen aan de westerse maatschappij, kan de huidige kennis van medicinale planten snel verloren gaan. Het documenteren en herwaarderen van deze kennis zou kunnen bijdragen tot de bescherming van zowel biologische als culturele diversiteit. De enorme variëteit aan medicinale soorten in Guyana zou een veel grotere rol kunnen spelen op de (inter-) nationale markt, als de planten enigszins verder verwerkt zouden worden en op een duurzame manier zouden worden geoogst, met respect voor de traditionele eigendomsrechten.

In Hoofdstuk 9 worden de belangrijkste resultaten van dit onderzoek besproken. De efficiëntie van de twee onderzoeksmethoden (gewoon door het bos lopen en

321 12. Samenvatting verzamelen versus hectare plots) wordt vergeleken. Het blijkt dat 39% van de NTFPs buiten de plots zijn gevonden, vooral in secundair struikgewas, wat kennelijk een belangrijke habitat is voor het verzamelen en aanplanten van NTFPs. De conclusie is dat de combinatie van de twee methoden het meest complete beeld geeft van het lokale plantgebruik.

Gezien het grote aantal nuttige planten en de hoge gebruikspercentages in de plots, mag er geconcludeerd worden dat de lokale Indianen in hoge mate afhankelijk zijn van het hun omringende bos. Een betere integratie in de markteconomie biedt de mogelijkheid tot het verkopen van bosproducten, maar de aanwezigheid van luxegoederen heeft niet automatisch een verminderd gebruik van NTFPs tot gevolg, zoals werd verwacht in het begin van dit onderzoek. Zelfs als er synthetische alternatieven voor handen zijn, blijven vooral de armere huishoudens gebruik maken van bosbijproducten. Die zijn immers gratis, makkelijk verkrijgbaar en cultureel verantwoord.

De soortenarme moerasbossen bieden de beste mogelijkheid voor de grootschalige oogst van één bepaald product. In de zeer diverse bossen kan commerciële exploitatie van NTFPs alleen succesvol zijn als er verscheidene producten tegelijk geoogst worden. Alleen met behulp van externe subsidies kunnen bosbijproducten van verafgelegen bossen concurreren met soortgelijke producten die dichter bij de hoofdstad geoogst worden. Een andere conclusie van dit onderzoek is dat de commerciële extractie van bosbijproducten alleen ‘het regenwoud kan redden’ als het de ontbossing werkelijk voorkomt of vermindert. Verzamelaars moeten echter hun activiteiten combineren met kleinschalige landbouw voor hun voedselzekerheid.

Deel II van dit proefschrift bevat de wetenschappelijke en lokale namen, korte botanische en gebruiksbeschrijvingen van 471 soorten. Van de 85 meest belangrijke bosbijproducten wordt een gedetailleerde beschrijving en een illustratie gegeven, alsmede informatie over habitat preferentie en bloei- en vruchtseizoenen.

322 Non-timber forest products

of the North-West District of Guyana

Part II

A FIELD GUIDE

Tinde van Andel

Illustrations by Hendrik Rypkema

TROPENBOS-GUYANA SERIES 8b

The Tropenbos-Guyana Series publishes results of research projects carried out in the framework of the Tropenbos-Guyana Programme. The Tropenbos-Guyana Programme operates within the framework of the international programme of the Tropenbos foundation and is executed under the responsibility of Utrecht University. The multi-disciplinary Tropenbos- Guyana Programme contributes to the conservation and wise utilization of forest resources in Guyana by conducting strategic and applied research and upgrading Guyanese capabilities in the field of forest-related sciences.

T.R. van Andel Non-timber forest products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II Tropenbos-Guyana Series 8b Tropenbos-Guyana Programme-Georgetown, Guyana ISBN: 90-393-2536-7 Keywords: Non-timber forest products, Guyana, indigenous peoples, ethnobotany.

Printed by PrintPartners Ipskamp B.V. Cover Front page: Weaving a warishi basket from nibi (Heteropsis flexuosa). Back page: Boy picking duckweed flowers (Nymphaea ampla) for decoration.

All photographs by Tinde van Andel, except plate 18 (by Koen Bröker), plate 19 and acknowledgements nr. 7, 15 and 16 (by Suzanne Smedema), nr. 10 (by René van Dongen), nr. 11 (by Martin Smeets) and nr. 18 (by Noki van Andel). Image processing Frits Kindt, Frouke Kuijer Cover design Femke Bulten

Promotor: Prof. Dr. P.J.M. Maas Hoogleraar in de Plantensystematiek Nationaal Herbarium Nederland Universiteit Utrecht

This research was funded by the European Union. Additional funding was provided by the Alberta Mennega Stichting and the Van Leersum Fonds (KNAW).

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Non-timber forest products 1 1.2 Aims and methods of this research 1 1.3. How to use this book 3 1.3.1 Scientific names 3 1.3.2 Vernacular names 3 1.3.3 Botanical description 5 1.3.4 Distribution and ecology 5 1.3.5 Use 6 1.3.6 Economy 6 1.3.7 Notes 6 1.3.8 Colour plates 6 1.3.9 Drawings 7 1.3.10 Other useful plant species of northwest Guyana 7 1.3.11 Species used for firewood only 7 1.3.12 Agricultural species in northwest Guyana 7 1.3.13 Indices 7

2. THE 85 MOST IMPORTANT NTFP SPECIES 8

3. OTHER USEFUL PLANT SPECIES OF THE NORTH-WEST DISTRICT OF GUYANA. 244

4. SPECIES USED FOR FIREWOOD ONLY 311

5. AGRICULTURAL SPECIES IN NORTHWEST GUYANA 311

5.1 Fruit species 311 5.2 Starchy tubers 312 5.3 Vegetables 312 5.4 Other food plants 312 5.5 Ornamental plants 313 5.6 Medicinal plants 313 5.7 Magic plants 313 5.8 Fish poisons 313 5.9 Miscellaneous 313

6. INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES 315

7. INDEX OF VERNACULAR NAMES AND TERMS 324

8. REFERENCES 344

9. COLOUR PLATES 350

1. Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS

Guyana, a poor and sparsely populated country, harbours one of the world’s last great undisturbed tracts of tropical rainforest. This forest is not only the homeland of a large variety of plant and animal species, but also of various indigenous tribes that have been relying on these biological resources for thousands of years. Their natural surroundings have always provided these Amerindians with food, shelter, household equipment, medicine, and many other non-timber forest products. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are defined here as all plant and animal products harvested from the forest, except for commercial timber. Today, the geographical isolation of the Amerindian communities Guyana’s interior still makes modern medicine and synthetic goods unavailable or very expensive. As a result, many people still heavily depend on NTFPs for their livelihood.

Guyana’s vast potential of NTFPs has only partly been developed commercially. A great variety of plant species is harvested from natural forests, but the majority is used for subsistence purposes only. Commercial extraction of NTFPs could add substantial economic value to the forest and may provide incentives to conservation and sustainable forest management (Clay, 1992; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Broekhoven, 1996). Many NTFPs can be harvested without much forest destruction, and thus maintaining essential environmental functions and preserving biodiversity (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). Furthermore, NTFPs are assumed to be potential sources of new products, valuable for international trade. Some of the medicinal plants might contain new chemical compounds of importance to modern medicine and the pharmaceutical industry.

However, as in most tropical forests, the wealth of biodiversity in Guyana and the country’s traditional inhabitants are under severe pressure from human encroachment and forest exploitation. Amerindians are often the only ones who know both the properties of the forest species and how they can best be utilised. Therefore, their knowledge must be considered an essential component of all efforts to conserve and develop the Amazonian forests (Gotlieb, 1981). However, strong influences from the outside world, such as logging, mining and missionary activities, are rapidly changing the traditional Amerindian culture. In this acculturation process, by some defined as ‘civilisation’, one of the first things to disintegrate is indigenous language. As most species used by forest people are known only by their indigenous names, the loss of native languages directly implies the loss of ethnobotanical knowledge. This has resulted in the sad phenomenon that in some areas the extensive knowledge of useful plants is disappearing even more rapidly than the plant species themselves. Practising shamans and their ritual knowledge have almost completely faded in Guyana, while youngsters are reluctant to learn the tools of the trade. In most communities, the information on plant use is scattered among elder men and women, who are often not aware of each other’s knowledge.

1.2 AIMS AND METHODS OF THIS RESEARCH

The purpose of this study was to assess the importance of NTFPs in the daily lives of forest-dwelling people, and to understand their role in the regional economy of Guyana’s North-West District (Figure 1.1). In the framework of the Tropenbos-Guyana programme, an extensive survey of NTFPs was carried out from 1995 to 1998. Detailed ethnobotanical inventories were made among the three Amerindian tribes in the region: Carib, Arawak, and Warao. The main study areas included the Carib village of Kariako (Barama River), the mixed Carib, Arawak, and Warao village of Koriabo (Barima River), the Arawak and Warao settlement of Assakata (Biara River), the Warao community of Warapoka (Waini River), and the large, predominantly Arawak village of Santa Rosa (Moruca River).

1 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Figure 1.1 Map of Guyana. The North-West District is indicated in the rectangle. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

2 1. Introduction

Additional information on plant use was recorded from Mabaruma, the lower Waini, Barima, and Kaituma Rivers, the upper Pomeroon River, Charity, and Georgetown (see Figure 1.2). To cover the widest variety of plants used by the Amerindian communities, the ‘walk-in-the-woods’ method as described in Prance et al. (1987) was combined with interviews and inventories in seven one-hectare plots in different vegetation types. Informants were chosen not only among adult men and women, but also among children and adolescents. Market surveys were held in Kariako, Santa Rosa, Charity, Mabaruma, and Georgetown. Export figures of NTFPs were calculated from commercial export invoices in the archives of the Guyana Forestry Commission. Duplicate specimens of all collected plants were deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Guyana (BRG) and the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (U).

A total of 587 useful wild plants were recorded. The 85 most important NTFPs are treated in detail in this guide, with an illustration, a description of their botanical features, geographical distribution and ecology, and an extensive account of their local and regional uses. Another 471 species are described shortly, with only the uses found in the study area and without literature comparison. The remaining 31 species are used for firewood only and thus merely listed with their scientific and local names. The 85 major NTFP-producing species were selected on their commercial importance, their multiple uses, and their role in the subsistence activities of local people. Several plant species not yet recorded as NTFP in literature were treated in more detail. Special attention has been given to the genus Inga, because a total of 24 species within this genus were producing edible fruits in the region. Plant species providing useful wood were also included in this study, since indigenous people use wood for a wide variety of purposes (e.g., house construction, paddles, bows, tool handles, wooden utensils, medicine, fish poison, and firewood). If a species was used as commercial timber, this was only briefly indicated.

This book is an attempt to recapture and preserve ethnobotanical knowledge before it is lost forever. It has been written for all persons interested in the wealth of products that Guyana’s rainforests have to offer, apart from just commercial timber. This guide may be of use to foresters, taxonomists, ecologists, inventory crews, forestry and botany students, eco-tourists, craft producers, local health workers, teachers, pharmaceuticals, persons interested in herbal medicine, people unable to afford modern medicine, and, last but not least, indigenous people themselves. Although this book is primarily focusing on northwest Guyana, many of the species can also be encountered in adjacent areas in Guyana, Venezuelan Guayana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Trinidad. It is hoped that the results of this study may enhance chances for conservation of the Guyanese forests, and alert phytochemists to the great potential of this biodiversity as a source of new medicinal compounds. Hopefully, this book may also increase the respect for the knowledge of those people that have been living and using the Guyanese forests for centuries.

1.3. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

1.3.1 Scientific names Scientific names are followed by the name of the author and the family. With reference to the synonyms, only those are mentioned which can frequently be encountered in literature, and thereby could cause confusion in daily practice. The 85 major NTFP-producing species are listed alphabetically by their scientific name.

1.3.2 Vernacular names The vernacular names given are limited to the languages that are traditionally spoken in northwest Guyana: Creole (Cr), the English language as it is widely used in Guyana, and the three Amerindian languages: Arawak (Ar), Carib (C), and Warao (Wr). Occasionally, some Spanish (Sp) names that were commonly used along the Moruca River are given as well. These names were probably introduced by the so-called ‘Spanish Arawaks’, descendants of indigenous groups who migrated at the beginning of the 19th century from Venezuela, and still form a substantial part of the Arawak population of Santa Rosa (Pierre, 1988).

3 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Figure 1.2 Map of the North-West District and Pomeroon region. Drawing by H.R. Rypkema.

4 1. Introduction

People in the North-West District frequently travel to Venezuela to work or visit their relatives. As a result, the Spanish language is quite often heard in the region, which also is reflected in the local ethnobotany.

Although many commonly used vernacular names in Guyana come from the Arawak; the language itself is hardly spoken anymore (Forte, 1988). There is a tendency to corrupt Arawak names into Creole terms, like the Arawak name ‘kufa’ (Clusia spp.), which has turned into ‘cooper’ in Creole. Arawak names recorded in the field were checked with Fanshawe’s exhaustive glossary of Arawak names of the North West and North Central districts (1949). If no Arawak name was recorded in the study area, names were taken from Fanshawe’s list as well. For the spelling of Arawak names the R.S.G. II system was used, a phonetic system using consonants as pronounced in English and vowels as pronounced in Italian.

The Carib language is still widely spoken in the Barama-Barima region. Nearly all the Carib names given in this guide were supplied by local informants. The spelling was discussed with Dr. B.J. Hoff, Carib linguist at Leiden University. Carib names of plants that do not occur in the Barama-Barima region (mostly concerning species growing in brackish swamps, like Humiria balsamifera) were taken from literature (Ahlbrink, 1931; Flora of Suriname 1966-1984; Courtz, 1997). Since most of these Carib names were of Surinamese origin, there might be some inaccuracy in dialect. The spelling of Carib names was done according to the recommendations made by Hoff. The ï should be pronounced as the ‘i’ as in bird, but then with a nasal sound. The y is pronounced as the ‘i’ in the word ‘drying’.

The Warao language is also still spoken, although not so actively as the Carib. Just a short period was spent among the Warao, and the plant names recorded from Warapoka (Waini) were supplied with Warao names from Reinders (1993), Charette (1980), the Flora of Venezuela (1964-1982), and the Flora of Venezuelan Guayana (1995-1999). Since few plant collectors in the Orinoco delta have paid attention to the Warao language, many names in this language are still to be recorded. Additional vernacular names were found on herbarium vouchers (U), in Mennega et al. (1988), and in the Flora of the Guianas (1985-1999). Many vernacular names used in the field are a combination of the Creole and Amerindian language (e.g., ‘black asepoko’, or ‘swamp type of payawaru’). Although not linguistically pure, these are the names as local tree spotters know them, and therefore they are included in this guide. Whenever a translation of the indigenous name was provided by the informant or in literature, this is mentioned in the notes accompanying the particular species. The vernacular name most commonly used in northwest Guyana is given in the top line of the page with the description of the particular species and is used throughout the text. Although the vast majority of useful plant species occurring in the North-West District is covered, this guide is by no means totally exhaustive. Additions and corrections in species, local names and uses are welcomed and can be sent to the author’s address.

1.3.3 Botanical description In the botanical description, information is given on those plant parts that can generally be observed in the field or on herbarium sheets. Emphasis is put on those features likely to be encountered in northwest Guyana. The trunk diameters given are measured at breast height (1.30 m above the forest floor). When in doubt about a certain non-timber forest product in the field, it is advisable to make a collection of the particular plant, preferably with flowers and/or fruits. This specimen should then be compared with specimens in a Herbarium, preferably in those Herbaria where duplicates of the plants collected in this study have been deposited (BRG or U). Assistance from an experienced tree spotter is also a valuable support for those who want to become acquainted with the NTFP-producing species mentioned in this field guide.

1.3.4 Distribution and ecology The general distribution of the treated species is taken from literature. The distribution in northwest Guyana is based on personal observations. Several forest types were sampled in detail: mixed primary forest, secondary forest (20 and 60 years old), seasonally flooded Mora forest, manicole swamp, and

5 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II quackal swamp, the latter two forest types occurring on peat soils. Plants were also collected in cultivated fields, abandoned farms, mangrove forests, and flooded savannas. More details about the floristic composition and geographical distribution of these forest types are given in the chapters 2 and 3 of Part I of this thesis. During the two years of fieldwork, phenological data were recorded for the species providing edible fruits. Information on general flowering and fruiting seasons were largely based on Polak (1992) and van Roosmalen (1985). Phenology data could not be traced for all species, since much information in this field is still lacking.

1.3.5 Use By far the most common methods of preparing a medicine of a bioactive species is boiling the plant in water and drinking the tea after removing the cooked plant parts (decoction). It is also common to boil several species of medicinal plants together (concoction). Plant parts may be soaked in hot or cold water (infusion), in rum, high wine, or other kinds of alcohol (tonic). Plants are boiled in water unless mentioned otherwise. Although the country has switched to the metric system, most Guyanese still use the English measurement units. Many of the recipes were originally given in pints (1 pt. = 0.568 litre) and pounds (1 lbs. = 0.454 kg). The prescriptions were given in this original form to facilitate their understanding in the Guyanese interior.

To release the active principles in fresh leaves, they are shortly heated (‘quailed’) over a fire or violently rolled and macerated between the hand palms, after which the sap is easily squeezed from the pulp. Detailed prescriptions and exact quantities are rarely given, since they are often variable and subject to trial and error. The recipes given in this guide should in no case be regarded as recommended prescriptions, and care should be taken with self-diagnosis and self-medication. The uses and preparations are noted down from informants, and should be viewed as folklore, which may or may not prove out. When planning to prepare a medicine from this guide, the reader is advised to seek help from an experienced person who is familiar with the recipe and the particular plant species.

Additional uses reported by other authors were mentioned when relevant. However, no exhaustive comparisons were made between plant use in the study area and other Neotropical countries. Medicinal plants used exclusively in Georgetown and surroundings are omitted from this guide, but they can be found in chapter 8 (Part I of this thesis). Local names for diseases are given between brackets or explained in the text, but complex medical terms have been avoided as much as possible. Quite a number of the medicinal plants listed in this guide have been pharmacologically screened for active principles, but the listing of detailed screening results of each species lays outside the scope of this guide. When relevant, references are made to pharmacological literature. More screening results from plant species occurring in the Guianas can be found in Grenand et al. (1987), Schultes and Raffauf (1990), Lachman-White et al. (1992), the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, and in medical abstracts and pharmacological databases on the internet, such as CABI (www.cabi.org), MEDLINE (www.nlm.nih.gov), Napralert (www.national.chiropractic.edu/academ/napralert.html), and ESA (www.ciagni.usp.br./planmedi).

1.3.6 Economy When a species was observed on local, regional, or national markets, or sold through other channels, this is mentioned under the economy section. Since few Amerindians possess chain saws, boards are almost always a commercial item. However, little attention has been paid to the commercialisation of timber products. The US dollar was chosen as the standard currency, since the Guyanese dollar has been subject to devaluation and is unknown to non-Guyanese. Throughout this guide, the rate of January 1998 was used (US$ 1 = G$ 141).

1.3.7 Notes The information given under this heading comprises of translations of the Amerindian names and references to colour plates.

1.3.8 Colour plates Several colour plates are provided to clarify the uses of several important NTFPs.

6 1. Introduction

1.3.9 Drawings Scale bars are provided for every drawing, in order to facilitate identification. The drawings of the trunk bases usually represent the lower two meters of the trunk. The different plant organs are explained in the legends.

1.3.10 Other useful plant species of northwest Guyana The remaining 471 useful plants are arranged alphabetically by their families. A short botanical description is provided, as well as some brief information about habitat and local uses. Only the uses found during this study are given. No details are given on uses mentioned in literature.

1.3.11 Species used for firewood only Species with no other use than firewood are listed in this table. Species used explicitly to start a fire or commercial firewood (e.g., Chrysobalanaceae) are considered more important and listed among the remaining useful plants species.

1.3.12 Agricultural species in northwest Guyana To avoid confusion with NTFPs, all cultivated (agricultural) species observed in the North-West District are listed in this table. These plants do not occur in the wild in the study area, and thus cannot be regarded as non-timber forest products. An exception is made for plants that escape from cultivation (e.g., Bambusa vulgaris). Wild plants taken from the forest and replanted in gardens and house yards are considered to be NTFPs and are treated as such. The list does not provide all the different cultivars of agricultural crops. It is neither exhaustive concerning ornamental plants.

1.3.13 Indices In order to facilitate the search for information on a particular species, an index is provided for the scientific names of the species included in this guide. Additionally, an index is supplied for the vernacular names of plants, as well as for local terms of illnesses and other plant uses.

7 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

3. OTHER USEFUL PLANT SPECIES OF THE NORTH-WEST DISTRICT OF GUYANA.

Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders ACANTHACEAE Herb to 30 cm high. Leaves simple, opposite. Flowers white, lower lip with purple spots. Introduced from India as medicinal plant, now a persistent weed in pastures, Moruca. The whole plant is boiled and drunk for colds.

Justicia calycina (Nees) Graham ACANTHACEAE St. John's bush (red type) (Cr), Warakaba bina1 (Ar), Akami, Woko potïrï (C) Herb to 1 m high. Leaves opposite. Stem with thick nodes. Flowers scarlet red, filaments long. Along forest creeks, planted in Barama house yards. Caribs believe this plant is a bina to make enemies forget their anger. The leaves are used in herbal baths or rubbed with perfume on the body. Instead of starting a fight, the rival will approach happily, like a tame warakaba (trumpet bird) does when he sees a passer-by. The sap from briefly heated and macerated leaves is squeezed in sore eyes. Warao boil the leaves for whooping cough and colds. (1) The leaves are folded downwards like the wings of the warakaba. The stem nodes resemble the bird’s knees.

Justicia pectoralis Jacq. ACANTHACEAE Toyeau, Purple toyeau (Cr). Herb to 50 cm high. Stem reddish. Leaves opposite. Flowers very small, white. Along forest creeks, often planted in house yards. A bundle of plants boiled in water gives a tea with a scent of spice and cloves, which is drunk as tea, but also against (whooping) cough and colds. It is boiled with daisy (Sphagneticola trilobata) into a cold medicine. Toyeau boiled with sweet sage (Lantana camara) and some other herbs is drunk for haemorrhage. In Georgetown, a tea is prepared from toyeau, sweet sage, teasam (Lippia alba), tulsie (Ocimum campechianum), and velvet (Waltheria indica) to make a cold medicine. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Justicia secunda Vahl ACANTHACEAE St. John’s bush (Cr). Herb, ca. 60 cm high Leaves opposite. Flowers pink. Along roads, occasionally planted in Moruca house yards. The branches (with or without flowers) are boiled, and the blood-red tea is drunk for colds, whooping cough, general weakness, to bitter the blood, and to prevent and cure malaria. The tea is taken regularly when suffering from anaemia, general weakness, or a heavy menstruation. The decoction is thought to ‘build up’ and purify the blood. The whole herb is used in herbal baths against measles and fever. A tea from St. John’s bush, white cleary (Heliotropium indicum), and information bush (Cyathillium cinereum) is drunk to provoke abortion. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Crinum erubescens L.f. ex Sol. AMARYLLIDACEAE White lily, Spider lily (Cr), Makwaka (Ar). Herb to 1 m tall. Bulb spongy, onion-like. Leaves linear. Flowers large, white, in whorls of four. In seasonally flooded savanna. The bulb is grated, mixed with water and salt and drunk against biliousness. This causes vomiting and has a strong laxative effect. It is used ‘to clean out the body’.

Hippeastrum puniceum (Lam.) Kuntze AMARYLLIDACEAE Red lily (Cr), Konopo sinary1 (C). Herb to 60 cm high. Bulb fleshy, white, onion-like. Leaves linear. Flowers showy, orange, with a green centre. In pastures, spared from weeding in house yards. For asthma and biliousness, the bulb is grated or chopped fine and boiled in half a litre of salted water. The mixture is boiled down, more water is added and boiled down again to a quarter litre. For adults, three bulbs are needed, for children one or two. After drinking a large cup the patient starts to vomit. Some warm water is drunk to throw up more slime from the chest. It also works as a laxative. The flowers are used for ornamental purposes. (1) ‘Rain whistle’ (Courtz, 1997).

244 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Hymenocallis tubiflora Salisb. AMARYLLIDACEAE Wild onion, Spider lily (Cr), Silvador (Sp), Makwaka (Ar), Yunu enekang, Parakawari (C), Tokolohoko (Wr). Erect herb. Bulb white, onion-like. Leaves elliptic, dark green. Flowers large, white. Along forest creeks. Leaves are briefly heated over a fire and tied on swellings or sprained limbs. To relieve headache, a leaf is stuck to the forehead with coconut oil. A remedy for slimy chest colds is prepared by boiling half a bulb until it becomes slimy. One spoon is given to children; four spoons to adults. After 15 minutes, the patient starts to vomit out the slime. The grated bulb is also applied as a poultice to swellings.

Astronium cf. lecointei Ducke ANACARDIACEAE Olo tree (Cr), Olo (Ar). Medium-sized tree. Inner bark orange, with turpentine smell. Leaves large, bipinnate. Flowers small, in pyramidal panicles. Drupe ellipsoid. In mixed forest. The bark is boiled with the barks of black maho (Rollinia exsucca) and black yarula (Aspidosperma excelsum) and used as an herbal bath to get rid of evil spirits. The bark is occasionally sold in Moruca. The resin is burned to chase away evil spirits, and used as incense in the Santa Rosa Catholic church.

Tapirira guianensis Aubl. ANACARDIACEAE Broad leaf / Small leaf waramir, Brown / White warimir (Cr), Duka, Waramia (Ar), Wataparïrï (C). Medium-sized tree. Leaves imparipinnate. Flowers small, yellow. Berry purple-black. Common in secondary forest. The species varies in habit and leaf morphology, the reason why local people distinguish two types. The fruits are edible and sweet, mostly eaten by children. The wood is locally used as boards, floors, and walls, but quickly decays in sun and rain. The slimy inner bark is scraped and put on sores and cuts to disinfect and stop the bleeding. The bark is sometimes mixed with a poultice of black banana stem (Musa sp.) for the same purpose. Wounds are washed with a decoction of the inner bark. In Barama, straight young trunks are used as house beams and as upright poles to weave hammocks. The wood is generally used as firewood.

Tapirira cf. obtusa (Benth.) Mitch. ANACARDIACEAE Duka (Ar), Wataparïrï (C). Medium-sized tree. Bark with resin scent. Leaves imparipinnate, yellowish puberulous when young. Occasional in secondary forest. The wood is generally used as firewood. People in Barama keep a piece of this wood in their house and scrape off wood curls in the morning to light the fire.

Thyrsodium guianense Sagot ANACARDIACEAE Sand mora (Cr). Medium-sized tree. Twigs ribbed. Leaves imparipinnate, with milky resin. Fruiting panicles tomentose. Drupe ellipsoid, yellowish green. Rare in mixed forest. The wood is said to be extremely poisonous and is used as fish poison. Throwing wood chips in a creek would turn the water pitch-black and instantly kill the fish. The guts, scales, and skin of the fish should quickly be removed, and the flesh thoroughly cleaned with lime to avoid digesting the poison. Although used more commonly in the past, people are now reluctant to use this poison. The wood is considered too poisonous for house construction or firewood. There is a possibility that informants confused this species with Talisia spp.

Anaxagorea dolichocarpa Sprague & Sandw. ANNONACEAE Maho (Cr), Kurihi koyoko1 (Ar), Aperemu, Kuwe enakarï2 (C), Bakera aba (Wr). Small tree. Bark with resin scent. Flowers yellow, produced from the main trunk. Monocarps free, club-shaped, brown. Common in Mora forest. The inner bark is used for head straps and lashing material, as substitute for the ‘real maho’ (Sterculia pruriens). The wood is used for rafters, runners, and flooring beams. The wood is carved into ‘bouncers’, blunt arrowheads to knock down birds. (1) ‘Rat ear’, after the club-shaped fruit (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Krekete chain’, as the fruits resemble krekete snail shells (Ampullaria sp.).

245 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Annona symphyocarpa Sandw. ANNONACEAE Maho (Cr), Duru (Ar). Small tree. Leaves whitish below. Fruit syncarpous, grey-green, areolate, glabrous. Rare in mixed forest. The sweet-scented inner bark is used for head straps and lashing material, to substitute the ‘real maho’ (Sterculia pruriens). The wood is used as firewood.

Bocageopsis multiflora (Mart.) R.E. Fr. ANNONACEAE Maho (Cr), Arara (Ar). Small tree. Outer bark dark red. Flowers small, white. Monocarps globose, small, free. Rare in disturbed primary forest, Moruca. The bark is used for lashing material, as substitute for the ‘real maho’ (Sterculia pruriens).

Duguetia calycina Benoist ANNONACEAE White broad leaf yariyari, Black yariyari (Cr), Yarayara (Ar), Yorokang pomïidyï1 (C), Dharadhara (Wr). Small tree. Bark strips off easily. Fruit a light brown, woody syncarp with stout spines, ca. 4 cm in diam. In mixed forest. The wood is sometimes used for fishing rods, bows, and roof rafters, but is of lesser quality than that of Duguetia pycnastera. The fruits were only once mentioned as edible. (1) ‘Devils pepper’.

Duguetia megalophylla R.E. Fr. ANNONACEAE Monkey soursop (Cr), Yarayara (Ar), Black isyanomandurïyï (C), Dharadhara (Wr). Small tree. Bark strips off easy, with pungent scent. Flowers large, greenish yellow. Syncarp soft- spined. Rare in Mora forest, Barama. The wood is used for house construction and carved into bouncer arrowheads. The bark is used for snakebites, as substitute for black yariyari (Unonopsis glaucopetala). The victim must suck on bark scrapings to ease the pain. The fruits were only once mentioned as edible.

Duguetia pauciflora Rusby ANNONACEAE White yariyari, Yariyari (Cr), Yarayara (Ar), Isyanomandurïyï (C), Dharadhara (Wr). Small tree. Bark strips off easily, inner bark orange, with pungent scent. Flowers white. Syncarp yellowish green, soft-spined. In mixed forest. The wood is sometimes used for fishing rods, bows, and housing, but is of lesser quality than Duguetia pycnastera. The bark is used for snakebites, as substitute for black yariyari (Unonopsis glaucopetala). The victim must suck on bark scrapings to ease the pain. The inner bark is used for head straps and lashing material, to substitute the ‘real maho’ (Sterculia pruriens).

Duguetia yeshidan Sandw. ANNONACEAE White yariyari (Cr), Yeshidan1 (Ar), White isyanomandurïyï (C), Dharadhara (Wr). Small tree. Bark with cucumber smell. Flowers yellow, ca. 3 cm long, cauliflorous. Syncarp green, soft-spined. Common in Mora forest. The wood is sometimes used for fishing rods, bows and roof rafters, but is of lesser quality than that of Duguetia pycnastera. The bark is used for snakebites, as substitute for black yariyari (Unonopsis glaucopetala). The victim must suck on bark scrapings to ease the pain. (1) ‘Armadillo tree’, after the spiny fruit (Fanshawe, 1949).

Guatteria schomburgkiana Mart ANNONACEAE Black maho, Black yariyari (Cr), Koyechi, Arara (Ar), Yaroyaro, Payuriran, Wayiru (C). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark black, flaky, inner bark yellow. Leaves softly hairy below. Flowers dull red. Monocarps free, 3-15, purple-black. In quackal swamp forest. The wood is used in house construction (runners, beams) and locally sawn into boards.

246 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Guatteria flexilis R.E. Fr. ANNONACEAE Black yariyari (different type) (Cr), Arara (Ar). Small tree. Bark dark brown, peels off easily. Flowers green, yellow in the centre. Monocarps free. Rare in secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is occasionally sawn into boards.

Guatteria sp. TVA666 ANNONACEAE Black maho (Cr), Kuyama, Arara (Ar), Yarayara (C). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark light brown, wood yellow, soft. In secondary forest, Barama. The wood is used for house construction (runners and beams) and firewood.

Rollinia exsucca (DC. ex Dunal) A. DC. ANNONACEAE Black maho, Wild sugarapple, Teddy bear tree (Cr), Koyechi1 (Ar), Sokowe, Kasimyarang2 (C), Dau horo3 (Wr). Small tree. Flowers yellowish green, propeller-like. Syncarp small, green. Common in secondary forest. The inner bark is used for head straps and lashing material, as substitute for the ‘real maho’ (Sterculia pruriens). The bark is used in herbal baths for fever. Pregnant women suffering from haemorrhage must drink large amounts of the bark decoction to prevent a miscarriage. To be effective, the bark should be harvested from mature trees. Children build miniature dogs from the propeller- shaped flowers. The wood is used as firewood. (1) ‘Quake string’, after the bark; (2) ‘Resembling kasimya’, the cultivated sugarapple (Rollinia mucosa); (3) ‘Skin tree’, after the bark.

Xylopia cayennensis Maas ANNONACEAE Black maho (Cr), Kuyama (Ar). Medium-sized tree with small buttresses. Bark strips off easily. Branches reddish. Young leaves orange. Monocarps free. In secondary forest. The wood is locally sawn into boards, used for house construction. The leaves of nine different branches are boiled in an herbal bath against fever.

Xylopia cf. surinamensis R.E. Fr. ANNONACEAE Kuyama (Ar), Black wepopi (C). Medium-sized tree. Small buttresses. Bark red-brown, wood white, turning orange when exposed. Branches rusty brown. Monocarps free, light yellow. Frequent in secondary forest. The wood is sometimes used for house construction and boards, but more often as firewood.

Xylopia sp. TVA1165 ANNONACEAE Kuyama (Ar), White wepopi (C). Large tree. Outer bark white, inner bark orange-yellow, wood yellow. In secondary forest, Barama. The trunk is used particularly as roof ridge in Carib houses and occasionally sawn into boards. Carib women prefer this wood as firewood to bake their traditional clay pottery. It was once mentioned that beating it with an axe head could flatten the bark to form resilient floors and walls, similar to balamanni bark (Catostemma commune).

Allamanda cathartica L. APOCYNACEAE Buttercup (Cr), Baruda balli1 (Ar), Keraporang, Amapa, Okuyumbo kerapore (C), Osibu akwantete2 (Wr). Scrambling shrub with white latex. Leaves in whorls of four. Flowers yellow, trumpet-shaped. Fruit green, spiny. In riverbank vegetation, but also cultivated as ornamental in coastal Guyana. The leaves are boiled and drunk against malaria. The tea serves as a laxative for biliousness. (1) ‘Comb-like’, after the spiny fruit (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Morocot comb’, since this fish feeds on the fruit.

Ambelania acida Aubl. APOCYNACEAE Monkey apple (Cr), Mapurio, Makoriro (Ar), Amapapari (C). Small tree with abundant white latex. Leaves opposite. Flowers in subsessile corymbs. Fruit large, yellow, with much sticky latex. In secondary forest, Moruca. The fruit has a delicious taste, but the skin must first be pounded with a club or cutlass handle to get rid of the juicy latex. If not pounded and peeled, the fruit is too sticky to eat. Monkeys also beat the fruit on a branch to remove the latex before consuming it.

247 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Aspidosperma cf. cruentum Woodson APOCYNACEAE Red yarula (Cr), Yaruru (Ar, Wr), Apukuitya (C). Large tree. Stem deeply fluted. Outer bark dark grey, inner bark yellow. Leaves opposite, with little red latex. Fruit circular, dehiscent. Seeds broadly winged. Rare in mixed forest. Paddles are carved from the fluted trunk. A tea from the bark is drunk in small quantities for malaria, but an overdose can be fatal.

Aspidosperma excelsum Benth. APOCYNACEAE Black yarula (Cr) Yaruru (Ar, Wr), Tupuru Apukuitya (C). Large tree. Stem deeply fluted. Outer bark brown, inner bark yellow, with little white latex and a poisonous scent. Leaves opposite, grey below. Fruit sessile. Seeds winged. Frequent in mixed forest. The black and white yarula (A. marcgravianum) are considered the best wood for paddles. A rectangular piece is split from the fluted trunk and carved into a paddle. Wooden slippers and axe handles are made from the wood as well. A small piece of the outer bark is boiled and two mouthfuls of the bitter tea are drunk for nine mornings to cure malaria. The tea is boiled down for an hour into a very bitter, thick, yellow liquid. This is drunk to bitter the blood, to prevent malaria and other diseases. A calabash full of the tea from bark scrapings taken early in the morning works as abortifacient. If the red wood ear mushroom (Pycnoporus sanguineus) is added, the woman will become completely sterile. In Moruca, charcoal is made from black yarula wood by burning it slowly for two days in a deep pit covered with green leaves. The coal is sold in Charity for US$ 0.35 a rice bag. Two trees of 20 m tall will produce 200 bags of charcoal.

Aspidosperma sp. TVA996 APOCYNACEAE Jelly tree (Cr), Patara, Patawarang (C). Small tree. Outer bark yellowish brown, warty, lenticellate, inner bark orange-white, with bitter, transparent exudate, turning into a jelly-like substance after a day. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. The bark strips off easily and is plaited into a temporary ‘bush hammock’. The wood is said to be very strong, suitable for bulldozer bridges, boards, and canoes. This species is rare and thus seldom used.

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don APOCYNACEAE Old maid flower, Periwinkle (Cr). Herb to 60 cm high. Leaves opposite, white below, strong-scented. Flowers pink to white. Native to Madagascar, cultivated as ornamental and escaped as weed throughout the tropics. In Moruca, the leaves are boiled and taken as a diuretic by men having trouble with urinating. In Georgetown, the tea is drunk for diabetes. A tea prepared from the flowers alone is taken for irregular heart beating. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Forsteronia guyanensis Müll. Arg. APOCYNACEAE Acouri tail (Cr), Makwariballi1 (Ar), Akuri andïkïrï2 (C). Liana with white latex. Roots long-creeping, with bright red shoots. Leaves opposite. Follicles in pairs, long, thin, pendent. Common in Mora forest. The latex from the roots is sniffed up by people with a stuffed nose from cold. It gives a burning sensation and induces violent sneezing, thereby releasing the slime. According to an old Carib belief, bad spirits poor this latex into the nose of sleeping persons to bother them at night. (1) ‘Whip’, from the long, flexible shoots (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Acuri tail’, after the long, flexible shoots.

Himatanthus articulatus (Vahl) Woodson APOCYNACEAE Cow wood (Cr), Mabuwa (Ar), Ana-ï (C). Large tree. Outer bark light brown, inner bark reddish purple, with abundant white latex. Leaves opposite. Flowers white. Follicles paired, green, to 30 cm long. Occasional in secondary forest, Moruca. The long-lasting wood is used for canoes.

248 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Macoubea guianensis Aubl. APOCYNACEAE Cow wood, Wild pear (Cr), Dukali, Rokoroko (Ar), Sokosoko (C). Large tree. Trunk with large, bumpy warts. Abundant white latex from bark, twigs, and leaves. Leaves opposite. Flowers white. Follicles paired, globose, brown, woody, ca. 8 cm in diam. Seeds many, orange. In quackal swamp forest. In the past, the latex was mixed with commercially harvested balata (Manilkara bidentata), but today it is used only as glue. The wood is made into boards and canoes. Hunters wait near the tree at night to shoot tapirs feeding on the fruits.

Malouetia flavescens (Willd.) Müll. Arg. APOCYNACEAE Kirikahü (Ar), Tapukeng1 (C). Shrub to 4 m tall, with white latex. Leaves opposite. Flowers white. Follicles paired, green. In Mora forest. The species is extremely poisonous, and its use was surrounded by some secrecy. In the deep interior, it may be used to poison enemies. (1) The Carib name means ‘it has milk’.

Odontadenia sandwithiana Woodson APOCYNACEAE Buttercup (Cr), Tapukeng (C). Woody climber. Latex white. Leaves opposite. Flowers yellow, showy, petals contorted, sweet-scented. In secondary forest, Moruca. The leaves are boiled and the milky tea is drunk by people suffering from pain and internal bleedings that have resulted from falling or fighting. Hindus in the interior use the flowers during their offering rituals.

Tabernaemontana disticha A. DC. APOCYNACEAE Firemother (Cr), Hekunu arau, Hima heru (Wr). Small tree. Stem slightly flattened. Bark dark brown. Latex white, abundant. Leaves opposite. Flowers small, petals contorted. Follicles fleshy, paired. Occasional in swamp forest on pegasse. Branches of this tree were used in the past to start a fire by rapidly swizzling a small stick in a hole made in a larger branch of the same wood. After a while, this becomes very hot and starts to sparkle and smoke. Some trysil bark (Pentaclethra macroloba) is sprinkled over it to light the fire. Branches were kept for months in the roof above the fireplace to make sure they were completely dry. In times of warfare, when people had to escape their villages and seek shelter in the forest, a dry stick of firemother was carried along to start a fire during the flight. To treat scorpion bites, the bark is scraped, mixed with water and drunk, while some scrapings are applied to the bite.

Tabernaemontana undulata (Vahl) A. DC. APOCYNACEAE Dog stone1, Baboon stone1 (Cr), Buri2 (Ar), Perro emurutano, Arawata emurutano (C). Shrub or small tree. Leaves opposite. Latex white. Flowers small, tubular, white and pink. Follicles green, paired, hard. Abundant in Mora forest. The latex is dripped into sore eyes and on munuri ant bites. The sap from the scraped root is squeezed in the eyes as a remedy for headache. It burns heavily at first, but apparently eases the pain afterwards. (1) The fruit resembles animal testicles, translations of the Carib names; (2) ‘Bat’, as the fruits are eaten by this animal (Fanshawe, 1949).

Caladium schomburgkii Schott ARACEAE Labba bina (Ar), Urana turara (C). Small, fleshy herb. Leaves green with white stripes. Petiole fleshy, white. Wild, but often planted in Amerindian house yards. The leaves are used as a hunting charm for labba. Hunters carry a leaf in their pocket when they go in the forest, to increase their chance to find a labba. Leaves are mixed through the food of hunting dogs. Puppies are bathed with the leaves to increase their skills to hunt labba. The white stripes on the leaves resemble the white spots on the animals fur.

249 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Dieffenbachia cf. humilus Poepp. ARACEAE Dungcane, Donkin (Cr), Djotaro, Djoturu, Jotoro (Ar), Karuwara aibihi1 (Wr). Erect shrub to 1 m tall. Petioles spotted green and white, with white, acrid exudate. Leaves spotted light and dark green, foul-scented. In secondary forest, Barima. The sap is used to expel mosquito worms from a dog’s skin. People believe that walking on the rotten leaves causes ground itch. (1) The Warao name means ‘charm against karuwara’, a caterpillar with painful stings.

Dieffenbachia paludicola N.E. Br. ARACEAE Djotaro, Djoturu, Jotoro (Ar), Pakarawari (C), Karuwara aibihi (Wr). Herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves long, erect, with white, acrid exudate. Forming large colonies in manicole swamps. Djotoro leaves are used to ‘trick dead’: if somebody dies unexpectedly, or under suspect circumstances, people may believe this person was poisoned or murdered. To find the offender, a cross of djotoro leaves is placed in the coffin before the deceased is laid down in it. A few days after the funeral, the murderer will betray himself by contracting a terrible itch over his body, which will subsequently lead to his death. Leaves of the cultivated fish poison kunaparu (Euphorbia cotinifolia) are used similarly.

Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana (Schott) Madison ARACEAE Hanaquablar, Itch bush (Cr), Halakwa bana1 (Ar), Kusari pana, Sityubi (C), Daroko harahara1 (Wr). Large epiphyte. Petioles spongy, with white spots. Leaves alternate, fleshy, with holes. Spadix large, white. Common in secondary forest and manicole swamp. To ease the pain of swellings and abscesses, a leaf is briefly heated over the fire, rubbed with coconut oil, and tied on the hurting spot. To relieve snake and scorpion bites, the inner side of a young shoot is scraped, warmed over the fire and applied to the bite with a bandage. (1) The Arawak and the Warao name both signify ‘leaf with holes in it’.

Philodendron cf. brevispathum Schott ARACEAE Hanaquablar (Cr). Hemi-epiphyte. Stem base covered with brown scales. Leaves alternate, large, heart-shaped, fleshy, dark green with light green stripes. Spadix greenish white at base, white at apex. Common in manicole swamp. In Assakata, the shoots are scraped and applied to scorpion bites.

Philodendron deflexum Poepp. ex Schott ARACEAE White sideru, Sideru einaporeidyï (C). Epiphyte, often growing in ants nests. Aerial roots light brown, with thick, warty bulbs, and strong resin scent. Petioles terete. Leaves alternate, sagittate. In secondary forest and Mora swamps. The thickened parts of the aerial roots are scraped or grated and applied to munuri ant bites. The roots serve as inferior binding material.

Philodendron fragrantissimum (Hook.) Kunth ARACEAE Turuturu vine, Fire rope, Tree sarsparilla (Cr), Turuturu, Otokane (C). Large epiphyte. Aerial roots thin. Stem base with brown scales. Petiole flattened, winged, sweet- scented. Leaves alternate, large, sagittate. Spathe red, spadix white. In mixed forest and manicole swamp. The aerial roots are used as a minor binding material to tie bundles of manicole cabbage (Euterpe oleracea). The stem base is cleaned and boiled, and the brown tea is drunk, just as tea or to cure impotence. The large leaves are sometimes used as a shelter for rain. The acrid, milky sap from the aerial roots is applied to mosquito worms.

Philodendron grandifolia (Jacq.) Schott ARACEAE White durubana (Cr), Dorobana (Ar). Large hemi-epiphyte. Stem stout, mostly bare. Aerial roots long, thin. Leaves sagittate. Common in manicole swamp. The aerial roots are used as a minor binding material or ‘bush rope’, but they are not very strong.

250 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Philodendron linnaei Kunth ARACEAE Long leaf hanaquablar (Cr), Marudi hi1 (Ar). Hemi-epiphyte. Aerial roots green. Petiole short. Leaves alternate, oblong, leathery, pinkish, rolled inwards when young. Spathe pink at base, white at top. Spadix white, strong-scented. In Mora forest and manicole swamp. To ease the pain of swellings, a leaf is briefly heated over a fire, rubbed on the skin, or tied as a bandage on the hurting spot. The pinkish, biting sap is rubbed on ringworm. (1) ‘Marudi tail’, after the long, narrowly elliptic leaves (Fanshawe, 1949).

Philodendron melinonii Brongn. ex Regel ARACEAE Broad leaf durubana (Cr), Dorobana (Ar). Large hemi-epiphyte. Stem and leaf base covered with red scales. Petiole flattened above. Leaves alternate, very large, leathery. Abundant in manicole swamp. In Assakata, the leaves are used as ‘stopper’ in boats to protect goods from the rain, or as temporary umbrella. Leaves are tucked in thatched roofs to block holes and used to protect fresh fish from the sun. The aerial roots are used as fishing line, as a substitute for polyethylene line.

Philodendron pedatum (Hook.) Kunth ARACEAE Hanaquablar (Cr). Large hemi-epiphyte to 6 m tall. Petioles long, with red spots. Leaves alternate, 3-lobed, irregularly pinnatifid, sharp but pleasantly scented, with brown, irritating sap. Frequent in Mora forest and swamp forest on pegasse. In Barama, the leaves are boiled and drunk as a tea against back pain.

Philodendron rudgeanum Schott ARACEAE Black sideru (C). Small hemi-epiphyte. Aereal roots thin, brown. Petiole winged. Leaves alternate, fleshy. Spathe green. Spadix dark brown. Common in mixed, secondary forest, and swamp forest. The aerial roots are used as inferior bush rope to tie fish or bait wrapped in a leaf. Such packages were called ‘sijomba’ (C) in Barama.

Philodendron scandens K. Koch & Sello ARACEAE Face to the east, Spotted hanaquablar, Wild bajee, Silver leaf, Labaria bush (Cr), Yaruka bura bura (Ar), Okoyu rarï1 (C), Nahutoto (Wr). Hemi-epiphyte, climbing flat against the tree trunk. Leaves alternate, first sessile, later pendent and heart-shaped, with silvery patterns. Common in Mora swamp, frequent in other forest types. When bitten by a labaria snake or munuri ant, the leaves are boiled and drunk as a tea. One leaf is put as a plaster on the bite. A leaf is boiled or briefly heated over a fire and put as a disinfectant plaster on cuts and sores. Pounded leaves are mixed with salt as a poultice on persistent sores (bush yaws, leishmaniasis). The sap from heated leaves is dripped in sore eyes. Due to the variety in habit and shape of this species, local people distinguish various types. (1) The Carib name means ‘snake belly’.

Philodendron surinamense (Schott) Engler ARACEAE Black rope (Cr). Hemi-epiphyte. Aerial roots long, pendent. Petioles pink, fleshy. Leaves alternate, fleshy. Spadix thick, fleshy, pink. In mixed forest and swamps on pegasse. The aerial roots serve as inferior binding material, used in Assakata to tie the legs of game animals.

Spathiphyllum cannifolium (Dryand.) Schott ARACEAE Pakarawari (C). Clump-forming herb to 75 cm high. Leaves alternate. Peduncle long. Spathe large, fleshy, whitish green. Spadix yellowish green. Forming dense colonies in creeks and in Mora and manicole swamps. The leaves are used as wrapping material.

251 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Urospatha sagittifolia (Rudge) Schott ARACEAE Labaria bina (black type) (Cr), Ole balli (Ar), Masalajang (C), Kabaha (Wr). Erect herb to 2 m high. Petiole long, green and purple. Leaves alternate, sagittate. Spathe purple-green outside, whitish green inside, apex long, spirally coiled. Spadix whitish green. In flooded savanna. People believe that lashing their feet with the petiole, which is spotted and dark like the skin of the labaria snake, will protect them from its bites.

Schefflera morototoni (Aubl.) Maguire, Steyerm. & Frodin ARALIACEAE Matchwood, Mad stick (Cr), Sungsung, Simarupa, Karahuru, Karohoro (Ar), Morototo-ï (C), Omu (Wr). Large tree with open crown. Leaves alternate, palmately compound, yellow puberulous when young. Flowers and fruits in broad panicles. Abundant in secondary forest and abandoned fields. The wood of this tree lights easily when dry. In the past, fire was made by rapidly swizzling a small matchwood stick in a hole in a piece of hardwood. Nowadays, people light the fire with wood curls scraped from a matchwood branch. The wood is a commercial timber, used by Amerindians to carve benches, guitars, and banjos. In the past, the traditional Carib sambura drums were made of this wood. The slimy bark scrapings are applied to cuts and sores. For scorpion bites, the sap squeezed from bark scrapings is warmed and drunk, while some scrapings are put on the bite. Nine leaves are boiled in a herbal bath against fever.

Aristolochia sp. TVA573 ARISTOLOCHIACEAE Heart weed, Problem bush (Cr), Warakaba bina (Ar), Akami (C), Murahaka (Wr). Delicate vine. Leaves alternate, heart-shaped. Flowers not seen. Grown in Amerindian house yards, but probably of wild origin. People ascribe magic powers to this plant and say brings luck and makes enemies or annoyed beloved ones forget their anger. The leaves are rubbed on the body or a piece of vine is kept in the pocket. Instead of starting an argument, people will approach the person happily, like a tame warakaba bird does when seeing a passer-by. Leaves are hidden in the house to bring financial luck. The vine is also used to stay out of the hands of the police. When going to court, the suspect hides some leaves on his body to be sure the judge will be on his side. The plant is believed to win somebody’s love, render a person madly in love, or keep a man or women by your side forever. Many people are afraid to become spellbound by such bina plants. The Caribs in particular are said to use powerful binas, but Arawak and Warao grow and use them as well. One of the few remedies to get rid of the spell is rubbing the body thoroughly with lime juice.

Auricularia delicata (Fr.) Henn AURICULARIACEAE Brown wood ear (Cr), Barati-jike1 (Ar). Mushroom. Hood cup-shaped, rubber-like, smooth, brown and shiny above, brown and reticulate below. Growing on decayed wood in disturbed primary forest. The mushroom is edible and cooked in stew. (1) The Arawak name means ‘Negro ear’ (Fanshawe, 1949).

Laetipous sp. TVA1997 AURICULARIACEAE Red wood ear (Cr) Mushroom. Hood spongy, bright orange above, pale yellow below. Growing on burned logs in cultivated fields. A handful of mushrooms is boiled and drunk by women with a heavy menstruation. The medicine is said to shorten the menstruation drastically and decrease the loss of blood.

Pycnoporus sanguineus (L.: Fr.) Murrill AURICULARIACEAE Red wood ear (Cr), Koyara te1 (Ar), Urupe (C). Mushroom. Hood stiff, bright orange. Frequent on burned wood in cultivated fields. A handful of mushrooms is boiled and drunk as tea by women with a heavy menstruation. The medicine is said to shorten the menstruation drastically and decrease the loss of blood. (1) ‘Deer guts’, after the shape of the hood (Fanshawe, 1949).

252 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Callichlamys latifolia (Rich.) K. Schum. BIGNONIACEAE Woody climber. Leaves opposite, 3-foliate. Flowers shiny yellow, sweet-scented, calyx thick and spongy, corolla trumpet-shaped. Pod ellipsoid, green. Frequent in riverbank Mora forest. The stem is used as ‘bush rope’ to tie logs together and make rafts.

Ceratophytum tetragonolabus (Jacq.) Sprague & Sandw. BIGNONIACEAE White rope (Cr), Tamuneng simyo (C). Woody climber, with interpetiolar glandular fields. Leaves opposite, 3-foliate or 2-foliate with a trifid tendril. Flowers tubular, cream to white. Common in riverbank Mora forest. The stem is used as ‘bush rope’ to tie logs and rafts. To the annoyance of craft makers, the stem is sometimes sold as kufa (Clusia spp.), but it lacks the required qualities for furniture making.

Crescentia amazonica Ducke BIGNONIACEAE Watermomma calabash (Cr). Small tree. Branches strikingly horizontal. Leaves clustered. Flowers large, green, on trunk. Fruit a small calabash, with a repulsive smell. Occasional on flooded riverbanks, upper Barima. The dried fruits are used as boat bailer, bowl, or drinking cup, similar to the cultivated calabash (Crescentia cujete), but they are softer and more fragile.

Cydista aequinoctialis (L.) Miers BIGNONIACEAE Woody climber. Leaves opposite, 2-foliate, with a simple tendril. Flowers showy, tubular, pink and white. Pod long, flat. Common in riverbank Mora forest, often forming ‘curtains’ of flowers. The stem is used as bush rope.

Jacaranda copaia (Aubl.) D. Don. subsp. copaia BIGNONIACEAE Simarupa (soft kind) (Cr), Futui (Ar), Simarupa, Kupaya (C), Simaruba (Wr). Large canopy tree. Leaves opposite, bipinnate, with repulsive smell. Flowers showy, bright purple. Pod flat, green. Seeds winged. In secondary and disturbed primary forest. The soft, white wood is a commercial timber, locally used to make cassava grater boards. When a baby is born in Barama, the fresh leaves are thrown in the fire to ward off the evil spirits that might attack the newborn. In Warapoka, the leaves are burnt under the hammocks of patients suffering from fever caused by malicious spells.

Jacaranda obtusifolia Bonpl. subsp. rhombifolia (G. Mey.) A.H. Gentry BIGNONIACEAE Bad luck tree, Sand trysil, Wakenaam lilac (Cr), Arasisi-i, Wotokoraru (C). Small tree. Leaves opposite, bipinnate. Flowers showy, metallic purple, white inside. Pod flat, green. Seeds winged. Occasional in open secondary forest, sometimes spared from felling as ornamental. The wood is used as firewood. The flowers are cut as ornamentals, but wither quickly. In Georgetown, the species is planted along the streets as ornamental. When the purple flowers are lying massively on the forest floor, Warao see this as a sign of bad luck, a prelude that old people and babies will become infected with bowel disorders and dysentery.

Macfadyenia cf. unguis-cati (L.) A.H. Gentry BIGNONIACEAE Bat nail (Cr). Small vine. Leaves opposite, 2-foliate, with trifid tendril. Flowers large, yellow. Pod narrow, linear. Seeds winged. Occasional in secondary forest, Barima. The vine is boiled and drunk by women suffering from haemorrhage. If women use it for a longer period they will become sterile, even though their menstruation continues.

Mansoa kerere (Aubl.) A.H. Gentry BIGNONIACEAE Kamuru rope (white type) (Ar). Woody climber. Stem with interpetiolar glandular fields. Leaves opposite, 2-foliate, with a trifid tendril. Flowers white to magenta. Pod flat, with thick valves. Seeds winged. In manicole swamp. The stem is used as bush rope to tie logs together and make rafts.

253 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Parabignonia steyermarkii Sandw. BIGNONIACEAE Bat finger (Cr), Rere einyarï, Kïrïring (C). Woody climber. Leaves opposite, 2-foliate, with a small, claw-like tendril. Flowers magenta. Pod narrow, long, flat. Seeds winged. In abandoned fields and secondary forest. The stem is used as bush rope.

Pleonotoma albiflora (Salzm. ex DC.) A.H. Gentry BIGNONIACEAE Kamoro (Ar). Woody climber. Branches tetragonal. Leaves opposite, 3-foliate or 2-foliate with a trifid tendril. Flowers white. Pod long, flat. Seeds winged. In abandoned fields and secondary forest. The stem is used as bush rope. The stem is twisted to become flexible and then used as a sturdy fishing line.

Schlegelia violacea (Aubl.) Griseb. BIGNONIACEAE Bultata kobia1 (Ar), Simyo epïrïrï (C). Woody climber. Leaves opposite, simple, thick, leathery, without tendrils. Flowers in terminal panicles, small, tubular, bright pink. Berry globose. Common in Mora and manicole swamp. The clear water from the stem is dripped into sore eyes. Pregnant women in Barama believe that playing with the flowers will bring them a baby boy. (1) ‘Eye lotion of the red-throated caracara’, a noisy hawk also known as ‘high bush antiman’ (Daptrius americanus).

Tabebuia serratifolia (Vahl.) Nichols. BIGNONIACEAE White hakia (Ar), Haküya (Ar), Washiba (Ar, C, Wr), Arawone (C). Large tree. Leaves opposite, digitate, margins serrate, yellowish tomentose when young. Flowers yellow, slightly puberulous. Pod very long, flat. Seeds winged. Rare in mixed forest. The wood is very hard and locally used for strong pegs and bows.

Blechnum serrulatum Rich. BLECHNACEAE Ginger grass, Hassa bush, Hassa grass (Cr), Asa jike1 (Ar). Large terrestrial fern. Fronds pinnate, curled when young. Sori linear, continuously along each side of the midrib. Forming dense colonies in frequently burned, seasonally flooded savanna, also as weed in cultivated fields. The curled tops are crushed until soft and slimy and applied to abscesses to break them open. The leaves are also used as toilet paper. (1) This name means ‘hassa ear’, after the shape of the pinnae (Fanshawe, 1949). The hassa fish is said to hide between these ferns.

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. BOMBACACEAE Silk cotton tree (Cr), Kumaka (C, Ar), Makau (C), Iju, Okobato arau (Wr). Very large tree with high buttresses. Young stems with spines. Leaves alternate, palmately compound. Capsule brown. Seeds numerous, with silky hairs. Occasional in riverbank Mora forest. The tree is believed to be inhabited by evil spirits, left by cruel Dutch slave masters to guard the treasures buried between the giant buttresses. People are reluctant to fell the tree, fearing the ‘Dutch jumbies’, the reason why the species is often seen as relic. The wood is very light and carved into gold battels by Amerindian pork-knockers. It is also used for miniature toy boats, dragged forward with a fish line. The fluffy seed mass may be used to fill up pillows.

Pachira aquatica Aubl. BOMBACACEAE Wild cocoa (Cr), Kanihiri, Konaheri (Ar), Mau mau (C), Kobel (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves alternate, palmately compound. Flowers large, yellow. Anthers long, white, with pink tips. Capsule large, brown, woody. Seeds globose. Abundant along brackish rivers. The orange inner bark is boiled and drunk against dysentery, bloody diarrhoea, and disorders of the liver and bowels. An infusion of the bitter bark scrapings is taken for the same illnesses. The bark strips may be used as lashing material to substitute the ‘real maho’ (Sterculia pruriens). The seeds are cut open to consume the jelly inside, which tastes like chocolate.

254 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Cordia curassavica (Jacq.) Roem & Schult. BORAGINACEAE Black sage (Cr), Wonu1 (C). Shrub to 2 m tall. Leaves alternate, serrate, rough, strong-scented. Flowers yellowish green, in terminal panicles. Drupe red. In secondary shrubland. The branch is chewed until fibrous and used as toothbrush by people who cannot afford plastic brushes. The sap from the twigs has cleaning properties. When president Burnham banned the import of luxury goods in the 1970s, black sage was widely used as a toothbrush in Guyana. A tea from the leaves is drunk for high blood pressure. Crushed young leaves are put as a poultice on cuts. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) ‘Itch wood’, after the rough leaves.

Cordia exaltata Lam. var. melanoneura (Klotzsch) I.M. Johnst. BORAGINACEAE Maho (other type) (Cr). Small tree. Outer bark white, inner bark yellow. Leaves alternate, with a bad smell. Flowers small, white, with long anthers. Drupe red to orange. In secondary forest, Moruca. The bark is used as minor lashing material.

Cordia sericicalyx A. DC. BORAGINACEAE Grandma cherry (small leaf) (Cr), Yuwanaro, Kakhoro (Ar), Omose (C). Small tree. Leaves alternate, variable in shape. Flowers white. Drupe greenish yellow to white. Rare in disturbed mixed forest, Moruca. The bark strips off easily, but it is not very strong and seldom used as lashing material. The sticky fruit pulp is used as glue to paste paper and kites. The pulp can be eaten as well.

Cordia tetrandra Aubl. BORAGINACEAE Grandma cherry (long leaf) (Cr), Yuwanaro, Kakhoro (Ar), Araturuka (C). Flat-topped tree to 12 m tall. Inner bark turns orange after exposure. Branches and leaves rough. Leaves alternate. Flowers white. Drupe ellipsoid, greenish white. Common on flooded riverbanks, occasionally in disturbed primary forest. The sticky fruit pulp is used as glue in schools to paste paper, kites, and books. The bittersweet fruit pulp is eaten by small children. Hunters wait under fruiting trees to shoot birds feeding on the fruits.

Heliotropium indicum L. BORAGINACEAE White cleary, Wild clary (Cr). Herb to 1 m high. Leaves alternate, covered with white hairs when young. Flowers numerous, small, white, in scorpioid cymes. Often spared from weeding in pastures. The whole plant is boiled and drunk against diabetes, female impotence, and excessive vaginal discharge (‘passing too much white’). The tea is said to clean out the uterus. St. John's bush (Justicia secunda) and information bush (Cyathillium cinereum) are added to give the tea abortive properties. The plant is boiled with lime root (Citrus aurantifolia), the male flowers and the heart or ‘cabbage’ of a pawpaw tree (Carica papaya), and drunk against venereal diseases. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Araeococcus micranthus Brongn. BROMELIACEAE Bird ochroe (Cr), Karawasaka (C). Epiphyte. Leaves rosulate, linear, margins spiny. Flowers yellow in erect, red, lax panicles. Seeds in slimy pulp. Frequent in coastal swamps, occasional in Mora forest. The spines are scraped off and the leaves are macerated in cold water. A spoonful is given in the morning and evening to babies with thrush.

Bromelia plumieri (E. Morren) L.B. Smith BROMELIACEAE Wild pine (Cr), Kurubishuru (Wr). Large terrestrial herb. Leaves to 3 m long, in dense, spreading rosette. Margins with curved spines. Fruits pale yellow, brown pilose, in large clusters on the ground. On white sand. The fruit pulp is edible, but the skin must be peeled off and seeds are many and hard. The fruit is used with some salt to prevent the sap from irritating the mouth. The species was seen only on the Waramuri shell mount, planted or spared from weeding long ago.

255 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Disteganthus lateralis (L.B. Smith) Gouda BROMELIACEAE Wild pine (Cr) Panansiwiri (C). Herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves light green, in rosette, margins spiny. Flowers white. Inflorescence dark red at base. Fruits yellow, acuminate, brown pilose. Locally abundant in mixed forest. The fruit pulp is sour-sweet and edible, but the sap slightly irritates the mouth. The species was found only near the Assakata shell mount, where it was probably grown or spared from weeding by ancient inhabitants.

Protium decandrum Marchand BURSERACEAE White kurokai, Incense tree, Broad leaf haiawa (Cr), Duka, Haiawa, Porokai (Ar), Arïwa-u (C). Large tree. Bark with sweet-scented, transparent resin. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate. Flowers small, white, in panicles. Drupe green, asymmetric, dehiscing when ripe. Common in mixed forest. The bark is slashed and the sticky coagulated resin is collected the following day. It is used as incense, made into candles, or rubbed with coconut oil on painful limbs and arthritis. The resin is burned in the Santa Rosa Catholic Church. The second layer of bark is scraped off, dried, powdered, and applied to cuts, sores, and fire burns. The wood is a commercial timber, locally sawn into boards for house construction. Trunks are occasionally made into canoes.

Protium guianense Marchand BURSERACEAE Kurokai, Small leaf haiawa (Cr), Haiawa, Porokai (Ar). Medium-sized tree. Bark with sweet-scented, transparent resin. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate. Flowers small, white, in panicles. Drupe green, asymmetric. Occasional in mixed forest. The bark is slashed and the sticky coagulated resin is collected the following day. It is burned as incense, and believed to invite the good spirits while chasing away the bad ones. The wood is used to make boards and canoes.

Protium unifoliatum Engl. BURSERACEAE Incense tree (Cr), Haiawa, Porokai (Ar). Small tree. Resin cream, sweet-scented. Leaves alternate, simple, slightly serrate. Flowers small, white, in panicles. Drupe green, asymmetric. Rare in disturbed primary forest, Moruca. The wood is used for canoes or sawn into boards. The resin is burned as incense.

Protium sp. TVA1038 BURSERACEAE Brown kurokai (Cr). Medium-sized tree. Small buttresses. Outer bark orange brown, inner bark pink, sweet-scented, wood white. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, swollen at base. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. The inner bark is scraped off, dried, powdered, and applied to cuts, sores, and fire burns.

Tetragastris altissima (Aubl.) Swart BURSERACEAE Bread and cheese (Cr), Haiawaballi (Ar), Pïrïka (C). Large tree to 30 m tall. Outer bark brown, flaky, inner bark orange. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate. Flowers small, white, in panicles. Drupe 4-lobed, yellowish red. In mixed and secondary forest, Barama. The white aril around the seeds is edible. The creamy resin is occasionally burned as incense. The wood is a commercial timber. It is locally used for boards, furniture, canoes, and firewood.

Trattinnickia cf. lawrancei Standl. var. boliviana Swart BURSERACEAE Fine leaf haiawa (Cr), Haiawa (Ar). Tree to 15 m tall. Outer bark light brown, lenticellate, inner bark pinkish brown. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate, rough below. Drupe purple-black. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. The wood is used for boards and canoes. The resin is burned as incense.

256 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Trattinnickia burserifolia Mart. BURSERACEAE Swamp haiawa, Broad leaf haiawa (Cr), Haiawa, Ulu (Ar). Medium-sized tree to 20 m tall. Bark with strong-scented resin. Wood white. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate. Flowers very small, pink. Drupe globose, red. In quackal swamp forest. The resin is burned as incense.

Epiphyllum phyllanthus (L.) Haw. var. phyllanthus CACTACEAE Aligator tail (Cr), Kaiukuchi hi1 (Ar), Akarerowai (C). Epiphyte. Leaves fleshy, flat, to 1 m long. Petioles long. Flowers nocturnal, pinkish red and yellow. Berry bright pink, fleshy. Seeds numerous, black, in slimy white pulp. In gallery forests, sometimes taken home and planted as ornamental in cultivated fruit trees or hanging baskets. The fruit pulp with the seeds is edible and sweet. The leaves and roots are boiled and drunk against whooping cough, sometimes mixed with the grated rhizome of a baboon tail fern (e.g., Polybotrya caudata). Boiled with wild maran (Pityrogramma calomelanos), the tea is drunk as a laxative for colds and back pain. (1) ‘Aligator tail’ after its flat, wavy-edged leaves (Fanshawe, 1949).

Canna indica L. CANNACEAE Shakshak (Cr), Baiakana (Ar), Maraka (C). Herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves spirally arranged. Flowers red and orange. Fruit a black, spiny capsule. Seeds numerous, very hard, black. Abundant in pastures and secondary shrubland. The seeds are used to fill maracas (‘shakshaks’).

Caryocar microcarpum Ducke CARYOCARACEAE Water sawarri (Cr), Kapikola, Kola, Kula (Ar), Arukumari (C). Small tree. Leaves opposite, 3-foliate. Flowers with thick yellow-green petals and many long, white stamens. Fruit a green drupe, seed coat spiny. In flooded forests, often spared from cutting in Moruca. The green fruit skin is peeled off and the spiny seeds are opened with a knife to obtain the edible, white nut. The bark is boiled and drunk against back pain. Flowers, leaves, and twigs macerated in water produce a soap substitute.

Cecropia obtusa Trecul CECROPIACEAE Red congo pump (Cr), Wanasoro (Ar), Tapireng sarasara (C). Tree to 10 m tall. Leaves alternate, palmately veined, mostly 8-lobed, rough above, reddish brown, covered with white hairs below. Stipules red. Pioneer tree on newly formed banks of meandering rivers. In Barama, a remedy against back pain is made by drying one leaf for three days over the fire and boiling it in a pint of water for ca. 45 minutes. One cup is drunk three times a day. Informants said the remedy worked only with red congo pump (C. obtusa or C. peltata), but not with white congo pump (C. sciadophylla).

Cecropia sciadophylla Mart. CECROPIACEAE White congo pump, Male congo pump (Cr), Wanasoro (Ar), Tureke, Tamuneng sarasara (C), Waro (Wr). Tree to 30 m, with stilt roots. Leaves alternate, palmately veined, 11-15-parted, to near the petiole. Abundant in secondary forest and abandoned fields. The hollow stems are used as benches, light rafts, and rollers to haul boats through the forest. A whistle is made from a young stem. The slimy inside of the bark is scraped, mixed with a little soap and sugar, and put as a poultice on abscesses or splinters to draw out the infection. The inner bark scrapings are diluted in water, and used as a bath to protect oneself against the malicious influence of the kenaima spirit. The tea from a dry leaf is drunk for liver and heart problems and as diuretic. In Georgetown, the tea is taken for kidney disorders. Men are advised to prepare the tea from the male congo pump (C. sciadophylla), while women should use the female type (C. peltata). Dry leaves are smoked as tobacco substitute. The leaves are sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

257 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Coussapoa microcephala Trécul CECROPIACEAE Wild varnish (small type) (Cr), Mabakubia1 (Ar). Scrambling shrub. Twigs and young leaves with stiff hairs. Stipule orange brown. Flowers small, yellow. Fruits orange to purple, slimy. In manicole swamp forest and creek edges. The slimy fruits are rubbed on paddles to give them a brown varnish layer. A larger ‘type’ of this species, which was used more often, was said to grow along the Waini River. However, no other Coussapoa species were observed in that area. (1) The Arawak name means ‘honey eye lotion’ (Fanshawe, 1949).

Pourouma guianensis Aubl. subsp. guianensis CECROPIACEAE Sandpaper tree (Cr), Buruma (Ar), Puruma (C), Daroko buroma1 (Wr). Small tree. Leaves palmately lobed, clustered at branch ends, rough above, soft, brown puberulous when young. Fruit purple-black. In Mora swamp, secondary and mixed forest. The rough side of the leaves is used as sandpaper to polish wooden tools, paddles, and music instruments. Leaves are further used to shrub the floor. (1) The Warao term ‘buroma’ means ‘rough’.

Goupia glabra Aubl. CELASTRACEAE Stinkwood (Cr), Kabukalli (Ar), Kupi-i (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple, soft puberulous, margin crenulate. Flowers small, yellowish white, in axillary umbels. Berry small, black. Canopy trees in mixed forest, saplings in secondary shrubland. The wood is a commercial timber, although it produces a bad smell when sawn. It is locally used for house construction, boards, and canoes. The bark is boiled in a bath for eczema. With some leaves added, the bath is used to cure chickenpox. Bark scrapings are stuffed in cavities to relieve toothache.

Maytenus cf. guyanensis Klotzsch ex Reissek CELASTRACEAE Kaiarima (Ar), Uwato epitjï1 (C). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark rough, inner bark red. Twigs ribbed. Leaves alternate, simple, dark green above. Flowers small, greenish. Fruit a 2-valved capsule. In mixed forest. The sweet-scented bark is scraped and boiled. The decoction is left to cool and applied to fire burns. (1) The Carib name means ‘cure for fire burns’.

Maytenus sp. TVA2445 CELASTRACEAE Parakasana, Kaiarima (Ar). Tree to 15m tall. Buttresses few, flat. Outer bark dark brown, rough, lenticellate, inner bark pink, wood white. Leaves alternate. Twigs ribbed, 4-angled when young. In mixed forest. Paddles are occasionally made from the buttresses. The paddles become reddish when coming in contact with water. The wood is also used as firewood. Informants might have confused this species with Swartzia spp.

Chrysobalanus icaco L. CHRYSOBALANACEAE Wild fat pork (Cr), Kurimiru (Ar), Konoto epï, Ereyuru (C), Kokoho arau1 (Wr). Shrub or small tree. Stem with light lenticels. Leaves alternate, simple, round, leathery. Flowers small, white. Fruits ribbed, deep purple, sweet. Forming dense thickets along riverbanks and the edges of flooded savanna, Moruca. Fruits are collected from the riverbanks. The seeds are cut open to eat the endosperm. The cultivated form of this species has much larger, pink and spongy fruits. The latter are sold at the Georgetown market. (1) The Warao name means ‘pigeon tree’.

Couepia parillo DC. CHRYSOBALANACEAE Counter, Small leaf counter (Cr), Hacheballi, Aiomoradan (Ar), Paripyo, Poripjori (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple, small, whitish below. Stipules long, caducous. Inflorescence rusty brown puberulous. Drupe pear-shaped, hard, light brown velutinous. Abundant in mixed forest, Barama. The wood is highly valued as firewood, like most Chrysobalanaceae. It splits easily in small sticks, burns good and is quickly lit, even when fresh and wet. The wood is preferred for the small fires under the circular iron plates used for baking cassava bread. Trees are deliberately felled for firewood.

258 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Straight trunks are used for house posts. Firewood from Chrysobalanaceae is sold at the Moruca market.

Hirtella racemosa L. var. racemosa CHRYSOBALANACEAE Counter (Cr), Bokoboko tokon (Ar), Kupesimirang (C). Small tree. Stipules long, caducous. Leaves alternate, simple. Flowers small, corolla whitish pink, stamens long, persistent, dark pink. Drupe fleshy, black. Occasional in secondary forest. The wood is sawn into boards for house construction.

Licania alba (Bernouilli) Cuatrec. CHRYSOBALANACEAE (Red) broad leaf counter (Cr), Kautaballi, Kaudanaro (Ar), Korokoro (C), Kwamara anahoro arau1 (Wr). Large tree. Leaves alternate, simple, silvery white below. Young branches, inflorescences, and flower buds yellowish pilose. Drupe pear-shaped, hard, yellowish brown velutinous. Abundant in mixed forest. The wood is highly valued as firewood for cassava baking. Chrysobalanaceae firewood is sold at the Moruca market. (1) ‘Agouti food tree’, because this animal feeds on the seeds.

Licania heteromorpha Benth. var. perplexans Sandw. CHRYSOBALANACEAE Redwood, Brown kairiballi, White kairiballi (Cr), Kairiballi, Buruburuli (Ar), Yapopare (C), Lababaru (Wr). Tree to 20 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple, bluish green below. Young branches and inflorescence densely tomentose. Drupe globose, hard, yellowish brown velutinous. In mixed forest. In Moruca, the pleasantly scented bark is boiled with the water of one troolie seed (Manicaria saccifera) and a piece of wene wood (Souroubea guianensis). A litre bottle full of the tea should be taken for venereal diseases. The hard wood is used for house construction and arrow sockets. It is highly valued as firewood for cassava baking and sold at the Moruca market.

Licania incana Aubl. CHRYSOBALANACEAE Fine leaf counter (Cr), Unikiakia, Marishiballi (Ar), Kuwepirang (C). Tree to 15 m tall. Bark wrinkled and lenticellate. Leaves alternate, simple. Young leaves and twigs rusty puberulous. Inflorescence terminal. Drupe small, hard, brown. In quackal swamp forest. The wood is highly valued as firewood for baking cassava bread. Firewood from Chrysobalanaceae is sold at the Moruca market.

Licania kunthiana Hook.f. CHRYSOBALANACEAE Christmas tree (Cr), Unikiakia (Ar). Small tree. Outer bark brown, rough, inner bark orange brown, wood yellow, hard. Leaves alternate, simple, white below. Inflorescence grey puberulous. Drupe hard, brown. In disturbed primary forest, Moruca. Small trees are cut during Christmas and decorated with light bulbs.

Licania micrantha Miq. CHRYSOBALANACEAE Counter, Red fine leaf counter (Cr), Marishiballi (Ar), Soroma, Wokïrï kupesini (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark light brown, lenticellate, inner bark pink, wood light brown. Leaves alternate, simple, pinkish grey below. Inflorescence terminal, flower buds yellow. In mixed forest. The wood is highly valued as firewood for baking cassava bread. Firewood from Chrysobalanaceae is sold at the Moruca market.

Licania persaudii Fanshawe & Maguire CHRYSOBALANACEAE Red fine leaf counter, Swamp counter (Cr), Kauta (Ar), Kuwepi (C). Tree. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark red, wood yellowish. Leaves alternate, simple, whitish below. Drupe small, green. In mixed forest, Barama. The wood is locally used for flooring and walling. The wood is highly valued as firewood for baking cassava bread.

259 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Licania sp. TVA2324 CHRYSOBALANACEAE Fine leaf counter (Cr). Tree to 20 m tall, with buttresses. Outer bark smooth, light brown, vertically cracked, inner bark red, wood white, sweet-scented. Leaves alternate, simple. In mixed forest, Moruca. The wood is valued as firewood for baking cassava bread. Chrysobalanaceae firewood is sold at the Moruca market.

Licania sp. TVA2332 CHRYSOBALANACEAE White broad leaf counter (Ar). Tree. Branches puberulous. Leaves alternate, simple, white, puberulous below, primary veins and midrib light brown. In mixed forest, Moruca. The wood is valued as firewood. Chrysobalanaceae firewood is sold at the Moruca market.

Buchenavia grandis Ducke COMBRETACEAE Wild genip (Cr). Medium-sized tree with flat crown. Leaves grouped together in tufts. Flowers in axillary spikes. Drupe fleshy, yellowish green. Seed 1, ellipsoid. In secondary forest on savanna edge. The tree is planted in house yards in Moruca. The bitter-sweet fruit pulp is edible and much esteemed. When in abundance, the fruits are sold on local markets. Children use the seeds as slingshot ammunition.

Combretum cacoucia (Baill.) Exell COMBRETACEAE Yarimanni (Cr), Yariman (Ar), Sïkïma (C). Liana. Flowers large, red, in long, rigid spikes. Calyx grey-green, filaments long, red. Fruit pyriform, grey-green tomentose, 5-angled. Common in manicole swamp. The fruits are dried in the sun, after which the poisonous seeds are grated and sprinkled in chicken pens to prevent vampire bats from attacking the fowl. Bats are repelled by the poisonous smell. Chicken do not eat the seeds.

Terminalia cf. amazonia (J.F. Gmel.) Exell COMBRETACEAE Coffee mortar, Hill fukadi (Cr), Fukadi (Ar), Kwai (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Leaves simple, alternate, grouped in tufts. Flowers yellowish green to white, in axillary, elongated spikes. Drupe flat, 5-angled. In mixed and secondary forest. The wood is used for floor scantling, uprights, rafters, and other housing material. Coffee mortars, however, are not made from this wood, but from mora (Mora excelsa), purpleheart (Peltogyne venosa), or suradanni (Hyeronima alchorneoides).

Terminalia cf. dichotoma G. Mey. COMBRETACEAE Coffee mortar (Cr), Alaso abo1, Fukadi (Ar), Kararawa akunepïrï2 (C). Large tree. Leaves simple, alternate, grouped in spaced tufts. Flowers white or yellow-green, in axillary spikes. Drupe fleshy, flattened, dark green. Occasional in Mora forest. The hard wood is used for housing and canoes. (1) ‘Turtle back’, after the shape of the fruit (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Peanut of the blue and yellow macaw’ (Courtz, 1997).

Commelina sp. TVA1121 COMMELINACEAE Terrestrial herb. Leaves alternate, simple, thin. Flowers not seen. In Mora forest, Barama. The plant is occasionally taken from the forest and planted in a pot or hanging basket as ornamental. Flowers were said to be purple and beautiful.

Commelina diffusa Burm. f. COMMELINACEAE Rabbit grass, Green zeb grass, Canergrass, Cane of grass (Cr), Tyupu (C), Humaha (Wr). Creeping herb. Leaves alternate, simple, sessile, fleshy, sheathed. Flowers small, bright blue. Forming dense patches in pastures. In Moruca, the branches are boiled and drunk for kidney problems and consequent swelling of the body. The tea must be drunk whenever the patient is thirsty. A medicine for biliousness and malaria is prepared by boiling three branches with three pear leaves (Persea americana). Caribs stimulate hair growth and prevent baldness by washing their hair frequently with extracts of this plant.

260 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Tripogandra serrulata (Vahl) Handlos COMMELINACEAE Zeb grass (Cr), Uhsenano epityï1 (C), Humaha (Wr). Perennial, creeping herb. Stem purple, nodes bright purple. Leaves alternate, simple, purple-green. Flowers pink. Common in pastures, often spared from weeding. A tea from this plant alone or with sweet broom (Scoparia dulcis) or pear leaves (Persea americana) is drunk with sugar and milk for biliousness. Caribs stimulate hair growth and prevent baldness by washing their hair frequently with extracts of this plant. Zeb grass tea is prepared to relieve kidney disorders and swelling of the body. It must be drunk regularly, whenever the patient is thirsty. The tea is taken by women to ‘clean out’ their ovarian tubes. In Georgetown, the tea is drunk as a laxative for bowel disorders, stomach ache, and colds. Boiled with stinging nettle (Laportea aestuans), it is drunk to bitter the blood and to relieve skin rash. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) The Carib name means ‘hair medicine’.

Bidens cynapiifolia Kunth COMPOSITAE Spanish needle, Deer arrow, Jumbie arrow (Cr), Tebeyu, Yawahü shimara (Ar), Kïrerepiyamïri1 (C), Masia hatabu (Wr). Erect herb to 1.70 m high. Leaves alternate, bipinnate. Florets small, yellow. Fruit an achene with 4 awnes curved outwards. Common weed in cultivated fields. The whole plant is boiled in three litres of water. This tea should be taken during one month to relieve diabetes and lower the blood sugar level. Dry mokomoko leaves (Montrichardia arborescens) are added to the tea as well. A decoction of this plant is given in small quantities to babies suffering from thrush, and used as a foot bath to cure ground itch. Leaves are briefly heated in a fire and the sap is squeezed into sore eyes. The leaves are used in a bath or rubbed on the body against fever, sometimes mixed with a black banana leaf (Musa sp.). Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) ‘Cricket neck’ (Coles et al., 1971).

Cyathillium cinereum (L.) H. Rob. COMPOSITAE Information bush1, Inflammation bush (Cr), Murunya (Ar). Erect herb to 60 cm high. Leaves alternate, 3-lobed. Inflorescence terminal. Florets pink to purple. Achenes short, bristly, straw-coloured, pappus white. Common weed in cultivated fields. The whole plant is boiled with wild black pepper (Croton trinitatis) and St. John’s bush (Justicia secunda) to ‘clean out’ ovarian tubes. A tea from information bush, St. John's bush, and white cleary (Heliotropium indicum) is reputed as an abortifacient. In Georgetown, a decoction of minnie root (Ruellia tuberosa), information bush, wild black pepper and one leaf of broad leaf thyme (Coleus amboinicus) is prescribed for ‘women’s problems’, to relieve menstruation pains, decrease excessive vaginal discharge, or to clean out womb and ovarian tubes after birth. The tea is drunk just before the menstruation to get it started, or taken the second or third day to ease it down. Men must drink a tea from information bush to cure impotence, and mix egg white and flour into the tea to cure gonorrhoea. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) The Creole term ‘information’ refers to pus.

Erechtites hieracifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC. COMPOSITAE Dandelion (Cr), Pakara marityïrï1(C). Erect herb to 50 cm high. Leaves simple, spirally arranged, dentate, purplish when young. Panicles terminal. Florets yellow, pappus white. In pastures and as weed in cultivated fields. The leaves are macerated and put as a poultice on sores. The sap is squeezed in the sores as a disinfectant. (1) The Carib name signifies ‘down of the pegall’. A pegall is a small, square basket, often adorned with soft feathers (resembling the white pappus of this plant).

Hebeclinium macrophyllum (L.) DC. COMPOSITAE Cat ears (Cr). Erect herb to 75 cm high. Leaves simple, triangular, strong-scented. Florets small, white. Weed in cultivated and abandoned fields. Two plants are boiled with sugar and two leaf of life leaves (Bryophyllum pinnatum) to make a remedy for whooping cough. The tea should be drunk until the symptoms have disappeared. It is said to be particular effective to treat children. Boiling cat ears with wild maran (Pityrogramma calomelanos) makes a medicine for heavy chest colds, bronchitis, pneumonia, whooping cough, asthma, and tuberculosis.

261 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski COMPOSITAE Daisy, Yellow daisy (Cr). Low herb. Branches spreading and rooting. Leaves opposite, weakly 3-lobed. Florets dark yellow. Common in pastures. The whole plant is boiled, sometimes with toyeau (Justicia pectoralis), and drunk for colds, but also just as tea. The tea is boiled down with sugar into a cough syrup. Children suck the nectar from the flowers and say it is good for their ‘building up’. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Struchium sparganophorum (L.) Kuntze COMPOSITAE Ants bush (Cr), Hayoudan (Ar), Muha bebe (Wr). Annual, fleshy herb to 40 cm high. Leaves alternate, simple, puberulous. Florets white, in tight axillary clusters. Achenes angled, pappus white. In pastures and as weed in cultivated fields, sometimes spared from weeding in house yards. The whole plant is boiled or heated over a fire and squeezed. A spoonful of the sap or tea with a little salt is given to babies suffering from thrush. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Tilesia baccata (L.f.) Pruski COMPOSITAE Wild pine, Turtle food (Cr), Warife (Ar), Kamararai (C), Hukuhuku anahoro1 (Wr). Scrambling shrub. Leaves alternate, simple, rough. Florets yellow and orange. Fruit greenish black, in pine-like infructescence, fruiting sepals orange, spiny. In secondary forest along roads. The fruit pulp is sweet and edible, mostly eaten by children. Fruits may be collected in large amounts to make an alcoholic drink (‘paiwari’). (1) The Warao name means ‘hummingbird food’.

Dicranostyles sp. TVA2630 CONVOLVULACEAE Large woody climber. Outer bark light brown, ribbed. Wood yellow, strong-scented. Leaves alternate. Fruit dark yellow, thick-skinned, with a thin, starchy layer around the large seed. In mixed forest, Barima. Only few people mentioned the fruits as edible.

Ipomoea cf. asarifolia (Desv.) Roem. & Schult. CONVOLVULACEAE Wild potato (Cr). Vine, rooting at the nodes. Stem twining. Leaves alternate, heart- to kidney-shaped, purple-green. Flowers white or lavender. In manicole swamps. In Assakata, the stem is used as a bush rope to tie bundles of palm hearts.

Ipomoea quamoclit L. CONVOLVULACEAE Sweet william (Cr). Creeping vine. Leaves alternate, deeply pinnatifid. Flower trumpet-shaped, deep red. Growing as weed in cultivated fields, planted in house yards as ornamental.

Maripa scandens Aubl. CONVOLVULACEAE Monkey syrup (Cr), Howa soropan (Ar). Liana or scrambling shrub. Leaves alternate, simple, elliptic. Flowers in large racemes, showy, velvety pilose, calyx purplish, corolla white. Fruits brown, pulp black. Along riverbanks. The fruits are edible and sweet.

Costus arabicus L. COSTACEAE White congo cane (Cr), Eseyundu (C). Shrubby herb to 2 m high. Leaves simple, spirally arranged, cordate at base. Inflorescence cone-like. Bracts green. Flowers white, labellum spreading. Common in open secondary vegetation and disturbed forest. The fruit pulp with the seeds is used as bait in traps to catch pigeons. Young shoots are boiled and drunk for colds. The ginger-like tea is boiled down with sugar into a cough syrup. The stem is heated in the fire, pounded and the sap is squeezed out. A spoonful is drunk for colds. The boiled stems are put as a poultice on sores. Shoots are boiled with sugar and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and

262 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana left to ferment with some yeast to make a strong alcoholic drink called ‘congo cane local’. The drink is also made with C. scaber and C. erythrothyrsus.

Costus erythrothyrsus Loes. COSTACEAE Red congo cane, Old field congo cane, Mauby (Cr), Eseyundu (C). Erect herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves simple, spirally arranged. Inflorescence on separate, leafless stem, peduncle with red and green bands. Bracts red. Flowers red. In disturbed mixed forest and abandoned fields. The shoots are peeled, boiled, and drunk for colds, or boiled down with sugar into a cough syrup. The shoots are occasionally boiled with sugar and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), and left to ferment with some yeast to make a strong alcoholic drink known as ‘mauby’. The drink is more often made with C. scaber or C. arabicus.

Melothria pendula L. CUCURBITACEAE Baby cucumber, Wild pumpkin (Cr), Wayoma watï1 (C). Delicate vine. Leaves alternate, palmately lobed, with sticky hairs. Tendrils springlike. Flowers very small, yellow. Berry fleshy. Seeds numerous. Rare in secondary shrubland. The small cucumbers are eaten with salt. (1) The Carib name means ‘looks like pumpkin’.

Cyathea cyatheoides (Desv.) Kramer CYATHEACEAE Palawala plimpla (Ar), Ohi shakaida (Wr). Tree fern to 2 m high. Stem densely covered with brown scales. Petiole dark brown, spined. Leaves ca. 1 m long. Spores light brown. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. The stem is chopped into pieces and boiled into a remedy for hernia and a strained back accompanied with blood in the urine.

Asplundia gleasonii Harling CYCLANTHACEAE Small nibi (Cr). Small hemi-epiphyte. Thin aerial roots. Leaves alternate, bifid. Young leaves entire. Spadix with threadlike, white staminodes. Abundant in swamp forest on pegasse, growing on trunks or creeping on the forest floor. The aerial roots are used as minor binding material, to strap the feet of game animals caught in the forest.

Cyclanthus bipartitus Poit. CYCLANTHACEAE Haimara tail, Bakawari bush (Cr), Wanauwanari (Ar), Aimara andïkïrï1 (C). Acaulescent herb to 3 m high. Leaves alternate, bifid. Spadix large, cylindrical. Fruits in separate rings, arranged like a corkscrew. In flooded riverbank vegetation, Barama. The leaves are used to weave a ‘stopper’, a small shelter to protect goods from the rain. (1) ‘Haimara tail’, after the bifid leaves.

Evodianthus funifer (Poit.) Lindm. subsp. funifer CYCLANTHACEAE Bastard nibi, Maam nibi (Cr), Inyamuyakawariyï1 (C). Hemi-epiphyte, with root climbing stems to 15 m long. Thin aereal roots. Leaves alternate, deeply bifid. Spadix small, green, with threadlike, white staminodes. Abundant in mixed forest. The aerial roots are not very strong and used as a minor binding material to strap the feet of game animals or tie packages of fish, bait or other small forest products wrapped in leaves. Locals often confuse this plant with scraping nibi (Thoracocarpus bissectus), a species with much stronger roots that are used in basketry weaving. (1) The Carib name means ‘maam nibi’, after the maam bird (Tinamus major).

263 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Cyperus articulatus L. CYPERACEAE Piripiri (C). Perennial herb to 2 m high. Rhizome reddish. Culms terete. Inflorescence straw-coloured, bracts 2, erect. In lake shores and ditches, cultivated in Barama house yards. The rhizome is grated and boiled to relieve stomach ache.

Cyperus digitatus Roxb. CYPERACEAE Real bizzibizzi (Cr), Sara (C). Perennial herb to 1.5 m high. Rhizome red. Leaf edges rough. Inflorescence a umbel-like corymb, spikelets green. In ditches and as weed in cultivated fields. The peduncle is pulled out and pounded on one end into a fibrous brush. It is used to paint names on boats, houses, or grave crosses. The rhizome is briefly heated over the fire and its sap is squeezed into sore eyes.

Cyperus ligularis L. CYPERACEAE Bizzibizzi, Razorgrass (Cr), Yente, Bioro (Ar), Hakaru kura (Wr). Erect herb. Stems triangular. Leaf edges sharp. Leaf blades, culms, and rays papillose. Corymbs compact, green. In ditches and riverbanks, also planted in house yards. The sap from the heated rhizome or stem is squeezed into sore eyes or in the ear to relieve earache. Assakata schoolchildren said the soft stem base was edible.

Cyperus odoratus L. CYPERACEAE Watermomma bina (Cr), Shikishiki1, Yawahü yadala2 (Ar), Turara (C). Erect herb to 2 m high. Rhizome bulbous, inner tissue fleshy, creamy yellow, with a strong spicy smell. Stem triangular. Corymbs umbel-like. In disturbed areas, often cultivated in house yards. The rhizome is grated and boiled into a tea to relieve stomach ache. Babies suffering from cramps are given some gratings mixed with breast milk. The plant is said to ‘whistle’ in the breeze and possess magic powers, strong enough to chase off the Waterwoman and other evil spirits. The aromatic rhizome is grated and massaged on the skin with (coconut) oil to protect oneself against the bad eye. Small children crying all night and suffering from fever are believed to be influenced by spirits. Rhizome gratings are squeezed in a spoon and the sap is given to the baby, or the gratings are rubbed on the child’s body. Spirits do not like the scent of this plant. The rhizome is cut into pieces and sewn on a string as a bracelet or chain for babies to protect them from evil spirits. (1) Derived from the Arawak word for spirit ‘mashishikiri’ (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Jumbie knife’, after the sharp leaves (Fanshawe, 1949).

Cyperus surinamensis Roxb. CYPERACEAE Grass (Cr). Annual herb to 30 cm high. Leaves with sharp edges. Corymbs broad, umbel-like. Spikelets green. Very abundant in pastures. The peduncle is pulled out, pounded or chewed on one end into a paintbrush.

Eleocharis mitrata (Griseb.) C.B. Clarke CYPERACEAE Fart grass, Bizzibizzi (Cr), Bioro (Ar). Perennial, stoloniferous herb. Culms terete. Leaves bladeless, reduced to sheaths. Inflorescence a solitary, terminal, many-flowered spikelet. In extensive monospecific stands in flooded savannas, able to survive frequent burning. The hollow stems are woven into small handicraft items like bookmarkers.

Rhynchospora cephalotes (L.) Vahl CYPERACEAE Old man’s bush, Man grass, Black man’s head (Cr), Muleshirang (C). Clump-forming herb to 1 m high. Inflorescences single, congested heads of many green spikelets, subtended by 2 leaflike bracts. Abundant in pastures. To stop hair loss, the hair is washed during seven mornings with this plant. The whole herb with rhizome is briefly heated and put on hurting spots on the body to ease pain. Bundles of this herb are thrown in the fire. Persons suffering with pain are required to sit in this smoke for three mornings.

264 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Scleria microcarpa Nees CYPERACEAE Razorgrass (Cr), Yuruka, Kamanali (Ar). Perennial, clump-forming herb to 3 m high. Rhizome purple-red. Leaves and stem rough. Inflorescence terminal, laxly paniculate, straw-coloured. In frequently burned, seasonally flooded savannas. To make a dart, children pull out the stem, put a spine in front, and throw or blow it with a blowpipe made from a hollow twig.

Scleria secans (L.) Urb. CYPERACEAE Razorgrass (Cr), Yuruka, Kamanali (Ar), Sayu (C), Kakara (Wr). Climbing vine to 10 m long, sprawling over the ground, over shrubs, and into the lower canopy. Leaf edges very sharp. Very common as weed in cultivated fields, forming dense thickets in abandoned fields. The leaves, sharp like razor blades, are hung in the roof to scare away bats. The animals cut their wings when touching it. To make a dog hunt better, his nose is cut with this grass and rubbed with pepper juice (Capsicum annuum).

Tapura guianensis Aubl. DICHAPETALACEAE Mamuriballi, Waiaballi, Waiadan (Ar), Wasakau (C). Small tree. Leaves alternate, leathery. Flowers yellow, in densely crowded glomerules, sessile on the petioles. Drupe greenish yellow, tomentose. In mixed forest. The wood is used for house posts.

Davilla kunthii A. St.-Hil. DILLENIACEAE Fire rope, Red kapadula (Cr), Kabuduli (Ar), Tameyu-u, Ereyunde (C), Ero karara, Ero simuida (Wr). Woody climber or scrambling shrub. Leaves alternate, simple, rough. Panicles terminal. Capsule orange. Common in secondary shrubland and disturbed mixed forest. When a piece of the woody stem is cut and held upside down, the clear water flowing from the wood can be drunk. The sap is prescribed for snakebite victims, as rain or river water worsens their condition. Pregnant women are warned not to drink it, as it may cause abortion, but women sometimes deliberately use it for this purpose. Scratched watch glasses are polished with the rough leaves. In remote areas, kapadula leaves are burned in the fire, ground to powder, and rubbed on the recently cut umbilical cord of a newborn baby. This will quickly dry the navel and cause the remainder to drop off. Kapadula wood is the main ingredient of kapadula wine, a popular aphrodisiac made with the following ingredients: locust (Hymenaea courbaril), cockshun (Smilax schomburgkiana), kufa (Clusia spp.), sarsparilla (Dioscorea trichanthera), monkey ladder (Bauhinia spp.), granny backbone (Curarea candicans), and devildoer (Strychnos spp.). The ingredients are boiled in water for an hour or soaked in alcohol to make a tonic. The concoction is added to milkshakes, porridge, or other dishes. It is said to be good for the ‘nature’, strengthen the body, and protect against diseases. The crude ingredients and ready-made aphrodisiacs are sold at the Georgetown market. Several Dilleniaceae are called kapadula and are used similarly (see Tetracera volubilis subsp. volubilis).

Doliocarpus cf. dentatus (Aubl.) Standl. subsp. dentatus DILLENIACEAE White kapadula, Kabuduli (Ar), Tameyu-u (C). Woody climber. Stem flaky, with concentric rings in cross section. Leaves alternate, simple, rough below, margins serrate. Flowers in fascicles. Berry cherry-red. Saplings in secondary forest, adults in mixed forest. The clear water from the stem is drunk to relieve thirst, for snakebites, as a remedy for cough and cold, and to provoke abortion. The wood is chipped and boiled alone or with various other ingredients (see Davilla kunthii) to make aphrodisiac beverages. The ashes from burnt leaves are used to disinfect navel cords. The wood is sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Pinzona sp. TVA2509 DILLENIACEAE Kapadula (Cr), Red devildoer (Cr). Large woody climber. Stem flaky, with concentric rings in cross section. Petiole winged. Leaves alternate, simple, margins entire. Inflorescence paniculate. Berries paired, green to red. In mixed forest. The clear water from the stem is drunk to relieve thirst, for snakebites, as a remedy for cough and cold, and to provoke abortion. The wood is chipped and boiled alone or with various other ingredients (see Davilla kunthii) into aphrodisiac beverages. Burnt leaves are used to disinfect navel cords. Leaves and branches are boiled and drunk to treat diabetes. The wood is sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

265 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Tetracera asperula Miq. DILLENIACEAE Fire rope, Kapadula (Cr), Kabuduli, Halichimanni (Ar), Tameyu-u (C). Woody climber or vigorously scrambling shrub. Leaves alternate, simple, rough. Racemes terminal. Flowers pale pink. Fruit a green follicle. In secondary forest on white sand. The water from the stem is drunk to relieve thirst, for snakebites, as a remedy for cough and cold, and to provoke abortion. The wood is boiled alone or with other ingredients (see Davilla kunthii) into aphrodisiac beverages. The burnt leaves are used to disinfect navel cords.

Tetracera tigarea DC. DILLENIACEAE Kapadula (Cr), Kabuduli (Ar), Ereyunde (C). Large woody climber. Stem reddish brown, flaky. Leaves rough. Racemes terminal. Flowers yellow. Follicle green. Seed white. Aril bright yellow. In Mora forest. The water from the stem is drunk to relieve thirst, for snakebites, as a remedy for cough and cold, and to provoke abortion. The wood is boiled alone or with other ingredients (see Davilla kunthii) into aphrodisiac beverages. The burnt leaves are used to disinfect navel cords.

Dioscorea cf. riparia Kunth & R. Schomb. ex Kunth DIOSCOREACEAE Granny backbone (Cr) Creeping vine. Tubers epiphytic, spiny, woody. Stem densely covered with sharp spines. Leaves alternate, simple, palmately veined. Fruit a 3-winged capsule. Rare in Mora forest, Barama. The spines are used to take jiggers from the feet.

Cyclodium meniscioides (Willd.) C. Pres. var. meniscioides DRYOPTERIDACEAE Big leaf baboon tail (Cr), Ituri hi (Ar), Arawata andïkïrï (C), Wai ahu (Wr). Hemi-epiphytic fern. Rhizome creeping, covered with long, reddish brown, hair-like scales. Fronds mono- or dimorphic. Fertile pinnae small. Common in Mora and mixed forest. The coiled rhizome, resembling a howler monkey tail, is washed and boiled (with the scales). Children suffering from whooping cough are given the tea and are bathed with the same decoction. Hanging the rhizome around the neck of the patient is believed to alleviate whooping cough as well. The scales are removed and the scraped rhizome is put on abscesses.

Diospyros guianensis (Aubl.) Guerke subsp. guianensis EBENACEAE Barrabarra (swamp type) (Cr), Barabara (Ar). Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark dark brown to black, inner bark yellow. Leaves alternate, simple, rusty puberulous when young. Petals green, folded. Berry leathery, crowned by calyx. In swamp forest on pegasse. The wood is sometimes sawn into boards or used to make cricket bats and balls. The fruit pulp is occasionally eaten.

Diospyros tetrandra Hiern. EBENACEAE Graterwood, Barrabarra (Cr), Barabara (Ar), Simyarï epï (C). Medium-sized tree, with small buttresses. Outer bark greenish black, inner bark bright yellow. Leaves alternate, simple. Flowers greenish yellow, petals stiff, folded. Berry leathery, crowned by calyx. In mixed forest. The fruits are occasionally eaten.

Sloanea grandiflora J.E. Smith ELAEOCARPACEAE Broad leaf (Cr), Shirabuliballi, Arorodan1 (Ar), Poro arï (C), Naidu, Dau anaidau (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves alternate, simple, large. Petiole long. Flowers rosaceous, with many brushy anthers. Capsule green, covered with long, soft, spines. Common in Mora forest, Barama. The leaves are used as wrapping material, to ‘hamper’ cassava bread. When a lot of bread is baked for storage, sale, or transport, the flat cakes are piled between two tondoli baskets (made with an aerial root of Clusia spp.). The piles are tightly wrapped in the large leaves and tied with maho straps into firm packages. The cassava ‘hampers’ are brought to the market or carried into the gold mines to supply the workers with food. The leaves are only used by Caribs. (1) ‘Porcupine tree’ after the spiny fruit (Fanshawe, 1949).

266 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Sloanea cf. guianensis (Aubl.) Benth. ELAEOCARPACEAE Parakusana, Aruadan, Siraboliballi (Ar), Kuseweran1 (C). Tree to 40 m, with triangular buttresses. Leaves opposite, elliptic. Flowers fragrant, yellow to white. Capsule small, with slender bristles. Occasional in mixed forest. Paddles are carved from the plank roots. (1) The Carib name refers to the fruits, which resemble those of kusewe (Bixa orellana).

Sloanea latifolia (Rich.) K. Schum. ELAEOCARPACEAE Bastard hakia (Cr), Tokuhsa (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Leaves clustered at branch end, with circular leaf scars. Petiole long, pulvinus woody. Inflorescence a compound, pale brown corymb. Occasional in secondary forest. The heartwood of this tree is used to make axe handles, the rest of the wood serves as firewood. The wood is said to be very hard.

Sloanea obtusifolia (Moric.) K. Schum. ELAEOCARPACEAE Fine leaf arrowstick (Cr), Karupana (Ar). Large tree with flat buttresses. Outer bark purplish brown, inner bark dark yellow. Twigs puberulous. Leaves alternate, rounded. Racemes few-flowered. Capsule with soft, slender spines. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. Paddles and boards are carved from the plank roots. The wood is used for riverbank sheet-piles (kokers) and arrow sockets.

Erythroxylum macrophyllum Cav. ERYTHROXYLACEAE Aligator footprint1, Aligator toe bone (Cr), Akarï tapurarakïrï (C). Small tree. Leaves alternate, simple, large. Stipules long. Flowers small, in axillary fascicles. Drupe small, red, fleshy. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. The wood is used in house construction (runners). (1) The Creole names are translations of the Carib name.

Alchorneopsis floribunda (Benth.) Müll. Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE Swamp duka (Cr), Kanakudji (white type), Kanaküdiballi (Ar), Waraekone (C). Medium-sized tree, small stilt roots. Leaves alternate, 3-pliveined, two glands at base. Inflorescence axillary, spiciform thyrses. Capsule small, green to red. In secondary forest (Barama) and swamp forest on pegasse. The wood is soft and white, and occasionally used for boards, furniture, and firewood.

Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus (Kuntze) Pax & Hoffm. EUPHORBIACEAE White olo, White iron mary, Axe blunter1 (Cr), Ulu, Ruri, Boboroballi (Ar), Wïyekane (C). Medium-sized tree. alternate, simple. Stipules leafy, caducous. Flowers apetalous, in dense axillary clusters. Capsule reddish brown, spiny. Common in mixed forest. The wood is said to be very hard, used occasionally to make canoes, boards, and house frames, and as firewood. The aromatic bark is boiled with the bark of black maho (Rollinia exsucca) and black yarula (Aspidosperma excelsum) in a herbal bath to get rid of evil spirits. The bark is occasionally sold in Amerindian villages for this purpose. (1) This Creole name is a translation of the Carib name.

Croton cuneatus Klotzsch EUPHORBIACEAE Cartabac corn (Cr), Tassi (C). Shrubby tree with red sap. Leaves alternate, simple, covered with lepidote scales, two large glands at leaf base. Flowers in terminal spikes. Capsule weakly 3-lobed. In riverbank Mora forest, Barima. Ripe fruits are used as fish bait to catch cartabacs (Myleus rubripinnis). People wait near this plant to shoot the fish as it jumps from the water to feed on the fruits.

Croton trinitatis Millsp. EUPHORBIACEAE Wild black pepper, Wild massala, Rock balsam (Cr). Herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves alternate, simple, narrowly triangular, with 2 stalked glands at base, margins serrate. Flowers straw-coloured, in a terminal inflorescence. Weed in open secondary vegetation. A tea from the whole plant boiled with information bush (Cyathillium cinereum), St. John’s bush (Justicia secunda), one leaf of broad leaf thyme (Coleus amboinicus), and/or minnie root (Ruellia tuberosa) is prescribed for ‘women’s problems’, to relieve menstruation pains, decrease excessive

267 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II vaginal discharge, or to clean out womb and ovarian tubes after birth. The tea is drunk just before the menstruation to get it started, or taken on the second or third day to ease it down. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Hyeronima alchorneoides Allemão var. alchorneoides EUPHORBIACEAE Baradanni, Suradani (Ar). Large tree. Stipules leaflike. Leaves alternate, simple, clustered at branch end. Spikes erect, greenish yellow. Drupe, small, black with purplish red juice. Rare in mixed forest, Barima. The wood is a commercial timber, locally preferred for canoes, floors, and furniture.

Hyeronima alchorneoides Allemão var. stipulosa Franco EUPHORBIACEAE Suradani (Cr), Suradan (Ar), Ako (C), Duru (Wr). Large tree. Stipules leaflike. Leaves alternate, simple, large. Petioles long. Spikes erect, greenish yellow. Drupe small, black. Common in Mora and mixed forest. The heavy wood is a commercial timber, locally preferred for canoes, floors, furniture, house construction, and coffee mortars.

Mabea piriri Aubl. EUPHORBIACEAE Swizzle stick (Cr), Bariri-kuti1 (Ar), Yukuyapoi (C). Small tree with white latex. Lower branches in whorls. Leaves alternate, simple, glabrous, long- acuminate, margins serrate. Inflorescence a terminal thyrse. Capsule grey-green. Abundant in Mora, secondary, and mixed forest. The whorled stem is trimmed into a swizzle to beat chocolate milk or banana porridge. The latex is dripped into sore or misty eyes. The wood is said to last long and is used as roundwood in house construction. (1) ‘Hawk foot’, after whorled branching (Fanshawe, 1949).

Maprounea guianensis Aubl. EUPHORBIACEAE Awati (Ar), Pirapisi (C). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark orange, wood white. Leaves alternate, simple, small, with abundant white latex. Flowers small. Capsule brownish red. Occasional in secondary forest on white sand, Moruca. The leaves are boiled in a herbal bath for sores and itching skin.

Microstachys corniculata (Vahl) Griseb. EUPHORBIACEAE Fowl cock tongue (Cr). Small herb. Leaves alternate, simple, puberulous, rounded at base. Flowers very small, red. Capsule green, spiny. In pastures and along roads, Moruca. The whole plant is boiled and given in small quantities to babies suffering from thrush. Three leaves of fowl cock tongue, tetakabora leaves (Axonopus compressus), and soursop (Annona muricata) are boiled together. One cup of the tea is taken each morning to keep down irregular heart beats. The tea is taken for headache as well. The decoction is also used to cleanse cut and sores.

Omphalia diandra L. EUPHORBIACEAE Wild pawpaw, Sourie (Cr), Ana, Sito, Meku kuwa-ire (C). Liana, with slimy, white latex, quickly oxidising to red. Climbing with tendrillate shoots. Leaves alternate, simple, rounded, with long petioles. Berry large, green, with 3 large, brown seeds. In riverbank Mora forest, Barima. The seeds are put on a hook as bait to catch morocots. The seeds are occasionally eaten, but might be mildly toxic.

268 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Pera glabrata (Schott) Baill. EUPHORBIACEAE Hachiballi (Ar). Tree to 35 m tall. Outer bark smooth, dark green, horizontally grooved. Leaves alternate, simple. Flowers axillary, involucral bract cream. Rare in secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is occasionally sawn into boards.

Plukenetia polyadenia Müll. Arg. EUPHORBIACEAE Sourie, Wild pawpaw (Cr). Woody climber. Leaves alternate, simple, base rounded, petiole long. Inflorescences axillary racemes. Capsule large, green, 4-ribbed. Seeds large, brown, woody. In Mora forest and manicole swamp. The seeds are put on a hook as bait to catch morocots. The seeds are split open with a knife to eat the nut (endocarp).

Sapium jenmanii Hemsl. EUPHORBIACEAE Rubber tree (Cr), Haiahaia (Ar), Mabuwa (Ar, C). Tree to 40 m tall. Latex abundant, thick, creamy. Leaves alternate, simple. Inflorescence elongate, terminal, simple, yellowish green. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. After slashing the bark the latex quickly becomes rubbery. The latex strips are removed the following day and rolled up into bumper balls.

Senefeldera sp. TVA1369 EUPHORBIACEAE Small tree. Latex white. Leaves alternate, simple, with thickened pulvinus. Rare in secondary forest, Barama. The trunks are occasionally used as roof rafters.

Casearia aff. acuminata DC. FLACOURTIACEAE Akare-u (C). Small tree. Inner bark pink, wood white, sweet-scented. Leaf margins dentate. Rare in secondary forest, Barama. A handful of bark scrapings is warmed in water and stuffed between the toes to cure ground itch.

Casearia javitensis Kunth FLACOURTIACEAE Deerfoot (Cr), Kibihidan1 (Ar), Arawata mureru2 (C). Tree to 17 m tall. Leaves glabrous, glossy, coarsely serrate. Flowers in axillary fascicles. Capsule brown. In secondary forest. The wood is used for firewood and traditional Arawak kitchen walls in ‘wattle and stave’ style, in which young stems are used entirely or split and woven between a horizontal frame. (1) ‘Nose bear tree’, after the smell (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Baboon bench’ (Courtz, 1997).

Laetia procera (Poepp.) Eichl. FLACOURTIACEAE Firemomma (Cr), Siribidan, Shurubadan, Warakaioro (Ar), Arokoyuru, Mainyapo1 (C), Heroku (Wr). Tree to 40 m tall. Crown umbrella-shaped. Stipules long, caducous. Leaf margins serrate. Flowers in axillary bundles. Capsule red-brown, velutinous. Common in secondary forest and abandoned fields. In the past, the bark of this tree was removed, dried thoroughly and cut into strips of 1 m long and tied on a stick. The bark was lighted as a torch, which was said to burn for a long time. The wood is a commercial timber, locally popular as firewood and comparable to Chrysobalanaceae wood. (1) The Carib name means ‘old field tree’, referring to its habitat.

Codonanthe crassifolia (Focke) C.V. Morton GESNERIACEAE Bird vine, Green thick leaf (Cr). Epiphyte, often growing on ants nests. Leaves small, succulent, reddish. Flowers tubular, white, flushed with pink. Berry dark purple. Common in cultivated fruit trees, Moruca. The sap from briefly heated leaves is squeezed into infected eyes, or when people are loosing their vision. This medicine was said to ‘work like spectacles’.

269 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Gnetum nodiflorum Brongn. GNETACEAE Tauwa nut (Cr), Tauwa (C). Woody climber. Latex little, sticky, pinkish grey. Leaves opposite, leathery. Inflorescences whorls of spikes. Drupe ellipsoid, greenish grey to pink. Seed brown. Occasional in Mora and mixed forest, Barama. The seeds are roasted in hot ashes for five minutes, peeled, and eaten. Pregnant women are warned not to use the seeds, since they can cause abortions. Even cutting the liana during pregnancy is believed to provoke a miscarriage.

Andropogon bicornis L. GRAMINEAE Sautin bush, Razorgrass, Horsetail grass, Jumbie coat (Cr), Herba sede (Sp), Kawaio-hi1 (Ar). High grass. Stem reddish green. Inflorescence a terminal panicle. Joints with long, white hairs. Abundant in degraded pasture on white sand or rocky laterite. In the past, the silky hairs were used to stuff pillows and mattresses. Children use the hollow stems as straws to drink water. (1) ‘Horse tail’, derived from ‘caballo’, the Spanish word for horse (Fanshawe, 1949).

Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv. GRAMINEAE Tetakabora, Tatakaboro1 (Ar). Tufted, strongly stoloniferous herb. Stolons purple. Culms to 60 cm high. Sheaths puberulous. Inflorescences of 2-4 divergent racemes. In pastures and house yards. Three leaves of tetakabora, fowl cock tongue (Microstachys corniculata), and soursop (Annona muricata) are boiled together. One cup of the tea is taken each morning to keep down irregular heart beats. The tea is also taken for headache and used to cleanse cut and sores. (1) ‘Hard-fingered’ after the strong stolons (Fanshawe, 1949).

Coix lacryma-jobi L. GRAMINEAE Job’s tears, Buck beads (Cr), Tawasi (C). Herb to 2 m high. Leaves linear, glabrous. Inflorescences numerous, compound, male florescence protruding from the terminal pore of an ovoid, bony, bead-like sheath. Weed in pastures in coastal Guyana, cultivated in the interior. The bony sheaths are used as beads. Chains from these beads are commercialised in the capital.

Eleusine indica L. GRAMINEAE Man grass, Goosefoot grass (Cr), Bebe nibora1, Humaha (Wr). Tufted grass to 30 cm high. Leaves strongly keeled. Inflorescences composed of 2-5 spikes, radiating from peduncle. Spikelets in two rows along the axis. Common in pastures and house yards. The tea from man grass is taken for body swelling. The grass is sometimes boiled with sweetheart (Desmodium spp.) and black potato vine (Ipomoea batatas), and drunk to stop haemorrhage. The grass is pounded, mixed with water, and given to dogs when they are passing blood when coughing. When drunk steadily during the menstruation, man grass tea works as a contraceptive. Women should not use salt at the same time, since this would make the medicine ineffective. A herbal bath against evil spirits or bad spells is prepared with man grass, a bundle of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), and bamboo leaves (Bambusa vulgaris). People wash their hair with man grass to prevent it from falling out. Sold at the Georgetown market. (1) This Warao name means ‘man grass’.

Olyra longifolia Kunth GRAMINEAE High bush bamboo (Cr), Raroballi (Ar), Karisho (C). Clump-forming, perennial herb to 3 m high. Internodes shiny, reddish, nodes thickened. Inflorescences from upper nodes, racemiform, spreading. In forest gaps and open areas. Children make whistles from the hollow stems.

Panicum pilosum Sw. GRAMINEAE Bamboo (small type), Donkey grass (Cr). Perennial herbs, extensively sprawling, creeping and rooting at the bluish green nodes. Inflorescence terminal, light green, to 25 cm long, spreading. In secondary shrubland along roads, Moruca. The leaves are fed to cows that have problems with delivering their calves. Twenty minutes after consuming the leaves, they will start to give birth. These leaves are judged more effective than those of

270 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana the large bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris). People in Moruca believe that at midnight, this plant produces small black seeds which bring fortune and richness. When the seeds appear, the plant is said to moan and grunt like a mother giving birth. If the seeds are picked, the plant will become annoyed and cause serious problems. A rice bag is carefully spread under the plant to collect the falling seeds, which are secretly kept at home as magic objects. People said they learnt this from the Surinamese.

Calophyllum brasiliense Camb. GUTTIFERAE Kachikamo1 (Sp?), Kurahara2 (Ar, C). Tree, 20 m tall. Outer bark dark brown, rough, vertically cracked. Latex sticky, yellowish transparent. Drupe fleshy, light green. In swamp forest on pegasse, Moruca. In the coastal swamplands, the wood is favoured for boards, housing and canoes. (1) This name was said to be Spanish, but it is probably of indigenous origin; (2) The Carib term ‘kuriala’ and the Creole term ‘corial’ for dugout canoe are derived from this species (Ahlbrink, 1931).

Clusia palmicida Rich. ex Planch. & Triana GUTTIFERAE Black kufa, Kupa, Small leaf kupa, Cooper (Cr), Kufa (Ar), Kuwapo-u (C), Dabahi (Wr). Hemi-epiphyte. Aerial roots woody, cortex dark brown. Latex yellow. Flowers white, tinged with pink, staminodial ring yellow, sticky. Capsule ellipsoid, light green. Common, but patchily distributed in mixed forest, less frequent in swamp forest. Aerial roots are harvested for the commercial furniture industry, but they are more brittle than roots of white kufa (Clusia grandiflora). A hot chocolate-like brew from the root cortex is drunk with sugar, or mixed with several other ingredients (see Davilla kunthii) into aphrodisiac potions. The root is boiled with karia leaves (Stigmaphyllon sinuatum) against malaria. Roots are used to make traditional Carib tondoli baskets. The latex is applied as plaster on mosquito worms. Stepping on the sticky fruit is believed to cause ground itch. Children make toy guns from hollowed out roots. Pieces of roots with cortex are sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Clusia pana-panari (Aubl.) Choisy GUTTIFERAE Small leaf kupa (Cr), Kufa (Ar). Scrambling shrub. Stilt roots with yellow latex. Leaves small, opposite, with white latex. Flowers white, calyx persistent, dark brown. Capsule ellipsoid, green to purple-black. Occasional in riverbank vegetation. The bark is occasionally boiled and drunk against back pain.

Tovomita cf. brevistaminea Engl. GUTTIFERAE Wild mango (Cr), Awasokule (Ar), Arakapuri paindyarï, Paipaiyo wokuru1 (C). Small tree with stilt roots. Bark foul-smelled, wood reddish. Leaves clustered at branch ends. Flowers green, sweet-scented. Capsule crowned by 4-lobed stigma. Common in mixed forest, Barama. The reddish pink fruit pulp was mentioned as edible, although a bit sour. Straight trunks are used as house posts and forest camp frames, otherwise as firewood. Skinned twigs are used to beat dirt from recently harvested, unspun cotton. (1) ‘Drink of the screaming piha’, since this bird feeds on the fruit.

Tovomita calodictyos Sandw. GUTTIFERAE Wild mango (Cr), Awasokule (Ar), Arakapuri (C). Small tree with stilt roots. Latex yellow. Inner bark turning orange when exposed, wood pinkish red. Capsule large, 4-valved. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. The trunk base with roots is used for coffee table frames. Stilt roots are used to make warishi frames and serve as firewood.

Tovomita choisyana Planch. & Triana GUTTIFERAE Hill wild mangro (Cr), Awasokule (Ar), Arakapuri paindyarï (C). Small tree with stilt roots. Latex yellow. Inner bark reddish, wood hard. Capsule green, ca. 4 cm long, 5-valved. Seeds 5, orange, embedded in red pulp. Occasional in mixed forest. Large trunks are used for housing, smaller ones for firewood. The stilt roots are carved into arrow sockets.

271 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Tovomita obscura Sandw. GUTTIFERAE Hill wild mango (Cr), Awasokule (Ar), Arakapuri paindyarï (C). Small tree with stilt roots. Outer bark dark, inner bark red, strong-scented, wood brown, hard. Leaves clustered at branch ends, with little yellow latex. Occasional in secondary forest. The latex is said to cause a serious skin rash. The trunk base with the roots is used for coffee table frames. Stilt roots are used as warishi frames, bows and arrow sockets. The wood is also used as firewood.

Tovomita cf. schomburgkii Planch. & Triana GUTTIFERAE Hill wild mango (Cr), Awasokule (Ar), Arakapuri (C). Small tree with stilt roots. Outer bark green, horizontally ringed, inner bark red, with yellow latex. Flowers white, stamens long. Capsule round, crowned by styles. In mixed forest, rare in manicole swamps. Straight trunks are used for housing and boards, otherwise as firewood. The stilt roots serve as whips or bows.

Vismia guianensis (Aubl.) Choisy GUTTIFERAE Small leaf bloodwood (Cr), Orali, Warohaya (Ar), Syirimeni (C), Dau hotu1, Uraribari (Wr). Small tree. Latex orange red. Leaves small, opposite, golden-brown, folded together when young. Inflorescences rusty puberulous. Berries green. Abundant in secondary forest. Trunks are favoured for house frames (runners, beams). The bark is boiled for half an hour and used to cleanse sores, eczema, ringworm, or itching skin. The latex is rubbed on warts and skin fungi (lota, ground itch, ringworm), but is less effective than that of the broad leaf bloodwood (V. macrophylla). Young girls paint their lips and nails orange with the latex. Fresh leaves are thrown with trysil leaves (Pentaclethra macroloba) in chicken pens to repel nimbles (poultry lice). (1) ‘Blood tree’, after the orange-red latex.

Vismia laxiflora Reichardt GUTTIFERAE Small leaf bloodwood (Cr), Sirimyari (C). Medium-sized tree. Latex orange. Leaves small, opposite, golden-brown, folded together when young. Berries green, calyx persistent. Rare in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The trunks are used for runners and beams.

Vismia macrophylla Kunth GUTTIFERAE Broad leaf bloodwood (Cr), Orali, Warohaya (Ar), Saipyarara (C), Dau aidemu hotu1 (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Bark red, flaky, with much orange latex. Leaves large. Inflorescence rusty puberulous. Berry green, crowned by long styles. Abundant in secondary forest, frequent along riverbanks. The latex is rubbed on skin fungi (lota, ground itch, ringworm). A bark decoction is used to bathe these skin fungi. The sap squeezed from the heated young leaves is drunk for diarrhoea. Girls paint their lips and nails with the latex. (1) The Warao name means ‘large blood tree’.

Xiphidium caeruleum Aubl. HAEMODORACEAE Wild lily, Monkey pine (Cr), Hebesere bina1, Waiuriballi (Ar), Karuwara epïtyï3, Sararan, Sayu yumï3 (C). Herb to 2 m high. Rhizome creeping. Leaves green with brown spots. Flowers white, in terminal, many-flowered inflorescence. Berry black. In cultivated and abandoned fields. The grated rhizome is applied to cuts, sores, and foot fungus. The plant is also used to treat the painful sting of the karuwara caterpillar. (1) ‘Foot fungus bina’ (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Karuwara cure’; (3) This Carib name means ‘razorgrass father’.

Humiria balsamifera (Aubl.) A. St.-Hil. var. balsamifera HUMIRIACEAE Tawanero, Tauroniro (Cr), Tauarãru (Ar), Meri (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Bark rough, brown, vertically grooved. Twigs flat. Leaves rounded at apex, coiled inwards when young. Flowers white, showy. Drupe ovoid, blue-black. In quackal swamp forest. The hard wood is a commercial timber, locally valued for boards, furniture, housing, and high quality charcoal. The bark is stuffed in the roof to drive out insects destroying the thatch.

272 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Humiriastrum obovatum (Benth.) Cuatrec. HUMIRIACEAE Rat shit tree, Redwood (Cr), Hurihi, Kurihi, Kurihi itcheka1 (Ar). Tree to 40 m tall. Outer bark brown, lenticellate, inner bark orange. Leaves obovate, red-brown puberulous below when young, margins recurved. Drupe fleshy. Common in quackal swamp forest, Moruca. The acid fruits are eaten or pounded in hot water into a beverage. The hard wood is sawn into boards. (1) ‘Rat shit’, after the fusiform black seeds.

Sacoglottis aff. cydonioides Cuatrec. HUMIRIACEAE Broad leaf counter, Redwood (Cr), Dukuria (Ar). Tree to 15 m tall. Outer bark reddish brown, rough, inner bark red, wood yellow, sweet-scented. In mixed forest, Moruca. The bark is boiled into a astringent tea for diarrhoea.

Poraqueiba sp. TVA754 ICACINACEAE Baradanni (Cr), Pukuta (C). Large tree. Outer bark light brown, lenticellate, inner bark orange-yellow, sweet-scented, with transparent orange exudate. Leaves large. Saplings with horizontal branches. Rare in Mora forest, Barama. The wood is used for canoes, boards, and house construction.

Poraqueiba aff. guianensis Aubl. ICACINACEAE Lonely wood, Lonely tree1 (Cr), Solito (Sp), Marishiballi hariraru (Ar), Warurang (C). Very large tree, with large buttresses. Outer bark brown, vertically fissured, inner bark dark pink, oxidising to dark orange when exposed, wood white. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. The bark stripped from the buttresses is used in herbal baths against itching skin. Four strips of 100 x 20 cm are used for one bath. People often develop skin rashes when felling trees or lianas with acrid latex. The red bark decoction is said to be more alleviating than the cream provided by the hospital. (1) The name refers to the rarity of this species.

Eleutherine bulbosa (P. Mill.) Urb. IRIDACEAE Come back bush (Cr), Warakaba bina (Ar), Soasoa1 (C), Murusi, Muharoko (W). Perennial herb to 60 cm high. Bulb layered, purplish red. Leaves linear, finely plicate. Flowers white, in branched, bracteate inflorescences. Capsule green. In pastures, frequently grown in house yards. The plant is believed to be one of the most powerful binas. When going to court or the police station, the suspect secretly carries a leaf or bulb with him. Even if he is guilty, the authorities will be on his side. Fish hooks, rods, and lines are rubbed with the leaves to be certain of a good catch. The grated bulb is used in a herbal bath or mixed with oil or perfume and rubbed on the body from head to toe. The sweet smell wins the love of a desired person, brings back an unfaithful lover or a missing person, or keeps a beloved one by your side forever. The red gratings are used as lipstick, or secretly rubbed in the hair of an admired person. The bulb is wrapped in some leaves and hidden in the house to bring financial luck. Women drink the tea from the bulbs to stop haemorrhage and overcome infertility. If a menstruating woman urinates over the plant, it will loose its power forever. Rubbing the body with lime is one of the few remedies to get rid of a bina spell. Bina mixtures are occasionally sold, but always in strict secrecy. (1) According to the Caribs, the wood creeping soa soa bird (Dendrocolaptes sp.) is thought to be a lonely bird, always calling for his partner. The bird itself is used in similar magic practises as the plant.

Hyptis pectinata (L.) Poit. LABIATAE Cold bush, Woman piaba (Cr). Herb to 2 m high. Stem ribbed. Leaves ovate, grey-green below, aromatic. Flowers small, purple, in long, terminal, spike-like thyrse. Along roadsides and disturbed areas, often planted in house yards. A decoction of the whole plant is used as a steam or sweat bath by women suffering from ‘lining cold’ (puerperal fever). The tea is drunk for stomachache. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

273 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. LABIATAE Man piaba, Lion bush (Cr), Kororewa, Kamityami epïtyï (C). Herb to 3 m high. Stems grey-green, ribbed, square. Leaves deeply crenate, strong-scented. Flowers orange, in dense, spiny, axillary verticillasters. Weed of waste places, also planted in house yards. Fresh leaves are thrown in chicken pens to repel nimbles. A tea from the leaves is taken for stomachache and intestinal worms. Sold at the Georgetown market.

Lacistema aggregatum (Bergius) Rusby LACISTEMACEAE Wild coffee (white type), Rod stick (Cr). Small tree. Outer bark green, inner bark light brown, wood yellow. Flowers yellowish green, in axillary, catkin-like spikes. Capsule fleshy, red. In secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is sometimes used for house posts and firewood. Young trunks serve as fishing rods.

Aniba cf. guianensis Aubl. LAURACEAE Ginger gale silverballi (Cr), Kereti (Ar). Tree to 25 m tall. Inner bark yellow, ginger-scented. Leaves leathery, greyish below, base cuneate. Flowers small. Berry enclosed by warty cupule. In secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is said to be poisonous and remain free from insect attacks. It is used for boards and canoes and is favoured by Pomeroon boat builders for ballahoos.

Aniba hostmanniana (Nees) Mez LAURACEAE Big leaf silverballi (Cr), Kanoaballi (Ar), Waikiarra, Sipiropipo, Apotono arï siduwaparï (C). Tree to 20 m tall. Bark and wood light brown. Leaves clustered at branch end, greyish below. Inflorescence rusty tomentose. Fruiting cupule dentate. In secondary forest, Barama. The wood is favoured for boards and canoes.

Aniba jenmanii Mez LAURACEAE Swamp kereti, Kereti silverballi (Cr), Kereti (Ar). Small tree. Outer bark flaky, inner bark orange, wood white. Young branches grooved. Leaves clustered at branch ends. Inflorescence few-flowered. Berry chestnut brown. In quackal swamp forest. The sweet-scented wood is used for boards and canoes.

Aniba cf. kappleri Mez LAURACEAE Silverballi (Cr), Siduwaparï (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark black, inner bark and wood bright yellow. Twigs reddish. Inflorescence rusty puberulous. Fruiting cupule rusty, warty. In mixed forest, Barama. The hard, sweet-scented wood is favoured for boards and canoes.

Aniba cf. riparia (Nees) Mez LAURACEAE Brown silverballi, Sauari skin silverballi, Yellow kereti (Cr), Kereti (Ar), Siduwaparï (C). Tree to 18 m tall. Inner bark and wood yellow. Leaves glabrous, strong-scented. Inflorescence grey- or rusty puberulous. Berry yellow to orange. In mixed and secondary forest. The wood is favoured for boards, furniture, and canoes.

Aniba cf. terminalis Ducke LAURACEAE Silverballi (Cr), Siduwaparï (C). Medium-sized tree. Young leaves light brown, silvery, sweet-scented. Panicles terminal. Berry enclosed by warty cupule. Rare in Mora forest. The wood is favoured for boards and canoes.

Aniba sp. TVA988 LAURACEAE Brown silverballi (Cr), Siduwaparï (C). Tree to 10 m tall. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark light brown, wood yellowish. Leaves small, slightly aromatic. The wood is favoured for boards, floors, and canoes.

274 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Nectandra cf. cuspidata Nees LAURACEAE Kereti, Shirua (Ar), Tokuhsa (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Outer bark patchy grey, inner bark and wood yellow, unpleasantly scented. Leaves slightly aromatic. Flowers small, white. Berry small. In secondary forest. In Barama, the wood was only used as firewood, because the saw dust was said to cause skin rash. In Moruca, the wood was valued for boards and canoes.

Ocotea cernua (Nees) Mez LAURACEAE Fine leaf kereti (Cr), Kereti, Yekoro (Ar), Wayaka (C). Small tree. Leaves with unpleasant smell. Flowers very small, yellow, in axillary panicles. Cupule bright red, leathery. Berry green to black. In mixed, secondary, and Mora forest. The wood is favoured for boards, furniture, coffins, and canoes.

Ocotea schomburgkiana (Nees) Mez LAURACEAE Brown silverballi, Swizzle stick kereti, White / Brown kereti (Cr), Kereti, Yekoro (Ar), Tokuhsa, Yapui (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark dark brown, rough, inner bark brown, wood soft, white. Branches in whorls. Panicles pyramidal. Berry small. In manicole swamps, mixed and secondary forest. The sweet- scented wood is used for house frames, boards, coffins, gun stalks, canoes, and firewood. The sawdust irritates the skin. The whorled branches are trimmed into swizzles to beat chocolate milk or porridge.

Ocotea splendens (Meisn.) Mez LAURACEAE Buck vomit (Cr), Kereti, Yekoro (Ar), Waye, Wa-e (C). Tree to 15 m tall. Outer bark whitish grey, inner bark brown, wood whitish yellow. Leaves broad, glabrous, clustered at branch ends. Panicles yellow-puberulous. In secondary forest and manicole swamp. The wood is favoured for boards, walls, furniture, coffins, canoes, and firewood.

Ocotea tomentella Sandw. LAURACEAE Broad leaf silverballi Baradanni (Cr), Kereti, Baradan1 (Ar), Mïrakurang2 (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Outer bark light brown, inner bark orange, wood light brown. Leaves clustered at branch ends, greyish brown puberulous. Petiole winged. Berry small, green. In mixed and secondary forest. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for boards, canoes, coffins, floors, and furniture. (1) ‘Ocean tree’, after the light, seaworthy canoes made from it (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Wild avocado pear’.

Eschweilera alata A.C.Smith LECYTHIDACEAE Wild guava, Guava skin kakaralli (Cr), Kakaralli (Ar), Ara-a (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark flaky, in a jigsaw pattern, inner bark pink. Petals pale yellow, staminodial hood yellow. Fruit obconical, small. Rare in mixed forest. The wood is a commercial timber, used locally for long-lasting house posts.

Eschweilera decolorans Sandw. LECYTHIDACEAE Brown kakaralli (Cr), Kakaralli (Ar), Urana ereparï1(C), Kakarari (Wr). Large tree. Bark brown, inner bark and wood yellowish white. Flowers large, sweet-scented, petals white, turning blue when touched, staminodial hood yellow. Common in mixed forest. The fibrous, sweet-scented bark strips are used for head straps and lashing material. The wood is a commercial timber, used locally for house posts and boards. (1) ‘Labba food’, as this rodents feeds on the fruits.

Eschweilera sagotiana Miers LECYTHIDACEAE Broad leaf black kakaralli (Cr), Kakaralli (Ar), Urana ereparï (C), Kakarari (Wr). Tree to 30 m tall. Outer bark brown, inner bark yellow. Leaves large, leathery. Flowers small, petals white, staminodial hood dark yellow. Fruits woody. Common in mixed forest. The sweet-scented bark is used for head straps and lashing material. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for house posts, beams, runners, poles, and boards. The seeds are used as bait in bird traps.

275 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Eschweilera wachenheimii (Benoist) Sandw. LECYTHIDACEAE White kakaralli, Fine leaf black kakaralli (Cr), Kakaralli (Ar), Kuwatïri (C), Kakarari (Wr). Tree to 25 m tall. Leaves glabrous, long-acuminate. Petioles black. Petals white, staminodial hood yellow, sweet-scented. Fruit obconical, woody. Seeds 1-2. Abundant in mixed forest. The sweet- scented bark is used for head straps and lashing material. The wood is locally used for house frames, boards, and canoes.

Eschweilera sp. TVA2144 LECYTHIDACEAE Broad leaf monkey pot (Cr). Tree, ca. 15 m tall. Inner bark and wood yellow. Midrib prominent above. In secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is used to build traditional Arawak kitchen walls in the ‘wattle and stave’ style.

Lecythis cf. chartacea Berg LECYTHIDACEAE Broad leaf monkey pot, Smooth skin/fine leaf/black/white kakaralli (Cr), Hiaru kakaralli, Kakaralli (Ar), Kakarari (Wr). Tree to 35 m tall. Outer bark purplish brown, inner bark and wood white. Leaves elliptic, slightly serrate when young. Flowers white. Fruits turbinate. In secondary and mixed forest, Moruca. The hard wood is used for house frames, poles, posts, axe handles, heavy-duty bridges, and boards. The bark yields an inferior lashing material.

Bauhinia scala-simiae Sandw. LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Monkey ladder, Turtle step (Cr), Hikuri tarafon (Ar), Wayamu patï (C), Tida aidamu araimuhu (Wr). Liana. Stem undulate, deeply divided. Leaves entire, palmately veined. Petioles long. Branches soft brown puberulous. Pod clavate, reddish brown tomentose. In Mora and mixed forest. The root is pounded until fibrous, its sap squeezed in a cup and diluted in warm water. A quarter cup is drunk for diarrhoea. A tea from the wood is drunk for malaria, diarrhoea, to bitter the blood, and to stop haemorrhage.

Chamaechrista ramosa (Vogel) H.S. Irwin & Barneby LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Wiry shrub to 1 m tall. Leaves pinnate, leaflets 4. Flowers yellow, turning orange with age. Pod small, flat, black. Taken from the wild (probably from the white sand savannas in Berbice), and planted as ornamental in house yards on white sand (Assakata).

Dicorynia cf. guianensis Amshoff LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Sand mora (Cr). Tree to 40 m tall. Outer bark flaky, inner bark brown, wood yellow, foul-smelling. Panicles rusty puberulous. Pod ovate, flat. Seeds 1-2. Rare in secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is said to be poisonous and used to kill fish. Throwing wood chips in a creek would instantly kill the fish. The guts, scales, and skin of the fish should quickly be removed, and the flesh carefully cleaned with lime to avoid digesting the poison. The wood is considered too poisonous for house construction or firewood. Informants possibly confused this species with Talisia spp.

Eperua falcata Aubl. LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Soft wallaba (Cr), Wallaba (Ar), Watapa, Parewe (C), Waraba (Wr). Tree to 30 m tall. Leaves 6-8-foliolate. Flowers pink, in terminal, pendent racemes to 2 m long. Pod flat, woody, reddish brown, falcate. Occasional in mixed forest, common in manicole swamp. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for house posts, boards, canoes, poles, kitchen staves, and shingles. Wallaba posts harvested from coastal swamps are sold in regional towns. The market for shingles has dwindled lately.

276 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Eperua rubiginosa Miq. var. rubiginosa LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Wallaba (Ar), Warapa (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Leaves 8-foliolate. Leaflets long-acuminate. Racemes terminal, pendent, to 2.5 m long. Pod flat, woody, brown, falcate. Rare in Mora forest, Barama. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for house posts, poles, and shingles.

Macrolobium acaciifolium Benth. LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Arapito, Sarabebe (Ar), Arapari, Aratapali (C). Tree to 10 m, with broad buttresses. Leaves bipinnate, yellowish puberulous below. Flowers white. Pod orbicular, flat, woody. Seed 1. In flooded savanna, Moruca. The seeds are edible, but people warned that eating too much of them will rotten the teeth or cause lice infestation. Herbal baths with the leaves are believed to keep a person forever young, since this tree always gets fresh, young leaves after shedding its old ones.

Macrolobium angustifolium (Benth.) Cowan LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Waterwallaba, Waterwallaba-balli (Cr), Sararabebe (Ar), Aratapa (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Leaves 2-foliate. Flowers white, with red filaments, in axillary, tomentose racemes. Pod red-brown ellipsoid, flat, glabrous, heavy. Common in swamp forest on pegasse. The wood is used for boards and cricket bats.

Peltogyne venosa (Vahl) Benth. subsp. venosa LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Purpleheart (Cr), Saka (Ar), Wewe pipyo1 (C), Moraijana (Wr). Tree to 45 m tall. Crown broad. Outer bark black, inner bark light brown, heartwood purple. Flowers pink, in terminal, rusty puberulous panicles. Pod leathery, stipitate. Occasional in mixed forest. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for boards, house posts, uprights, canoes, coffee mortars, bridges, walking sticks, and other crafts. In the past, wood skin canoes were made by felling a trunk, beating the bark, and removing it as a whole, and keeping the bark slab open with yariyari sticks (Duguetia spp.). Wood skins move fast, but are hard to steer and have a short life span. They were made when people reached a distant river after travelling by land and no boat was available to travel further. Canoes made during moonlight are believed to spoil rapidly. Wood skins are hardly used anymore, since few people are left that still know the technique. (1) The Carib name means ‘wood skin’.

Sclerolobium micropetalum Ducke LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Ants tree (hill type) (Cr), Kaditiri, Yawaredan (Ar), Tyasi epï1, Topuwonu (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Leaves large, paripinnate. Stipules pinnate, threadlike. Leaves and stipules densely rusty puberulous. Panicles to 35 cm long. Pod thin, flat. Occasional in mixed forest. The painfully stinging ants that inhabit this tree are put on a dog’s nose to make him hunt better. (1) ‘Tyasi ant tree’ (hill type). The ‘riverside’ tyasi ant tree is Triplaris weigeltiana.

Senna multijuga (Rich) H.S. Irwin & Barneby var. multijuga LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Marimari, Riariadan1 (Ar), Marimyari (C). Medium-sized tree. Leaves paripinnate, many-foliolate. Flowers yellow, in large, many-flowered panicles. Pod flat, brown. Common in secondary shrubland and gaps in mixed forest, spared from weeding or planted in house yards as ornamental. Flowers are used in wedding bouquets. The leaflets are thrown as confetti over married couples. (1) The Arawak name means ‘sun bee tree’ (Fanshawe, 1949).

Senna occidentalis (L.) Link LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Wild coffee, Bruka, Brucha (Cr), Arapo (C), Kobi1 (Wr). Perennial, shrubby herb. Leaves 8-foliolate, foul-smelling. Flowers yellow, in few-flowered racemes. Pod long, flat, brown. Weed in waste places along the coast, cultivated in the interior. Seeds are parched, ground, and drunk as coffee substitute and as a remedy for kidney problems, intestinal infections, worms, haemorrhage, female infertility, and to clean out the uterus. Leaves are macerated and applied to the head for headache. A tea from the leaves is taken for lining cold and haemorrhage, and is given in small quantities to babies with thrush. The decoction is used as a sweat bath for colds. The sap from the pounded roots is drunk for diarrhoea. In Georgetown, wild coffee is boiled with a

277 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II congo pump leaf (Cecropia spp.) and bishop’s cap (Cardiospermum halicacabum) for kidney disorders. Sold at the Georgetown market. (1) The Warao name means ‘coffee’ (Charette, 1980).

Senna reticulata (Willd.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. John crow bush, Carrion crow bush (Cr), Anatapari (C), Bure arau (Wr). Arborescent shrub to 8 m tall. Leaves paripinnate, foul-smelling, rachis flat. Flowers yellow, in stout inflorescences capped with a cone of petaloid bracts. In secondary shrubland. The leaves are used in sweat baths for fever. The tea from leaves and/or flowers and pod is drunk as laxative. A mouthful of the tea is drunk for pneumonia.

Tachigali paniculata Aubl. LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP. Ants wood (Cr), Yawaredan1 (Ar). Small tree with low buttresses. Rachis triangular, inhabited by stinging ants. Flowers cream, in terminal, many-flowered racemes. Pod long, flat, leathery. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. The wood is used for boards and house construction. (1) ‘Opossum tree’, from the ugly smell of the ants living in the petioles (Fanshawe, 1949).

Abarema jupunba (Willd.) Britton & Killip LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. var. trapezifolia (Vahl) Barneby & Grimes Soapwood (Cr), Huruasa (Ar), Waisyore turupo1 (C), Dau bana2 (Wr). Tree to 35 m tall. Leaves bipinnate, pinnae asymmetrical. Flowers white, with long stamens, in terminal, clustered heads. Pod dehiscent, twisted, red inside. Common in secondary forest. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for boards and canoes. The inner bark contains saponins and becomes foamy when beaten in water. Until recently (during the Burnham period), the bark and flowers were used as soap substitute. (1) ‘Sloth heart’; (2) ‘Froth wood’, after the soapy bark.

Hydrochorea cf. corymbosa (A. Rich.) Barneby & Grimes LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Christmas tree, Soapwood (Cr), Ka’ra (C). Tree to 45 m tall. Crown broad. Leaves bipinnate, rachis rusty tomentose. Flowers white, in subfasciculate heads. Pod flat, dehiscent. Rare in mixed forest. Saplings are planted in pots and sold as Christmas tree. Trimmed saplings are used to hang cups. The wood is occasionally used for canoes and firewood.

Inga cf. acreana Harms LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Bender whitey (Cr), Warakosa1 (Ar), Doho2 (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark lenticellate. Leaves paripinnate, rachis narrowly winged. Flowers white, in congested, puberulous spikes. Pod flat with raised margins. Common in secondary forest, Moruca. The white pulp around the seeds is eaten. (1) The general Arawak name for Inga species (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) The general Warao name for Inga species (Charette, 1980).

Inga cf. acrocephala Steud. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Doho (Wr). Tree to 25 m tall. Leaves 4-jugate, rachis not winged. Flowers white, in axillary or terminal, paniculate spikes. Pod curved, woody, green, ribbed. In secondary and mixed forest, Moruca. The fruit pulp is eaten.

278 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Inga capitata Desv. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Fine leaf whitey, Round leaf whitey (Cr), Hikoritoro, Warakosa (Ar). Tree to 20 m tall. Leaves 2-4-jugate. Rachis not winged. Spikes 1-3, in leaf axils. Flowers white. Pod glabrous, smooth, sessile, rounded. In swamps and well-drained forest. The white fruit pulp is eaten, but only as emergency food, because it is less sweet than other Inga species.

Inga graciliflora Benth. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Button whitey, Whitey, Centipede whitey (Cr), Tureli, Waremesuri (Ar), Sarara1 (C), Doho (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves 3-jugate, rachis slightly winged. Flowers white, in axillary umbels. Pods in bundles, green, ca. 25 cm long, swollen at seeds. In secondary and mixed forest. The white pulp around the seeds is eaten. The wood is used as firewood. (1) ‘Centipede’, after the shape of the pod.

Inga huberi Ducke LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Black whitey, Broad leaf whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Doho (Wr). Tree to 20 m, with irregular buttresses. Leaves 2-jugate, rachis not winged. Flowers white, in clusters of 3 axillary umbels. Pod ca. 20 x 4 cm, thick. In secondary and mixed forest. The white pulp around the seeds is eaten. The wood is used as firewood and occasionally for canoes.

Inga cf. java Pittier LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Brown whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Doho (Wr). Small tree. Leaves puberulous, rachis slightly winged. Flowers white, in congested spikes in the axils of undeveloped leaves. Pod long, flat, broad. In manicole swamp, Assakata. The pulp around the seeds is eaten.

Inga jenmanii Sandw. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Waisyimiri (C), Doho (Wr). Large tree. Leaves small, 6-foliolate, rachis slightly winged. Stipules long. Flowers white, in umbellate inflorescence. Pod green, ca. 9 cm long, smooth, thick. Occasional in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The white fruit pulp is eaten.

Inga leiocalycina Benth. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Apipjoroi (C), Doho (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Twigs lenticellate. Leaves 2-jugate, golden puberulous when young, rachis not winged. Flowers white, in very short, axillary clustered spikes. Pod dark green, swollen around seeds, 20 cm long. Occasional in Mora riverbank forest, Barama. The white pulp around the seeds is eaten. The wood is used as firewood.

Inga marginata Willd. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Broad leaf whitey, Green whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Doho (Wr). Tree to 15 m. Leaves 2-jugate, rachis winged. Flowers white, in axillary, 8 cm long spikes. Pod slightly curved, glabrous, constricted between the seeds. In quackal swamp forest. The white seed pulp is eaten.

Inga melinonis Sagot LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Baboon whitey, Black monkey goggle1 (Cr), Karoto (Ar), Ariki enakorori (C), Doho (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves 4-jugate, velutinous below, rachis slightly winged. Flowers capitate, white, produced from main branches. Pod long, curved. In secondary forest. The white fruit pulp is eaten. The wood is used for firewood. (1) This Creole name is a translation of the Carib name.

Inga nobilis Willd. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Wild river whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Pasindyo (C), Doho (Wr). Small tree. Leaves 3-4-jugate, rachis angular, not winged. Flowers white, stamens long, in terminal, clustered spikes. Pod yellow, curved, swollen over seeds. Abundant on riverbanks of the Barama and Barima Rivers. The fruit pulp is eaten, mainly by children paddling their way to school. The wood is used as firewood.

279 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Inga pilosula (Rich.) J.F. Macbr. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. House whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Murewa (C), Hanoko duroho1 (Wr). Small tree. Leaves 2-jugate, leathery, puberulous below, rachis broadly winged. Flowers yellow, in axillary spikes. Pod yellowish green, heavy, straight, flattened. In seasonally flooded forests, often cultivated in Amerindian house yards. The seed pulp is eaten. The wood is used as firewood. (1) The Warao name means ‘house whitey’, implying its cultivated state.

Inga rubiginosa (Rich.) DC. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Baboon whitey (Cr) Ituri hi1 (Ar), Apowonu (large kind), Poporu peta2 (C), Doho (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Young branches and leaves densely red-brown puberulous, rachis not winged. Flowers large, yellowish, in loosely clustered spikes. Pod densely reddish brown puberulous. In secondary and mixed forest, sometimes spared from cutting. The white pulp around the seeds is eaten. The wood is used as firewood. (1) ‘Baboon tail’, after the red, hairy leaves and pods (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Toad face’, after the shape of the pod.

Inga sertulifera DC. subsp. leptopus (Benth.) T.D. Penn. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Turtle whitey, Whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Doho (Wr). Small tree. Outer bark light brown, lenticellate. Leaves small, rachis slightly winged. Flowers white, in umbellate inflorescence. Pod short, fat, yellow. In riverbank forest, planted in Moruca house yards. The fruit pulp is eaten.

Inga splendens Willd. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Cowfoot whitey, Big river whitey (Cr), Rabaraba (Ar), Inya-u (C), Doho (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves 2-jugate, leathery, rachis narrowly winged near apex. Flowers white, in paniculate spikes. Pod large, green, heavy, ca. 20 cm long. In riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The white fruit pulp is eaten.

Inga thibaudiana DC. subsp. thibaudiana LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Monkey whitey (Cr), Iturihi karoto ibibero, Warakosa (Ar), Apowonu (small one), Tanïmï, Sehpundï (C), Doho (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves 4-5-jugate, brown puberulous below, rachis not winged. Flowers white, in loose, axillary spikes. Pod flat, brown-puberulous, ca. 30 cm. Common in secondary forest, spared from weeding around house yards. The white pulp around the seeds is eaten. The wood is used as firewood.

Inga umbellifera (Vahl) Steud. ex DC. LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Turtle whitey (Cr), Warakosa (Ar), Wayamu topuru1 (C), Doho (Wr). Small tree. Leaves 2-3-jugate, petiole and rachis broadly winged. Flowers white, star-like, in axillary umbels. Pod curved, green. Common in secondary forest. The fruit pulp is eaten; the wood is used as firewood. (1) ‘Turtle leg’, after the curved, stout pod.

Inga sp. TVA2285 LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Whitey (Cr). Tree, 10 m tall. Outer bark warty, lenticellate, inner bark red, wood yellow. Leaves 6-jugate, rusty puberulous below, rachis not winged. Flowers and pods not seen. In quackal swamp forest, Moruca. The fruit pulp is eaten.

280 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Inga sp. TVA2283 LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Whitey (Cr). Small tree. Leaves 3-jugate, somewhat rough, pulvinus with black hairs, rachis slightly winged. Flowers and pods not seen. In quackal swamp forest, Moruca. The fruit pulp is eaten.

Inga sp. TVA2463 LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Fine leaf whitey (Cr). Sapling, ca. 2m tall. Leaves 4-jugate, puberulous, rachis not winged. Flowers and pods not seen. In mixed forest, Moruca. The fruit pulp is eaten.

Macrosamanea pubiramea (Steud.) Barneby & Grimes LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. var. pubiramea Fine leaf bender, Bender bush, Fine leaf trysil, Water trysil (Cr), Imirimia (Ar), Aramirurang (C). Small tree. Leaves bipinnate, dark green. Flowers in erect, globose heads, calyx pinkish brown, corolla pink, stamens numerous, filaments white. Pod greenish brown puberulous. Abundant in swamp forest on pegasse. The inner bark is scraped off and rubbed with coconut oil or applied as poultice on sprained or broken limbs. The hard, flexible twigs are used for bows. Because the twigs continue to grow when they are damaged, the species is believed to heal fractures. Fruit trees are beaten with a bender twig to ensure a good crop the following year.

Zygia cataractae (Kunth) L. Rico LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. Broad leaf bender (Cr), Alikyu (Ar). Small tree. Leaves glabrous, pinnae in 1 pair, each with 3 leaflets. Flowers pink, in heads produced from the main branches. Pod curved, ca. 20 cm long, yellowish green. In flooded savanna, Moruca. The inner bark is scraped, mixed with coconut oil and applied to sprained limbs. The flexible, strong twigs are used for bows.

Zygia latifolia (L.) Fawc. & Rendle LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS. var. communis Barneby & Grimes Bender (Cr), Alikyu (Ar), Ayarani (C). Medium-sized tree. Leaves opposite, pinnae in 1 pair, each with 3-5 leaflets Flowers pink and white, in heads produced from the main branches. Pod green, ca. 14 cm long. In Mora riverbank forest, Barama. The wood is used for forest camp frames and firewood. The bark is used in a bath for general body pain and sickly babies.

Andira surinamensis (Bondt) Splitg. ex Amshoff LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Stainy rope (Cr), Shiriballi, Koraro (Ar), Rere ereparï, Ereyuru (C), Arisoru (Wr). Tree to 40 m tall. Little red exudate. Twigs, underside of leaves, and inflorescences rusty puberulous. Calyx brown, petals pale violet, standard with white central spot. In secondary forest and swamp forest on pegasse, Moruca. The red exudate is rubbed on mouth sores.

Crotalaria nitens Kunth LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Snake shakshak (Cr), Okoyu marakarï (C). Herb to 1.20 m high. Leaves 1-foliolate, densely puberulous. Flowers yellow, in terminal racemes. Pod inflated, subcylindric, black. Seeds numerous, black. In secondary shrubland, Barama and Barima. Children put the seeds in toy maracas (‘shakshaks’). Shaking the dry pods is believed to attract snakes.

Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Ironweed, Sweetheart (Cr), Tebeyu (Ar), Uhsenano epityï1 (C). Creeping herb. Leaves 3-foliolate, leaflets orbiculate. Flowers pinkish purple, in lax, terminal raceme. Pod with 1-4 segments, with sticky hairs. Common in pastures, Barama. The crushed leaves in water are used to wash the hair when it is falling out. Children write their names on their clothes with the sticky pods. (1) The Carib name means ‘hair cure’.

281 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Desmodium barbatum (L.) Benth. & Oerst. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Man ironweed, Man sweetheart (Cr), Pega pega (Sp), Tebeyu (Ar), Uhsenano epityï (C), Akuwana (Wr). Creeping herb. Leaves 3-foliolate, leaflets round, puberulous. Flowers small, pink, in dense terminal raceme. Pod segmented, united in hairy spheres. Common in pastures. A tea from the whole herb is drunk for fever, heart problems, male impotence, stomach ache, body pain, to ease menstruation, and to prevent miscarriages. Boiled with man grass (Eleusine indica) and black potato vine (Ipomoea batatas), the tea is taken for haemorrhage. If a father fails to keep the couvade rules and does heavy work just after his child is born, the baby will get cramps. The child is bathed with a decoction of this herb to ease the pain. Warao women believe they will get bad luck when the pods stick to their dress. Caribs wash their hair with the macerated leaves to enhance its growth and prevent baldness. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Desmodium incanum (Sw.) Desv. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Woman sweetheart, Woman ironweed (Cr), Tebeyu (Ar), Kumbo somororï (C). Creeping or erect herb 20 cm tall. Leaves 3-foliate, leaflets thick. Flowers purple, in lax, terminal raceme. Pod to 8-segmented. Common in pastures, Moruca. A tea from the whole plant (with roots) is taken to stop the bleeding of injuries and for haemorrhage. The plant is also boiled with man grass (Eleusine indica) and black potato vine (Ipomoea batatas) for haemorrhage.

Dioclea reflexa Hook. f. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Johnnie crow eyeball (Cr), Okrai (Ar), Bure ahu1 (Wr). Woody climber. Petioles and stipules brown puberulous. Leaves 3-foliate. Flowers purple, with white centre, in axillary, erect panicles. Flower buds black. In secondary forest, Waini. Children play with the round, flat seeds that resemble large eyes. The seeds are occasionally used as beads. (1) The Warao name means ‘vulture eye’.

Diplotropis purpurea (Rich.) Amsh. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Tatabu1 (Ar), Konatopo, Woko isyare, Kunoto epï (C). Tree to 40 m tall. Inner bark orange, turning green-brown after exposure. Leaves imparipinnate. Flowers pink, in terminal panicle. Pod flat, membranous. Occasional in mixed forest, Moruca. The hard wood is a commercial timber and considered the best wood to make canoes. Large tatabu canoes are locally sold for US$ 70. (1) ‘Tata’ means ‘hard’ in Arawak (Fanshawe, 1949).

Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Tonka bean (Cr), Kumaru (Ar), Karapa bosi, Katulimia (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Leaves paripinnate, rachis flattened. Flowers in terminal panicles, calyx rusty tomentose, petals whitish mauve. Drupe ovoid, mesocarp fibrous. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. The seeds contain cumarin, used industrially to flavour tobacco and as vanilla substitute. In the past, tonka beans were commercially extracted in the North-West District. Nowadays, they are only locally used. The grated seeds are mixed with vaseline and rubbed on the skin or hair as perfume. The wood is so hard to cut down that trees are often spared from felling.

Hymenolobium flavum Kleinh. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Fine leaf arisauro (Cr), Darina, Koraroballi (Ar), Rere ereparï, Ereyuru (C). Tree to 50 m tall. Buttresses square, to 2 m high. Leaves 15-17-foliolate. Panicles terminal, rusty tomentose. Pod ca. 15 x 3 cm. Rare in mixed forest, Moruca. A decoction of the bark is used to cleanse bush yaws sores.

Lonchocarpus aff. martynii A.C. Sm. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. White haiari (Ar), Haiari (Ar), Tamuneng haiari (C), Asikona (Wr). Large woody climber. Leaves imparipinnate, greyish green below, petiole swollen at base. Flowers numerous, purple. Pod flat. Rare in Mora and mixed forest, regularly taken from the wild and planted in house yards. The roots are used as fish poison. They are pounded and soaked in creeks, after which fish will come floating on the surface. The milky root sap is used externally on sores and skin cancer,

282 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana and drunk in small amounts to treat intestinal cancer and AIDS. The sap is diluted in a bucket of water and used as a bath for eczema, ground itch, and skin sores. Washing with soap should be avoided. Although prohibited by law, fish poison is still frequently used in the interior. Haiari roots are sold at the Mabaruma market for US$ 0.10/lbs. Some 25 lbs. is needed to poison an average creek.

Lonchocarpus negrensis Benth. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Brown haiari (Cr), Arari (Wr). Woody climber. Stem with red exudate. Leaves 9-foliolate, foul-smelling. Flowers yellowish white, in rusty puberulous racemes. Pod oblong. Common in secondary and mixed forest, Moruca and Waini. The roots were mentioned as fish poison by Warao only.

Lonchocarpus sp. TVA1247 LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Red haiari (Cr), Tapireng haiari (C). Woody climber. Stem light brown, lenticellate, inner bark green, wood white. Leaves imparipinnate, greyish puberulous when young, long-acuminate. Rare in Mora forest, Barama. The root sap is used as fish poison.

Lonchocarpus spruceanus Benth. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Fine kind of haiari (Cr), Arari mukumuku1 (Wr). Small tree. Leaves imparipinnate, leaflets small, leathery, with a slight poisonous scent. Roots thin, yellow. Observed once on an abandoned farm on white sand in Warapoka (Waini), probably cultivated by local Warao. The root sap is used as fish poison and applied to the head to relieve headache. (1) The Warao name means ‘small haiari’.

Machaerium cf. floribundum Benth. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Bat nail, Baboon plimpla (Cr), Bohoribada1 (Ar). Large woody climber. Stem flaky, grey, with thick, red exudate. Leaves imparipinnate, with two sharp spines at the base. Pod glabrous, greenish yellow. In swamp and secondary forest. A 30 cm long piece of the stem is cut, the red sap collected in a spoon, diluted in water, and drunk for diarrhoea, dysentery, and haemorrhage. Cotton is soaked in the sap to wipe the sore mouths of babies with thrush. A tea from the wood is taken for diarrhoea. (1) ‘Bat claw’, after the recurved spines (Fanshawe, 1949).

Machaerium quinata (Aubl.) Sandw. var. quinata LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Bohoribada (Ar), Kumetï (C). Woody climber. Bark peels off easily, with red exudate. Leaves imparipinnate, brown tomentose below. Stipules large. Flowers yellow. Pod light brown puberulous. In brackish swamps and secondary forest. The red sap is used for drawing on paper.

Machaerium sp. TVA921 LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Granny backbone (Cr), Awarepuya andïkïrï1, Kumetï (C). Woody climber with flat stem. Outer bark brown, flaky, wood white, with alternating bands secreting thick, red latex. Leaves imparipinnate. In mixed forest, Barama. The stem is chopped into pieces, boiled, and the bitter tea is drunk against malaria. The red exudate is used to paint wooden utensils (e.g., cricket balls). (1) ‘Waterdog tail’, after the flattened stem.

Mucuna cf. urens (L.) Medik. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Carrion crow eyeball, John crow eye (Cr), Konome enuru, Kurumu enuru1 (C). Woody climber. Flowers pendent on long peduncles, petals fleshy, whitish pink, turning purplish black with age. Pod ribbed, with stinging brown hairs. Rare in Mora forest, Barama. The grated seed are rubbed on the skin to relieve itches. Children play a game galled ‘jacks’ with the seeds or use them to make a top. (1) ‘Eye of the vulture’, after the shape of the seeds.

283 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Ormosia coccinea (Aubl.) Jackson LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Lucky seed, Jumbie beans (Cr), Barakaro (Ar), Anakoko (big type) (C). Large tree. Leaves 7-11-foliolate. Flowers dark purple, in rusty tomentose panicles. Pod dark red, leathery. Seeds hard, red and black. Occasional in mixed forest and manicole swamp. Children play with the seeds, which are sometimes used to teach them to count. Seeds are used as beads or carried in the pocket to bring luck. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for boards. The pounded bark is used in a steam bath for fever.

Ormosia nobilis Tul. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Lucky seed, Jumbie beans (Cr), Barakaro (Ar), Anakoko (smaller type) (C). Small trees. Bark patchy brown and white. Leaves large, glabrous, 7-foliolate, greyish velutinous when young. Pod woody, brown. Seeds hard, red and black. Occasional in secondary forest, Barama. The bark is pounded and used in a steam bath for fever. Children collect the seeds to play with. Seeds are used as beads, but need to be boiled before they can be threaded on a string. In coastal Guyana, the seeds are used in tourist jewellery.

Rhynchosia phaseoloides (Sw.) DC. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Lucky seed, Jumbie beans, Rat eye (Cr), Anakoko (smallest type), Mumbo enuru1 (C). Woody vine. Leaves 3-foliate. Stem, leaves, and inflorescence puberulous. Pod yellowish brown puberulous. Seeds small, hard, shiny, black and red. Growing as weed in cultivated fields. The seeds are used as toy or beads, but need to be boiled before they can be threaded. In coastal Guyana they are used in tourist jewellery. (1) The Carib name means ‘rat eye’.

Swartzia guianensis (Aubl.) Urb. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Axeblunter, Marudi food (Cr), Itikiboroballi (Ar), Warama, Asemunusi, Marasi ereparï1 (C). Medium-sized tree. Leaves 5-foliolate, petiole, and rachis winged. Flowers showy, cream, in pendent panicles on older twigs. Pod orange. Seeds black. Aril white. Frequent in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The hard wood is occasionally used for house posts and firewood. (1) ‘Marudi food’, as the seeds are eaten by this bird.

Swartzia schomburgkii Benth. var. schomburgkii LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Saltfish wood, Paddlewood (Cr), Parakasana, Parekosan (Ar), Asemunusi1, Marasi ereparï (C). Tree to 30 m tall. Bark with little red sap. Trunk deeply and broadly fluted. Leaves 7-9-foliolate, greyish green below. Flowers white, in lateral racemes. Pod elongate, glabrous, stipitate. Rare in high forest on Blue Mountain, Kokerite, Barama. Paddles and axe handles are carved from the fluted stem. (1) ‘Double seed’, after the two flattened seeds.

Vatairea guianensis Aubl. LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL. Sapotero (Cr), Zapatero (Sp), Arisauro (Ar). Tree to 30 m tall. Bark with little red sap. Leaves 9-13-foliolate, greyish below. Flowers dark purple, in brown-velutinous racemes. Pod flat, orbicular, heavy, ca. 9 x 5 cm. Common in swamp forest on pegasse. The poisonous seed is grated, mixed with (coconut) oil, and rubbed on scabies, sores, ringworm, and eczema. The yellow inner bark is rubbed on the skin for the same ailments. Canoes are occasionally made from the wood.

Strychnos erichsonii M.R. Schomb. ex Progel LOGANIACEAE Big devildoer (Cr), Kwabanaro (Ar), Aritya wokuru (C). Woody climber. Leaves opposite, leathery. Tendrils woody, curled. Flowers in axillary cymes. Berry globose, orange, ca. 3 cm in diam. Occasional in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The fruit pulp is edible and sweet. A tea from the bark and/or wood is believed to act like an aphrodisiac (see S. mitscherlichii).

Strychnos sp. TVA747 LOGANIACEAE Small devildoer (Cr), Aritya wokuru (C). Woody climber. Berry round, yellow, ca. 1.5 cm in diam. Occasional in mixed forest, Barama. The acid, yellowish grey fruit pulp is edible.

284 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Lomariopsis japurensis (Mart.) J. Sm. LOMARIOPSIDAE Baboon tail (Cr), Ituri hi (Ar), Arawata andïkïrï (C), Wai ahu (Wr). Epiphytic fern. Rhizome creeping, appressed against tree trunks, covered with long brown scales. Fronds pinnate, ca. 20 cm long, rachis with brown scales. In Mora forest, Barama. The scales are removed, the white rhizome tissue is grated, and applied as poultice on swellings or abscesses.

Phoradendron perrottetii (DC.) Eichler LORANTHACEAE Bird vine (large type) (Cr), Domoaso (Wr). Parasitic shrub. Suckers firmly attached to the branch of its host tree. Leaves leathery, yellow, asymmetric. Berry white, small. Common in secondary forest and orchards, Moruca. Pounded leaves are put as a poultice on sprained limbs. Leaves are boiled with monkey ladder (Bauhinia spp.) and some unknown other lianas into a remedy for venereal diseases. The bitter tea from the leaves is drunk against malaria and given in small doses to babies with thrush.

Phthirusa pyrifolia (Kunth) Eichler LORANTHACEAE Bird vine (small type) (Cr), Domoaso (Wr). Parasitic herb. Suckers firmly attached to the branch of its host tree. Flowers very small, red. Berry small. Common in secondary forest and orchards, Moruca. Pounded leaves are put as poultice on sprained limbs. A tea from the leaves is drunk to bitter the blood against malaria, and given in small doses to babies with thrush.

Byrsonima aerugo Sagot MALPIGHIACEAE White hicha, Red hicha (Ar), Arikadako (Ar), Perulu (C), Hitia (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Young leaves densely reddish brown tomentose. Flowers yellow, in terminal, many-flowered racemes. Drupe yellow. Seed 1. Common in secondary forest, Moruca. The fruits are edible. The wood is considered very good firewood.

Byrsonima spicata (Cav.) DC. MALPIGHIACEAE Fine leaf black hicha, Eta eta (Cr), Hicha (Ar), Hitia (Wr). Small tree. Leaves narrowly elliptic, puberulous below. Flowers yellow, in terminal, many-flowered racemes. Drupe yellow. Seed 1. Common in secondary forest, Moruca. Fruits are eaten directly or crushed in sugar water to make a beverage. The wood is considered very good firewood. A teaspoon of the sap from three macerated shoots is given to babies with thrush.

Byrsonima stipulacea A. Juss. MALPIGHIACEAE Hairy hicha (Cr), Hicha, Kanoaballi1 (Ar), Mïrï-i (C), Hitia (Wr). Tree to 20 m tall. Leaves clustered at branch ends, puberulous below. Stipules large. Flowers yellow, in terminal, many-flowered racemes. Drupe yellow. Seed 1. Frequent in secondary forest, Barama and Barima. The fruits are edible. Trees are cut down to collect bowls full of fruits. The wood is favoured as firewood. (1) ‘Canoe tree’ after the boat-shaped leaves (Fanshawe, 1949).

Lophopterys euryptera Sandw. MALPIGHIACEAE Masi (C). Liana. Leaves large, papery, light green below. Samaras 3, wings straw-coloured. Nut globose. In Mora forest, Barama. According to an old Carib belief, the kenaima spirit always carries a black powder made from dried, pulverised masi root. This powder is put in the victim’s mouth to make him cough and sneeze. If swallowed, the powder would destroy his intestines. As antidote to this powder, an infusion of the slimy inner bark of white congo pump (Cecropia sciadophylla) should be drunk.

Spachea elegans (G. Mey.) A. Juss MALPIGHIACEAE Noya ereparï1 (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark pink, wood yellow. Flowers in terminal, rusty brown panicles. Fruit green, nutlike. In riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The fruits are eaten by fish. When the fruits are ripe, people fish under this tree or use the fruits as bait.

285 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

(1) ‘Noya food’, named after a 20 cm long, spotted catfish, also known by its Arawak name ‘himiri’ (Parauchenipterus galeatus).

Hibiscus bifurcatus Cav. MALVACEAE Wild sorrel (Cr), Yahoballi (Ar), Sno-ï (C). Shrub. Stem with rough spines. Leaves palmately lobed. Flowers large, pink with a dark purple centre and staminal tube, petals twisted. In mokomoko riverbank vegetation, Moruca. Leaves are boiled and drunk as tea for cough and colds.

Malachra alceifolia Jacq. var alceifolia MALVACEAE Malva (Cr). Shrub. Leaves palmately lobed, strong-scented. Flowers yellow. Capsule hairy, brown. In open secondary vegetation, cultivated in Moruca house yards. A decoction of the leaves is used to cleanse sores. The boiled leaves are applied as a poultice on the sores afterwards. For earache, a tea from six leaves is poured in a bottle, wrapped in a rag. The hot bottle is held against the temples.

Sida rhombifolia L. MALVACEAE Big broom, Yard broom, Six o' clock (Cr), Escoba (Sp), Asokoa1 (C). Shrubby herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves aromatic, margins serrate. Flowers yellow, small. Capsule black, carpels 2-awned. In open secondary shrubland. Cultivated in Amerindian house yards. A bundle of twigs bound together is used as broom. A tea from the whole plant is drunk steadily to relieve kidney disorders. In Georgetown, the tea is drunk for menstruation pains and ovarian tube infection. The plant is boiled with a grated cochineal leaf (Opuntia cochinellifera) and used to wash the hair to make rasta dreadlocks. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) The Carib name is probably derived from the Spanish word ‘escoba’ (broom).

Urena lobata L. MALVACEAE Dog foot (Cr), Beroro auma1 (Wr). Shrubby herb. Leaves palmately veined, greyish green below. Flowers lilac, with a bright pink centre. Capsule black, soft spiny. In pastures and secondary shrubland on white sand, Waini. Six branches with leaves, flowers, and fruits are boiled as tea and taken by women suffering from ‘lining cold’ (puerperal fever). (1) ‘Dog foot’, after the paw-shaped leaves.

Calathea cyclophora Baker MARANTACEAE Sawara1 (Ar). Terrestrial herb to 1 m high. Leaves dark red below, midrib white. Petioles pink. Inflorescences at stem base, bracts pink, flowers white, trumpet-shaped. In secondary forest, Barama. A leaf is briefly heated over a fire, macerated, and squeezed in a spoon. The sap is drunk with a pinch of salt for colds, or dripped into sore eyes. The pulverised ashes of burned leaves are applied to burns. The leaves are used as wrapping material. (1) ‘Wrinkled’, from the tendency to wrinkle when dry (Fanshawe, 1949).

Calathea elliptica (Roscoe) K. Schum. MARANTACEAE Amotu (C). Herb to 1 m high. Leaves purplish below. Petiole winged. Inflorescence on a separate, leafless shoot. Flowers delicate, tubular, white. Fruit yellow, ribbed. In Mora forest and open secondary vegetation. The leaves are used as wrapping material. Fish is rolled in these leaves and roasted on a ‘babracote’ (barbecue).

Ischnosiphon enigmaticus L. Andersson MARANTACEAE Asidja (hill type) (C). Scrambling shrub to 4 m tall. Leaves papillose below, clustered in nodes, separated by cane-like internodes. Flowers yellow to purple. In mixed forest, Barama. The split stem yields an inferior plaiting material. The strips are plaited into low-grade crab quakes. Children make toy arrows from the stems.

286 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Ischnosiphon foliosus Gleason MARANTACEAE Mokru (small kind) (Cr), Sarabana, Sürükuli mukru, Itiriti (Ar), Asidya (C). Scrambling shrub. Leaves small, asymmetric, with a dark purple band below, clustered in nodes, separated by cane-like internodes. Common in secondary forest. The split stem yields an inferior plaiting material. Strips are plaited into low-grade crab or fish quakes. Children make toy arrows from the stems.

Ischnosiphon obliquus (Rudge) Koern. MARANTACEAE Soft mokru (Cr), Itiriti, Mokoro (Ar), Tamutu (C), Sehuru, Sehoro (Wr). Shrub to 3.5 m tall. Leaves large, clustered in nodes on top of cane-like stem. Flowers yellow, in terminal synflorescence, bracts white, waxy. Common in secondary forest. The split stems yield a plaiting fibre for household equipment, which is of lesser quality than the fibre from hard mokru (I. arouma). The stems are woven into low-grade sifters, matapis, fans, and other basketry. The strips are used as shoulder straps for makeshift warishis and to stitch troolie roofs. Entire stems serve as arrowstick, as a substitute for Gynerium sagittatum. Stems are stuck in the mud as a fence to block creeks before poisoning. Leaves are rubbed on warts. A poultice of crushed leaves is applied to cuts to stop bleeding and prevent infection. Leaves are used as wrapping material and as small shelters to protect goods from the rain. Leaves are loosely rolled as a funnel and placed in a toad hole to catch the animal. Hunters roll the leaves tightly into a tube and sucked this with a smacking sound to call labbas. Mokru handicrafts are widely sold in the region and exported in small quantities to the Caribbean islands.

Ischnosiphon sp. TVA3016 MARANTACEAE Wild mokru (Cr). Shrub, ca. 1.5 m tall. Leaves clustered in nodes. Stem cane-like. Petioles long. Flowers not seen. In manicole swamp, Assakata. A dough of maize and pumpkin is wrapped in a leaf and boiled in a dish called ‘kenkey’.

Maranta sp. TVA2217 MARANTACEAE Kind of mokru (Cr), Warerobana (Ar). Herb, ca. 40 cm tall. Leaves purple below. In secondary forest, Moruca. Leaves are used as wrapping material.

Monotagma spicatum (Aubl.) J.F. Macbr. MARANTACEAE Aumana bana1 (Ar), Peyawo (C), Sehoro mukumuku2 (Wr). Herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves with asymmetric apex. Inflorescence on a separate, leafless stem, bracts straw-coloured. Flowers greenish, staminodes bluish. In Mora and secondary forest. Leaves are used as wrapping material and as a funnel to melt lead, with a small stick inserted into the tapering end to make a hole in the lead for the fishing line. Leaves rolled tightly into a tube are sucked with a smacking sound to catch labbas. (1) ‘Clumped leaf’, after the habit of the plant (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) The Warao name means ‘small mokru’.

287 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Marcgravia coriacea Vahl MARCGRAVIACEAE Tiger paw1 (Cr), Arua kabo (Ar), Kaityusi einyarï (C). Liana. Twigs flat, lenticellate. Inflorescence umbellate, pendent, bracts transformed into cup-shaped nectaries. Berry globose. Common in manicole swamp. The clear water from the stem is dripped into sore eyes. (1) The Creole name is a translation of both Amerindian names, referring to the shape of the infructescence (Fanshawe, 1949).

Norantea guianensis Aubl. MARCGRAVIACEAE Karakara (Ar), Konopo yorokorï (C). Large woody climber. Exudate little, red. Leaves leathery. Racemes terminal, ca. 60 cm long. Nectaries numerous, bright red. Berry globose. In swamp forest on pegasse. The bark or wood is cut into pieces, soaked in water, and drunk against diarrhoea and vomiting. The wood is boiled for one hour and the bright red tea is taken against diarrhoea. The plant is used in a bath or rubbed on the body against fever.

Souroubea guianensis Aubl. subsp. guianensis MARCGRAVIACEAE Karakara, Kwerimuro1 (Ar), Konopo yorokorï (C), Wene (Wr). Scrambling shrub. Leaves stiff, leathery. Racemes many-flowered, ca. 20 cm long, nectaries bright red, with a long spur. Berry subglobose, hard, greenish brown. In swamp forest on pegasse. A branch is boiled with kairiballi bark (Licania heteromorpha var. perplexans) and some water from troolie seeds (Manicaria saccifera) into a remedy for venereal diseases. A bottle full of the medicine should be taken during some weeks. The wood alone is boiled as tea to treat diarrhoea and vomiting. (1) ‘Eggs of the kwerimo fish’, which bear a resemblance to the odd-shaped flowers.

Aciotis annua (Mart. ex DC.) Triana MELASTOMATACEAE Herb. Stems quadrangular. Leaves purplish green. Flowers white, in erect, terminal cymes. Berry small. Growing as weed in cultivated fields, Barama. Leaves are boiled with sugar into a syrup for colds.

Aciotis purpurascens (Aubl.) Triana MELASTOMATACEAE Wild sauari (Cr), Tïyasakoreng (C). Fleshy herb to 50 cm high. Stem quadrangular. Whole plant covered with white hairs. Flowers white, stamens purple. Berry small. Seedlings occur in cultivated fields, adults in secondary forest, Barama. The whole plant is boiled with sugar into a syrup for colds. The berries are eaten by small children.

Clidemia capitellata (Bonpl.) D. Don var. dependens MELASTOMATACEAE (D. Don) J.F. Macbr. Bird seed (Cr), Tonoru wokuru1 (C). Shrub to 1 m, densely covered with soft, red hairs. Flowers white, in lateral inflorescences. Berry small, black. Common in abandoned fields and secondary forest, Barama. The berries are eaten by small children. (1) The Carib name means ‘bird drink’.

Clidemia japurensis DC. var. japurensis MELASTOMATACEAE Sakusaku1, Tïkasyeng wokuru2, Tonoro wokuru (C). Shrub to 2 m tall. Young leaves and twigs covered with soft, red hairs. Berry blue, juicy. In Mora swamp and secondary forest, Barama. The berries have a watery taste, stain hands and teeth blue, and are eaten by small children. The sap from crushed leaves is squeezed in sores, which are then covered with a leaf. (1) Caribs often call juicy fruits with many seeds ‘sokosoko’ or ‘sakusaku’, after the chewed mass of cassava bread that used to be spat back to ferment cassava beer; (2) Tïkasyeng or tïyasakoreng is a small bird that feeds on the fruits.

288 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Clidemia cf. microthyrsa R.O. Williams MELASTOMATACEAE Shrub. Leaves covered with soft hairs. Flowers white, in lateral inflorescences. Berry pinkish, turning purple when ripe, with blue juice. In abandoned fields and secondary forest, Moruca. The berries are edible.

Henriettea cf. multiflora Naudin MELASTOMATACEAE Chiggernet, Big jiggernet, Himiri egg1 (Cr), Itara, Kaboanama beltiri2 (Ar), Nanaporan3, Pakira yuyuru4 (C). Small tree. Leaves hairy below. Flowers white, in small, lateral clusters on old branches. Anthers purple. Berry dark green to red, densely strigose. In secondary forest and manicole swamps. The slimy fruit pulp is edible. (1) The seeds in the slimy pulp resemble the eggs of a spotted catfish himiri (Parauchenipterus galeatus); (2) ‘Cassava beer of the squirrel monkey’ (Saimiri sciureus); (3) ‘Smells like pineapple’ (Ananas comosus); (4) ‘Abscess of the bush hog’ (Tayassu tacaju).

Henriettea succosa (Aubl.) DC. MELASTOMATACEAE Jiggernet (Cr), Itara, Kaboanama beltiri (Ar), Pakira yuyuru (C). Small tree. Leaves glabrous, whitish below, margin ciliate. Flowers in lateral clusters on old wood. Berry green to red, brown sericeous, 2-3 together. In riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The fruits are edible.

Leandra divaricata (Naud.) Cogn. MELASTOMATACEAE Black seed (Cr), Sokosoko, Nono pokono (C). Small shrub to 50 cm high. Young leaves covered with long, white hairs. Flowers white, in terminal inflorescences. Berry red, turning black when ripe. In secondary forest along trails. The watery berries are eaten by small children, who stain their hands and mouth purple with the crushed fruits for fun.

Miconia ceramicarpa (DC.) Cogn. var. ceramicarpa MELASTOMATACEAE Waraia, Karimanbari (Ar), Tonoro wokuru (C). Shrub. Stem red. Leaves covered with soft, red hairs, margins serrate. Young leaves red. Flowers white. Berry red, turning blue and spongy when ripe. In secondary forest and abandoned fields, Barama. The watery berries are eaten by small children.

Miconia ibaguensis (Bonpl.) Triana MELASTOMATACEAE Bird seed (Cr), Waraia (Ar). Shrub. Young leaves covered with pink hairs. Flowers white, in terminal inflorescences. Berry black. In secondary forest along roads, Moruca. Children use the forked branches for slingshots and eat the berries.

Miconia cf. lateriflora Cogn. subsp. lateriflora MELASTOMATACEAE Meremere (Ar). Small tree. Leaf veins reddish below. Flowers white, in terminal inflorescences. Berry small. Occasional in secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is said to be very hard and used for roof rafters.

Miconia nervosa (J.E. Smith) Triana MELASTOMATACEAE Bird food (Cr), Waraia (Ar). Shrub to 5 m tall. Leaves covered with soft hairs, greyish green below. Inflorescence terminal, bright orange. Flowers small, white. Berry purple, spongy. In secondary forest, Moruca. The fruits are eaten by children.

Miconia prasina (Sw.) DC. MELASTOMATACEAE Jiggernet (Cr), Waraia, Selele beletere (Ar), Pirityo, Yalipi, Konorepi (C). Small tree. Leaves with red veins. Flowers white, subsessile, in terminal panicles. Berry dark green to red, purplish black when ripe. In secondary and riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The fruits are edible.

289 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Miconia racemosa (Aubl.) DC. MELASTOMATACEAE Black seed (Cr), Waraia (Ar), Sakusaku, Sokosoko (C). Shrub, ca. 2 m tall. Leaves glabrous. Flowers whitish green, small, in terminal panicles. Stamens pink. Berry purple, with blue juice. In secondary vegetation and manicole swamp. The berries are eaten by small children.

Miconia cf. ruficalyx Gleason MELASTOMATACEAE Bird food tree, Birdseed (Cr), Wakaradan (Ar), Tonoro wokuru, Tonoropio, Sakusaku (C), Sikararia (Wr). Tree to 20m tall. Leaves red-brown velutinous. Wood white, turning purple when in contact with air. Flowers white, in small cymules. Berry purple. Common in secondary forest. The fruits are edible. The wood is locally sawn into boards, used for flooring and beams. People believe that using the wood as fuel will attract jiggers.

Miconia sp. TVA1104 MELASTOMATACEAE Birdseed (Cr) Tonoro wokuru (C). Small shrub. Leaves covered with white hairs and distinct secondary veins. Growing as weed in cassava field, Barama. The berries are eaten by small children.

Cedrela odorata L. MELIACEAE Red cedar, Brown cedar (Cr), Akuyari (Ar), Akakasinya (C). Tree to 35 m tall. Outer bark dark red, vertically fissured, inner bark bright red. Leaves paripinnate, clustered at branch ends. Flowers greenish white. Capsule spotted. Seeds winged. In secondary and mixed forest, sometimes planted in Moruca house yards for future timber use. The aromatic wood is a commercial timber, locally used for canoes, coffins, paddles, guitars, banjos, quattros, tool handles, furniture, bird cages, and speaker boxes. A decoction of the bark is used to cleanse persistent ‘lifetime’ sores. Cedar wood crafts are sold in interior villages.

Guarea guidonia (L.) Sleumer MELIACEAE Bastard wild coffee, Buck vomit (Cr), Karababalli (Ar), Atïwa-u (C), Ukamueru (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves large, 4-8-jugate, glabrous. Flowers cream, in axillary, pendent panicles. Capsule greenish orange, 4-valved. Seeds golden brown. In secondary and riverbank Mora forest. In Barama, the inner bark scrapings are boiled and strained. A calabash full of the tea is drunk to induce vomiting. The medicine was said to be very strong. The wood is favoured for firewood, because it splits easily.

Guarea pubescens (Rich.) A. Juss. subsp. pubescens MELIACEAE Wild coffee (Cr), Kufiballi1, Banyabo (Ar), Kobi mohoka1 (Wr). Small tree. Leaves 2-5-jugate. Panicles axillary or produced from the main branches, puberulous. Capsule subglobose, brown to dull-red or purple, tomentose. In secondary forest, Waini. The roots are dug up, heated over the fire, scraped, mixed with water, and strained. A calabash full is drunk to induce vomiting, which is said to relieve biliousness. (1) Both Amerindian names signify ‘wild coffee’, as the fruits resemble coffee berries.

Trichilia rubra C. DC. MELIACEAE Monkey syrup (Cr), Yuriballi, Hayakanta (Ar), Waidya (C). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark dark red, inner bark scarlet, with sweet, transparent exudate. Leaves 7- 9-jugate. Flowers in small, dense, sessile clusters in axillary panicles. Capsule purplish. In Mora forest, Barama. The capsule is broken open and the sour fruit pulp is eaten. The wood is used for paddles.

Trichilia schomburgkii C. DC. subsp. schomburgkii MELIACEAE Baboon ears (Cr), Yuriballi (Ar), Arawata pana1 (C). Tree, to 20 m tall. Outer bark black, flaky, inner bark dark yellow. Leaves 7-9-jugate. Stipules large, leaflike. Panicles tomentose. Capsule 3-valved, wrinkled, brown. In mixed forest. The strong wood is used for paddles and house construction (runners, house posts). Bows are made from the young trunks. (1) ‘Baboon ears’, after the ear-like stipules.

290 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Orthomene schomburgkii (Miers) Barneby & Krukoff MENISPERMACEAE Monkey genip (Cr), Ituri ishi lokodo1 (Ar), Kulatawe wete, Tama kalemu (C). Liana, climbing with stem. Petioles reddish yellow. Flowers solitary or axillary, in short inflorescences. Monocarps yellow with white spots. Seed 1. In swamp forest, Moruca. The sweet fruit pulp is edible. (1) ‘Baboon testicles’, after the paired fruits.

Telitoxicum sp. TVA1265 MENISPERMACEAE Granny backbone (Cr). Flat-stemmed liana. Leaves alternate, simple. In secondary forest, Barama. The stem is scraped and boiled or soaked in cold water. The bitter liquid is taken for malaria, fever, and to bitter the blood.

Siparuna guianensis Aubl. MONIMIACEAE Munuri bush (Cr), Munuridan1 (Ar), Idyakopi (C), Hiyo arau1 (Wr). Shrub or small tree. Leaves with repulsive smell. Flowers small, green, in puberulous cymes or racemes. Pseudofruits subglobose, purplish red. Common in abandoned fields and secondary shrubland. The bark is rubbed on munuri ant bites. Leaves or bark scrapings are boiled to bathe children suffering from skin rash. Children use the fruits as slingshot ammunition. The sap from heated and crushed leaves is squeezed in cuts. This is quite painfully, but allows a fast healing. Leaves are rubbed on bee stings to relieve the pain. (1) The Arawak and Warao name mean ‘munuri ant tree’.

Bagassa guianensis Aubl. MORACEAE Cow wood (Cr), Yawahü dan1 (Ar), Pakasa2 (C). Tree to 35 m, with thick buttresses. Abundant white latex. Leaves opposite, entire to 3-lobed. Male inflorescences spicate, female ones capitate. Infructescences greenish yellow, globose. Rare in mixed forest. The wood is a commercial timber, locally sawn into boards. The fruit (infructescence) is edible. (1) ‘Jumbie tree’ (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) The Carib name means ‘cow wood’, because of the latex (paka = cow).

Brosimum guianense (Aubl.) Huber MORACEAE Letterwood (Cr), Bürü koro koba, Tibo kushi (Ar), Timeri, Paida (C), Washiba1 (Wr). Tree to 45m tall. Latex cream, bitter. Leaves grey-green below. Plant monoecious. Inflorescences discoid to spherical. Pseudofruit greenish yellow, turning dark red. Occasional in secondary forest, Moruca. The wood is a commercial timber, locally valued for axe handles, bows, and walking sticks. (1) The Warao name means ‘bow’ (Charette, 1980).

Ficus amazonica (Miq.) Miq. MORACEAE Matapalo (Sp), Dau aidabita1 (Wr). Shrub or strangler fig. Little white latex. Leaves small. Figs (sub-)sessile, clustered on the branches, ca. 5 mm in diam., green outside, pinkish brown inside. In secondary forest or mokomoko riverbank vegetation. The latex is slightly warmed and rubbed on abscesses or swellings. It also serves as paper glue and to catch birds. (1) The Warao name means ‘tree that grows on tree’.

Ficus caballina Standl. MORACEAE White kuwasimei, Kuwasimyung (C) Scrambling shrub or strangler fig. Leaves large, narrowly elliptic, veins yellow. Abundant white latex. Stipules large, dry, brown. Figs small, reddish yellow, in clusters of 2-4 on branches. In riverbank forest, Barama. The latex is rubbed on scraped skin or sprained limbs. The latex is mixed with cassava starch into a paste to catch birds. The figs are put on a hook as fish bait. Large strangler figs are believed to be inhabited by spirits which are consulted by people in extreme despair.

291 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Ficus gomelleira Kunth & Bouché MORACEAE Matapalo (Sp). Large, buttressed strangler fig. Abundant white latex. Figs solitary among leaves, ca. 2 cm in diam., greenish yellow or reddish brown, puberulous. Rare in manicole swamp, Assakata. A long piece of cloth is soaked in the latex and tightly wrapped around sprained or broken limbs as a kind of plaster bandage. The latex is also used as glue. Large strangler figs are believed to be inhabited by spirits, which are consulted by people in extreme despair. If properly addressed, these spirits can cause miracles. If a person walks under a strangler fig tree at 12 o’clock, he is bound to get lost in the forest and walk in circles all the time. The only way to free oneself from the spirit and find back the way, is to split a mokru stem (Ischnosiphon spp.) and step through it.

Ficus guianensis Desv. MORACEAE Fig tree (Cr). Small tree. Abundant white latex. Leaves smooth. Figs pink to reddish, in small bundles among the leaves. In swampy secondary forest, Moruca. The fruits are edible. The latex is used as glue to catch birds.

Ficus maxima Mill. MORACEAE Fig tree (Cr), Keweri yumï ereparï1 (C). Medium-sized tree. Leaves rough below, with abundant white latex. Figs solitary among leaves, green, round, ca. 2.5. cm in diam. Common in Mora riverbank forest, Barama The figs are put on a hook as fish bait. People fish under the tree to catch button fish, a 15 cm long scale fish known as larima (Ar) or keweri (C). (1) The Carib name means ‘food of the button fish father’.

Ficus nymphaeifolia Mill. MORACEAE Black matapalo (Sp). Large strangler fig. Branches brittle, with white latex. Leaves grey-green below. Figs in pairs among the leaves, reddish purple mottled, ca. 2 cm in diam. Rare in manicole swamp, Assakata. A long piece of cloth is soaked in the latex and tightly wrapped around sprained or broken limbs as a plaster bandage. A tea from the wood is drunk as a beverage. Strangler figs are believed to be inhabited by spirits, consulted by people in extreme misery.

Ficus paraensis (Miq.) Miq. MORACEAE Keweri yumï ereparï, Brown kuwasimei, Kuwasimyang (C). Small tree or strangler fig. Leaves glabrous. Latex white. Figs in dense clusters on branch ends, round, ca. 1 cm diam., reddish with green spots. Common in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The latex is rubbed on scraped skin or sprained limbs, and mixed with cassava starch into a paste to catch birds. The figs are used as bait to catch bumbum fish (singing catfish, Pterodoras granulosus). Large fig trees are said to be inhabited by spirits.

Ficus vs. roraimensis MORACEAE Matapalo (Ar). Strangler fig. Outer bark dark red, lenticellate, inner bark yellow. Abundant white latex. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. The latex is rubbed on sprained limbs and mixed with cassava starch into a paste.

Ficus sp. TVA892 MORACEAE Strangler fig (Cr), Kuwasimei (C). Strangler fig. Outer bark dark red, lenticellate, inner bark yellow. Abundant white latex. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. The latex is rubbed on sprained limbs and mixed with cassava starch into a paste.

292 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Heliconia acuminata Rich. var. acuminata MUSACEAE Wild banana, Bush fowl foot (Cr), Warereobana (Ar), Parïrï, Kotaka seidyï1 (C). Herb to 2 m high. Leaves bright green, midrib, margin, and base reddish brown. Inflorescence erect. Bracts red, narrowly boat-shaped, some ending in a green leaf. Flowers dull-green with yellow. Fruit fleshy, dark blue. Common in secondary forest. The leaves are used as wrapping material and as shelter for the rain. (1) ‘Shin bone of the bush fowl’ (Aramides cajanea), as the red inflorescences resemble the bird’s legs.

Heliconia bihai (L.) L. MUSACEAE Hariti (Ar), Parïrï1 (C). Herb to 3 m high. Leaves green, yellowish below. Inflorescence yellow, erect, ca. 1 m long. Bracts ca. 10, orange and yellow, broadly boat-shaped. Flowers light green and white. In Mora forest, Barama. The leaves are used as temporary roof thatch of forest camps to substitute manicole leaves (Euterpe oleracea), and as rain shelter. (1) The Carib name means ‘wild banana’.

Heliconia chartacea Lane ex Barreiros MUSACEAE Wild banana (Cr), Hariti (Ar), Parïrï (small kind) (C). Herb to 1.5 m high. Inflorescence pink, pendent, ca. 1 m long. Bracts boat-shaped, dark red to pink. Fruit blue, fleshy, large. Occasional in Mora forest, Barama. The leaves are used as temporary roof thatch of forest camps to substitute manicole leaves (Euterpe oleracea), and as rain shelter.

Heliconia aff. psittacorum L.f. MUSACEAE Itch bush (Cr), Hariti (Ar), Kurewako enuru (C). Herb to 1.5 m high. Stem with reddish dots and irritating sap. Leaves dark green, narrowly elliptic. Inflorescence erect. Bracts narrowly boat-shaped, orange. Flowers orange with green tips. Fruits dark blue. In secondary forest, Moruca. Children use the leaf sheaths as a whistle to attract snakes.

Heliconia richardiana Miq. MUSACEAE Hariti (Ar), Parïrï (C). Herb to 2 m high. Leaves deep green above, greyish green below. Petiole reddish brown. Inflorescence red, erect. Bracts 6-7, narrowly boat-shaped, yellow. Flowers yellow. Fruit glaucous, blue-black. In secondary forest, Barama. The leaves are used to thatch forest camp roofs and as wrapping material. Children carve toy arrows from the petioles.

Heliconia spathocircinata Aristeg. MUSACEAE Wild banana (Cr), Hariti (Ar), Parïrï (C). Herb to 3 m high. Leaves green, petiole speckled purple-brown. Inflorescence erect. Bracts shallowly boat shaped, red, upper margin yellow. Flowers yellow. Fruit blue-black. In secondary forest, Barama. The leaves are used to thatch forest camp roofs as substitute for manicole leaves (Euterpe oleracea)

Iryanthera juruensis Warb. MYRISTICACEAE Swamp dalli, Broad leaf dalli (Cr), Dalli, Kirikaua (Ar), Sita (Wr). Tree to 25 m tall. Exudate watery, red. Leaves rusty puberulous below. Plant monoecious. Inflorescences racemose. Capsules in fascicles on main branches, 2-valved. Seed 1, aril red. Common in swamp forest on pegasse, occasional in mixed forest. In the past, the wood was exploited by a Surinamese logging company for plywood. Nowadays, it is used for boards, canoes, and music instruments (violins, banjos, and quattros), played in traditional Arawak Banshikili music. The red sap is rubbed on mouth and skin sores, cuts, and the fungus-infected mouths of babies with thrush. The sap is diluted in water and given orally to treat thrush or used to gargle against tonsillitis.

293 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Virola calophylla Warb. MYRISTICACEAE White broad leaf dalli (Cr), Dalli (Ar). Tree to 20 m tall. Outer bark cracked. Exudate watery, orange brown. Leaves red-brown puberulous. Inflorescences racemose. Capsule 2-valved. Seed 1, aril red. In secondary and mixed forest. In Moruca, the wood is sawn into boards. The red sap is rubbed on mouth sores and on the fungus-infected mouths of babies with thrush. The sap is diluted in water and given orally to treat thrush or used to gargle against tonsillitis.

Virola elongata (Benth.) Warb. MYRISTICACEAE Swamp dalli (Cr), Dalli (Ar), Mïrïhsi (C), Diharu (Wr). Small tree. Branches in whorls. Exudate red. Leaves grey below, yellowish when young. Inflorescences racemose. Capsule 2-valved. Seed 1, aril red. In secondary forest and manicole swamp. The soft wood is locally used for boards, rafts, low-grade canoes, and firewood. The wood should be oiled to prevent insect attacks. In the past, it was felled by a Surinamese logging company for plywood. The sap is rubbed on the mouth sores of babies with thrush. The sap is diluted in water and given orally to treat thrush or used to gargle against tonsillitis.

Virola sebifera Aubl. MYRISTICACEAE Hill dalli Cr), Dalli (Ar), Warushiran (C). Tree to 20 m tall. Exudate red. Leaves grey below. Panicles and capsule rusty tomentose. Seed 1, aril red. In secondary and mixed forest. The wood is used in house construction. The red sap is rubbed on mouth sores.

Virola surinamensis (Rol.) Warb. MYRISTICACEAE White dalli, Fine leaf dalli (Cr), Dalli (Ar), Warushi (C). Tree to 35 m tall. Exudate red. Leaves in two rows, yellowish green below. Flowers yellow, in axillary panicles. Capsule, green, ribbed. Seed 1. Aril red. Common in swamp forest on pegasse. The wood is a commercial timber, locally used for boards and traditional Arawak music instruments. The red sap is rubbed on the mouth sores of babies with thrush. The sap is diluted in water and given orally to treat thrush or used to gargle against tonsillitis. A piece of cotton soaked in the sap is pushed in cavities to relieve toothache.

Cybianthus sp. TVA1940 MYRSINACEAE Small tree. Leaves alternate, with translucent dots. Berry small, black, with sticky pulp. Along riverbanks of manicole swamps, Assakata. The berries are occasionally used to paint, giving a blue- green colour on paper.

Stylogyne surinamensis (Miq.) Mez MYRSINACEAE Payawaru1 (swamp type) (C). Small tree. Leaves fleshy, with translucent dots. Flowers small, white, in red, axillary panicles. Drupe small, red, turning purple-black. In secondary and Mora forest. The fruits are edible. The hard wood is occasionally used for arrow sockets. (1) An alcoholic drink (paiwari) was probably made from the fruits in the past. The ‘hill type’ of payawaru could not be located.

Calycolpus goetheanus (Mart. ex DC.) O. Berg MYRTACEAE Wild guava (Cr), Wayawitu, Reperepeshi, Kakürio (Ar), Aware tamïpipyo1, Awarinamedi, Ohtono epïtyï2 (C), Wariaba mohaka (Wr). Small tree. Leaves opposite, with pellucid glands. Flowers large, pinkish white, in leaf axils; stamens numerous, straw-coloured. Berry black, crowned by disc and sepals. Seeds many, hard. In secondary shrubland along roads, Moruca. The spongy, purple fruit pulp is eaten, mostly by children. A decoction of the young shoots is drunk for high blood pressure or used as a steam bath for fever. The tea from the bark is drunk with some sugar or salt for diarrhoea and cough, although the extreme bitterness might cause vomiting. The wood is used as firewood. (1) The Carib name means ‘cigarette paper of the oppossum’; (2) ‘Cold cure’.

294 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Calyptranthes sp. TVA2239 MYRTACEAE Taparau (Ar). Small tree. Outer bark brown, inner bark dark red, wood yellow, hard. Branches reddish brown. Leaves opposite, pinkish orange when young, with pellucid glands. Common in quackal swamp forest. The fruits are edible and made into an alcoholic drink. The wood used as firewood.

Eugenia florida DC. MYRTACEAE Wild cherry (Cr), Alikoya (Ar), Yarami (C). Small tree. Leaves opposite, reddish green, with pellucid glands. Panicles axillary, 6-20-flowered. Berry red to black, fleshy, in bundles of 2-3, with persistent sepals. Rare in Mora riverbank forest, Barama. The fruits are mostly eaten by children.

Marlierea montana (Aubl.) Amshoff MYRTACEAE Quackoo (Cr), Taparau, Kuaku (Ar). Tree, ca. 12 m tall. Outer bark reddish brown, inner bark red, wood orange. Branches rusty brown. Leaves opposite, with pellucid glands. Young leaves red. Berry red to purple-black. Common in quackal swamp forest. The fruits are edible and made into an alcoholic drink. The wood is considered as very good firewood.

Marlierea schomburgkiana O. Berg MYRTACEAE Dowdow, Wild cherry, Black asepoko, Warakaba eye (Cr), Swamp haimaracushi, Akarako (Ar), Tutu, Akami enuru (C), Dau dau (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves small, opposite, long-acuminate, with pellucid glands. Flowers white, in axillary cymes. Stamens long. Berry black. Seeds embedded in grey, sweet pulp. In secondary and mixed forest, occasional in manicole swamp. The fruits are edible and sweet. The hard wood is used for warishi frames. Straight trunks may be used for rafters, otherwise as firewood.

Myrcia graciliflora Sagot MYRTACEAE Wild guava, Dowdow (Cr), Ibibanaro (Ar), Tutu, Kasa’mi, Ara-a, Akami enuru1 (C), Dau dau (Wr). Small tree. Outer bark flaky, inner bark orange, wood white, hard. Leaves opposite, long-acuminate, with pellucid glands. Flowers white, sweet-scented, in subterminal panicles. Berry black, crowned by sepals. Frequent in mixed forest. The fruits are edible and sweet. The wood is used for house construction, warishi frames and firewood. (1) The Carib name means ‘warakaba eye’.

Myrcia cf. guianensis (Aubl.) DC. MYRTACEAE Quackoo, Cherry (Cr), Kuaku, Kakürio (Ar). Tree to 15 m tall. Outer bark flaky, inner bark red. Panicles racemose, axillary and terminal. Berry subglobose, greenish pink to reddish black when ripe. In secondary forest, Moruca. The fruits are edible and sweet. The hard wood is used for house construction and firewood.

Myrcia sylvatica (G. Mey.) DC. MYRTACEAE Christmas tree (Cr), Ibibanaro (Ar). Small tree. Leaves small. Flowers white, in puberulous panicles. Berry red to black, ca. 0.5 cm in diam. Locally abundant in secondary shrubland on white sand, Assakata. The berries are edible and ripe around Christmas.

Nephrolepis aff. biserrata (Sw.) Schott NEPHROLEPIDACEAE Swamp maran (Cr). Terrestrial fern. Rhizome reddish brown, with scales and numerous roots. Fronds monomorphic, pinnate, pinnae subequal at base. Indusia orbicular, dark brown. Forming dense stands in frequently burned and flooded savanna, Moruca. The sap from crushed leaves is squeezed in cuts as disinfectant.

295 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Neea cf. constricta Spruce ex Schmidt NYCTAGINACEAE Mamudan1 (Ar), Small leaf sakusaku (C). Tree to 20 m tall. Outer bark cream, lenticellate, inner bark and wood yellow. Leaves leathery. Flowers small, in terminal panicles. Fruit fleshy, pinkish purple, ca. 1 cm in diam. Rare in secondary and mixed forest. In Barama, the fruits are occasionally eaten. (1) ‘Maam tree’, as this bird feeds on the fruits (Fanshawe, 1949).

Neea cf. floribunda Poepp. & Endl. NYCTAGINACEAE Mamudan (Ar), Big leaf sakusaku (C), Humatuba (Wr). Small tree. Leaves large. Outer bark light brown, inner bark and wood yellow. Flowers small, in terminal or cauliflorous panicles. Fruit purple, ca. 1.5 cm in diam. In disturbed Mora and secondary forest, Barama. The fruits are edible. The wood is used for firewood.

Nymphaea ampla (Salisb.) DC. NYMPHAEACEAE Duckweed (Cr), Morüta (Ar), Mureru (C). Aquatic herb. Petioles to 1 m long, with air channels. Leaves green above, dark red, reticulate below. Margins serrate with age. Flowers large, white, turning pink after a day. Stamens yellow. Very abundant in shallow rivers and flooded savanna, Moruca. The hollow petioles are used as substitute gasoline ‘lead’ for outboard motors. They do not last long, but engines are occasionally stolen by using duckweed petioles. Children use the stems as straw, to string fish or to make chains. Fresh fish or crabs are covered with the wet leaves to protect them from sun and heat. Rotten leaves are rubbed on warts (known locally as ‘beruga’). Fresh leaves are fed to pigs. Flowers are occasionally gathered for ornamental purposes.

Ouratea guianensis Aubl. OCHNACEAE Aligator foot print1 (Cr), Akarï tapurarakïrï (C). Small, strongly branched tree. Leaves entire. Flowers yellow, in terminal, pyramidal panicles, ca. 15 cm long. Drupelets black, with 5-10 on a fleshy, red disc. Occasional in Mora and secondary forest. The wood is used for house frames (runners, beams). (1) The Creole name is a translation of the Carib name.

Sauvagesia erecta L. subsp. erecta OCHNACEAE Tama’ure (C). Small, creeping herb to 30 cm high. Stipules fimbriate. Flowers small, white, axillary. Stamens pink. Common in pastures, weed in cultivated fields. The whole plant is boiled with sugar into a syrup for colds.

Ludwigia nervosa (Poir.) Hara ONAGRACEAE Shrub to 2 m tall. Stem reddish. Leaves elliptic. Flowers yellow, large, solitary in leaf axils. Filaments curled, white, anthers yellow. Fruit dehiscent. Abundant in flooded savanna and mokomoko riverbank vegetation, Moruca. The twigs are used by children to string fish.

Ludwigia torulosa (Arnott) Hara ONAGRACEAE Wild senna, Johnny winter (Cr). Shrub to 2 m tall. Rhizome covered with pink, spongy tissue. Stem woody, reddish. Leaves elliptic. Flowers small, cream, stamens and stigma yellow. Young fruits crowned by reddish calyx. In frequently burned and flooded savanna, Moruca. Children use the twigs to string fish and the stems as fishing rods.

Brassia verrucosa Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE Epiphyte. Leaf base bulbous. Petals narrowly elongate, green with brown spots, centre white and yellow. In mangrove forest. The whole plant is taken from the forest and planted on fruit trees as ornamental. At Christmas, living orchids are sold on regional markets for up to US$ 20.

296 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Catasetum sp. TVA1927 ORCHIDACEAE Baboon goggle (Cr). Epiphyte. Pseudobulbs large, thick. Leaves thin, plicate. Flowers unisexual, stiff, green, some petals brown spotted, lip cup-shaped. In secondary forest and orchards. The plant is taken from the forest and planted on fruit trees as ornamental. At Christmas, living orchids are sold on regional markets for up to US$ 20.

Encyclia diurna (Jacq.) Schltr. ORCHIDACEAE Silver shower (Cr). Large epiphyte. Pseudobulbs small. Leaves erect, elongated, stiff. Inflorescence ca. 1 m long. Flowers showy, silvery greenish yellow, white and yellow inside, sweet-scented. In flooded savanna. The plant is taken from the forest and planted on fruit trees as ornamental. At Christmas, living orchids are sold on regional markets.

Epidendrum anceps Jacq. ORCHIDACEAE Epiphyte. Leaves small, narrowly oblong, thick, borne on reed-like stems. Inflorescence terminal. Flowers green, centre yellow. In manicole swamp. The plant is taken from the forest and planted on fruit trees as ornamental.

Ionopsis utricularioides (Sw.) Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE Purple orchid (Cr). Epiphyte. Leaves small, stiff. Flowers lilac, in long, many-flowered inflorescence. In secondary vegetation and orchards, Barima. The plant is planted on fruit trees as ornamental.

Oncidium baueri Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE Golden shower (Cr). Large epiphyte. Pseudobulbs small. Inflorescence ca. 1.20 m long, many-flowered. Petals yellow with brown spots, crest white, lip flat, medially contracted. In mangrove forest. The whole plant is planted on fruit trees as ornamental. At Christmas, living orchids are sold on regional markets for up to $ 20.

Psygmorchis pusilla (L.) Dodson & Dressler ORCHIDACEAE Yellow orchid (Cr). Small epiphyte. Leaves small, leathery, fan-shaped. Flowers large, yellow, spotted with brown, lip broad. In secondary vegetation, Barima. Planted on fruit trees as ornamental.

Rodriguezia lanceolata Ruiz & Pav. ORCHIDACEAE Orchid (Cr). Epiphyte. Leaves conduplicate. Flowers pink, crest white, upper petal with yellow stripes. Sepals spurred. The whole plant is taken from the forest and planted on fruit trees as ornamental. At Christmas, living orchids are sold on regional markets for up to US$ 20.

Stanhopea grandiflora (Lodd.) Lindl. ORCHIDACEAE Baboon goggle, Lady’s slipper (Cr). Epiphyte. Pseudobulbs with a single leaf. Leaves broad, ribbed, 5-veined. Flowers large, white, lip inflated, mesochile wings t-shaped. In Mora forest. The whole plant is occasionally planted on fruit trees as ornamental.

Zygosepalum labiosum (Rich.) Schweinf. ORCHIDACEAE Epiphyte. Rhizome elongate between pseudobulbs. Inflorescence many-flowered. Anther cap with elongate, horn-like projection, brownish pink, lip white, centre purple. In swamp forest on pegasse, Moruca. The whole plant is taken from the forest and planted on fruit trees as ornamental. At Christmas, living orchids are sold on regional markets for up to US$ 20.

297 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Bactris campestris Poepp. ex Mart. PALMAE Masoa plimpla (Ar), Warauyuroko, Imiritokon (Ar), Ibase bara, Hi arau (Wr). Clustered palm to 6 m, to 15 trunks together. Spines flat, black. Leaves pinnate, ca. 1 m long. Infructescence pendent, ca. 15 cm long. Spathe densely spiny. Drupe orange-red, ca. 0.8 cm in diam. Common in quackal swamp forest. Blowpipes are occasionally made by letting the trunk rot in water for some weeks, and removing the pith and spines. The darts are made of sharpened kokerite pointers (Maximiliana maripa), with a ball of cotton at one end.

Bactris major Jacq. PALMAE Masoa plimpla (Cr), Maswa, Samura (Ar), Amara-u (C), Hi arau (Wr). Clustered palm to 5 m tall. Spines flattened, black. Leaves finely pinnate, ca. 1 m long, light green. Spathe densely armed. Drupe ovoid, dark brown, ca. 5 x 4 cm, mesocarp fibrous, pink. In mangrove forest, Waini. The sour mesocarp is eaten, mostly by children. The seeds of unripe fruits are cut open to eat the grey jelly inside.

Bactris oligoclada Burret PALMAE Plimpla seed, White seed, Sourie (Cr), Kidale banaro1 (Ar), Asako, Kasaku (C), Hi arau (Wr). Prickly palm to 2 m tall. Leaves ca. 1.5 m long. Spines soft, flat, black. Infructescence at stem base. Spathe armed. Drupe small, globose, ca. 1.5 cm, fleshy, greenish white to orange. In Mora and mixed forest. The white, juicy, and very acid immature fruits are eaten, mostly by children. The seeds are cut open to eat the jelly inside. The fruits are believed to be the favoured food of the kenaima spirit. (1) ‘Calabash leaves’, after the convex pinnae (Fanshawe, 1949).

Bactris simplicifrons Mart. PALMAE Turtle paripi1 (Cr), Hikuri paripia (Ar), Wayamu paripiri (C). Almost unarmed, clustered palm to 2 m tall. Spathe ca. 5 cm. long. Drupe globose, ca. 0.8 cm in diam., greenish yellow to orange and finally red. In the understorey of Mora forest. The fruits are eaten, mostly by children. (1) The Creole name is a translation of the indigenous names.

Desmoncus orthoacanthos Mart. PALMAE Big kamwari (Cr), Kamwari, Weheyu (Ar), Alakule (C), Hi yoron (Wr). Vigorously climbing palm. Stem heavily armed. Leaves with recurved hooks at apex. Infructescence large. Drupe scarlet, fleshy. Seed 1, black. In secondary forest and swamp forest on pegasse, Moruca. The mesocarp and jelly inside the seeds is edible. The fruits are put on a hook or placed as bait in fish traps. The fibrous stem core is occasionally used as binding material.

Geonoma maxima (Poit.) Kunth PALMAE Hill dhalebana (Cr), Dhalebana (Ar), Isyuruwari (C). Small, unarmed palm to 2 m tall. Stem cane-like, with few basal shoots. Spadix axillary, green, orange in fruit. Berry yellowish green, ca. 1 cm in diam. Rare in mixed forest, Barama. The leaves serve occasionally as roof thatch, as substitute for swamp dhalebana (Geonoma baculifera). Leaves must be dried in the sun first. Hill dhalebana roofs are of good quality, but the species is scarce and thus seldom used.

Geonoma sp. TVA1069 PALMAE Haimara tail (Cr), Aimara andïkïrï (C). Acaulescent palm, ca. 1 m tall. Leaves bifid to one third from the apex. Occasional in Mora swamp. The leaves are used as wrapping material and to protect goods from rain.

Socratea exorrhiza (Mart.) H. Wendl. PALMAE Buba (Cr), Boba (Ar), Pasï-ï (C). Solitary, unarmed palm, with armed stilt roots. Leaves pinnate. Spadices ca. 12 cm long, densely brown tomentose. Drupe ca. 3 x 2 cm, brown. Rare in mixed forest. In Barama, the trunk is split and made into resilient walls, floors and gutters for small-scale gold mining. The leaves are used to thatch forest camps, to camouflage animal traps, and as hat by children. Bows are occasionally made from the wood.

298 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Passiflora coccinea Aubl. PASSIFLORACEAE Semitoo (Cr), Marudi yure1 (Ar), Sokosoko (C). Liana. Leaves entire. Bracts large, ovate, convex, bright red. Flowers showy, large, red. Fruiting sepals ca. 4 cm. long. Berry orange or yellow, to 6 cm in diam. Common in secondary shrubland and abandoned fields. The fruit pulp is edible. (1) ‘Marudi throat’, after the scarlet bracts of the liana resembling the throat of this bird (Fanshawe, 1949).

Passiflora garckei Mast. PASSIFLORACEAE Semitoo (Cr). Herbaceous vine. Leaves subpeltate, 3-lobed, grey below, veins red. Flowers blue or purplish, ca. 8 cm wide. Berry green, ellipsoid, ca. 4 cm in diam. Occasional in manicole swamp, Assakata. The fruit pulp is edible.

Passiflora glandulosa Cav. PASSIFLORACEAE Wild semitoo (Cr), Querimo (Sp), Bimiti tokon1 (Ar), Karawiru (C), Boyabamu (Wr). Herbaceous vine. Leaves entire, deciduous during flowering. Flowers bright red. Berry ovoid, leathery, ca. 6 x 3 cm, green to deep red. In secondary forest, Waini. The fruit pulp is edible. Warao believe that people holding or playing with the fruit are alcoholics. (1) The Arawak name means ‘hummingbird food’ (Fanshawe, 1949).

Passiflora laurifolia L. PASSIFLORACEAE Bell apple semitoo, Aligator rope, Worm bush (Cr), Shimito, Semetho1 (Ar), Sosoporo (C). Liana. Leaves entire. Flowers mostly solitary, pale yellow, reddish inside. Fruiting calyx to 4 cm long. Berry orange-yellow, ca. 7 x 4 cm, weakly 3-ribbed. Occasional in manicole swamp, locally cultivated for its edible fruits. A tea from the leaves is drunk against intestinal worms. Leaves are sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) The Arawak name means ‘the sweet one’ (Bennet, 1994).

Passiflora nitida Kunth PASSIFLORACEAE Semitoo (Cr), Semetho, Merekuya (Ar), Mïrehkuya (C). Herbaceous vine or subwoody liana. Leaves entire. Flowers large, axillary, petals white, staminodial ring bright purple, curly, stamens and style white. Berry yellow, ca. 7 x 5 cm. Occasional in secondary forest, locally cultivated for its sweet, edible fruits. A tea from the vine is drunk for stomach swelling.

Passiflora quadriglandulosa Rodschied PASSIFLORACEAE Wild semitoo (Cr). Delicate vine. Leaves entire or slightly lobed. Flowers large, bright pink. Staminodial ring alternating red and white. Berry ovoid, ca. 4 x 3 cm., green with white spots. In riverbank Mora forest. The fruit pulp is edible.

Passiflora sp. TVA2651 PASSIFLORACEAE Semitoo (Cr). Vine. Leaves entire, margins slightly dentate. Petiole with two circular glands. Flowers not seen. Berry black, ca. 1 cm in diam. In mangrove forest, Barima. The grey fruit pulp is sweet and edible.

Microtea debilis Sw. PHYTOLACCACEAE Flat-on-the-earth (Cr), Semechi wadzili (Ar). Annual herb to 45 cm high. Leaves alternate, spirally arranged. Flowers small, white, in lax, terminal, spike-like racemes. Fruit globose, green, with spine-like tubercles. In pastures and open vegetation, spared from weeding in house yards. A tea from the leaves is drunk for colds and given to babies for thrush and fever. In Georgetown, the tea is drunk for heart problems and to ‘cool down’ inflamed areas. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

299 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Petiveria alliacea L. PHYTOLACCACEAE Fever tree, Gully root, Bird vine (Cr), Halichiballi (Ar), Ararau amutu (Wr). Deeply rooted shrub to 1 m tall. Leaves alternate, spirally arranged, with strong garlic odour. Flowers white, in long, slender spikes. Fruit green, with two sharp bristles. In weedy areas, sometimes cultivated in the interior. The leaves are macerated, mixed with coconut oil, and rubbed on the body to ease down fever. A tea from the whole plant is taken for colds, stomach ache, high blood pressure, and as laxative. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Phytolacca rivinoides Kunth & Bouché PHYTOLACCACEAE Deer callaloo, Callaloo (Cr), Karuru (C). Fleshy herb to 2 m high. Leaves alternate. Flowers white, in lax, terminal racemes, rachis bright pink. Fruit fleshy, depressed, black. Common as weed in cultivated and abandoned fields. The leaves are cooked as vegetable.

Peperomia rotundifolia (L.) Kunth PIPERACEAE Follow me (Cr). Delicate, creeping vine. Leaves very small, lens-shaped, succulent. Flowers greenish white, in slender spikes. On tree trunks and fallen logs, in mixed and swamp forest. The vine is boiled and drunk as tea, just as a beverage. A love charm is made by mixing the pounded leaves with perfume and rubbing this on the body. The beloved one will now follow this person everywhere.

Piper avellanum (Miq.) C. DC. PIPERACEAE Warakaba bush (Cr), Warakaba koro (Ar), Akami pupuru1 (C). Shrub with thickened joints. Leaves with pepper scent. Flowers white, in leaf-opposed spikes. In disturbed Mora swamp and secondary forest, spared from weeding in house yards. The sap of the macerated leaves is drunk for snakebites. The medicine is said to be particularly effective for labaria bites. The sap of heated leaves is also given to people loosing consciousness when suffering from severe jaw and stomach cramps. The plant was repeatedly mentioned to have saved lives. (1) ‘Warakaba leg’, after the nodes in the stem resembling the knees of the trumpet bird.

Piper vs. berbicense Miq. PIPERACEAE Warakaba joint (Cr), Warakaba koro (Ar). Shrub ca. 2 m tall, with thickened joints. Leaves with pepper scent. Flowers in leaf-opposed spikes. In manicole swamp, Assakata. The leaves are briefly heated or macerated between the hands. The sap is drunk for snakebites, and the crushed leaves are applied to the bite.

Piper cf. glabrescens (Miq.) C. DC. PIPERACEAE Warakaba (Cr), Warakaba koro (Ar). Shrub with thickened joints. Leaves with slight pepper scent. Flowers in small, green, leaf-opposed spikes. In secondary forest, Moruca. For snakebite, the leaves are crushed and squeezed. The sap is drunk with a pinch of salt and the macerated leaves are applied to the bite.

Piper cf. hostmannianum (Miq.) DC. PIPERACEAE Warakaba bush, Snake bush (Cr), Warakabina (Ar), Yarakaru emurutano1, To’na to’nakeng2 (C). Scrambling shrub with thickened joints. Stem dark green. Young leaves puberulous, veins reddish below. Infructescence to 12 cm long. In secondary forest and as weed in cultivated fields. For scorpion bites or labaria or bushmaster attacks, the sap from heated leaves is squeezed and drunk with a pinch of salt. The crushed leaves or stem scrapings are applied to the bite. The poultice is said to draw out the poison. (1) The Carib name means ‘monkey testicles’; (1) ‘Stem with many knots’.

300 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Piper nigrispicum C. DC. PIPERACEAE Warakaba joint, Trumpet bird (Cr), Warakaba koro (Ar), To’na to’nakeng (C). Shrub, ca. 2 m tall, with thickened joints. Flowers in small, in leaf-opposed spikes. In secondary forest and manicole swamp. For snakebites, the salted sap from heated leaves is squeezed and drunk. The crushed leaves are applied to the bite.

Piper sp. TVA2666 PIPERACEAE Warakaba bush (Cr), Warakaba koro (Ar), Warakaba daroko (Wr). Small shrub with thickened joints. In understorey of secondary forest, Waini. The leaves are boiled or crushed in water, and drunk for labaria and other snakebites, scorpion bites, and stomach ache.

Coccoloba densifrons Mart. ex Meisn. POLYGONACEAE Wild grape, Blauwtu1, Swamp masari (Cr), Masari (Ar), Etaburu akwaha (Wr). Shrub to 2.5 m high. Stipules encircling the stem, leaving a ring-like scar. Fruit a nut, enclosed by blue- black perianth which becomes enlarged and succulent. In swamp forest on pegasse. The fruits are eaten. The juice stains mouth and tongue blue. A tea from a little bark is drunk for diarrhoea. (1) This name has a Dutch origin, referring to the blue colour of the fruit.

Coccoloba marginata Benth. POLYGONACEAE Wild grape, Blauwtu (Cr), Masari (Ar). Scrambling shrub. Stipules large, truncate, leaving a ring-like scar. Leaves leathery Fruiting perianth reddish brown to black. In secondary forest along roads, Moruca. The fruits are eaten. The pulp is sweet, but dry and astringent and stains mouth and tongue blue. A tea from small quantities of bark is drunk for diarrhoea.

Polypodium adnatum Kunze ex Klotzsch POLYPODIACEAE Fine type baboon plimpla (Cr). Epiphytic fern. Rhizomes creeping, covered with brown scales. Fronds few, widely separated, pinnate. Pinnae elliptic, acuminate. Sori round, at ends of veinlets. In manicole swamp, Assakata. The rhizome is scraped, boiled or crushed, mixed with soft grease or salt, and taken orally for whooping cough.

Quiina indigofera Sandw. QUIINACEAE Velvet seeds tree (Cr), Mamuriballi, Okokonshi (Ar), Arawuya (C), Kokonshi (Wr). Medium-sized tree. Leaves large, opposite. Stipules large, leaflike. Berry yellowish orange, conical, finely ribbed, fleshy, ca. 5 cm long, with repulsive smell. In mixed and secondary forest. The wood is strong, flexible and long-lasting, and used for house construction, warishi frames, and arrow sockets.

Rapatea paludosa Aubl. var. paludosa RAPATEACEAE Yellow lily (Cr), Katuburi (Ar). Large, perennial herb to 1 m high. Leaves linear, erect. Inflorescence a head subtended by two leaflike bracts. Calyx straw-coloured, corolla yellow, embedded in transparent jelly. Forming dense stands in swamp forest on pegasse. Leaves are occasionally used to thatch forest camps, by tightly folding bundles of leaves over the rafters. The jelly from the inflorescence and leaf base is rubbed in the hair as gel. It is also said to prevent baldness.

Amaioua corymbosa Kunth RUBIACEAE Wayu, Wa-yung (C). Small tree. Leaves opposite, clustered at branch ends. Stipules large, yellow tomentose, caducous. Berry dark red to purple, hairy. Occasional in mixed forest, Barama. The fruits are eaten and much appreciated, but the tree is said to fruit only once every five years.

301 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Amaioua guianensis Aubl. RUBIACEAE Komaramara balli1 (Ar), Kapasi tuno (C). Small tree. Outer bark brown, inner bark red, wood yellowish. Leaves opposite, clustered at branch ends. Stipules hairy, united in a conical deciduous cap. Flowers in sessile umbels. Berry ovoid, purple- brown, glabrous. Occasional in mixed forest, Barama. The fruits are edible. The wood is occasionally used for house construction, rafts, and firewood. (1) The Arawak name implies that the species looks like Duroia eriopila (Fanshawe, 1949).

Duroia eriopila L.f. var. eriopila RUBIACEAE Green asepoko (Cr), Maramara, Komaramara (Ar), Wayamu worekotopo1 (C). Small tree. Leaves opposite, clustered at branch ends. Twigs, stipules, and young leaves hairy. Berry green to yellow, sessile, globose, hairy. Common in swamp forest on pegasse, rare in Mora forest. The brown, starchy fruit pulp looks as if it is rotten, but it is edible and sweet. (1) ‘Turtle gets angry’, because the brown fruit pulp always looks rotten.

Faramea aff. guianensis (Aubl.) Brem. (poss. sp. nov.) RUBIACEAE Shrub. Leaves opposite, papery, puberulous below. Twigs flattened at nodes. Stipules large, narrowly triangular. Drupe sessile, black, crowned persistent calyx. In mixed and secondary forest. The berries are edible.

Genipa spruceana Steyerm. RUBIACEAE Wild guava, Lana tree (Cr), Lana (Ar). Gnarled tree. Twigs brittle. Leaves opposite, rolled inwards when young. Stipules triangular. Flowers in cymes. Berry globose or ovoid, glabrous, ca. 6 x 4 cm. In flooded savanna, Barima. The fruit is broken into pieces and used as fish bait, or thrown directly in the water to attract fish.

Geophila repens (L.) I.M. Johnst. RUBIACEAE Wild pepper (Cr), Sirimya watï (C). Delicate, creeping herb, rooting from the nodes. Leaves cordate, covered with short, sticky, white hairs when young. Stipules broadly triangular. Petioles purple. Berry bright orange, juicy. On fallen tree trunks in Mora forest, Barama. The juice of the berries is rubbed on the skin to treat lota, a common skin fungus.

Gonzalagunia dicocca Cham. & Schltdl. RUBIACEAE Shrub to 4 m tall. Leaves opposite, veins red below. Petioles red. Stipules triangular, acuminate. Flowers white, small, in long, terminal, puberulous spikes. Drupe small, purple-blue. Common in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The watery fruits are edible, but are consumed only by small children.

Posoqueria longiflora Aubl. RUBIACEAE Bat food, Wild pawpaw (Cr), Kamadan1 (Ar), Ambaoke, Kapaya watï2 (C), Sa anahoro3 (Wr). Shrub or small tree to 8 m tall. Leaves opposite, folded together when young. Stipules large, caducous. Flowers trumpet-shaped, white, ca. 20 cm long. Fruit large, green to orange. Common in secondary forest. In Moruca, the twigs are used to make wicker kitchen walls. People believe that if a bat drops a fruit close to a house, somebody in that house is pregnant. (1) ‘Tapir tree’, as this animal eats the fruits (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Just like pawpaw’; (3) ‘Bat food’.

Psychotria bahiensis DC. var. cornigera (Benth.) Steyerm. RUBIACEAE Sakusaku (C). Shrub to 3 m tall. Leaves opposite. Fruiting corymbs reddish purple. Drupe subsessile, 2-lobed, crowned by calyx, spongy, juicy, green to bluish black. Common in Mora forest. The fruits are eaten by small children.

302 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Psychotria poeppigiana Müll. Arg. var. barcellana (Müll. Arg.) Steyerm. RUBIACEAE Wild poppy, Butterfly food, Soldier’s cap (Cr), Parangbarang wokuru1 (C). Shrub to 1.5 m tall. Leaves opposite, hairy above, glabrous below. Flowers yellow. Inflorescence with two large, shiny, red bracts. Berry blue, spongy. Common in secondary and disturbed primary forest. Three branches with leaves and flowers or a handful of flowers are boiled and drunk for colds, cough, and tuberculosis. Leaves are boiled with granny backbone wood (Curarea candicans) and fire ashes. A warm cupful is drunk at midnight to stop menstrual bleeding. (1) ‘Butterfly drink’, after the blue morpho butterflies visiting the flowers.

Psychotria racemosa Rich. RUBIACEAE Shrub or small tree to 4 m tall. Fruiting panicles terminal. Drupe orange, depressed globose, sessile, somewhat 5-lobed. In disturbed primary forest. During Christmas, people use the fruiting branches to decorate the church.

Uncaria guianensis (Aubl.) J.F. Gmel. RUBIACEAE Parrot beak (Cr), Burio bada (Ar), Panapana (C). High-climbing liana. Stem containing cool, clear water. Branches with recurved spines. Leaves opposite. Umbels globose, with long peduncles. Capsule fusiform, woody. Abundant in riverbank Mora forest and secondary shrubland, Barama. The leaves are boiled and the tea is taken for colds and tuberculosis.

Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam. RUTACEAE Breadwood (Cr), Sada (Ar). Small tree. Trunk yellowish brown, with woody spines. Leaves 5-7-foliolate, clustered at branch ends. Flowers greenish white, in terminal panicles. Capsule pear-shaped. Occasional in secondary forest. The soft wood is locally sawn into boards.

Zanthoxylum sp. TVA648 RUTACEAE Sadawood (Cr), Sada (Ar), Kïya (C). Large tree. Trunk with thick, sharp, woody spines. Outer bark green, inner bark and wood yellow. Leaves large, ca. 1 m long, swollen at base, with a repulsive smell. In secondary forest, Barama. The wood is locally sawn into boards and used for large wooden ballahoos, walls, floors, and house construction.

Allophylus racemosus Sw. SAPINDACEAE Karishiri, Kulishiri (Ar). Small tree. Outer bark red-brown, inner bark orange, wood white. Twigs rusty brown. Leaves imparipinnate. Inflorescence axillary. In quackal swamp forest. The young trunks are plaited into wicker kitchen walls.

Cupania hirsuta Radlk. SAPINDACEAE Wattle tree, Ants wood (Cr), Karishiri, Kulishiri (Ar), Tohmopara (C). Small tree. Branches grooved, brown puberulous. Leaves 6-10-foliolate, hirsute below, margins serrate. Capsule orange brown puberulous, 3-4-lobed. Seed with yellow aril. Common in secondary forest. The young trunks are plaited into wicker kitchen walls. The wood is used for firewood.

Cupania scrobiculata Rich. var. reticulata (Camb.) Radlk. SAPINDACEAE Deerfoot, Wattle stick, Bread tree, Bread and cheese, Hammock wood (Cr), Caña venao1 (Sp), Karishiri, Kulishiri (Ar), Tohmopara (C), Dau bahi bahi2 (Wr). Tree to 10 m tall. Branches ribbed, rusty puberulous. Leaves 6-8-foliolate. Flowers in terminal, rusty puberulous panicles. Capsule 3-lobed, wrinkled, greenish yellow. Abundant in mixed and secondary forest. The yellow spongy aril around the seeds resembles cheese and is edible. Young trunks are stripped from their bark and plaited into wicker kitchen walls. Straight trunks are used as upright poles to weave hammocks. The wood is favoured as firewood for cassava baking and sold for this purpose in larger Amerindian villages. (1) ‘Deer cane’, as the ribbed twigs resemble deer legs; (2) The Warao name means ‘wood growing like a spring’.

303 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Matayba camptoneura Radlk. SAPINDACEAE Karishiri, Kulishiri (Ar), Tupuru tonoropio (C). Tree to 12 m tall. Branches reddish. Leaves 4-foliolate, leathery. Flowering panicles tomentose, ca. 20 cm long. Capsule 3-lobed, red, valves fleshy. In secondary forest, Moruca. The young trunks are plaited into wicker kitchen walls and house frames.

Paullinia capreolata (Aubl.) Radlk. SAPINDACEAE Kutupurang (C). Woody climber with tendrils. Leaves 5-foliolate, puberulous below, rachis grooved, not winged. Racemes axillary, puberulous. Capsule greenish orange, tomentose. In Mora and mixed forest. The sap from heated and macerated leaves is squeezed in cuts, sores, and used to disinfect the umbilical cord of newborn babies. The leaves are kept at hand when a baby is being born. An infusion or tea from bark scrapings is used to disinfect skin sores.

Paullinia pinnata L. SAPINDACEAE Rat eye (Cr), Yesi kushi (Ar), Kutupurang (C). Woody climber. Leaves 5-foliolate, rachis winged. Flowers white, in slender racemes. Capsule 5-lobed, cherry red. Seeds black, aril white. Common in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The dry aril is eaten by children.

Serjania paucidentata DC. SAPINDACEAE Old man's back, Granny backbone, Sugar baby (Cr), Kashiri, Aboho, Hebechi abo1 (Ar), Kutupuru (C). Liana with triangular stem. Leaves biternate. Flowers white, with yellow centre, sweet-scented, in large panicles. Schizocarp winged, yellow to red. Occasional in secondary forest, Moruca. The stem is pounded and soaked in a creek or pond to poison fish. A tea from the leaves are given to babies for thrush. The stem is chopped into pieces, boiled and drunk to cure male impotence (‘weak back’), in mixtures similar to those of Curarea candicans (also called granny backbone). The wood is sold at the Georgetown herbal market under this name. (1) ‘Old man’s backbone’, after the triangular stem (Fanshawe, 1949).

Talisia cf. guianensis Aubl. SAPINDACEAE Sand mora (Cr), Moraballi, Moroballi (Ar), Wa-u (C). Small tree. Leaves 10-30-foliolate. Panicles in upper leaf axils, light brown hirsute. Berry 3-angled when young, ellipsoid when ripe, yellow. Rare in mixed and secondary forest. The bark and wood are said to be extremely poisonous and can be used as fish poison. Throwing wood chips in a creek would turn the water pitch-black and instantly kill the fish. The guts, scales, and skin of the fish should quickly be removed and the flesh thoroughly cleaned with lime to avoid digesting the poison. Although used more commonly in the past, people are now reluctant to use these species. The wood is considered too poisonous for housing or firewood.

Talisia hexaphylla Vahl SAPINDACEAE Sand mora (Cr), Moraballi, Moroballi (Ar), Wa-u (C). Tree, ca. 20 m tall, with buttresses. Outer bark brown, lenticellate, inner bark orange brown. Leaves paripinnate, brown puberulous when young. Berry juicy. Rare in mixed forest. The wood is said to be extremely poisonous and is used as fish poison. Throwing wood chips in a creek would turn the water black and instantly kill the fish. The guts, scales, and skin of the fish should quickly be removed and the flesh thoroughly cleaned with lime to avoid digesting the poison. The wood is too poisonous for firewood or construction.

304 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Sapindaceae sp. TVA3056 SAPINDACEAE Large woody climber. Inner bark pink, wood yellow, with sticky exudate. No leaves observed. Rare in manicole swamp, Assakata. Pieces of the heavy wooden stem are cut off and put as weight in bamboo fish traps.

Sapindaceae sp. TVA1240 SAPINDACEAE Bread and cheese liana (Cr), Pïrïka (C). Woody climber with characteristic wood pattern. Wood sweet-scented. No leaves observed. Rare in secondary forest, Barama. The fruits are said to be edible and resembling those of Tetragastris altissima.

Chrysophyllum argenteum Jacq. subsp. auratum (Miq.) T.D. Penn. SAPOTACEAE Wild starapple (Cr), Sürürü burue1 (Ar), Kameri, Karu merei (C). Medium-sized tree. Little white latex. Leaves golden puberulous. Flowers small, in axillary, rusty tomentose fascicles. Berry shiny, reddish purple. Frequent in Mora riverbank forest, Barama. The sweet fruits are edible. (1) The Arawak name means ‘bulletwood of the black marmoset’ (Tamarin midas) (Fanshawe, 1949).

Chrysophyllum sanguinolentum (Pierre) Baehni SAPOTACEAE Ubudiballi (Ar). Tree, ca. 10 m tall. Outer bark smooth, inner bark orange. Little white, sweet latex. Branches light brown puberulous. Berry fleshy. Occasional in mixed forest, Moruca. The wood is used for paddles.

Micropholis venulosa (Mart. & Eichler) Pierre SAPOTACEAE Swamp letterwood, Smoothskin tauroniro (Cr), Dukuria, Kudibiu shi (Ar), Wokopopi1 (C). Tree to 35 m tall. Leaves small, with fine secondary veins. Little white latex. Flowers in axillary, reddish brown puberulous fascicles. Berry ellipsoid, yellow. In mixed forest and manicole swamp. The sticky fruits are sweet, but slightly astringent. The wood is used for boards, walking sticks, and firewood. (1) ‘Powis beak’, after the fruits resembling the yellow beak of this forest bird.

Pouteria bilocularis (Winkler) Baehni SAPOTACEAE Fine leaf haimara eye (Cr), Aiomora kushi1 (Ar). Medium-sized tree. Outer bark red-brown, rough, inner bark orange, wood white. Latex white. Berry green to yellow, turning orange when ripe. Occasional in mixed forest. The sweet fruits are edible. (1) The Arawak name means ‘haimara eye’ (Fanshawe, 1949).

Pouteria caimito (Ruiz & Pav.) Radlk. SAPOTACEAE Haimara eye (Cr), Aiomora kushi, Essepoko (Ar), Atakamara, Kosiri paratare (C). Medium-sized tree. Leaves small, clustered at branch ends. Flowers solitary, or in small fascicles on leafless twigs. Berry globose, yellow, with white latex. Occasional in mixed forest, sometimes spared from cutting around villages. The fruits are edible, sweet and much esteemed.

Pouteria cf. coriacea (Pierre) Pierre SAPOTACEAE Haimara eye (Cr), Aiomora kushi (Ar). Tree, ca. 15 m tall, with small buttresses. Outer bark smooth, brown, inner bark red, wood turning dark orange after exposure. Latex white. Berry purple. Occasional in mixed forest. The fruits are edible, sweet and much esteemed.

Pouteria cuspidata (A. DC.) Baehni SAPOTACEAE Wild starapple (Cr), Kokoritiballi (Ar). Large tree with small buttresses. Outer bark flaky, red, inner bark pink, wood white. Latex white, sweet. Leaves leathery, grey below. Berry yellow. In swamp forest on pegasse. The fruits are edible and sweet. The wood is strong and used for house posts and boards.

305 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Pouteria durlandii (Standl.) Baehni SAPOTACEAE Bartaballi, Asepoko (Ar). Tree to 20 m, with buttresses. Outer bark dark brown, flaky, inner bark reddish. Latex little, white. Flowers small, greenish white, in fascicles on branches. Berry yellow, ca. 3 cm in diam. In mixed forest, Moruca. The fruits are edible and sweet. Axe handles and paddles are carved from the buttresses.

Pouteria hispida Eyma SAPOTACEAE Fine leaf asepoko, Black asepoko (Cr), Asepoko (Ar), Tuwonure (C). Large tree. Trunk fluted. White latex. Outer bark grey, flaky, inner bark pink, wood yellow. Berry small, yellow, sticky. In mixed forest. The sweet fruits are edible. Axe handles are carved from the butresses.

Pouteria venosa (Mart.) Baehni subsp. amazonica T.D. Penn. SAPOTACEAE Haimara eye (Cr), Kamahora, Aiomora kushi (Ar). Tree, ca. 20 m tall. Little white latex. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark pink, wood yellow. Leaves obovate. Flowers large. Berry purple-brown, furry. In secondary forest, Moruca. The fruits are edible, sweet and much esteemed. The tree is said to fruit only once every few years.

Pouteria sp. TVA2613 SAPOTACEAE Baboon goggle (Cr). Medium-sized tree. Little white latex. Inner bark reddish. Berry ca. 5 cm diam., green-ferruginous, pulp bright yellow, starchy. In mixed forest. The fruits are edible. Axe handles are carved from the buttresses.

Pradosia schomburgkiana (A.DC.) Cronq. subsp. schomburgkiana SAPOTACEAE Redwood, Coughwood, Wild liquorice (Cr), Kakarawa (Ar, Wr). Large tree. Latex little, white. Outer bark light brown, scaly, inner bark pinkish orange, wood white. Leaves leathery. Young branches rusty brown. Flowers produced from main branches. Drupe fleshy. Frequent in quackal swamp forest. The sweet latex can be sucked from the tree. The milky bark is made into a sweet tea or boiled with cassava starch into a cough syrup. The bark tea is drunk for tuberculosis and heavy chest colds. The bark is boiled with rose of the mountain bark (Brownea latifolia), or with wild maran (Pityrogramma calomelanos), wild semitoo (Passiflora foetida), mokomoko leaves (Montrichardia arborescens), and crapeaud pepper (Physalis pubescens). It should be drunk regularly until the tuberculosis has ended. The bark is said to be very effective, and is sold occasionally in Moruca for US$ 7 a rice bag.

Lygodium volubile Sw. SCHIZAEACEAE Rank bush (Cr), Hebu ahomakaba1 (Wr). Climbing fern. Rhizomes short-creeping, branched, with black scales. Fronds in tufts, to 10 m long. Pinnae with serrate margins. Sporangia on marginal lobes of ultimate segments. Common in secondary shrubland. A spoonful of the sap from crushed leaves, sometimes diluted in water, is given with a pinch of salt to babies for thrush. A herbal bath with the smelly leaves chases away bad spirits troubling the child and causing the thrush. It also helps against skin rash and itches. A tea from the leaves is drunk for back pain. (1) The Warao name means ‘jumbie smell’ (spirit scent).

Capraria biflora L. SCROPHULARIACEAE Wild tea, Nigger broom, Bhuyara (Cr), Fregosa (Sp), Simerodan (Ar). Erect, bushy herb to 1.5 m high. Leaves pilose, serrate, with repulsive smell. Flowers small, white, on slender pedicels in leaf axils. Capsule with persistent style. In secondary shrubland and ditches, cultivated in Moruca house yards. For gallstones, four branches are boiled in three pints of water and drunk three times a day.

306 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Scoparia dulcis L. SCROPHULARIACEAE Sweet broom (Cr), Shibero (Ar), Asokoa, Asokuwa (C), Bebe diabara (Wr). Annual, much branched herb to 60 cm high. Leaves opposite or whorled, aromatic. Flowers white, paired in the upper axils. Capsule ovoid-globose. In pastures and open vegetation. The bitter tea from the herb is drunk to bitter the blood, to cure and prevent malaria and skin sores, for cough, colds, fever, jaundice, thrush, and as laxative. Pear leaves (Persea americana) are added to the tea for malaria and biliousness. For venereal diseases (‘runners’), one buruburu root (Solanum stramoniifolium) is boiled with sweet broom, pawpaw root (Carica papaya) and lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus). A little is drunk three times a day until the symptoms have disappeared. For heart problems, four soursop leaves (Annona muricata), three pear leaves and some sweet broom is boiled. Half a cup of the tea is drunk for four mornings. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market.

Selaginella parkeri (Hook. & Grev.) Spring SELAGINELLACEAE Powis comb1, Powis curly hair1 (Cr), Hashiru kabo2 (Ar), Wokope mirityïrï (C). Small, terrestrial fern, to 20 cm high. Fronds dark green above, light green below, curled. Ramifications numerous. Sporophylls rigid. Common in secondary forest. In Barama, people believe that if the plant is dried over the fire and pressed softly against the heels of a young child, it will learn to walk faster. (1) The Creole names are translations of the Carib name; (2) ‘Otter paw’, after the curled fronds (Fanshawe, 1949).

Simarouba amara Aubl. SIMAROUBACEAE Simarupa (high bush type) (Cr), Shimarupa (Ar), Simarupa (C). Tree to 25 m tall. Leaves glabrous, 7-21-foliolate. Flowers small, green, in terminal panicles. Drupe composed of 1-5 mericarps. Frequent in mixed and secondary forest. The soft, white wood is locally sawn into boards for walls, canoes, and guitars, but the wood is rapidly attacked by termites.

Physalis cf. angulata L. SOLANACEAE Pap bush, Black crapeaud pepper (Cr), Shibero bime (Ar), Pomiki (C). Herb to 1.20 m, with spreading branches. Leaves glabrous, cuneate at base, margins coarsely toothed. Flowers solitary, dull yellow, dark olive at base. Berry enclosed by enlarged calyx. Common as weed in cultivated fields. The plant is boiled and drunk against worms and as a diuretic against urinary tract problems (‘stoppage of water’), for menstruation pains, and to clean out the uterus. The decoction is used as bath against shingles or ‘snake skin disease’, an illness in which the skin becomes flaky and peels off. Sold at the Georgetown market.

Solanum subinerme Jacq. SOLANACEAE Kuwasisyeng (C). Shrub to 4 m tall. Stem and leaves armed with curved thorns. Flowers purple, in short, scorpoid cymes. Stamens yellow. Berry green, glabrous. Common in secondary shrubland and as weed in cultivated fields. For general body pain the leaves are pounded, mixed with coconut oil and applied to the hurting spot. The whole plant, with root, stem, and leaves, is boiled with some sugar and drunk against malaria and fever.

Herrania kanukuensis R.E. Schult. STERCULIACEAE Wild apple, Wild cocoa (Cr), Akao (C). Unbranched tree to 8 m tall. Leaves lobed, golden brown puberulous when young. Inflorescence produced from the main trunk. Capsule green, tomentose, woody, ca. 9 x 5 cm, ribbed. Rare in Mora and secondary forest, Barama. The white fruit pulp is very sweet and popular. The tree is occasionally planted in house yards.

Sterculia rugosa R. Br. STERCULIACEAE Rough leaf maho, Slimy maho (Cr), Maho (Ar), Omose (C). Tree to 35 m tall. Twigs stout, densely hairy when young. Leaves entire, clustered at branch ends, 3- lobed when young. Fruit large, composed of 1-5 woody follicles. Occasional in Mora and mixed forest. The fresh bark strips are used for lashing material, but their quality is inferior to those of real maho

307 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

(Sterculia pruriens). The wood is a commercial timber. The black seeds are cut open to consume the jelly inside.

Waltheria indica L. STERCULIACEAE Velvet, Soft leaf (Cr), Haro banaro1 (Ar). Shrubby herb to 2 m tall. Leaves ovate, grey, velvety tomentose, margins crenate. Flowers yellow, crowded in axillary, sessile or shortly stalked inflorescences. Capsule 2-valved. Common on (white) sandy soil, sometimes spared from weeding for ornamental and medicinal purposes. A tea from the leaves is drunk for high blood pressure and colds, especially for babies. The tea is boiled with sugar into a cough syrup, and with sweet sage (Lantana camara), teasam (Lippia alba), toyeau (Justicia pectoralis), and tulsie (Ocimum campechianum) to prepare a cold medicine. For thrush, leaves are picked early in the morning, when the dew is still on the leaves. The fungus is scraped from the child’s tongue and mouth with a leaf, after which the mouth is rinsed with black cassareep. The soft leaves are used as toilet paper. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) ‘Starchy leaves’, from the grey pubescence (Fanshawe, 1949).

Tectaria incisa Cav. f. vivipara (Jenman) C.V. Morton TECTARIACEAE Hassa grass (Cr), Amamai (C). Terrestrial fern to 1 m high. Fronds monomorphic, juvenile fronds often simple, adult fronds pinnate, producing foliar buds. Sori orbicular. In secondary forest, Barama. The fern with its juvenile plants growing on the adult leaves is considered as a fertility agent for women. A tea from the leaves drunk during the menstruation will enhance the chance of becoming pregnant. The leaves are parched, ground to powder with a bottle, diluted in water and drunk as a fertility agent.

Apeiba petoumo Aubl. TILIACEAE Monkey comb, Powder puff (Cr), Duru, Barudaballi (Ar), Patumu (C). Tree to 35 m tall. Outer bark dark brown, inner bark light brown, with green bean odour. Leaves whitish puberulous below, margins slightly serrate. Capsule depressed globose, black, spiny. In disturbed primary and secondary forest. The inner bark scrapings are scraped and applied to snakebites. The soft wood rots quickly and is generally used for firewood. It is occasionally used to make low- grade canoes. Children comb their hair with the fruit for fun.

Triumfetta altheoides Lam. TILIACEAE Pega pega (Sp). Shrub. Leaves soft puberulous, margins dentate. Petiole with glands. Flowers yellow. Fruit woody, globose, with unicate spines. Common in secondary forest, Moruca. A remedy for haemorrhage is prepared by boiling the leaves as tea. Children play with the spiny fruits that stick at clothes and hair.

Trema micrantha (L.) Blume ULMACEAE Parakari, Kabiukuru, Kabuya koro1 (Ar), Kunuriye (C), Konono (Wr). Small tree. Leaves serrate, rough. Stipules long. Flowers small, green, in axillary cymes. Drupe small, ellipsoid, green to orange-red. Common in open secondary forest, in cultivated and abandoned fields. If the tree is cut early in the morning it contains a clear sap which is dripped into sore eyes. In Barama, the wood is burned to charcoal, ground to powder and mixed with the slimy bark of maporokoñ (Inga alba) to form a black colorant to paint calabashes (Crescentia cujete). (1) ‘Something in the field’, referring to its habitat (Fanshawe, 1949).

Laportea aestuans (L.) Chew URTICACEAE Stinging nettle, Peruvian, Wild kunami (Cr), Warapa kunami, Yerewano epïtyï (C). Erect, fleshy herb to 1.20 m high. Leaves serrate, with stinging bristles. Petioles reddish. Flowers very small, in axillary panicles. Fruit ca. 1 mm long. In pastures, riverbanks, and cultivated fields. For haemorrhage, a strong tea is prepared from three leaves and some grated nutmeg. A weaker tea from the same amount of leaves is given in the late afternoon to children having problems with bed-wetting. In Georgetown, the plant is boiled with zeb grass (Tripogandra serrulata) and drunk to bitter the blood and relieve skin rash. If the leaves of sand bitters (Unxia camphorata) is added, it is taken as diuretic and for biliousness. Sold at the Georgetown market.

308 3. Other useful plant species of the North-West District of Guyana

Lantana camara L. VERBENACEAE Sweet sage, Man sweet sage (Cr), Semeheyu balli1 (Ar), Hukuhuku anakoro2, Obo aibihi3 (Wr). Erect or scrambling shrub. Stems angular. Leaves opposite, aromatic, dentate. Flowers red and orange- yellow, in heads in the upper leaf axils. Drupe black. In pastures and open secondary vegetation. The leaves are boiled and drunk in the morning, just as tea, but also for colds and cough. The plant is boiled with toyeau (Justicia pectoralis) in a remedy against haemorrhage. In Georgetown, a tea is prepared from toyeau, sweet sage, teasam (Lippia alba), tulsie (Ocimum campechianum), and velvet (Waltheria indica) to make a cold medicine. A decoction of sweet sage is used to cleanse sores. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) ‘Obeiah man’, after its use in magical practices (Fanshawe, 1949); (2) ‘Hummingbird food’; (3) ‘Cold medicine’.

Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl. VERBENACEAE Bluevirr, Rat tail (Cr), Oyediballi, Shikishikidan1 (Ar), Okoyu marakarï, Kunamiran (C). Shrubby herb to 1 m high. Stem glabrous. Leaves crenate. Flowers small, light blue, in long, slender, terminal spikes. Fruit ca. 6 mm long. Common in pastures, often spared from weeding in Moruca house yards. A bundle of branches is boiled and drunk against malaria and diabetes. Sold at the Georgetown herbal market. (1) The Arawak name means ‘cricket tree’ (Fanshawe, 1949).

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl VERBENACEAE Bluevirr, Rat tail (Cr) Shikishikidan (Ar). Shrubby herb to 1 m high. Leaves fleshy, crenate. Flowers small, deep blue-violet, in long, slender, terminal spikes. Fruit ca. 7 mm long. Common in pastures, often spared from weeding in Moruca house yards. The tea from one branch is taken for high blood pressure. The decoction is also used to disinfect skin burns, while a fresh leaf is put on the burn with a little vaseline.

Vitex compressa Turcz. VERBENACEAE Black hakia (Cr), Haküyaballi, Alaso abo (Ar), Kuwa-i-yang1 (C) Tree to 25 m tall. Outer bark cream, inner bark brown, wood cream. Leaves digitate, 5-foliolate. Flowers purple, trumpet-shaped. Drupe globose, purple. Occasional in Mora and secondary forest. The wood is used for tool handles, bows, and firewood. (1) The Carib name means ‘resembling calabash tree’.

Vochysia cf. guianensis Aubl. VOCHYSIACEAE Iteballi kuleru (Ar), Kuraru, Wosi wosi (C). Tree to 35 m tall. Bark light brown, scaly. Leaves opposite. Stipules long. Flowers showy, yellow, in many-flowered panicles. Capsule cylindrical, 3-ribbed. Seeds winged. Rare in riverbank Mora forest, Barama. The bark is said to be poisonous. Inner bark scrapings are stuffed into cavities to relieve toothache and rot away the affected tooth. Care should be taken that the bark does not touch the other, healthy teeth. Along with an old Carib belief, the kenaima spirit catches his victims in spider webs rubbed with kuraru sap to make them fall in a trance.

Renealmia orinocensis Rusby ZINGIBERACEAE Small warakaba food (Cr), Koruati (Ar), Akami ereparï (C). Perennial, aromatic herb to 3 m high. Leaves distichous. Petiole and veins of leaves red. Inflorescence on separate, leafless stem, lying on forest floor. Berry red, ovoid. Seeds with bright orange aril. Common in abandoned fields and secondary forest. The leaves are used as wrapping material. The fruit pulp (seeds with arils) are put as bait in bird traps to catch large forest birds (e.g., warakaba, maam, and marudi). Berries are pounded in water and poured in the nest entrance to kill leaf cutter ants (‘cushi ants’). The shoots are boiled and drunk for stomach ache.

Renealmia aff. guianensis Maas ZINGIBERACEAE Koruati (Ar), Ini (Wr). Perennial, aromatic herb, ca. 60 cm high. Leaves distichous. Inflorescence on separate, leafless stem, bracts dark red, corolla yellow. Berry pink to red. The rhizome is pounded and boiled in a tea to relieve back-ache, sprain, and hernia.

309 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

4. SPECIES USED FOR FIREWOOD ONLY Vernacular names are given in Creole unless mentioned otherwise

Elaeocarpaceae Sloanea cf. sinemariensis Aubl. Sloanea sp. TVA1623 Euphorbiaceae Alchornea schomburgkii Klotzsch Amanoa guianensis Aubl. Kunuribi (Ar) Conceveiba guianensis Aubl. Broad leaf hakia (Cr) Pausandra hirsuta Lanj. Flacourtiaceae Casearia guianensis (Aubl.) Urban Arekïkorang (C) Homalium guianense (Aubl.) Oken Arekïkorang (C) Hippocrateaceae Tontelea cf. glabra A.C. Sm. Tapanapi (C) Lauraceae Lauraceae sp. TVA1458 Kereti (Ar) Leguminosae-Caesalp. Crudia sp. TVA1468 Crudia glaberrima (Steud.) J.F. Macbr. Swamp wallaba (Cr) Leguminosae-Mimos. Inga sp. TVA920 Whitey (Cr) Leguminosae-Papil. Lonchocarpus heptaphyllus (Poir.) DC. Lonchocarpus sericeus (Poir.) DC. Savanna water wallaba (Cr) Malpighiaceae Mezia cf. includens (Benth.) Cuatrec. Kuyari ïnga igï (C) Melastomataceae Miconia fragilis Naud. Tonoropio, Mainyapo (C) Miconia plukenetii Naud. Maipyuri keraporï (C) Miconia sp. TVA1752 Meliaceae Guarea sp. TVA1125 Hill tohmopara (C) Moraceae Pseudolmedia laevis (Ruiz & Pav.) J.F. Macbr. Myristicaceae Myristicaceae sp. TVA956 Myrtaceae Myrcia fallax (Rich.) DC. Quackoo (Cr) Polygalaceae Moutabea guianensis Aubl. Polygonaceae Triplaris weigeltiana (Rchb.) O. Kuntze Long John (Cr), Tyasi (C) Rhizophoraceae Cassipouria guianensis Aubl. Wild coffee (Cr) Sapindaceae Pseudima frutescens (Aubl.) Radlk. Tïyawasisyeng (C) Talisia cf. hemidasya Radlk. Kulishiri (Cr) Solanaceae Solanum rugosum Dunal Itchwood (Cr) Violaceae Paypayrola longifolia Tul. Poripjori (C) Rinorea cf. flavescens (Aubl.) Kuntze

5. AGRICULTURAL SPECIES IN NORTHWEST GUYANA

5.1 Fruit species Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. Cashew Mangifera indica L. Mango Spondias dulcis Parkinson Golden apple Annonaceae Annona muricata L. Soursop Rollinia mucosa (Jacq.) Baill. Sugar apple Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Pine Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Pawpaw Chrysobalanaceae Chrysobalanus icaco L. Fat pork Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Almond Cucurbitaceae Citrillus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai Watermelon Ebenaceae Diospyros discolor Willd. Peach Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch. Psidium Guttiferae Mammea americana L. Mammee apple Lauraceae Persea americana P. Mill. Pear Malpighiaceae Malphigia emarginata DC. Cherry Musaceae Musa sp. Black banana Musa x paradisiaca Plantain Myrtaceae Eugenia uniflora L. Surinam cherry Psidium cattleianum Sabine French guava Psidium guajava L. Guava Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Jamoon

310 5. Agricultural species in northwest Guyana

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston Plumrose Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry French cashew Oxalidaceae Averrhoa carambola L. Carambola Palmae Astrocaryum aculeatum G. Mey. Acquero (Sp) Astrocaryum vulgare Mart. Awarra Bactris gasipaes Kunth Parepi Cocos nucifera L. Coconut Passifloraceae Passiflora quadrangularis L. Granadilla Rutaceae Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle Lime Citrus aurantium L. Seville orange Citrus medica L. Rough lemon Citrus reticulata Blanco Tangerine Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Orange Citrus paradisi Macfad. Grapefruit Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum cainito L . Starapple Manilkara zapota (L.) Royen Sapodilla Solanaceae Capsicum anuum L. Pepper (diff. cultivars) Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Tomato Sterculiaceae Theobroma cacao L. Cocoa

5.2 Starchy tubers Araceae Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Dasheen (diff. cultivars) Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott Eddoe Convolvulaceae Ipomoea batatas (L.) Poir. Sweet potato Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea alata L. Wild yam Dioscorea cf. esculenta (Lour.) Prain Plimpla yam Dioscorea trifida L.f. White yam Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta Crantz Cassava (diff. cultivars) Marantaceae Calathea aff. legrelleana (Linden) Regel Nut yam

5.3 Vegetables Amaranthaceae Amaranthus dubius Mart. ex Thell. Chow rai Basellaceae Basella alba L. Chinese callalloo Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus L. Cucumber Cucurbita moschata (Lam.) Poir. Pumpkin Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Squash Luffa cylindrica (L.) M. Roem. Ninwa Momordica charantia L. Caryla Leguminosae-Papil. Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Pigeon pea Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi ex Hassk. Green pea Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Bora Phaseolus lunatus L. Butter bean Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench Okra Moraceae Artocarpus altilis (Parkins.) Fosby Breadfruit, Breadnut

5.4 Other food plants Gramineae Saccharum officinarum L. Sugar cane Zea mais L. Corn Labiatae Coleus amboinicus Lour. Broad leaf thyme Malvaceae Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Sorrel Palmae Elaeis guineensis Jacq. Oil palm Rubiaceae Coffea liberica Bull. ex Hiern Coffee Zingiberaceae Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. Dye Zingiber officinale Roscoe Ginger

311 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

5.5 Ornamental plants Agavaceae Cordyline fructicosa (L.) A. Chev. Baboon goggle Agave americana L. var. marginata Trel. Amaranthaceae Celosia cristata L. Auhto epïrïrï (C) Cactaceae Pereskia aculeata Mill. Cannaceae Canna x generalis Convolvulaceae Ipomoea carnea Jacq. subsp. fistulosa (Choisy) D.F. Austin Euphorbiaceae Hevea brasiliensis (A. Juss) Müll. Arg. Rubber tree Labiatae Coleus blumei Benth. Old man’s beard Coleus hybridus Hort. Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Hibiscus Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea L. Starflower (C) Portulaca sedifolia N.E. Br. Jump-up-and-kiss-me Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea L. Baby apple Thunbergiaceae Thunbergia alata Bojer ex Sims Turneraceae Turnera ulmifolia L. Morning glory Zingiberaceae Hedychium coronarium J. König Wild ginger Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm. Wild ginger

5.6 Medicinal plants Cactaceae Opuntia cochinellifera (L.) Mill. Cochineal Crassulaceae Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurtz. Leaf of life Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia neriifolia L. Sweet alas Jatropha curcas L. Physic nut (white) Jatropha gossypifolia L. Physic nut (black) Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poit. Bleeding heart Gramineae Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. Lemongrass Labiatae Ocimum campechianum P. Mill. Tulsie Leguminosae-Papil. Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. Indigo blue Liliaceae Aloe vera L. Bitter aloes Simaroubaceae Quassia amara L. Quashi bitter Verbenaceae Lippia alba L. Teasam Lippia micromera L. Small leaf thyme Zingiberaceae Aframomum melegueta (Roscoe) K. Schum. Guinea pepper

5.7 Magic plants Amaranthaceae Alternanthera sp. TVA596 Turtle bina Amaryllidaceae Hymenocallis cf. littoralis (Jacq.) Salisb. Bina Araceae Caladium humboldtii Schott Lucky plant Xanthosoma brasiliense Engl. Yesibina Malvaceae Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Snake scent Marantaceae Maranta aff. arundinacea Plum. ex L. White man bina Scrophulariaceae Asarina cf. erubescens (L.) Hemsl. Cassava mother

5.8 Fish poisons Compositae Clibadium surinamense L. Kunami (broad leaf) Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia cotinifolia L. Kunaparu (2 cultivars) var. kunapalua Christenhusz Phyllanthus brasiliensis (Aubl.) Poir. Kunami (2 cultivars) Leguminosae-Papil. Tephrosia sinapou (Buchholz) A. Chev. Root poison

5.9 Miscellaneous Agavaceae Furcraea sp. TVA1767 Kukui (Ar) Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete L. Calabash Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. Onotto Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Krawa

312 5. Agricultural species in northwest Guyana

Cucurbitaceae Cucumis melo L. Wild gourd Gramineae Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. ex J.C. Wendl. Bamboo Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash Lavender Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense L. Cotton Solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum L. Tobacco

313 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

6. INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Artocarpus altilis, 61, 312 Abarema jupunba, 111, 278 Asarina erubescens, 223, 313 Abelmoschus esculentus, 312 Asclepias curassavica, 61 Abelmoschus moschatus, 313 Aspidosperma cf. cruentum, 248 ACANTHACEAE, 244 Aspidosperma excelsum, 245, 248, 267, 370 Aciotis annua, 288 Aspidosperma marcgravianum, 16, 17, 29, Aciotis purpurascens, 145, 288 213 Aframomum melegueta, 313 Aspidosperma sp. TVA996, 248 AGAVACEAE, 313 Asplundia gleasonii, 263 Agave americana, 313 Astrocaryum aculeatum, 18, 19, 179, 3121 Alchornea schomburgkii, 311 Astrocaryum gynacanthum, 22, 23, 238 Alchorneopsis floribunda, 267 Astrocaryum munbaca, 23 Alexa imperatricis, 8, 9, 63, 111 Astrocaryum tucuma, 19 Allamanda cathartica, 247 Astrocaryum vulgare, 312 Allophylus racemosus, 303 Astronium cf. lecointei, 245 Aloe vera, 313 Asystasia gangetica, 244 Alternanthera sp. TVA596, 313 Attalea maripa, 161 Amaioua corymbosa, 301 Attalea regia, 161 Amaioua guianensis, 302 Auricularia delicata, 252 Amanoa guianensis, 311 AURICULARIACEAE, 252 AMARANTHACEAE, 312,313 Averrhoa carambola, 312 Amaranthus dubius, 59,312 Axonopus compressus, 268, 270 AMARYLLIDACEAE, 244, 245, 313 Azadirachta indica, 163 Ambelania acida, 247 Bactris acanthocarpa, 27 ANACARDIACEAE, 11, 217, 245, 231, Bactris brongniartii, 24, 25 Anacardium giganteum, 10, 11, 371 Bactris campestris, 23, 161, 298 Anacardium occidentale, 11, 45, 217, 311 Bactris gasipaes, 312 Ananas comosus, 15, 105, 231, 289, 311 Bactris humilis, 26, 27 Anaxagorea dolichocarpa, 221, 243, 245 Bactris major, 298 Andira surinamensis, 79, 281 Bactris oligoclada, 298 Andropogon bicornis, 270 Bactris simplicifrons, 298 Aniba cf. guianensis, 274 Bagassa guianensis, 291 Aniba hostmanniana, 274 Bambusa surinamensis, 29 Aniba jenmanii, 274 Bambusa vulgaris, 7, 15, 17, 28, 29, 213, 270, Aniba cf. kappleri, 274 271, 314 Aniba cf. riparia, 274 Banisteriopsis caapi, 33 Aniba cf. terminalis, 274 Basella alba, 312 Aniba sp. TVA988, 274 BASELLACEAE, 312 Annona montana, 12, 13, 368, 371 Bauhinia guianensis, 32, 33, 74, 207, 227 Annona muricata, 13, 30, 268, 270, 307, 311 Bauhinia scala-simiae, 33, 276 Annona symphyocarpa, 221, 246 Bauhinia spp., 66, 73, 81, 111, 237, 265, 285 ANNONACEAE, 13, 85, 105, 243, 245, Bellucia grossularioides, 36, 37, 59, 145 246, 311 Bellucia mespilioides, 145 Apeiba petoumo, 315 Bidens cynapiifolia, 261 APOCYNACEAE, 17, 247, 248, 249 BIGNONIACEAE, 155, 235, 253, 254, 313, ARACEAE, 41, 107, 169, 249, 250, 251, 366 252, 312, 313 Bixa orellana, 45, 115, 267, 313 Araeococcus micranthus, 255 BIXACEAE, 313 ARALIACEAE, 252 BLECHNACEAE, 254 Aristolochia daemoninoxia, 14, 15, 30, 191 Blechnum serrulatum, 254 Aristolochia sp. TVA573, 41, 42, 252 Bocageopsis multiflora, 246 ARISTOLOCHIACEAE, 15, 252 BOMBACACEAE, 51, 254

314 6. Index of scientific names

BORAGINACEAE, 69, 255 Centropogon surinamensis, 59 Brassia verrucosa, 296 Ceratophytum tetragonolabus, 253 Bromelia plumieri, 255 Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus, 267 BROMELIACEAE, 255, 256, 311, 313 Chamaechrista ramosa, 276 Brosimum guianense, 85, 291 Chelonanthus alatus, 125 Brownea latifolia, 38, 39, 306 CHRYSOBALANACEAE, , 7, 175, 258, Bryophyllum pinnatum, 261, 313 259, 260, 269, 311 Buchenavia grandis, 260 Chrysobalanus icaco, 258, 311 BURSERACEAE, 191, 256, 257 Chrysophyllum argenteum, 305 Byrsonima aerugo, 285 Chrysophyllum cainito, 111, 312 Byrsonima spicata, 285 Chrysophyllum sanguinolentum, 305 Byrsonima stipulacea, 285 Cinchona sp., 29, 213 CACTACEAE, 257, 313 Cissus cordifolia, 61 Cajanus cajan, 312 Cissus sicyoides, 61 Caladium bicolor, 40, 41 Cissus verticillata, 60, 61 Caladium humboldtii, 41, 313 Citrillus lanatus, 311 Caladium schomburgkii, 249 Citrus aurantiifolia, 15, 30, 255, 312 Calathea cyclophora, 286 Citrus aurantium, 13, 312 Calathea elliptica, 286 Citrus medica, 312 Calathea aff. legrelleana, 312 Citrus paradisi, 312 Callichlamys latifolia, 253 Citrus reticulata, 312 Calophyllum brasiliense, 271 Citrus sinensis, 111, 312 Calycolpus goetheanus, 294 Clathrotropis brachypetala, 62, 63, 243 Calyptranthes sp. TVA2239, 295 Clibadium surinamense, 56, 211, 243, 313 CAMPANULACEAE, 59 Clidemia capitellata, 288 Canna indica, 257 Clidemia japurensis, 288 Canna x generalis, 313 Clidemia cf. microthyrsa, 289 CANNACEAE, 313 Clusia grandiflora, 64, 65, 108, 271 Capraria biflora, 306 Clusia palmicida, 271 Capsicum annuum, 92, 265, 312 Clusia pana-panari, 271 Carapa guianensis, 44, 45, 169, 175, 235 Clusia spp., 5, 33, 73, 81, 111, 207, 221, 223, Cardiospermum halicacabum, 55, 278 227, 231, 237, 253, 265, 266 Carica papaya, 231, 255, 307, 311 Coccoloba densifrons, 301 Carludovica sarmentosa, 241 Coccoloba marginata, 301 CARICACEAE, 311 Cocos nucifera, 312 Caryocar microcarpum, 257 Codonanthe crassifolia, 269 Caryocar nuciferum, 48, 49 Coffea liberica, 312 CARYOCARACEAE, 49, 257 Coix lacryma-jobi, 270 Casearia aff. acuminata, 269 Coleus amboinicus, 261, 2687, 312 Casearia guianensis, 311 Coleus blumei, 313 Casearia javitensis, 269 Coleus hybridus, 313 Cassipouria guianensis, 311 Colocasia esculenta, 312 Catasetum sp. TVA1927, 297 COMBRETACEAE, 260, 311 Catharanthus roseus, 59, 248 Combretum cacoucia, 260 Catostemma commune, 50, 51, 247 Commelina diffusa, 260 Cecropia obtusa, 257 Commelina sp. TVA1121, 260 Cecropia peltata, 54, 55 COMMELINACEAE, 260, 261 Cecropia sciadophylla, 257, 272 COMPOSITAE, 163, 261, 262, 313 Cecropia surinamensis, 55 Conceveiba guianensis, 311 Cecropia spp., 278 CONVOLVULACEAE, 262, 312, 313 CECROPIACEAE, 55, 257, 258 Cordia curassavica, 255 Cedrela odorata, 290 Cordia exaltata, 255 Ceiba pentandra, 254 Cordia nodosa, 68, 69 CELASTRACEAE, 258 Cordia sericicalyx, 255 Celosia cristata, 313 Cordia tetrandra, 255 Centropogon cornutus, 58, 59 Cordyline fructicosa, 313

315 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Coriandrum sativum, 89 Dioscorea alata, 312 COSTACEAE, 71, 262, 263 Dioscorea cf. esculenta, 312 Costus arabicus, 71, 262 Dioscorea cf. riparia, 266 Costus erythrothyrsus, 263 Dioscorea trichanthera, 33, 66, 73, 80, 81, Costus scaber, 70, 71 111, 207, 227, 237, 265 Couepia parillo, 258 Dioscorea trifida, 312 Coussapoa microcephala, 258 DIOSCOREACEAE, 81, 266, 312 CRASSULACEAE, 313 Diospyros discolor, 311 Crescentia amazonica, 253 Diospyros guianensis, 266 Crescentia cujete, 30, 224, 253, 308, 313 Diospyros ierensis, 82, 83 Crinum erubescens, 244 Diospyros tetrandra, 266 Crotalaria nitens, 267 Diplotropis purpurea, 282 Croton cuneatus, 281 Dipteryx odorata, 282 Croton trinitatis, 261, 268 Disteganthus lateralis, 256 Crudia glaberrima, 311 Doliocarpus cf. dentatus, 237, 265 Crudia sp. TVA1468, 311 DRYOPTERIDACEAE, 185, 266 Cucumis melo, 314 Duguetia calycina, 246 Cucumis sativus, 312 Duguetia megalophylla, 246 Cucurbita moschata, 187, 217, 312 Duguetia pauciflora, 246 CUCURBITACEAE, 263, 311, 312, 314 Duguetia pycnastera, 84, 85, 246 Cupania hirsuta, 303 Duguetia yeshidan, 246 Cupania scrobiculata, 303 Duroia eriopila, 302 Curarea candicans, 33, 34, 66, 72, 73, 81, EBENACEAE, 83, 266, 311, 369 111, 207, 227, 237, 265, 303, 304 Elaeis guineensis, 312 Curcuma xanthorrhiza, 312 ELAEOCARPACEAE, 266, 267 Cyathea cyatheoides, 263 Eleocharis mitrata, 264 CYATHEACEAE, 263 Eleusine indica, 30, 224, 270, 282 Cyathillium cinereum, 244, 255, 261, 268 Eleutherine bulbosa, 42, 273 Cybianthus sp. TVA1940, 294 Encyclia diurna, 297 CYCLANTHACEAE, 241, 263 Eperua falcata, 276 Cyclanthus bipartitus, 263 Eperua rubiginosa, 277 Cyclodium meniscioides, 185, 266 Epidendrum anceps, 297 Cydista aequinoctialis, 253 Epiphyllum phyllanthus, 257 Cymbopogon citratus, 15, 30, 183, 213, 270, Erechtites hieracifolia, 261 307, 313 Eryngium foetidum, 88, 89 CYPERACEAE, 264, 265 ERYTHROXYLACEAE, 267 Cyperus articulatus, 264 Erythroxylum macrophyllum, 267 Cyperus digitatus, 264 Eschweilera alata, 275 Cyperus ligularis, 264 Eschweilera corrugata, 137 Cyperus odoratus, 264 Eschweilera decolorans, 275 Cyperus surinamensis, 264 Eschweilera sagotiana, 275 Davilla kunthii, 237, 265, 266, 271 Eschweilera sp. TVA2144, 276 Desmodium adscendens, 281 Eschweilera wachenheimii, 276 Desmodium barbatum, 282 Eugenia florida, 295 Desmodium incanum, 282 Eugenia patrisii, 90, 91, 105, 197, 231 Desmodium spp., 59, 270 Eugenia uniflora, 311 Desmoncus orthoacanthos, 77, 298 Eupatorium denticulatum, 163 Desmoncus polyacanthos, 76, 77 Euphorbia cotinifolia, 250, 313 DICHAPETALACEAE, 265 Euphorbia neriifolia, 15, 313 Dicorynia cf. guianensis, 276 EUPHORBIACEAE, 267, 268, 269, 311, Dicranostyles sp. TVA2630, 262 312, 313 Dieffenbachia cf. humilus, 250 Euterpe oleracea, 27, 51, 94, 95, 99, 103, 133, Dieffenbachia paludicola, 250 147, 161, 191, 250 DILLENIACEAE, 23, 187, 237, 265, 266 Euterpe precatoria, 97, 98, 99, 100 Dioclea reflexa, 282 Euterpe stenophylla, 99 Dioclea scabra var. scabra, 78 Evodianthus funifer, 241, 263

316 6. Index of scientific names

Faramea aff. guianensis, 302 Hibiscus sabdariffa, 71, 312 Ficus amazonica, 291 Himatanthus articulatus, 248 Ficus caballina, 291 Hippeastrum puniceum, 244 Ficus gomelleira, 292 HIPPOCRATEACEAE, 311 Ficus guianensis, 292 Hirtella racemosa, 259 Ficus maxima, 292 Homalium guianense, 311 Ficus nymphaeifolia, 292 Humiria balsamifera, 5, 111, 152, 272 Ficus paraensis, 292 HUMIRIACEAE, 272, 273 Ficus vs. roraimensis, 292 Humiriastrum obovatum, 273 Ficus sp. TVA892, 292 Hydrochorea cf. corymbosa, 278 Flacourtia jangomas, 311 Hyeronima alchorneoides, 260, 268 FLACOURTIACEAE, 269, 311 Hymenaea courbaril, 9, 33, 66, 73, 81, 110, Forsteronia guyanensis, 248 111, 152, 207, 227, 237, 265 Furcraea sp. TVA1767, 313 Hymenocallis cf. littoralis, 313 Genipa spruceana, 302 Hymenocallis tubiflora, 245 GENTIANACEAE, 125 Hymenolobium flavum, 282 Geonoma baculifera, 46, 95, 99, 102, 103, Hyptis pectinata, 273 133, 147, 161, 169, 298 ICACINACEAE, 273 Geonoma maxima, 103, 298 Indigofera suffruticosa, 313 Geonoma sp. TVA1069, 298 Inga cf. acreana, 278 Geophila repens, 302 Inga cf. acrocephala, 278 GESNERIACEAE, 269 Inga alba, 114, 115, 121, 308 GNETACEAE, 270 Inga capitata, 279 Gnetum nodiflorum, 270 Inga edulis, 118, 119 Gonzalagunia dicocca, 145, 302 Inga graciliflora, 279 Gossypium barbadense, 313 Inga huberi, 279 Goupia glabra, 258 Inga cf. java, 279 GRAMINEAE, 29, 105, 270312, 313, 314 Inga jenmanii, 279 Guarea guidonia, 290 Inga lateriflora, 120, 121 Guarea pubescens, 290 Inga leiocalycina, 279 Guarea sp. TVA1125, 311 Inga marginata, 279 Guatteria flexilis, 247 Inga melinonis, 279 Guatteria schomburgkiana, 246 Inga nobilis, 279 Guatteria sp. TVA666, 247 Inga pezizifera, 122, 123 GUTTIFERAE, 65, 231, 271, 272, 311 Inga pilosula, 280 Gynerium saccharoides, 105 Inga rubiginosa, 280 Gynerium sagittatum, 27, 91, 104, 105, 161, Inga sertulifera, 280 197, 287 Inga splendens, 280 HAEMODORACEAE, 272 Inga thibaudiana, 280 Hebeclinium macrophyllum, 183, 261 Inga umbellifera, 280 Hedychium coronarium, 313 Inga sp. TVA2283, 281 Heliconia acuminata, 293 Inga sp. TVA2285, 280 Heliconia bihai, 293 Inga sp. TVA2463, 281 Heliconia chartacea, 293 Inga sp. TVA920, 311 Heliconia aff. psittacorum, 293 Ionopsis utricularioides, 297 Heliconia richardiana, 293 Ipomoea cf. asarifolia, 262 Heliconia spathocircinata, 293 Ipomoea batatas, 71, 175, 223, 263, 270, 282, Heliotropium indicum, 244, 255, 261 312 Henriettea cf. multiflora, 289 Ipomoea carnea, 313 Henriettea succosa, 289 Ipomoea quamoclit, 262 Herrania kanukuensis, 307 IRIDACEAE, 273 Heteropsis flexuosa, 29, 65, 103, 106, 107, Irlbachia alata, 124, 125, 177 197, 221, 241 Iryanthera juruensis, 293 Hevea brasiliensis, 152, 313 Ischnosiphon arouma, 105, 128, 129 Hibiscus bifurcatus, 286 Ischnosiphon enigmaticus, 287 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, 313 Ischnosiphon foliosus, 287

317 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Ischnosiphon obliquus, 129, 287 Lophopterys euryptera, 285 Ischnosiphon sp. TVA3016, 287 LORANTHACEAE, 285 Ischnosiphon spp., 19, 141, 147, 157, 292 Loreya mespiloides, 144, 145 Ixora coccinea, 313 Ludwigia nervosa, 296 Jacaranda copaia, 253 Ludwigia torulosa, 296 Jacaranda obtusifolia, 253 Luffa cylindrica, 312 Jathropa curcas, 223, 313 Lycopersicon esculentum, 312 Jatropha gossypifolia, 313 Lygodium volubile, 306 Jessenia bataua, 132, 133 Mabea piriri, 268 Justicia calycina, 41, 244 Macfadyenia cf. unguis-cati, 253 Justicia pectoralis, 71, 244, 262, 308, 309 Machaerium cf. floribundum, 283 Justicia secunda, 244, 255, 261, 268 Machaerium quinata, 283 LABIATAE, 273, 274, 312, 313 Machaerium sp. TVA921, 283 Lacistema aggregatum, 274 Macoubea guianensis, 152, 249 LACISTEMACEAE, 274 Macrolobium acaciifolium, 277 Laetia procera, 269 Macrolobium angustifolium, 277 Laetipous sp. TVA1997, 252 Macrosamanea pubiramea, 281 Lagenaria siceraria, 312 Malachra alceifolia, 286 Lantana camara, 15, 30, 244, 308, 309 Malouetia flavescens, 249 Laportea aestuans, 261, 308 Malphigia emarginata, 311 LAURACEAE, 274, 275, 311 MALPIGHIACEAE, 223, 285, 286, 311 Lauraceae sp. TVA1458, 311 MALVACEAE, 286, 312, 313, 314 Leandra divaricata, 289 Mammea americana, 311 LECYTHIDACEAE, 137, 139, 275, 276 Mangifera indica, 169, 311 Lecythis cf. chartacea, 276 Manicaria saccifera, 51, 95, 99, 103, 130, Lecythis corrugata, 125, 136, 137, 139, 203 146, 147, 157, 161, 231, 259, 288 Lecythis davisii, 139 Manihot esculenta, 129, 312 Lecythis zabucajo, 138, 139 Manilkara balata, 151 LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALP., 33, 39, 63, Manilkara bidentata, 111, 150, 151, 152, 249 111, 171, 205, 276, 277, 278 Manilkara zapota, 312 LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOS., 115, 119, 121, Mansoa kerere, 253 123, 165, 179, 280, 281, 311 Maprounea guianensis, 268 LEGUMINOSAE-PAPIL., 9, 79, 141, 195, Maranta aff. arundinacea, 313 281, 282, 283, 284, 311, 312, 313 Maranta sp. TVA2217, 287 Leonotis nepetifolia, 274 MARANTACEAE, 129, 286, 287, 312, 313 Licania alba, 259 Marcgravia coriacea, 288 Licania heteromorpha, 259, 288 MARCGRAVIACEAE, 288 Licania incana, 259 Maripa scandens, 262 Licania kunthiana, 259 Marlierea montana, 295 Licania micrantha, 259 Marlierea schomburgkiana, 295 Licania persaudii, 259 Martinella obovata, 154, 155 Licania sp. TVA2324, 260 Matayba camptoneura, 304 Licania sp. TVA2332, 260 Mauritia flexuosa, 156, 157, 158, 199 LILIACEAE, 313 Maximiliana maripa, 27, 103, 157, 160, 161, Lippia alba, 244, 308, 309, 313 298 Lippia micromera, 313 Maximiliana regia, 161 Lisianthus alatus, 125 Maytenus cf. guyanensis, 258 LOGANIACEAE, 227, 284, 285 Maytenus sp. TVA2445, 258 Lomariopsis japurensis, 185, 285 MELASTOMATACEAE, 37, 145, 288, Lonchocarpus chrysophyllus, 140, 141 289, 290, 311 Lonchocarpus heptaphyllus, 311 MELIACEAE, 45, 290, 311 Lonchocarpus aff. martynii, 282 Melothria pendula, 263 Lonchocarpus negrensis, 283 MENISPERMACEAE, 73, 291 Lonchocarpus sericeus, 311 Mezia cf. includens, 311 Lonchocarpus spruceanus, 283 Miconia ceramicarpa, 289 Lonchocarpus sp. TVA1247, 283 Miconia egensis, 37

318 6. Index of scientific names

Miconia fragilis, 311 Oenocarpus bataua, 133 Miconia ibaguensis, 289 Olyra longifolia, 270 Miconia cf. lateriflora, 289 Omphalia diandra, 268 Miconia nervosa, 289 ONAGRACEAE, 296 Miconia plukenetii, 311 Oncidium baueri, 297 Miconia prasina, 289 Opuntia cochinellifera, 286, 313 Miconia racemosa, 290 ORCHIDACEAE, 296, 297 Miconia cf. ruficalyx, 290 Ormosia coccinea, 284 Miconia sp. TVA1104, 290 Ormosia nobilis, 284 Miconia sp. TVA1752, 311 Orthomene schomburgkii, 291 Micropholis venulosa, 305 Ouratea guianensis, 296 Microstachys corniculata, 268, 270 OXALIDACEAE, 312 Microtea debilis, 299 Pachira aquatica, 254 Mikania micrantha, 162, 163 PALMAE, 19, 23, 25, 27, 77, 95, 99, 103, Mikania orinocensis, 163 133, 147, 157, 161, 298, 312 Mimosa polydactyla, 164, 165 Panicum pilosum, 270 Mimusops balata, 151 Parabignonia steyermarkii, 254 Mimusops bidentata, 151 Parinari lucidissima, 175 Momordica charantia, 163, 312 Parinari rodolphii, 174, 175 MONIMIACEAE, 291 Passiflora coccinea, 299 Monotagma spicatum, 287 Passiflora foetida, 169, 176, 177, 181, 183, Monstera adansonii var. klotzschiana, 250 306 Montrichardia arborescens, 46, 168, 169, 177, Passiflora garckei, 299 181, 183, 261, 306 Passiflora glandulosa, 299 Mora excelsa, 123, 170, 171, 260 Passiflora laurifolia, 299 MORACEAE, 291, 292, 311, 312 Passiflora nitida, 299 Moutabea guianensis, 311 Passiflora quadrangularis, 183, 312 Mucuna cf. urens, 283 Passiflora quadriglandulosa, 299 Musa sp., 187, 245, 261, 311 Passiflora sp. TVA2651, 299 Musa x paradisiaca, 311 PASSIFLORACEAE, 177, 299, 312 MUSACEAE, 293, 311 Paullinia capreolata, 304 Myrcia fallax, 311 Paullinia pinnata, 304 Myrcia graciliflora, 295 Pausandra hirsuta, 311 Myrcia cf. guianensis, 295 Paypayrola longifolia, 296 Myrcia sylvatica, 295 Pedilanthus tithymaloides, 313 MYRISTICACEAE, 293, 294, 311 Peltogyne venosa, 260, 277 Myristicaceae sp. TVA956, 311 Pentaclethra macroloba, 178, 179, 249, 272 MYRSINACEAE, 294 Peperomia rotundifolia, 300 MYRTACEAE, 91, 294, 295, 311 Pera glabrata, 269 Nectandra cf. cuspidata, 275 Pereskia aculeata, 313 Neea cf. constricta, 296 Persea americana, 205, 217, 260, 261, 307, Neea cf. floribunda, 296 311 NEPHROLEPIDACEAE, 295 Petiveria alliacea, 300 Nephrolepis aff. biserrata, 295 Phaseolus lunatus, 312 Nicotiana tabacum, 126, 137, 314 Philodendron cf. brevispathum, 250 Norantea guianensis, 288 Philodendron deflexum, 250 NYCTAGINACEAE, 296 Philodendron fragrantissimum, 81, 187, 250 Nymphaea ampla, 296 Philodendron grandifolia, 250 NYMPHAEACEAE, 296 Philodendron linnaei, 251 OCHNACEAE, 296 Philodendron melinonii, 251 Ocimum campechianum, 244, 308, 309, 313 Philodendron pedatum, 251 Ocotea cernua, 275 Philodendron rudgeanum, 251 Ocotea schomburgkiana, 275 Philodendron scandens, 243, 251 Ocotea splendens, 275 Philodendron surinamense, 251 Ocotea tomentella, 275 Phoradendron perrottetii, 33, 285 Odontadenia sandwithiana, 249 Phthirusa pyrifolia, 285

319 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Phthirusa sp., 61 Psygmorchis pusilla, 297 Phyllanthus brasiliensis, 313 PTERIDACEAE, 183 Physalis cf. angulata, 181, 307 Pterocarpus officinalis, 79, 172, 194, 195, Physalis pubescens, 145, 169, 177, 180, 181, 199, 201 183, 187, 306 Pycnoporus sanguineus, 248, 252 Phytolacca rivinoides, 59, 300 Quassia amara, 17, 29, 73, 213, 313 PHYTOLACCACEAE, 299, 300 Quiina guianensis, 91, 105, 196, 197, 231 Pinzona sp. TVA2509, 237, 238, 265 Quiina indigofera, 301 Piper avellanum, 300 QUIINACEAE, 197, 301 Piper vs. berbicense, 300 RAPATEACEAE, 301 Piper cf. glabrescens, 300 Rapatea paludosa, 301 Piper cf. hostmannianum, 286 Renealmia alpinia, 198, 199 Piper nigrispicum, 301 Renealmia exaltata, 199 Piper sp. TVA2666, 301 Renealmia aff. guianensis, 310 PIPERACEAE, 187, 300, 301 Renealmia orinocensis, 309 Pityrogramma calomelanos, 169, 177, 181, Rhizophora mangle, 171, 195, 200, 201 182, 183, 211, 257, 262, 306 RHIZOPHORACEAE, 201, 311 Pleonotoma albiflora, 254 Rhynchosia phaseoloides, 284 Plukenetia polyadenia, 269 Rhynchospora cephalotes, 264 Polybotrya caudata, 184, 185, 257 Rinorea cf. flavescens, 311 POLYGALACEAE, 311 Rodriguezia lanceolata, 297 POLYGONACEAE, 301, 311 Rollinia exsucca, 221, 243, 245, 247, 267 POLYPODIACEAE, 301 Rollinia mucosa, 247, 311 Polypodium adnatum, 301 RUBIACEAE, 145, 203, 301, 302, 303, 312, Poraqueiba aff. guianensis, 273 313 Poraqueiba sp. TVA754, 273 Ruellia tuberosa, 261, 268 Portulaca oleracea, 313 RUTACEAE, 303, 312 Portulaca sedifolia, 313 Sabicea aspera, 59 PORTULACACEAE, 313 Sabicea glabrescens, 145, 202, 2033 Posoqueria longiflora, 302 Saccharum officinarum, 312 Pothomorphe peltata, 181, 186, 187, 217 Sacoglottis aff. cydonioides, 273 Pourouma guianensis, 17, 85, 231, 258 SAPINDACEAE, 303, 304, 305, 311 Pouteria bilocularis, 305 Sapindaceae sp. TVA1240, 305 Pouteria caimito, 305 Sapindaceae sp. TVA3056, 305 Pouteria cf. coriacea, 305 Sapium jenmanii, 269 Pouteria cuspidata, 305 SAPOTACEAE, 151, 189, 305, 306, 312, Pouteria durlandii, 306 Sauvagesia erecta, 296 Pouteria guianensis, 188, 189 Schefflera morototoni, 252 Pouteria hispida, 306 SCHIZAEACEAE, 306 Pouteria venosa, 306 Schlegelia violacea, 79, 254 Pouteria sp. TVA2613, 306 Scleria microcarpa, 265 Pradosia schomburgkiana, 169, 177, 181, Scleria secans, 265 183, 306 Sclerolobium micropetalum, 277 Protium decandrum, 256 Scoparia dulcis, 73, 165, 213, 261, 307 Protium guianense, 256 SCROPHULARIACEAE, 306, 307, 313 Protium heptaphyllum, 190, 191 Selaginella parkeri, 307 Protium unifoliatum, 256 SELAGINELLACEAE, 307 Protium sp. TVA1038, 256 Senefeldera sp. TVA1369, 269 Pseudima frutescens, 311 Senna alata, 183, 204, 205, 211 Pseudolmedia laevis, 311 Senna multijuga, 277 Psidium cattleianum, 311 Senna occidentalis, 55, 277 Psidium guajava, 111, 211, 217, 312 Senna reticulata, 278 Psychotria bahiensis, 302 Serjania paucidentata, 34, 74, 304 Psychotria poeppigiana, 73, 303 Sida rhombifolia, 286 Psychotria racemosa, 303 Simarouba amara, 46, 307 Psychotria viridis, 33 SIMAROUBACEAE, 307, 313

320 6. Index of scientific names

Siparuna guianensis, 15, 30, 187, 199, 291 Tapirira guianensis, 245 Sloanea grandiflora, 266 Tapirira cf. obtusa, 245 Sloanea cf. guianensis, 267 Tapura guianensis, 265 Sloanea latifolia, 267 Tectaria incisa, 308 Sloanea obtusifolia, 267 TECTARIACEAE, 308 Sloanea cf. sinemariensis, 311 Telitoxicum sp. TVA1265, 291 Sloanea sp. TVA1623, 311 Tephrosia sinapou, 313 SMILACACEAE, 207 Tephrosia toxicaria, 141 Smilax schomburgkiana, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, Terminalia cf. amazonia, 260 206, 207, 214, 227, 237, 265 Terminalia catappa, 311 Socratea exorrhiza, 298 Terminalia cf. dichotoma, 260 SOLANACEAE, 145, 181, 211, 213, 307, Tetracera asperula, 237, 266 311, 312, 313, 314 Tetracera tigarea, 266 Solanum leucocarpon, 183, 210, 211 Tetracera volubilis, 236, 237, 265 Solanum rugosum, 311 Tetragastris altissima, 256, 305 Solanum stramoniifolium, 17, 29, 145, 207, Theobroma cacao, 312 212, 213, 307 Thoracocarpus bissectus, 29, 103, 108, 197, Solanum subinerme, 307 221, 240, 241, 263 Solanum surinamense, 211 Thunbergia alata, 313 Souroubea guianensis, 259, 288 THUNBERGIACEAE, 313 Spachea elegans, 286 Thyrsodium guianense, 245 Spathiphyllum cannifolium, 251 Tilesia baccata, 262 Sphagneticola trilobata, 244, 262 TILIACEAE, 308 Spondias dulcis, 311 Tontelea cf. glabra, 311 Spondias mombin, 187, 216, 217, 218 Tovomita cf. brevistaminea, 271 Stachytarpheta cayennensis, 309 Tovomita calodictyos, 271 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, 309 Tovomita choisyana, 271 Stanhopea grandiflora, 297 Tovomita obscura, 91, 105, 197, 231, 272 Sterculia pruriens, 66, 220, 221, 243, 245, Tovomita cf. schomburgkii, 272 246, 247, 254, 308 Trattinnickia burserifolia, 257 Sterculia rugosa, 221, 307 Trattinnickia cf. lawrancei, 256 STERCULIACEAE, 221, 307, 308 Trema micrantha, 115, 308 Stigmaphyllon fulgens, 223 Trichilia rubra, 290 Stigmaphyllon hypoleucum, 223 Trichilia schomburgkii, 290 Stigmaphyllon sinuatum, 66, 222, 223, 271 Triplaris weigeltiana, 277, 311 Struchium sparganophorum, 262 Tripogandra serrulata, 205, 261, 308 Strychnos erichsonii, 284 Triumfetta altheoides, 308 Strychnos mitscherlichii, 226, 227 Turnera ulmifolia, 313 Strychnos sp. TVA747, 285 ULMACEAE, 308 Strychnos spp., 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 237, 265 Uncaria guianensis, 303 Stylogyne surinamensis, 294 Unonopsis glaucopetala, 242, 243, 246 Swartzia guianensis, 284 Unxia camphorata, 163, 309 Swartzia schomburgkii, 235, 284 Urena lobata, 286 Symphonia globulifera, 91, 105, 197, 230, Urospatha sagittifolia, 252 231 URTICACEAE, 308 Syzygium cumini, 111, 217, 312 Vatairea guianensis, 284 Syzygium jambos, 312 VERBENACEAE, 309, 313 Syzygium malaccense, 312 Vetiveria zizanioides, 313 Tabebuia insignis, 17, 234, 235 Vigna sinensis, 312 Tabebuia serratifolia, 85, 254 Vigna unguiculata, 312 Tabernaemontana disticha, 179, 249 VIOLACEAE, 311 Tabernaemontana undulata, 249 Virola calophylla, 294 Tachigali paniculata, 278 Virola elongata, 294 Talisia cf. guianensis, 304 Virola sebifera, 294 Talisia cf. hemidasya, 311 Virola surinamensis, 294 Talisia hexaphylla, 304 Vismia cayennensis, 243

321 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Vismia guianensis, 179, 272 Xylopia cayennensis, 247 Vismia laxiflora, 272 Xylopia cf. surinamensis, 247 Vismia macrophylla, 272 Xylopia sp. TVA1165, 247 VITACEAE, 61 Zanthoxylum rhoifolium, 303 Vitex compressa, 309 Zanthoxylum sp. TVA648, 303 Vitis sicyoides, 61 Zea mais, 312 Vochysia cf. guianensis, 309 Zingiber officinale, 187, 312 VOCHYSIACEAE, 309 Zingiber zerumbet, 313 Waltheria indica, 244, 308, 309 ZINGIBERACEAE, 199, 309, 312, 313 Xanthosoma brasiliense, 41, 313 Zygia cataractae, 281 Xanthosoma sagittifolium, 312 Zygia latifolia, 281 Xiphidium caerulum, 272 Zygosepalum labiosum, 283

322 7. Index of vernacular names and terms

7. INDEX OF VERNACULAR NAMES AND TERMS

Vernacular names ana, 248, 268 aboho, 304 ana-ï, 248 abua, 99 anakara, 123 acouri tail, 248 anakoko (big type), 284 acquero, 19, 179, 312 anakoko (smaller type), 284 acuri, 41 anakoko (smallest type), 284 acuri bina, 41 anakoro, 123 ada karikoro, 9, 63 ananiyu, 231 adisa, 171 anare, 95 agoutis, 41, 49 anatapari, 205, 278 aha muhuka, 125 ants bush, 69, 262 aha wina, 137 ants tree (hill type), 277 aiari, 141 ants wood, 278, 303 aimara andïkïrï, 263, 298 aperemu, 245 aimaralli snake, 63 apipjoroi, 279 aiomora kushi, 305, 306 apotono arï siduwaparï, 274 aiomoradan, 258 apowonu, 280 aisegay, 183 apukuitya, 17, 248 akakasinya, 290 apurukuni, 115 akami, 244, 252 ara-a, 275, 295 akami enuru, 295 arakapuri paindyarï, 271, 272 akami ereparï, 305 arakapuri, 271, 272 akami pupuru, 300 aramatta, 9, 63 akao, 307 aramirurang, 281 akarako, 295 arapari, 277 akarerowai, 257 arapipi, 19 akare-u, 269 arapito, 277 akarï tapurarakïrï, 267, 296 arapo, 277 akawari, 107, 241 arara, 243, 246, 247 akayu-u, 11 ararau amutu, 223, 300 akhoyoro, 19 arari, 283 ako, 268 arari mukumuku, 283 akorlorlo arau, 19 arasisi-i, 253 akuri andïkïrï, 248 arasyisyu, 13 akuwana, 282 aratapa, 277 akuyari, 290 aratapali, 277 akuyuru, 19 araturuka, 255 alakule, 298 arawata andïkïrï, 185, 266, 285 alaso abo, 260, 309 arawata emurutano, 249 aligator footprint, 267, 296 arawata mureru, 269 aligator rope, 299 arawata pana, 290 aligator tail, 257 arawera upuhpo, 183 aligator toe bone, 267 arawone, 254 alikoya, 295 arawuya, 301 alikyu, 281 arekïkorang, 311 almond, 311 arikadako, 285 alokomali, 49 ariki enakorori, 279 amamai, 183, 308 arisauro, 284 amapa, 247 arisauro, fine leaf, 282 amapapari, 247 arisoru, 281 amara-u, 298 aritya wokuru, 227, 284, 285 ambaoke, 302 arïwa-u, 191, 256 amotu, 286 armadillo, 9

323 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II arokoyuru, 269 baby semitoo, 177 aromata, 9, 63 bad luck tree, 253 aromatta, black, 63, 243 baiakana, 257 aromatta, white, 9, 63 bakawari bush, 263 aronato, 223 bakera aba, 245 arorodan, 266 balamanni, 51, 52, 247 arrowstick, 27, 105, 161, 197, 287 balata, 151, 152, 249 arrowstick, fine leaf, 267 bamboo, 15, 17, 23, 29, 30, 191, 213, 231, arua kabo, 288 270, 305, 314 aruadan, 267 bamboo, high bush type, 270 aruarani, 223 banana, black, 187, 245, 261, 311 arukumari, 257 bango palm, 25 asa jike, 254 banyabo, 290 asakali, 37 barabara, 833, 266 asakari, 37 baradan, 275 asako, 298 baradanni, 268, 273, 275 asemunusi, 284 barakaro, 284 asepoko, 189, 306 baramanni, common, 51 asepoko, black, 5, 295, 306 baramanni, swamp, 51 asepoko, broad leaf, 189 barata, 151 asepoko, fine leaf, 306 barati-jike, 252 asepoko, green, 302 bariri-kuti, 268 asidya, 287 baromale, 51 asikona, 282 baromalli, 51 asitaremu, 77 barrabarra, 83, 266 asokoa, 286, 307 bartaballi, 306 asokuwa, 307 baruda balli, 247, 308 atakamara, 305 bastard hakia, 267 atarno, 39 bastard nibi, 241, 263 atïtapo, 19 bastard wild coffee, 290 atïwa-u, 290 bat finger, 254 auhto epïrïrï, 313 bat food, 302 aumana bana, 287 bat nail, 253, 283 aware emurutano, 69 bebe diabara, 307 aware tamïpipyo, 294 bebe joconi, 187 awarepuya andïkïrï, 73, 283 bebe nibora, 270 awarinamedi, 294 bebe tomanasebe, 165 awarra, 312 bell apple semitoo, 299 awasokule, 271, 272 bender, 278, 281 awata epï, 69 bender, broad leaf, 281 awati, 268 bender, fine leaf, 281 axe blunter, 267, 284 bender bush, 281 ayarani, 281 bender whitey, 278 azari, 15 berige, 59 baboon, 9, 185 beroro auma, 286 baboon ears, 290, 291 bhuyara, 306 baboon goggle, 297, 303, 313 biara, 105 baboon plimpla, 283 big broom, 286 baboon plimpla, fine type, 301 big river whitey, 280 baboon stone, 249 bihibihidu, 179 baboon tail, 119, 185, 280, 285, 257 bimiti tokon, 299 baboon tail, big leaf, 266 bímiti-wallaban, 39 baboon tail whitey, 119 bina, 41, 42, 244, 252, 272, 273, 313 baboon whitey, 279, 280 bioro, 264 baby apple, 313 bira, 105 baby cucumber, 263 bird food, 289, 290

324 7. Index of vernacular names and terms bird ochroe, 255 buruma, 258 bird seed, 288, 289, 290 bush cow, 11, 221 bird vine, 33, 61, 269, 285, 300 bush cow maho, 221 bishop’s cap, 55, 278 bush fowl foot, 293 bitter aloes, 313 bush hog, 289 bitter tally, 163 butter bean, 312 bizzibizzi, 264 butter nut, 49 bizzibizzi, real, 264 buttercup, 247, 249 black man’s head, 264 butterfly food, 303 black marmoset, 305 button fish, 292 black monkey goggle, 279 button whitey, 279 black rope, 251 calabash, 30, 51, 141, 224, 248, 253, 290, black sage, 255 298, 313 black seed, 289, 290 callaloo, 300 blauwtu, 301 caña venao, 303 bleeding heart, 313 cane of grass, 260 blood rope, 79 canergrass, 260 bloodwood, broad leaf, 272 carambola, 312 bloodwood, small leaf, 179, 243, 272 careeya, 223 bluevirr, 309 carrion crow bush, 183, 205, 211, 278 boba, 298 carrion crow eyeball, 283 boboro, 213 carrion crow rope, 15 boboroballi, 267 cartabac corn, 267 bohoribada, 283 cartabac, 267 bokoboko tokon, 259 caryla, 163, 312 bora, 312 cashew, 311 boyabamu, 299 cashew, french, 312 boyari rope, 15, 30, 191 cassava momma, 223 bread and cheese, 256, 303 cassava mother, 223, 224, 313 bread and cheese liana, 305 cassava, 19, 29, 51, 66, 77, 83, 91, 115, 116, bread tree, 303 129, 152, 163, 171, 175, 197, 211, breadfruit, 61, 312 221, 223, 224, 253, 259, 260, 266, breadnut, 312 288, 291, 306, 312 breadwood, 303 cat ears, 183, 261 broad leaf, 266 cat seed, 69 brucha, 277 cedar, brown, 290 bruka, 277 cedar, red, 290 bu, 201 cedar, white, 235 buba, 298 centipede whitey, 279 buck beads, 270 cherry, 295, 311 buck varnish, 145 chiconit, 37 buck vomit, 275, 290 chiganet, 37 buck wax tree, 231 chigger, 37 buhurada, 175 chiggernet, 289 bulibuli, 213 chinese callalloo, 312 bulletwood, 111, 151, 152, 305 chocolate milk kufa, 65 bultata kobia, 254 chocolate palm, 133 bumbum fish, 292 chow rai, 312 burada, 175 christmas tree, 86, 259, 278, 295 bure ahu, 282 cochineal, 286, 313 bure arau, 278 cockshun, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 207, 208, 214, buri, 249 227, 237, 265 burio bada, 303 cocoa, 312 bürü koro koba, 291 coconut, 19, 49, 91, 96, 157, 161, 312 buruburu, 17, 29, 207, 213, 214, 307 burue, 151

325 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II coconut oil, 61, 63, 89, 165, 166, 175, 187, dau dau, 295 232, 245, 250, 256, 267, 281, 300, dau horo ana, 243 307 dau horo, 247 coffee, 260, 312 dau hotu, 272 coffee mortar, 260 dau konisi, 197 cold bush, 273 dauhoroija, 51 come back bush, 273 deer, 41, 157, 304 congo cane, old field type, 71, 263 deer arrow, 261 congo cane, red, 71, 263 deer bina, 41 congo cane, white, 71, 262 deer callaloo, 300 congo pump, 55, 56, 257, 278 deer foot, 269, 303 congo pump, male, 257 devildoer, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 227, 237, 265 congo pump, red, 55, 257 devildoer, big type, 227, 284 congo pump, white, 55, 257, 286 devildoer, small type, 285 cooper, 65, 271 dhalebana, hill type, 298 coriander, 89 dhalebana, swamp type, 46, 93, 99, 103, 133, corkwood, 79, 172, 195, 199, 201 147, 161, 298 corn, 312 dharadhara, 246 cotton, 91, 283, 314 diharu, 294 coughwood, 306 djotaro, 250 counter, 175, 258, 259 djoturu, 250 counter, broad leaf, 273 dobori banaro, 187 counter, broad leaf, white, 260 dog foot, 286 counter, fine leaf, 259, 260 dog plimpla, 213 counter, red, fine leaf, 259 dog stone, 249 counter, small leaf, 258 doho, 115, 119, 121, 123, 278, 279, 280 counter, swamp, 259 doho arau, 115, 119, 121, 123, cow wood, 248, 249, 291 doi arau, 161 cowfoot leaf, 181, 187, 217 domoaso, 285 cowfoot whitey, 280 donkey eye, 203 crabwood, 45, 46, 169, 175, 187, 235 donkey grass, 270 crapeaud pepper, black, 181, 307 donkin, 250 crapeaud pepper, white, 169, 177, 181, 183, dorobana, 250, 251 187, 306 dorokwaro plimpla, 207 cucumber, 312 dorokwaro yuruwan, 207 culantro, 89 dowdow, 295 dabahi, 65, 271 duckweed, 296 dahuhi, 147 duka, 245, 256 daisy, 244, 262 duka, swamp, 267 dakwasimo, 103 dukali, 249 dalli, 79, 293, 294 dukuria, 273, 305 dalli, broad leaf, 293 dungcane, 250 dalli, broad leaf, white, 294 duru, 13, 246, 268, 308 dalli, hill type, 294 durubana, white, 250 dalli, swamp, 293, 294 dye, 312 dallibana, 103 eddoe, 312 dandelion, 261 emenaliballi, 59 darina, 282 ereyunde, 237, 265, 266 daroko buroma, 258 ereyuru, 175, 258, 281, 282 daroko harahara, 250 ero akahu, 155 dasheen, 312 ero buabua, 237 dau aidabita, 291 ero karara, 237, 265 dau aidemu hotu, 272 ero kaukau, 237 dau anaidau, 266 ero simuida, 237 dau bahi bahi, 303 escoba, 286 dau bana, 278 eseyundu, 71, 262, 263

326 7. Index of vernacular names and terms esseboko, 189 haiawa, broad leaf, 256, 257 essepoko, 305 haiawa, fine leaf, 256 eta eta, 285 haiawa, small leaf, 256 etaburu akwaha, 301 haiawa, swamp, 257 face to the east, 251 haiawaballi, 256 fart grass, 264 haimara, 141, 305 fat pork, 311 haimara eye, 305, 306 fever tree, 300 haimara eye, fine leaf, 305 fig tree, 292 haimara tail, 263, 298 fire rope, 237, 250, 265, 266 haimaracushi, swamp, 295 firemomma, 269 haisayundi, 71 firemother, 179, 249 hakaru kura, 264 fitweed, 89 hakia, black, 309 flat-on-the-earth, 299 hakia, broad leaf, 311 follow me, 300 hakia, white, 254 fowl cock beak, 59 haküya, 254 fowl cock tongue, 268, 270 haküyaballi, 309 fregosa, 306 halakwa bana, 250 fukadi, 260 halichiballi, 300 fukadi, hill type, 260 halichimanni, 266 futui, 253 hammock wood, 303 ginger, 71, 187, 312 hanaquablar, 250, 251 ginger gale silverballi, 274 hanaquablar, long leaf, 250 ginger grass, 254 hanaquablar, spotted, 243, 251 god yam, 41 hanoko duroho, 280 golden apple, 311 hari ahi, 59 golden shower, 297 hariti, 293 goosefoot grass, 270 haro banaro, 308 granadilla, 183, 312 hashiru kabo, 307 grandma cherry, 255 hassa bush, 254 granny backbone, 33, 34, 66, 73, 74, 81, 111, hassa grass, 254, 308 207, 227, 237, 265, 266, 283, 291, hata, 105 303, 304 hatabu, 105 grapefruit, 312 haukuaharu, 157 grass, 264 hayakanta, 290 graterwood, 83, 266 hayoudan, 262 green pea, 312 heart weed, 252 green thick leaf, 269 hebechi abo, 304 guava, 111, 211, 217, 312 hebesere bina, 272 guava, french, 311 hebu ahomakaba, 306 guava skin kakaralli, 275 hekunu arau, 249 guinea pepper, 313 herba sede, 270 gully root, 300 heroku, 269 haburiballi, 165 hi arau, 27, 298 hacheballi, 258 hi yoron, 298 hachiballi, 269 hiaru kakaralli, 276 haheru, 235 hibiscus, 71, 286, 312, 313 haiahaia, 269 hicha, 285 haiari, 9, 141, 142, 282, 283 hicha, black, fine leaf, 285 haiari, black, 141 hicha, hairy, 285 haiari, brown, 283 hicha, red, 285 haiari, fine kind, 283 hicha, white, 285 haiari, red, 283 hichi okobia, 39 haiari, white, 141, 282 hichu, 91 haiariballi, 9 high bush antiman, 254 haiawa, 15, 96, 191, 256, 257 hikori tarafoñ, 33

327 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II hikoritoro, 279 isyanomandurïyï, white, 246 hikuri paripia, 298 isyuruwari, 298 hikuri tarafon, 276 itara, 37, 145, 289 hima heru, 249 itch bush, 250, 293 himiri egg, 289 itch wood, 311 himiri, 286, 289 ité, 157 hioru, 45 iteballi kuleru, 309 hitia, 285 itiki boro, 195 hiyo arau, 291 itikiboroballi, 284 hoa ferobero, 185 itiribissi, 129 hobo, 217 itiriti, 287 hoiju, 85 ituri hi, 185, 266, 280, 285 hold-me-back, 77 ituri ishi lokodo, 291 hora, 49 iturihi karoto ibibero, 280 horsetail grass, 270 jamoon, 111, 217, 312 hotoquai aha, 39 jelly tree, 248 house whitey, 280 jiggernet, 37, 59, 145, 289 howa soropan, 262 jiggernet, big type, 37, 289 howler monkey, 9, 185, 266 jiggernet, small type, 145 hubu, 217 jiggers, 27, 179, 207, 266, 290 hubudi, 11 Job’s tears, 270 hukuhuku ahobi arau, 39 John crow bush, 278 hukuhuku anahoro, 262 John crow eye, 283 hukuhuku anakoro, 309 Johnnie crow eyeball, 282 humaha, 260, 261, 270 Johnny winter, 296 humatuba, 296 jotoro, 250 hura, 49 jumbie arrow, 261 hurihi, 273 jumbie beans, 284 huruasa, 278 jumbie coat, 270 hurue reroko, 69 jump-up-and-kiss-me, 313 ibakwaha, 13 ka’ra, 278 ibase bara, 298 kabaha, 252 ibibanaro, 295 kabiukuru, 308 idyakopi, 291 kaboanama beltiri, 289 ihi, 105 kabuduli, 237, 265, 266 iju, 254 kabukalli, 258 imirimia, 281 kabuya koro, 308 imiritokon, 298 kachikamo, 271 imuru, 169 kaditiri, 277 incense tree, 191, 256 kahawanaru arau, 111 indigo blue, 313 kaiarima, 258 inflammation bush, 261 kaihido, 207 information bush, 244, 255, 261, 268 kaityusi einyarï, 288 ini, 107, 241, 310 kaiukuchi hi1, 257 ink berry, 199 kakara, 265 ink bush, 199 kakaralli, 139, 243, 275, 276 inyamuyakawariyï, 263 kakaralli, black, 137 inya-u, 280 kakaralli, black, broad leaf, 275 inyeku, 141 kakaralli, black, fine leaf, 276 iodine bush, 183, 211 kakaralli, brown, 275 iron mary, white, 267 kakaralli, white, 137, 276 ironweed, 59, 281, 282 kakarari, 137, 275, 276 ironweed, man type, 59 kakarawa, 39, 169, 177, 181, 183, 306 ironweed, woman, 59 kakhoro, 255 isyanomandurïyï, 246 kakürio, 294, 295 isyanomandurïyï, black, 246 kakutiru, 201

328 7. Index of vernacular names and terms kamadan, 302 kashiri, 304 kamahora, 306 kasimyarang, 247 kamanali, 265 katuburi, 301 kamararai, 262 katulimia, 282 kameri, 305 kaudanaro, 259 kamityami epïtyï, 274 kauta, 259 kamoro, 155, 254 kautaballi, 259 kamuru rope, 253 kawaio-hi, 270 kamuwari, 77 kawanari, 111 kamwari, 77, 298 keraporang, 247 kamwari, big type, 77, 298 kereti, 274, 275, 311 kamwari, small leaf, 77 kereti, fine leaf, 275 kamwata, 29 kereti, swamp, 274 kanaküdiballi, 267 kereti, swizzle stick, 275 kanakudji (white type), 267 kereti, yellow, 274 kanapure, 27 keweri, 292 kanihiri, 254 keweri yumï ereparï, 292 kanoaballi, 274, 285 kibihidan, 269 kapadula, 23, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 207, 227, kidale banaro, 298 237, 238, 265, 266 kïrerepiyamïri, 261 kapadula, female, 237 kirikahü, 249 kapadula, male, 237 kirikaua, 293 kapadula, red, 237 kïrïring, 254 kapadula, white, 237, 265 kiskadee, 195 kapasi tuno, 302 kïya, 303 kapaya watï, 302 kobel, 254 kapikola, 257 kobero, 151 karaba, 45 kobi, 277 karababalli, 290 kobi mohoka, 290 karahuru, 252 kofa, 65 karakara, 288 kokerite, 27, 103, 152, 157, 161, 298 karapa, 45 kokoho arau, 258 karapa bosi, 282 kokonshi, 310 karapa porï, 175 kokoritiballi, 305 kararawa akunepïrï, 260 kola, 257 karawasaka, 255 kolancho, 89 karawiru, 299 kolantro, 89 karia, 66, 223, 224, 271 komaramara, 302 karibiswina, 137 komaramara balli, 302 karina akosansana, 59 konaheri, 254 karina rubarudan, 59 konatopo, 282 karishiri, 303, 304 konome enuru, 283 karisho, 270 konono, 308 karohoro, 252 konopo sinary, 244 karoshiri, 59 konopo yorokorï, 288 karoto, 279 konorepi, 289 karu merei, 305 konosa, 199 karulu, 59 konoto epï, 258 karupana, 267 koraro, 281 karuru, 211, 300 koraroballi, 282 karuwara aibihi, 250 koroballi, 179 karuwara caterpillar, 272 korokoro, 259 karuwara epïtyï, 272 korokoroshiri, 119 kasa’mi, 295 kororewa, 274 kasaku, 298 koruati, 199, 309, 310 kasama enuru, 191 kosiri paratare, 305

329 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II kotaka seidyï, 293 kusewe, 267 koyechi, 246, 247 kuseweran, 267 krawa, 105, 231, 313 kutupurang, 304 kuaku, 295 kutupuru, 304 kube arau, 151 ku-uhl kunamide, 211 kudibiu shi, 305 kuwa-i-yang, 309 kufa, 5, 33, 65, 66, 73, 81, 107, 11, 207, 221, kuwama, 29 223, 227, 231, 237, 253, 265 kuwapitsyano, 91 kufa, big leaf, 65 kuwapo-u, 65, 271 kufa, black, 271 kuwasimei, 292 kufa, small leaf, 65, 271 kuwasimei, brown, 292 kufa, white, 65, 271 kuwasimei, white, 291 kufiballi, 290 kuwasimyang, 292 kukui, 313 kuwasimyung, 291 kula, 257 kuwasisyeng, 307 kulatawe wete, 291 kuwatïri, 276 kulishiri, 303, 304, 311 kuwe enakarï, 245 kumaka, 254 kuwepi, 259 kumaru, 282 kuwepirang, 259 kumbo somororï, 282 kuyama, 247 kumetï, 283 kuyari ïnga igï, 311 kumong, 171 kwabanaro, 227, 284 kunami, broad leaf, 56, 211, 313 kwai, 260 kunami, small leaf, 313 kwamara anahoro arau, 259 kunamiran, 309 kwerimuro, 288 kunaparu, 250, 313 labaria, 9, 63, 179, 243, 251, 252, 300, 301 kunapo, 201 labaria bina, 252 kunoto epï, 282 labaria bush, 251 kunuribi, 311 labba, 41, 249 kunuriye, 308 labba bina, 41, 249 kupa, 65, 271 lady’s slipper, 297 kupaya, 253 lana tree, 302 kupesimirang, 259 larima, 292 kupi, 41 lavender, 314 kupi-i, 258 leaf of life, 261, 313 kurahara, 271 lemongrass, 15, 30, 183, 213, 270, 307, 313 kurandono, 89 letterwood, 85, 291 kuraru, 309 letterwood, swamp, 305 kureku, 9 lily, red, 244 kurewako enuru, 293 lily, white, 244 kuriala, 271 lily, yellow, 301 kurihi, 245, 273 lime, 15, 29, 30, 89, 177, 183, 199, 245, 252, kurihi itcheka, 273 255, 273, 276, 304, 312 kurihi koyoko, 245 lion bush, 274 kurimiru, 258 locust, 9, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 112, 152, 207, kurokai, 191, 256 227, 237, 265 kurokai, brown, 256 lokonani, 169 kurokai, white, 256 lonely tree, 273 kurria, 223 lonely wood, 273 kuru, 19 long John, 311 kurubishuru, 255 loromu ahobi arao, 33 kuruliwa, 211 lucky plant, 313 kurumu enuru, 283 lucky seed, 284 kurumu simyorï, 15 maam, 199, 263, 296, 309 kurupiyua, 25 maam nibi, 241, 263 kusari pana, 250 mabakubia, 258

330 7. Index of vernacular names and terms maborokoni, 115 masi, 223, 285 mabuwa, 248, 269 masia hatabu, 261 macaws, 23, 95, 99, 100, 123, 133, 157 masoa plimpla, 298 mad stick, 252 maswa, 298 maho, 66, 139, 221, 243, 245, 246, 247, 266, matapalo, 291, 292 267, 307 matapalo, black, 292 maho, black, 247 matchwood, 252 maho, real, 221, 245, 246, 247, 254, 308 mau mau, 254 maho, rough leaf, 307 mauby, 71, 263 maho, slimy type, 307 meku kuwa-ire, 268 maho, smooth leaf, 221 merehi, 11 maidenhair fern, 183 merehkuyu, 177 mainyapo, 269 merekuya, 299 maipyuri keraporï, 311 meremere, 289 maipyuri omoserï, 221 meri, 272 makau, 254 mess apple, 37 makoriro, 247 mibi, 107 makwaka, 244, 245 minnie root, 261, 268 makwariballi, 248 mïrakurang, 275 malva, 286 mïrehkuya, 299 mamey kufa, 65 mïrïhsi, 294 mammee apple, 311 mïrï-i, 285 mamudan, 396 mis mis, 177 mamuri, 241 mo’ra, 171 mamuriballi, 265, 301 mokomoko, 46, 169, 177, 181, 183, 261, 306 man grass, 30, 224, 264, 270, 282 mokoro, 129, 287 manaka, 95 mokru, 19, 105, 129, 130, 141, 147, 157, 287, mango, 11, 169, 311 292 mangrove, 171, 195, 201 mokru, hard type, 129 manicole, 27, 51, 95, 96, 97, 100, 103, 133, mokru, hill type, 129 147, 161, 191, 250, 293 mokru, land type, 129 manni, 231 mokru, soft type, 129, 287 manni, black, 231 mokru, strong type, 129 manni, white, 231 monkey apple, 247 manniballi, 231 monkey belt, 155 maporokoñ, 115, 116, 121, 308 monkey comb, 308 mapuhuri, 23 monkey genip, 291 mapurio, 247 monkey ladder, 33, 34, 66, 73, 81, 111, 207, mapuru, 105 227, 237, 265, 276, 285 maraka, 257 monkey pine, 272 maramara, 302 monkey pot, 139 maran, swamp, 295 monkey pot, broad leaf, 276 marasi ereparï, 284 monkey syrup, 262, 290 marimari, 277 monkey whitey, 280 marimyari, 277 mope, 217 maripya, 161 mora, 171 marishiballi, 259 mora whitey, 123 marishiballi hariraru, 273 moraballi, 304 marudi, 199, 251, 284, 299, 309 morabana, 179 marudi food, 284 moraijana, 277 marudi hi, 251 morichi, 157 marudi yure, 299 morning glory, 313 masalajang, 252 moroballi, 304 masari, 301 morocot eyeball, 191 masari, swamp, 301 morocot, 9, 39, 46, 169, 191, 217, 247, 268, masi aurere akahu, 223 269

331 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II morototo-ï, 252 old maid flower, 248 morüta, 296 old man’s beard, 313 mother cassava, 223 old man’s bush, 264 mu ahi ibihi, 155 old man's back, 304 muha arau, 69 ole balli, 252 muha bebe, 262 olo, 245 muharoko, 273 olo, white, 267 muhi, 133 omose, 221, 255, 307 muku, 63 omu, 252 mukumuku, 169 once-a-mile, 155 muleshirang, 264 onotto, 45, 115, 313 mumbo enuru, 284 oppossum, 294 munku, 63 orali, 272 munuri bush, 291 orange, 312 munuridan, 15, 30, 187, 199, 291 orchid, 297 murahaka, 252 orchid, yellow, 297 mureru, 296 oriyo yurithe, 125 murewa, 280 osibu akwantete, 247 murunya, 261 otokane, 250 murushi, 273 oyediballi, 309 murusi, 273 paida, 291 mutusi, 195 paidyawa, 119 naba aumu, 187 paipaiyo wokuru, 271 nahutoto, 251 pakama maituru, 163 naidu, 266 pakara marityïrï, 261 nako ataraba, 33 pakarawari, 250, 251 nakoro, 147 pakasa, 291 nanaporan, 289 pakira yuyuru, 289 naniyobo ahuku, 181 pakiyapotai, 145 naniyobo aroko, 187 palawala plimpla, 263 naniyobo makuru, 187 palm grub beetle, 134, 158 napi, 175 panansiwiri, 256 neem, 163 panapana, 303 nibi, 29, 65, 66, 103, 107, 108, 197, 221, 241, panda, 235 263 pap bush, 181, 307 nibi, peeling type, 107, 108, 241 papagayo, 59 nibi, scraping type, 108, 241, 263 papasaka arï, 187 nibi, small, 263 parakari, 308 ohi arau, 157 parakasana, 235, 258, 284 ohi shakaida, 183 parakawari, 245 ohidu, 157 parakusana, 267 ohisiaka mokumoku, 183 parakuwa, 171 ohisiakaida, 183 parangbarang wokuru, 303 ohoru, 231 parata, 151 ohtono epïtyï, 294 parawakasi, 179 oil palm, 312 paremuru, 213 okobato arau, 254 parepi, 312 okokonshi, 197, 301 parewe, 276 okoyu marakarï, 281, 309 paripyo, 258 okoyu rarï, 251 parïrï, 293 okra, 312 parrot beak, 59, 303 okrai, 282 parrots, 19, 95, 99, 100, 157 okuyu yerï, 165 partridge, 208 okuyumbo kerapore, 247 pasï-ï, 298 old lady backbone, 33 pasindyo, 279 old lady’s neck string, 203 patara, 248

332 7. Index of vernacular names and terms patawa, 133 purple orchid, 297 patawarang, 248 purpleheart, 260, 277 patumu, 308 puruma, 258 pawpaw, 213, 255, 302, 307, 311 quackoo, 295, 311 payawaru, 294 quashi bitter, 313 payuriran, 246 quashi, 17, 29, 213 peach, 311 querimo, 299 pear, 11, 49, 91, 195, 205, 217, 259, 260, rabaraba, 280 261, 275, 311 rabbit grass, 260 pega pega, 282, 308 rank bush, 306 pendanga, 91 raroballi, 270 pepper, 56, 92, 191, 187, 195, 246, 261, 265, rat eye, 284, 304 312 rat shit tree, 273 periwinkle, 248 rat tail, 309 perro emurutano, 249 razorgrass, 264, 265, 270 perulu, 285 redwood, 259, 273, 306 peruvian, 308 reho, 99 peyawo, 287 reperepeshi, 294 physic nut (black), 313 rere einyarï, 254 physic nut (white), 313 rere ereparï, 281, 282 physic nut, 223 riariadan, 277 piaba, man type, 274 ring-tailed monkey, 185 piaba, woman, 273 rivercorner congo cane, 71 pigeon pea, 312 rock balsam, 268 pine, 311 rod stick, 274 pineapple, 15, 289 rod tree, 85 pirapisi, 268 rokoroko, 249 pïrïka, 256, 305 root poison, 313 piripiri, 264 rope whitey, 119 pirityo, 289 rose of the mountain, 39, 306 plantain, 311 rough lemon, 312 plantao, 27 rubber tree, 269, 313 plimpla palm, 23 ruri, 267 plimpla seed, 298 sa anahoro, 302 plimpla yam, 312 sada, 303 plum, 187, 217, 218 sadawood, 303 plumrose, 312 saipyarara, 272 pokata, 235 saka, 277 pomegranate, 111 sakusaku, 288, 290, 302 pomiki, 307 sakusaku, big leaf, 296 popo sakari, 187 sakusaku, small leaf, 296 poporu peta, 280 sakwa sepere, 37 poripjori, 258, 311 salidore, 125 poro arï, 266 samura, 298 porokai, 191, 256 sand bitters, 163, 309 pororu wokuru, 181 sand fleas, 37, 145, 179 potato, black, 71, 223, 270, 282 sand mora, 245, 276, 304 potato, sweet 175, 263, 312 sand trysil, 253 powder puff, 308 sandpaper, 17, 85, 231, 258 powis, 39, 105, 197, 199, 305 sapodilla, 312 powis comb, 307 sapotero, 284 powis curly hair, 307 sara(ra)bebe, 277 problem bush, 252 sara, 264 psidium 311 sarabana, 129, 287 pukuta, 273 sarara, 279 pumpkin, 130, 187, 217, 287, 312 sararan, 272

333 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II sarebanaro, 107 simerodan, 306 sarsparilla, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 207, 227, 237, simiri, 111 265 simyarï epï, 83, 266 sauari nut, 49 simyo epïrïrï, 254 sauari skin silverballi, 274 simyo sising, 107 sautin bush, 270 sinkola, 29, 213 savanna water wallaba, 311 sipiropipo, 274 sawara, 286 sipyatamu, 207 sawari, 49 sipyo, 191 sayu yumï, 272 siraboliballi, 267 sayu, 265 siribidan, 269 sehoro mukumuku, 287 sirimya watï, 302 sehoro, 129, 287 sirimyari, 272 sehpundï, 280 sïrïyarï, 103 sehuru, 129, 287 sita, 293 selele beletere, 289 sito, 268 semechi wadzili, 299 sityubi, 250 semeheyu balli, 309 six o' clock, 286 semetho, 177, 299 snake bitters, 61 semitoo, 299 snake bush, 300 seville orange, 13, 312 snake scent, 313 shai shai, 241 snake shakshak, 281 shakshak, 257 snake tongue, 61 shame bush, 165, 166 snake vine, 61 shibero bime, 181, 307 sno-ï, 286 shibero, 181, 307 soa soa, 273 shikishiki, 264 soapwood, 111, 278 shikishikidan, 309 soft leaf, 308 shimarupa, 307 sokosoko, 249, 289, 290, 299 shimito, 299 sokowe, 247 shirabuliballi, 266 soldier’s cap, 303 shirada whitey, 121 solito, 273 shirada, 121 soroma, 259 shiriballi, 79, 281 sorrel, 312 shirua, 275 sosoporo, 299 shurubadan, 269 sourie, 49, 268, 269, 298 sibu, 191 soursop, 13, 30, 246, 268, 270, 307, 311 sideru einaporeidyï, 250 Spanish needle, 261 sideru, black, 251 spider lily, 244, 245 sideru, white, 250 squash, 312 siduwaparï, 274 St. John's bush, 244, 245, 261, 268 sijomba, 251 stainy rope, 281 sikararia, 37, 290 starapple, 111, 312 sïkïma, 260 starflower, 313 silk cotton tree, 254 stinging nettle, 261, 308 silk weed, 61 stinking toe, 111 silvador, 245 stinkwood, 258 silver leaf, 251 strangler fig, 291, 292 silver shower, 297 strong-for-man, 203 silverback fern, 183 sugar apple, 247, 311 silverballi, 274 sugar baby, 304 silverballi, big leaf, 274 sugar cane, 312 silverballi, broad leaf, 275 sun bee, 277 silverballi, brown, 274, 275 sungsung, 252 simaruba, 253 suradani, 268, 260 simarupa, 46, 252, 253, 307 surakadang, 211

334 7. Index of vernacular names and terms surinam cherry, 311 tïpïihsyeng itu, 165 sürükuli mukru, 287 tïyasakoreng, 288 sürürü burue, 305 tïyawasisyeng, 311 sweet alas, 313 to’na to’nakeng, 311 sweet broom, 165, 213, 261, 307 toa toa, 158 sweet sage, 15, 30, 244, 308, 309 tobacco skin, 137 sweet william, 262 tobacco, 39, 99, 125, 126, 137, 139, 203, 257, sweetheart, 270, 282 282, 314 swizzle stick, 268 tohmopara, 303 syimekuna, 51 tohmopara, hill type, 311 syirimeni, 272 toko, 139 tama kalemu, 291 tokolohoko, 245 tama’ure, 296 tokuhsa, 267, 275 tameyu-u, 237, 265, 266 tomato, 312 tamïpipyo, 137 tongo, 139 tamuneng haiari, 282 tonka bean, 282 tamuneng sarasara, 257 tonoro wokuru, 288, 289, 290 tamuneng simyo, 253 tonoropio, 290, 311 tamutu, 287 topuwonu, 277 tangerine, 312 toyeau, 71, 244, 262, 308, 309 tanïmï, 280 toyeau, purple, 244 tapanapi, 311 tree sarsparilla, 81, 250 taparau, 295 troolie, 51, 95, 99, 103, 130, 147, 148, 157, tapireng haiari, 283 161, 231, 259, 287, 288 tapireng sarasara, 55, 257 trumpet bird, 244, 300 tapïseipyo, 243 trysil, 179, 249, 272 tapowonureng, 175 trysil, fine leaf, 281 tapukeng, 249 tucumau, 19 tarara, 83 tukusyi waruma, 129 tassi, 267 tukusyi wokuru, 39 tatabu, 282 tulsie, 244, 308, 309, 313 tatakaboro, 270 tupuru araya, 85 tauarãru, 272 tupuru tonoropio, 304 tauroniro, 11, 152, 272 turara, 264 tauroniro, smoothskin, 305 tureke, 55, 257 tauwa nut, 270 tureli, 279 tawakiu, 125 turtle, 91, 92 tawanero, 272 turtle berry, 91 tawasi, 270 turtle bina, 313 teasam, 244, 308, 309, 313 turtle cherry, 91, 105 tebeyu, 261, 281, 282 turtle food, 262 teddy bear tree, 247 turtle foot whitey, 121 tetakabora, 268, 270 turtle paripi, 298 tete ahabo, 73 turtle step, 33, 276 teteabo, 73 turtle whitey, 280 thyme, broad leaf, 261, 268, 312 turu, 133 thyme, small leaf, 313 turuli, 147 tibisiri, 157, 158, 199 turuturu, 250 tibo kushi, 291 tutu, 295 tida aidamo aro ahutu, 203 tuwonure, 306 tida aidamu araimuhu, 33, 276 tyasi epï, 277, 311 tiger paw, 288 tyupu, 260 tïkasyeng wokuru, 288 ubudi, 11 tïmenureng, 79 ubudiballi, 305 timeri, 291 uhsenano epityï, 261, 281, 282 timiti, 147 ukamueru, 290

335 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II ulu, 257, 267 wariaba mohaka, 294 unikiakia, 259 warife, 262 urana ereparï, 275 waro, 55, 257 urana turara, 249 warohaya, 272 uraribari, 272 warokuri, 235 urishi, 23 waruma, 129 usi arau, 217 warunamsebe, 99 uwato epitjï, 258 warurang, 273 velvet seeds tree, 301 warushiran, 294 velvet, 15, 244, 301, 308, 309 waruta, 147 violin head, 183 wasakau, 265 waduduri, 139 wasei, 95 wa-e, 275 washiba, 85, 254, 291 wai ahu, 185, 266, 285 watapa, 276 waiaballi, 265 wataparïrï, 245 waiadan, 265 water labaria, 63 waidya, 290 water sawarri, 257 waikabina, 155 water trysil, 267 waikiarra, 274 water wallaba, 277 waisyimiri, 279 watermelon, 311 waisyore turupo, 278 watermomma bina, 264 waiuriballi, 272 watermomma calabash, 253 wakaradan, 290 watermomma pepper, 59 wakenaam lilac, 253 waterwallaba-balli, 277 wakorokoda, 141 wattle stick, 303 waku ahuka, 91 wattle tree, 303 wallaba, 151, 276, 277 wa-u, 304 wallaba, soft, 276 wayaka, 275 wallaba, swamp, 311 wayamaka ereparï, 163 wanasoro, 55, 257 wayamu paripiri, 298 wanauwanari, 263 wayamu patï, 33, 276 wansimai, 155 wayamu topuru, 280 wapu, 99 wayamu worekotopo, 302 waraba, 276 wayawitu, 294 waraekone, 267 waye, 275 waraia, 289, 290 wayiru, 246 warakaba bina, 244, 252, 273 wayoma watï, 263 warakaba bush, 243, 300, 301 wayu, 301 warakaba daroko, 301 wa-yung, 301 warakaba eye, 295 weheyu, 77, 298 warakaba food, big type, 199 wene, 259, 288 warakaba food, small, 309 wepopi, black, 247 warakaba joint, 300, 301 wepopi, white, 247 warakaba koro, 300, 301 wesekapo epïtyï, 231 warakaba, 199, 244, 252, 273, 295, 300, 301 wewe pipyo, 277 warakabina, 300 white cleary, 244, 255, 261 warakaioro, 269 white man bina, 313 warakosa, 119, 123, 278, 279, 280 white rope, 253 warama, 284 white seed, 298 waramia, 245 white-faced monkey, 69 waramir, 245 whitey, 115, 123, 278, 279, 280, 281, 311 warapa kunami, 308 whitey, black, 279 warapa, 277 whitey, broad leaf, 279 warauyuroko, 298 whitey, brown, 279 waremesuri, 279 whitey, fine leaf, 279, 281 warer(e)obana, 287, 293 whitey, green, 279

336 7. Index of vernacular names and terms whitey, round leaf, 279 woko potïrï, 244 widi, 23, 238 wokope mirityïrï, 307 wikabeena, 155 wokopopi, 305 wild apple, 307 wokunse, 91, 105, 197 wild bajee, 251 wongsimyai, 155 wild banana, 293 wonu, 255 wild black pepper, 261, 268 wood ear, brown, 252 wild cane, 71 wood ear, red, 248, 252 wild cashew, 11 worm bush, 299 wild cherry, 295 wosi wosi, 309 wild clary, 255 wosimei, 155 wild cocoa, 254, 307 wotokoraru, 253 wild coffee, 274, 277, 290, 311 yahoballi, 286 wild eddoe, 41 yahuhi, 147 wild fat pork, 258 yakarawa turara, 41 wild genip, 260 yalipi, 289 wild ginger, 313 yam, white, 312 wild gourd, 313 yapui, 275 wild grape, 301 yarakaru emurutano, 300 wild guava, 275, 294, 295, 302 yarakaru tumarï epï, 139 wild ink, 199 yarami, 295 wild kunami, 308 yarau, 141 wild lily, 272 yaraukunam, 141 wild liquorice, 306 yarayara, 85, 246, 247 wild mang(r)o, 91, 105, 197, 201, 271 yard broom, 286 wild mang(r)o, hill type, 271 yariman(ni), 260 wild maran, 169, 177, 181, 183, 211, 257, yariyari, 85, 86, 115, 134, 243, 246, 247 262, 306 yariyari, black, 243, 246 wild massala, 268 yariyari, white, 85, 243, 246 wild mokru, 287 yaroyaro, 246 wild onion, 245 yaruka bura bura, 251 wild pawpaw, 268, 269, 302 yarula, 17, 235, 248 wild pear, 249 yarula, black, 17, 245, 248, 267 wild pepper, 302 yarula, red, 17, 248 wild pine, 255, 256, 262 yarula, white, 17, 29, 213, 48 wild poppy, 303 yaruru, 17, 248 wild potato, 175, 262 yawahü dan, 291 wild pumpkin, 263 yawahü shimara, 261 wild river whitey, 279 yawahü yadala, 264 wild sauari, 288 yawaredan, 277, 278 wild semitoo, 169, 177, 181, 183, 299, 306 yekoro, 275 wild senna, 205, 296 yente, 264 wild sorrel, 203, 286 yerewano epïtyï, 308 wild soursop, 13 yeshidan, 246 wild starapple, 305 yesi kushi, 304 wild sugarapple, 247 yesibina, 313 wild tea, 306 yorokang pomïidyï, 246 wild tobacco, 125, 177 yukuyapoi, 268 wild varnish, 258 yunu enekang, 245 wild yam, 81, 312 yuriballi, 125, 290 winakakaralli, 125, 137, 139, 203 yurika, 169 winamoro, 97, 99, 100 yuruka, 265 wiri, 23 yuruwe, 27 wïyekane, 267 yuwanaro, 255 wokïrï kupesini, 259 zapatero, 284 woko isyare, 282 zarazara, 85

337 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II zarokotaha, 41 zeb grass, 205, 260, 308

Illnesses and other vernacular terms body pain, 33, 59, 111, 281, 282, 307 abdominal pains, 203 bot fly larvae, 41, 63, 66, 69 abortion, 15, 30, 223, 238, 244, 265, 266, 270 bouncer, 245, 246 abscesses, 55, 61, 63, 115, 179, 185, 187, bow, 23, 37, 39, 45, 46, 85, 91, 105, 197, 231, 250, 254, 257, 266, 285, 291 231, 246, 254, 272, 281, 291, 309 afterbirth, 30, 223 bowel problems, 33, 46, 253, 261 AIDS, 141, 283 brights’ disease, 181 alcoholic drink, 11, 71, 217, 262, 263, 294, bronchitis, 15, 133, 179, 183, 205, 262 295 bruises, 165, 169, 183 anaemia, 61, 244 builders, 33, 73, 81, 111, 227, 274 antispasmodic, 15, 191, 203, 207 bumper balls, 152, 269 aphrodisiacs, 33, 34, 66, 73, 74, 81, 112, 207, Burnham period, 255, 278 208, 228, 237, 238, 265 bush rope, 46, 61, 96, 107, 169, 191, 223, arrow poison, 161 250, 251, 253, 254, 262 arrow, 27, 37, 39, 46, 73, 91, 105, 134, 161, bush yaws, 46, 63, 115, 123, 125, 179, 183, 197, 231 259, 267, 271, 272, 294, 211, 251, 282 301 cabbage, 95, 96, 100, 133, 250 arthritis, 187, 256 cancer, 141, 217, 283 asthma, 13, 15, 45, 86, 89, 105, 133, 179, canoes, 11, 29, 46, 56, 63, 112, 116, 137, 183, 205, 244, 262 158, 161, 171, 172, 192, 231, 232, babracote, 287 248, 249, 256, 258, 260, 267, 268, baby slings, 91, 158 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 287, 279, back pain, 55, 66, 69, 711, 11, 207, 214, 251, 282, 290, 293, 294, 307, 308 257, 271, 306 cassareep, 45, 205, 308 back sprain, 199 cassava beer, 116, 171, 243, 288 backache, 59 cassiri, 116, 171 bad bowels, 15 caulking, 56, 116, 152 bad spells, 125, 270 chest colds, 89, 181, 262 bad spirits, 89, 248, 306 chest pains, 45, 100 bait, 9, 13, 39, 46, 85, 99, 134, 169, 199, 207, childbirth, 30, 187, 217 217, 237, 251, 262, 263, 267, 268, colds, 39, 45, 71, 86, 89, 111, 125, 133, 155, 269, 276, 286, 291, 292, 298, 309 169, 177, 179, 183, 185, 205, 214, baldness, 260, 261, 282, 301 217, 223, 238, 244, 245, 257, 261, ballahoos, 49, 171, 235, 274, 303 262, 263, 278, 286, 288, 296, 299, banjos, 46, 115, 252, 290, 293 300, 303, 306, 307, 308, 309 banshikili, 112, 293 colorant, 37, 115, 308 basketry, 66, 115, 116, 121, 123, 129, 158, commercial timber, 46, 49, 52, 63, 83, 116, 287 121, 137, 139, 152, 172, 175, 179, bed-wetting, 59, 308 189, 192, 232, 235, 252, 253, 256, beruga, 296 258, 268, 269, 272, 275, 276, 277, bête rouge, 45, 46, 125, 205 278, 282, 284, 290, 291, 294, 308 beverage, 39, 71, 81, 99, 111, 133, 157, 273, constipation, 111, 152, 201, 217 285, 292, 300 contraceptive, 15, 217, 223, 270 biliousness, 125, 163, 205, 244, 247, 260, cook-up rice, 133, 161 261, 290, 307, 308 copaiba balsam, 112 binding material, 77, 221, 250, 251, 263 cotton spindles, 91, 92 bleeding, 39, 73, 96, 169, 179, 183, 187, 214, coughs, 15, 89, 91, 183 217, 245, 282, 287 cough syrup, 86, 262, 263, 306, 308 boards, 6, 11, 29, 46, 51, 63, 83, 115, 137, couvade, 282 152, 171, 175, 192, 232, 235, 243, crab oil (crabwood oil), 45, 46, 187 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 256, 258, curettage, 30, 163, 187 259, 266, 267, 271, 272, 273, 274, cushi ants, 309 275, 276, 277, 278, 284, 290, 291, 293, 294, 303, 305, 307

338 7. Index of vernacular names and terms cuts, 55, 96, 121, 169, 171, 179, 183, 187, fractures, 281 191, 232, 245, 251, 252, 255, 256, furniture, 30, 65, 66, 107, 108, 112, 121, 158, 272, 287, 291, 293, 295, 304 241, 253, 256, 267, 268, 271, 272, dandruff, 9, 199 274, 275, 290 demerara gum, 112 gall eruptions, 181 diabetes, 39, 73, 111, 169, 238, 248, 255, gam, 19 261, 266, 309 gillbacker, 41 diarrhoea, 11, 15, 33, 46, 55, 79, 111, 147, gonorrhoea, 71, 213, 261 171, 195, 201, 205, 211, 217, 231, groin rupture, 45, 71 235,254, 272, 273, 276, 278, 283, ground itch, 9, 66, 125, 141, 181, 250, 261, 288, 294, 301 269, 271, 272, 283 diuretic, 30, 33, 55, 59, 105, 163, 169, 181, guitars, 46, 115, 195, 235, 252, 290, 307 248, 257, 307, 309 gutta-percha, 151 domestic violence, 165 gutters, 51, 298 dragon’s blood, 195 haemorrhage, 39, 59, 89, 96, 187, 203, 217, drinks, 11, 25, 73, 152, 158, 237 244, 247, 253, 270, 273, 276, 277, drowsiness, 15, 191 282, 283, 308, 309 dysentery, 75, 111, 115, 123, 152, 171, 195, haemorrhoids, 45, 61, 71 201, 203, 217, 253, 254, 283 hair cure, see baldness earache, 264, 286 hammock, 15, 34, 91, 158, 221, 245, 248, eczema, 125, 141, 163, 205, 258, 272, 283, 303 284 hampers, 267 electric eel, 169 headache, 9, 13, 17, 46, 63, 69, 89, 112, 187, epilepsy, 61, 89 223, 245, 249, 268, 270, 277, 283 elemi, 191 high blood pressure, 13, 46, 55, 61, 69, 71, específico, 243 166, 169, 199, 205, 294, 300, 308, evil spirits, 19, 30, 41, 96, 245, 253, 254, 309 264, 267, 270 high wine, 6, 33, 39, 81 facial pains, 187 house construction, 85, 112, 137, 152, 189, fan, 19, 20, 77, 105, 129, 130, 287, 297 192, 246, 247, 256, 258, 259, 267, fertility, 15, 308 268, 273, 276, 278, 291, 294, 295, fever, 13, 15, 17, 29, 61, 89, 125, 155, 163, 296, 301, 302, 303 177, 179, 183, 187, 199, 205, 213, house posts, 63, 137, 171, 179, 189, 259, 214, 217, 223, 244, 247, 252, 253, 265, 271, 274, 275, 276, 277, 284, 261, 264, 273, 278, 282, 284, 286, 291, 305 288, 291, 294, 300, 307 hunting charms, 41, 42 film on eye, 59, 71 hypertension, 169, 205 fire burns, 191, 256, 258 iguana, 157, 163 firewood, 7, 9, 37, 39, 63, 83, 116, 119, 123, impotence, 33, 66, 73, 81, 111, 227, 237, 175, 179, 245, 246, 247, 253, 256, 250, 255, 261, 282, 304 258, 259, 260, 267, 269, 271, 272, incense, 112, 191, 245, 256, 257 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281, indigestion, 15, 163 284, 285, 290, 294, 295, 296, 302, infected eyes, 269 303, 304, 305, 308, 309 infertility, 39, 205, 273, 277 fish poison, 9, 33, 56, 63, 141, 172, 207, 211, influenza, 13, 183 245, 250, 282, 283, 304 insect repellent, 45, 46, 205 fishing line, 27, 251, 254, 287 irregular heart beating, 13, 30, 223, 248 fishing rods, 85, 86, 96, 115, 243, 246, 274, itches, 61, 63, 125, 163, 205, 268, 272, 273, 296 284, 306 flambeau, 191 jacks, 284 fleas, 45, 63, 211 jumbie, 306 floors, 51, 95, 107, 241, 245, 247, 268, 274, karaman wax, 29, 91, 105, 197, 231, 232 275, 298, 303 kenaima, 257, 285, 298, 309 flu, 61 kenkey, 287 forest camps, 27, 99, 133, 151, 179, 293, 299, kidney problems, 33, 55, 56, 181, 205, 257, 301 260, 261, 277, 278, 286

339 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II kokers, 267 pointers, 157, 161, 298 krekete snail, 238, 245 poison enemies, 249 kurbetti ants, 69 pork-knockers, 51, 55, 73, 81, 137, 203, 207, lashing material, 51, 52, 137, 139, 221, 243, 227, 237 245, 246, 247, 254, 255, 275, 276, pottery, 51, 112, 115, 116, 121, 247 308 powder-post beetles, 30, 65 laxative, 125, 163, 177, 205, 244, 247, 257, pregnancy, 15, 30, 79, 115, 203, 223, 238, 261, 278, 300, 307 247, 254, 265, 270, 302, 308 leishmaniasis, 46, 63, 115, 123, 125, 179, puerperal fever, 223 183, 211, 251 quakes, 107, 129, 221, 241, 287 lemon juice, 17, 29, 213 quattros, 290, 293 lice, 9, 45, 63, 277 rafters, 85, 103, 107, 189, 245, 246, 260, 269, life sores, 46, 63 289, 295 lining cold, 223, 273, 277, 286 respiratory problems, 91 listlessness, 15, 191 rheumatic pains, 30, 61 liver disorders, 71, 205, 211, 254, 257 rheumatism, 46, 69, 112, 205 lota, 205, 272, 302 ringworm, 205, 223, 232, 251, 272, 284 love charms, 40, 300 roof thatch, 23, 25, 27, 96, 103, 147, 157, lymph system, 205 161, 221, 293, 298 magic plants, 41, 313 runnings, 213 malaria, 9, 17, 29, 30, 45, 46, 66, 71, 73, 125, sambura drums, 235, 252 155, 163, 187, 205, 213, 217, 223, scabies, 45, 163, 179, 205, 211, 284 235, 244, 247, 248, 260, 271, 276, scaffolding, 29 283, 285, 291, 307, 309 scorpion stings, 63, 96, 169, 179, 207, 249, marbles, 19 250, 252, 300, 301 masoesa rice, 199 screaming piha, 271 matapi, 45, 129, 130, 197 shingles, 152, 276, 277, 307 menstruation, 15, 39, 115, 177, 187, 205, sifters, 91, 129, 197, 287 217, 244, 252, 253, 261, 268, 270, skin burns, 46, 223, 309 282, 286, 307, 308 slingshot ammunition, 19, 95, 199, 211, 260, mildew, 45, 105 291 miscarriage, 238, 247, 270, 282 snake skin disease, 307 misty eyes, see sore eyes. snakebites, 61, 69, 100, 105, 163, 169, 175, mortars, 152, 171, 260, 268, 277 179, 205, 214, 243, 246, 265, 266, mosquito worms, 41, 63, 66, 69, 250, 271 300, 301, 308 mosquitoes, 29, 45, 96, 191 snoring, 51 mouth sores, see sores sore eyes, 71, 155, 169, 183, 238, 244, 249, munuri ant, 9, 115, 249, 250, 251, 291 251, 254, 261, 264, 286, 288, 308 navel string, 23 sores, 9, 23, 45, 46, 55, 61, 63, 73, 121, 125, outer pile, see piles 141, 155, 163, 171, 179, 183, 187, paddles, 17, 37, 46, 79, 121, 145, 235, 243, 191, 195, 201, 205, 211, 217, 224, 248, 258, 267, 284, 290, 291, 305, 245, 251, 252, 256, 261, 263, 268, 306 270, 272, 281, 282, 283, 284, 286, pain, 9, 30, 55, 63, 66, 71, 199, 207, 213, 288, 290, 293, 294, 304, 307, 308 214, 232, 246, 249, 250, 251, 264, Spanish Arawaks, 3, 27 282, 291 spleen problems, 205 paiwari, 116, 171, 262, 294 sprained limbs, 61, 66, 169, 179, 245, 281, paint, 29, 37, 45, 79, 115, 116, 121, 123, 264, 285, 291, 292 272, 283, 294, 308 start a fire, 7, 249 palm heart, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 133, 148, 161 sterility, 15, 115, 217 passing too much white, 71, 255 stingray punctures, 169 pegall, 129, 261 stomach disorders, 39, 45, 46, 89, 125, 199, pestles, 152 214, 261, 264, 282, 300, 301, 309 piles, 45 stoppage of water, 30, 59, 307 plywood, 9, 52, 293, 294 stopper, 251, 263 pneumonia, 45, 71, 89, 183, 205, 262, 278 strained back, 263

340 7. Index of vernacular names and terms stress, 13 wrapping material, 99, 130, 251, 266, 286, stroke, 223 287, 293, 298, 309 stuffed nose, 248 swellings, 45, 61, 63, 115, 165, 166, 181, 185, 187, 201, 223, 231, 245, 250, 251, 285, 291 syphilis, 163, 207, 235 tapirs, 11, 83, 249 thrush, 15, 23, 45, 61, 126, 163, 169, 177, 195, 214, 232, 255, 261, 262, 268, 278, 283, 285, 293, 294, 300, 304, 306, 307, 308 ticks, 45, 63 toilet paper, 254, 308 tondoli, 66, 221, 266, 271 tonic, 6, 33, 66, 73, 81, 207, 235, 237, 265 tool handles, 17, 290, 309 toothache, 66, 179, 213, 258, 294, 309 top, 19, 147 tranquillizer, 13 trick dead, 250 tuberculosis, 15, 39, 133, 169, 177, 181, 183, 262, 303, 306 ulcers, 46, 61, 111, 115, 163, 232 umbilical cord, 23, 238, 265, 304 unable to produce children, see infertility urape, 243 urinary tracts, 59 uterine infections, 171 vaginal discharge, 37, 71, 187, 255, 261, 268 vampire bat, 217, 260 vegetable, 42, 161, 300, 312 venereal diseases (‘V.D.’), 33, 59, 183, 187, 213, 235, 255, 259, 285, 288, 307 vomiting, 15, 39, 179, 191, 199, 244, 288, 290, 294 walls, 25, 29, 39, 51, 95, 107, 147, 157, 241, 245, 247, 269, 275, 276, 298, 302, 303, 304, 307 warishi, 91, 107, 108, 197, 221, 241, 271, 272, 287, 295, 301 warts, 272, 287, 296 water spirits, 126, 241 water woman, 264 wattle and stave, 39, 269, 276 weak back, 33, 73, 81, 111, 227, 304 west indian copal, 112 whooping cough, 39, 69, 71, 183, 185, 244, 257, 261, 266, 301 winti, 61, 125 wood skin canoes, 277 womb, 30, 115, 187, 205, 223, 261, 268 worms, 37, 126, 171, 177, 181, 205, 227, 274, 277, 299, 307 wounds, 45, 61, 179, 181, 232

341 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

8. REFERENCES

Ahlbrinck, W. 1931. Encyclopaedie der Karaïben. Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde. Nieuwe reeks, Deel XXVII, No 1. Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Amshoff, G.J.H. 1939. Papilionaceae. Flora of Suriname II (2): 1-257. Anderson, C. 1993. The identities of the sericeous-leaves species of Stigmaphyllon (Malpighiaceae) in the Amazon region. Contributions to the University of Michigan Herbarium 19: 393-411. Andersson, L. 1977. The genus Ischnosiphon (Marantaceae). Opera Botanica 43: 1-114. Archer, W.A. 1965. Fish poison plants of Surinam. Unpublished manuscript. Arvigo, R. and Balick, M.J. 1993. Rainforest remedies: one hundred healing herbs from Belize. Lotus Press, Twin Lake, USA. Aymard, G.A. 1998. Dilleniaceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 4: 671-685. Balée, W. 1994. Footprints of the forest: Ka’apor Ethnobotany- The historical ecology of plant utilization by an Amazonian people. Colombia University Press, New York, USA. Balick, M.J. 1986. Systematics and economic botany of the Oenocarpus-Jessenia (Palmae) complex. Advances in Economic Botany 3: 1-87. Balick, M.J. (ed.) 1988. The Palm-Tree of life: biology, utilization and conservation. Advances in Economic Botany 6. Balick, M.J. and Gershoff, S.N. 1981. Nutritional evaluation of the Jessenia bataua palm: source of high quality protein and oil from tropical America. Economic Botany 35 (3): 261-271. Bardouille, V. and Cox, M. 1977. Pityrogramma. Guyana Journal of Science 5 (2): 61-70. Bardouille, V., Mootoo, B.S., Hirotsu, K. and Clardy, J. 1978. Sesquiterpenes from Pityrogramma calomelanos. Phytochemistry 17: 275-277. Barneby, R.C. 1991. Sensitivae censitae: a description of the Genus Mimosa Linnaeus (Mimosaceae) in the New World. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 65. Benítez de Rojas, C. and Magallanes Nessi, A. 1998. El genero Physalis (Solanaceae) de Venezuela. Acta Botanica Venezuelica 21 (2): 11-42. Bennet, J.P. 1994. Arawak-English Dictionary. Walter Roth Museum, Georgetown, Guyana. Bittrich, V. and Amaral, M.C.E. 1996. Pollination biology of Symphonia globulifera (Clusiaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 200: 101-110. Bittrich, V. and Amaral, M.C.E. 1997. Floral biology of some Clusia species from Central Amazonia. Kew Bulletin 52 (3): 617-635. Boggan, J., Funk, V., Kelloff, C., Hoff, M., Cremers, G., and Feuillet, C. 1997. Checklist of the plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana), 2nd edition. ORSTOM, Smithsonian Institution and Centre for the Study of Biological Diversity. University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana. Boom, B.M. 1987. Ethnobotany of the Chácobo Indians, Beni, Bolivia. Advances in Economic Botany 4: 1-68. Branch, L.C. and da Silva, I.M.F. 1983. Folk medicine of Alter do Chao, Para, Brazil. Acta Amazonica 13 (5/6): 737-797. Broekhoven, G. 1996. Non-Timber Forest Products: ecological and economic aspects of exploitation in Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia. Utrecht University and IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

342 7. Index of vernacular names and terms

Carle, R. 1981. Investigations on the content of steroidal alkaloids and sapogenins within Solanum sect. Solanum (= sect. Morella) (Solanaceae) Plant Systematics and Evolution 138 (1-2): 61-71. Castro, A. de. 1993. ‘Extractive exploitation of the açai, Euterpe precatoria, near Manaus, Amazonia’, pp. 779-782 in C.M. Hladik, A. Hladik, O.F. Linares and H. Pagezy (eds.), Tropical Forests, People and Food: Biocultural Interactions and Applications to Development. MAB Series Vol. 13. UNESCO, Paris, France. Cavalcante, P.B. 1972. Frutas comestíveis da Amazônia I. Instituto Nacional do Pesquisas do Amazônia. Belém, Pará, Brazil. Cavalcante, P.B. 1974. Frutas comestíveis da Amazônia II. Instituto Nacional do Pesquisas do Amazônia. Belém, Pará, Brazil. Cavalcante, P.B. 1979. Frutas comestíveis da Amazônia III. Instituto Nacional do Pesquisas do Amazônia. Belém, Pará, Brazil. Charette, E. 1980. A short dictionary of the Warao Language of Guyana. Amerindian Languages Project, University of Guyana. Georgetown, Guyana. Clay, J. 1992. ‘Some general principles and strategies for developing markets in North America and Europe for Nontimber forest products’, pp. 302-309 in M.J. Plotkin and L. Famolare (eds.), Sustainable harvest and marketing of rain forest products. Conservation International. Island press, Washington DC., USA. Coles, B., Croft, P., Dunkley, M., Readings, D., Hardy, T. and Gatrell, P. 1971. Cambridge expedition to Baramita. Cambridge University, UK. Conservation International. 1998. Guyana. www.conservation.org/web/fieldact/regions/guianreg/ Guyana.htm. Courtz, H. 1997. Karaibs natuurwoordenboek. Instituut voor Taalwetenschap, Paramaribo, Suriname. Daly, D. 1987. A taxonomic revision of Protium (Burseraceae) in Eastern Amazonia and the Guianas. PhD thesis, City University of New York, U.M.I., Ann Arbour, USA. Delascio Chitty, F. 1985. Algunas plantas usadas en la medicina empirica Venezolana. Dirección de Investigaciones Biologica, INPARQUES, Caracas, Venezuela. Dijk, J.F.W. van. 1999. Non-timber forest product resources in the Bipindi-Akom II area, South Cameroon: an economic and ecological assessment. Tropenbos-Cameroon Series 1. Duke, J.A. and Vásquez, R. 1994. Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. CRC press, Boca Raton, USA. Fanshawe, D.B. 1948. Forest products of British Guiana, part II. Minor Forest Products. Forestry Bulletin No. 2. Forestry Department, British Guiana. Fanshawe, D.B. 1949. Glossary of Arawak names in Natural History, British Guiana. International Journal of American Linguistics 15 (1): 57-74. Fanshawe, D.B. 1952. The vegetation of British Guiana. A preliminary review. Imperial Forestry Institute, University of Oxford. Institute Paper 29. Fanshawe, D.B. 1954. Forest Types of British Guiana. Caribbean Forester 15: 73-111. Ferreyra, R. 1970. Flora invasora de los Cultivos de Pucallpi y Tingo María. Lima, Peru. Flora of Suriname. 1966-1984. Vol. I-V. A. Pulle et al. (eds.). Van Eedenfonds. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. Flora of the Guianas. 1985-1999. A.R.A. Görts-van Rijn (ed.). Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein, Germany. Flora of Venezuela. 1964-1982. J.A. Steyermark et al. (eds.), Caracas, Venezuela. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana. 1995-1999. Vol. 1-4. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, USA.

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Forte, J. (ed.) 1996. Macushi Lifestyle and Biodiversity Use. Iwokrama International Rainforest Programme and Amerindian Research Unit, University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana. Forte, J. 1988. ‘Guyanese Arawaks today’, pp. 51-58 in Proceedings of the Conference on the Arawaks of Guyana. October 14-15, 1987. Amerindian Research Unit, University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana. Forte, J. 1997. Amerindians of Region 1. Paper presented at the workshop Comparative study of socio- economic variables affecting the success of commercial NTFP extraction in North-West Guyana and South Cameroon. November 27, 1997. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Fries, R.E. 1940. Annonaceae. Flora of Suriname II (2): 341-383. Gaviria, J. 1997. Cordia (Boraginaceae). Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 3: 529-540. Gentry, A.H. 1982. Bignoniaceae. Flora de Venezuela VIII (4). Gentry, A.H. 1997. Bignoniaceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 3: 403-491. Gillin, J. 1936. The Barama River Caribs of British Guiana. Papers of the Peabody museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University 14 (2). Görts-van Rijn, A.R.A. 1979. Vitaceae. Flora of Suriname V (1): 335-343. Gottlieb, O.R. 1982. Micromolecular Evolution, Systematics and Ecology: an essay into a novel botanical discipline. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. Goulding, M. 1989. Amazon: the flooded forest. BBC Books, London, UK. Goulding, M., Lean Carvalho, M. and Ferreira, E.G. 1988. Rio Negro: rich life in poor water. SPB Academic Publishing BV, the Hague, the Netherlands. Greene-Roesel, J. 1995. Santa Rosa Bush Medicine Project. Unpublished manuscript. Grenand, P. and Prévost, M. 1994. Les plantes colorantes utilisées en Guyane Française. Journal d’agriculture tropicale et de botanique apliquée, Nouvelle Série, Vol. XXXVI (1): 139-172. Grenand, P., Moretti, C. and Jacquemin, H. 1987. Pharmacopés traditionelles en Guyane. Créoles, Palikur, Wayãpi. Collection Mémoires No. 108. ORSTOM, Paris, France. Hall, P. and Bawa, K. 1993. Methods to assess the impact of extraction of non-timber tropical forest products on plant populations. Economic Botany 47 (3): 234-247. Harling, G. 1958. Monograph of the Cyclanthaceae. Acta Horti Bergiani 18 (1). Hegnauer, R. 1969. Chemotaxoxomie der Pflanzen, Vol. 5. Birkhaüser, Stuttgart, Germany. Heinen, D.H. and Ruddle, K. 1976. Ecology, ritual, and economic organization in the distribution of palm starch among the Warao of the Orinoco Delta. Journal of Anthropological Research 30: 116-138. Hellum, A.K. 1994. Trees of Guyana: a seedling identification guide. Lone Pine Publishing, Vancouver, Canada. Henderson, A. 1995. The palms of the Amazon. Oxford University Press, New York, USA. Heyde, H. 1985. Geneeskrachtige planten in Suriname en hun toepassing. Westfort, Paramaribo, Suriname. Heyde, H. 1987. Surinaamse medicijnplanten, 2e vermeerderde en herbewerkte uitgave, Paramaribo, Suriname. Heyde, H. 1990 Medicijnplanten in Suriname. Stichting gezondheidsplanten en informatie (SGI)., Paramaribo, Suriname. Hoff, B.J. 1968. The Carib Language. PhD thesis, Leiden University. H.L.Smits, the Hague, the Netherlands. Hoffman, B. 1997. The biology and use of nibbi, Heteropsis flexuosa (Araceae): the source of an aerial root fibre product in Guyana. MSc thesis, Florida International University, Miami, USA. Humboldt, A. von. 1889. Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of America during the years 1799-1804, Vol. II. George Bell and Sons, London, UK. 344 7. Index of vernacular names and terms

Irwin, H.S. and Barneby, R.C. 1982. The American Casiinae: a Synoptical Revision of Leguminosae Tribe Cassieae in the New World. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden (35) 2. Jain, S.K. and DeFilipps, R.A. 1991. Medicinal plants of India, Vol. 1 and 2. Reference Publications, Algonac, USA. Judziewicz, E.J. 1990. Poaceae (Graminae). Flora of the Guianas, Series A, No. 8. Kahn, F. 1988. Ecology of important palms in Peruvian Amazonia. Advances in Economic Botany 6: 42-49. Kahn, F. 1997. The palms of Eldorado. ORSTOM Editions Champflour. Marly-le-Roi, France. Klooster, C.I.E.A. van ‘t. 2000. Medicinale planten gebruikt door Surinamers in Amsterdam. MSc thesis, Utrecht University and Free University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Krukoff, B.A. 1965. Supplementary notes on the American species of Strychnos VII. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 12 (2): 1-94. Krukoff, B.A. and Barneby, R.C. 1971. Supplementary notes on American Menispermaceae VI. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 20 (2): 1-70. Krukoff, B.A. and Moldenke, H.N. 1938. Studies of American Menispermaceae, with special references to species used in the preparation of arrow poison. Brittonia 3: 1-74. Krukoff, B.A. and Smith, A.C. 1937. Rotenone-yielding plants of South America. American Journal of Botany 24 (9): 573-587. Krukoff, B.A. and Smith, A.C. 1939. Notes on the Botanical Components of Curare-II. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 66: 305-314. Küchmeister, H, Silberbauer-Gottsberger, I. and Gottsberger, G. 1997. Flowering, pollination, nectar standing crop, and nectaries of Euterpe precatoria (Arecaceae), and Amazonian rain forest palm. Plant Systematics and Evolution 206: 71-97. Lachman-White, D.A., Adams, C.D. and Trotz, U.O. 1992. A guide to the medicinal plants of Coastal Guyana. Commonwealth Science Council. Technical Publications Series 225. London, UK. Lebœuf, M., Cavé, A., Forgacs, P., Tiberghien, R., Prévost, J. Touché, A. and Jacquemin, H. 1982. Alcaloïdes des Annonacées XL: étude chimique et pharmacologique des alcaloïdes de l’Annona montana Macf. Plantes Médicinales et Phytotherapie 16 (3): 169-184. Lewin, L. 1923. Die Pfeilgifte: nach eigenem toxikologischen und ethnologischen untersuchungen. Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig, Germany. Maas, P.J.M. (in press). Gentianaceae. S. Mori et al. (eds.) Guide to the Vascular Plants of Central French Guiana. Part 2. Dicotyledons. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden. Maas, P.J.M. 1972. Costoideae. Flora Neotropica, Monograph No. 8. Hafler Publishing Company, New York, USA. Maas, P.J.M. 1977. Renealmia. Flora Neotropica, Monograph No. 1. New York Botanical Garden, USA. Maas, P.J.M. and Westra, L.Y.Th. 1993. Neotropical Plant Families. Koeltz Scientific Books, Koenigstein, Germany. Mahmood, V. and Tankur, R.S. 1980. Current research on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Solanum). National Botanical Institute, Lucknow, India. Marini-Bettòlo, G.B. and Bisset, N.G. 1972. Chemical studies on the alkaloids of American Strychnos species. Lloydia 35 (3): 195-202. May, A.F., 1982. Sranan oso dresi. Surinaams kruidenboek. De Walburg Pers, Paramaribo, Suriname.

345 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Mennega, E.A., Tammens-de Rooij, W.C.M. and Jansen-Jacobs, M.J. (eds.) 1988. Check- list of woody plants of Guyana. Tropenbos Technical Series. The Tropenbos Foundation, Ede, the Netherlands. Milliken, W. and Albert, B. 1997. The use of medicinal plants by the Yanomami Indians of Brazil, Part II. Economic Botany 51 (3): 264-278. Mitchell, J.D. 1997. Anacardiaceae. Flora of the Guianas. Series A: Fascicle 19. Moretti, C. and Grénand, P. 1982. Les nivrées ou plantes ichthyotoxiques de la Guyane Française. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 6:139-160. Mori, S.A. and Prance, G.T. 1990. Lecythidaceae Part 2. Flora Neotropica Monograph No. 21. New York Botanical Garden, USA. Mori, S.A., Cremers, G., Gracie, C., de Granville, J.J., Hoff, M. and Mitchell, J.D. 1997. Guide to the Vascular Plants of Central French Guiana. Part 1. Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, and Monocotyledons. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden (76) 1. Ostendorf, J.W. 1962. Nuttige planten en sierplanten in Suriname. Departement Landbouwproefstation in Suriname. Bulletin No. 79. Paramaribo, Suriname. Padoch, C. 1988. Aguaje (Mauritia flexuosa) in the economy of Iquitos, Peru. Advances in Economic Botany 6: 214-224. Peña, M., Zonta, A. and Zuidema, P. 1998. Producción de palmito: Limitaciones del manejo sostenible de poblaciones naturales de asaí (Euterpe precatoria), y el potencial del cultivo de tembe (Bactris gasipaes) como fuente alternativa. PROMAB, Riberalta, Beni, Bolivia. Peña, M. and Zuidema, P. 1999. Limitaciones demográficas para el aprovechamiento sostenible de Euterpe precatoria para producción de palmito en dos tipos de bosque de Bolivia. Ecología en Bolivia 33: 3-21. Pennington, T.D. 1990. Sapotaceae. Flora Neotropica, Monograph 52. New York Botanical Garden, USA. Pennington, T.D. 1997. The Genus Inga: Botany. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, U.K. Persoon, H. 1982. Een revisie van Chelonanthus (Gentianaceae). MSc thesis, Institute for Systematic Botany, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Peters, C.M., Balick, M.J., Kahn, F. and Anderson, A.B. 1989. Oligarchic forests of economic plants in Amazonia: utilization and conservation of an important tropical resource. Conservation Biology 3 (4): 341-349. Pierre, L. 1988. ‘The ‘Spanish Arawaks’ of Moruca’, pp: 44-50 in Proceedings of the Conference on the Arawaks of Guyana. October 14-15, 1987. Amerindian Research Unit, University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana. Plotkin, M.J. and Famolare, L. (eds.) 1992. Sustainable harvest and marketing of rain forest products. Conservation International. Island press, Washington DC., USA. Polak, A.M. 1992. Major timber trees of Guyana. a field guide. Tropenbos Series 2. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Pollak, H., Mattos, M., and Uhl, C. 1995. A profile of the palm heart extraction in the Amazon Estuary. Human Ecology 23 (3): 357-385. Prance, G.T. 1972. Chrysobalanaceae. Flora Neotropica, Monograph No. 9. Hafner publishing Company, New York, USA. Prance, G.T. and Freitas da Silva, M. 1973. Caryocaraceae. Flora Neotropica, Monograph No. 12. Hafner publishing Company, New York, USA. Prance, G.T., Balee, W., Boom, B.M. and Carneiro, R.L. 1987. Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia. Conservation Biology 1 (4): 296-310. Raghoenandan, U.P. 1994. Ethnobotanisch onderzoek bij de hindustaanse bevolkingsgroep in Suriname. Nationaal Herbarium van Suriname, Anton de Kom Universiteit, Paramaribo, Suriname.

346 7. Index of vernacular names and terms

Rehm, S. and Espig, G. 1991. The cultivated plants of the tropics and subtropics. Institute of Agronomy in the Tropics. Verlag Josef Margraf, Göttingen, Germany. Reinders, M. 1993. Medicinal plants and their uses and the ideas about illness and healing among the Warao of Guyana. MSc thesis, Dept. of Cultural Anthropology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Roosmalen, M.G.M. van. 1985. Fruits of the Guyanan Flora. Institute for Systematic Botany, Utrecht University, the Netherlands. Roth, W.E. 1924. An introductory study of the arts, crafts and customs of the Guiana Indians. 38th Annual report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Smithsonian Institute, Washington DC., USA. Roth, W.E. 1929. Additional studies of the arts, crafts and customs of the Guiana Indians, with special reference to those of southern British Guiana. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institute. Bulletin 91. Washington DC., USA. Sánchez, M. 1996. Catálogo preliminar comentado de la flora del Medio Caquetá. Estudios en la Amazonia Colombiana XII. Tropenbos- Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia. Schomburgk, M.R. 1848. Reisen in Britisch-Guiana in den Jahren 1840-1844, Teil III. Leipzig, Germany. Schultes, R.E and Raffauf, R.F. 1990. The healing forest. Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia. Historical, Ethno- and Economic Botany Series, Vol. 2. Dioscorides Press, Portland, USA. Seaforth, C.E., Adams, C.D. and Sylvester, Y. 1983. A guide to the medicinal plants of Trinidad and Tobago. Commonwealth Secretariat, London, UK. Siang, S.T. 1983. Use of combined traditional Chinese and Western medicine in the management of burns. Panminerva Medica. 25: 197-202. Sizer, N. 1996. Profit without plunder: reaping revenue from Guyana’s tropical forests without destroying them. World Resources Institute, Washington DC., USA. Snow, B.K. and Snow, D.W. 1972. Feeding niches of hummingbirds in a Trinidad valley. Journal of Animal Ecology 41: 471-485. Sothers, C. and Berry, P.E. 1998. Ebenaceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 4: 704-712. Stahel, G. 1944. De nuttige planten van Suriname. Departement Landbouwproefstation in Suriname. Bulletin No. 59. Paramaribo, Suriname. Steege, H. ter. 1990. A monograph of Wallaba, Mora and Greenheart. Tropenbos Technical Series 5. The Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Stein, B.A. 1998. Campanulaceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 4: 122-129. Steyermark, J.A. 1984. Piperaceae. Flora de Venezuela II (2). Strudwick, J. and G.L. Sobel. 1988. Uses of Euterpe oleracea Mart. in the Amazon Estuary, Brazil. Advances in Economic Botany 6: 225-253. Sullivan, C. 1999. Valuation of non-timber forest products: a case study for three Amerindian villages in Guyana. PhD thesis, Dept. of Economics, Keele University, Staffordshire, UK. Téllez, O. 1998. Dioscoreaceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 4: 686-696. Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The botany of mangroves. Cambridge University Press, New York, USA. Uittien, H. 1932. Sterculiaceae. Flora of Suriname III (1): 34-48. Ulubelen, A., Topcu, G., Mabry, T.J., Dellamonica, G. and Chopin, J. 1982. C- Glycosylflavonoids from Passiflora foetida var. hispida and P. foetida var. hibiscifolia. Journal of Natural Products 45 (1): 103. Verpoorte, R., Kos-Kuyk, E., Tjin a Tsoi, A., Ruigrok, C.L.M, de Jong, G. and Baerheim Svendsen, A. 1983. Medicinal plants of Suriname III. Antimicrobially active alkaloids from Aspidosperma excelsum. Planta Medica 48: 283-289.

347 Non-Timber Forest Products of the North-West District of Guyana Part II

Wessels Boer, J.G. 1965. The indigenous palms of Suriname. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. Whalen, M.D., Costich, D.E. and Heiser, C.B. 1981. Taxonomy of Solanum section Lasiocarpa. Gentes Herbarium 12 (2): 1-129. Wickens, G.E. 1995. Edible nuts. Non-wood Forest Products 5, FAO, Rome, Italy. Wilbert, J. 1976. Manicaria saccifera and its cultural significance among the Warao Indians of Venezuela. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 24 (10): 275- 335. Wurdack, J.J., Morley, T. and Renner, S. 1993. Melastomataceae. Flora of the Guianas 99, Series A, fascicle 13.

348 9. Colour Plates p. 333 1. Large hubudi tree (Anacardium giganteum) spared for its fruits during the felling of the surrounding primary forest

2. Cultivated fruit of the wild soursop (Annona montana)

3. Warao man weaving a fan from acquero straw (Astrocaryum aculeatum)

4. Processing palm hearts from Euterpe oleracea in the canning company, Barima

p. 334 5. House with wall made of balamanni bark (Catostemma commune)

6. Bundles of aerial roots of nibi (Heteropsis flexuosa) lying for sale at the Charity market

7. Weaving strips of nibi (Heteropsis flexuosa) around a frame of kufa (Clusia spp.) in a furniture factory, coastal Guyana

8. Bird trap using the pliable trunk of white yariyari (Duguetia pycnastera)

p. 335 9. Building a roof of dhalebana (Geonoma baculifera)

10. Tying a roof frame with nibi (Heteropsis flexuosa or Thoracocarpus bissectus)

11. Squeezing the poisonous juice from the bitter cassava with a matapi made from mokru (Ischnosiphon arouma)

12. A temporary warishi ('waiari') woven from tutu leaves (Jessenia bataua subsp. oligocarpa)

p. 336 13. Carib clay pot blackened with maporokoñ bark (Inga alba)

14. House with roof and walls of troolie (Manicaria saccifera)

15. Roof of troolie (Manicaria saccifera) from the inside

16. Making fire with an inflorescence (Manicaria saccifera)

p. 337 17. Preparing cigarette paper from the split bark of winakakaralli (Lecythis corrugata subsp. corrugata)

18. Bird cage from the petioles of the ité palm (Mauritia flexuosa)

19. Stripping tibisiri fibre from a young ité palm shoot (Mauritia flexuosa)

20. 'Sarapa' arrow made from wokunse wood (Quiina guiantensis)

p. 338 21. Counting frame made from the petioles of the ité palm (Mauritia flexuosa)

22. Kokerite palm (Maximiliana maripa) spared for its fruits in recently burned farm

23. Baking cassava bread on a fire of Chrysobalanaceae wood

24. Toy boat made of corkwood (Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. officinalis)

p. 339 25. Commercial craft made of corkwood (Pterocarpus officinalis subsp. officinalis)

26. Harvesting the bark of maho (Sterculia pruriens) for lashing material

27. Melting the karamam wax, made from the exudate of manni (Symphonia globulifera)

28. 'Blackening' the twine of the arrow with karaman wax (from Symphonia globulifera)

p. 340 29. House with wall in 'wattle and stave' construction

30. medicinal plant vendor at the Bourda market, Georgetown

31. Non-timber forest products put up for sale, Stabroek market, Georgetown

32. Wildlife harvesting in Kariako, Barama. The land turtle (Geochelone denticula) is one of the main hunted animals.

p. 341

The information on plant names and uses in the North-West District presented in this book was generously provided to me by a large number of people. Their knowledge has been passed over to them by their parents, grandparents, and earlier ancestors, and has given them the opportunity to live in the interior for thousands of years. I sincerely hope that this book may stimulate the younger generations in Guyana to use and cherish this knowledge, and, above all, to be proud of it. The following people have made a substantial contribution to this book:

1. Simeon George, Kariako

2. Sam Lennards (Lower Kaituma)

3. Eugene Daniels (Assakata)

4. Auntie Nora Roberts (Koriabo)

5. (Frankie Abrahams, Moruca)

6. Pupils of the Assakata primary school

7. Auntie Bernie Gomes, with her mother Mrs. Gomes, Acquero

8. Flora Charles, Kariako

9. Irene and Daniel Wilson (Warapoka)

10. Auntie Poto (Santa Rosa)

11. Teacher Dennis John and pupils of the Kokerite primary school, Kariako

12. Ezekiel 'Bossman' Samuels (Kariako)

13. Richard Samuels, Kariako

14. Miss Ethelyn Thomas, Kariako

15. Uncle Mike Gomes, Tukupita Island

16. Calisto 'Carsto' Abrahams, Moruca

17. Alice Samuels, Kariako

18. Pupils of the Santa Rosa primary school

19. Annie Toney, Kariako

20. Lloyd Oselmo, Kabrora

21. Lloyd Savory, Horodeiah