DOCSLIB.ORG

Emergence of the National Idea and National Agitation (1910S–1920S)

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Emergence of the National Idea and National Agitation (1910S–1920S) CHAPTER 2 Emergence of the National Idea and National Agitation (1910s–1920s) The following chapter inspects the emergence of the modernist and national discourse of Turkic intellectuals in late Qing and early Republican Xinjiang. The fact that the national rhetoric was directly inspired by modernization and nation-formation processes that occurred at the turn of the twentieth cen- tury in several other contexts (namely inner China, the Ottoman Empire, and Russo-Soviet Central Asia) again underlines the age-old pivotal function of the modern Xinjiang territory as that of a crossroads of ideologies. By examining the flow of external modernist stimuli into Xinjiang and their coalescence with its local context, this research primarily observes projects in education, pub- lishing, and social organizations. The examination of writings of Nezerghoja Abdusémetov, Abdukhaliq Uyghur, and Memtili Tewpiq illustrates the emer- gence of the national idea, and specifically, the Uyghur national idea, both abroad and in its transfer into the Musulman community. This chapter elab- orates on what has been called the “intellectual interpretation” of national movement and nationalism, which views these phenomena as a search for cul- tural identity and a product mostly of intellectuals who are building on a com- mon linguistic, cultural, and political heritage and who are actively designing educational systems in order to inculcate nationalist values into their youth. It will be illustrated later in the text that the Xinjiang Turkic progressive intel- ligentsia’s literacy, education, awareness of modern developments, and other skills acquired in the first wave of new Xinjiang Turkic schools later enabled these figures to become outspoken communal political leaders. 2.1 The Late Qing (1878–1912) and Early Republican (1912–33) Administrations Simultaneous with the collapse of Yaqup Beg’s regime after the mid-1870s in Xinjiang, a debate over the profitability of the Xinjiang reconquest resounded in Qing military circles. The side in favor of giving up the vast, barren, and restive region, which moreover required regular central subsidy, was represented by Li Hongzhang (李鴻章, 1823–1901), the Governor-General of the Zhili (直隸) province and one of the leading promoters of the maritime © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, ���5 | doi ��.��63/9789004�88096_004 Emergence of the National Idea and National Agitation 61 defense of China. The opposing side represented by Zuo Zongtang (左宗棠, 1812–85), another leading figure of the modernization of the Qing army who gained merit by suppressing Taiping (太平), Nian (捻), and Tungan rebel- lions in the 1860s and 1870s, argued for the reconquest of Xinjiang in order to use the territory as a buffer against the territorial expansion of Great Britain and Russia in the direction of the capital (Millward 2007, 125–27). Ultimately, the reconquest faction won the dispute. Following several years of prepara- tions, Zuo Zongtang’s forces under the field command of Liu Jintang (劉錦棠, 1844–94) took advantage of the decomposition of Yaqup Beg’s regime and any indigenous Muslim defense and reconquered Xinjiang by January 1878. Under the provisions of the Treaty of St. Petersburg (1881), the Qing also recovered the eastern part of the Ili valley, which had been annexed by Russia in 1870. Subsequently, Xinjiang’s administrative status was changed from military pro- tectorate to regular civil province in 1884 (建省 jiànshěng). The new province was divided into prefectures and counties (郡縣 jūnxiàn) staffed exclusively by Han magistrates selected through a state examination system. The high- est ranking official was the newly established Governor (巡撫 xúnfǔ) based in Urumchi, although he formally answered to the Governor-General of Shaanxi and Gansu (陜甘總督 Shǎn-Gān zǒngdū), provinces based in Lanzhou (蘭州; Millward 2007, 124–48).1 Provincialization of Xinjiang brought about substantial changes. Apart from saving funds previously needed to maintain a sizeable military garrison, the new system also terminated the principle of indirect rule through begs and wangs. In order to repopulate the region and expand its taxation base, provin- cial government further facilitated the Han immigration by means of resettle- ment stimulation packages. New administrative divisions generated the need to establish institutes of Confucian learning throughout the province, which was, in turn, expected to enable cultural change in the indigenous popula- tion (化風 huàfēng). With these measures, Xinjiang was eventually to become culturally and demographically homogenous with China proper and, hence, 1 Similar to the reconquest of Xinjiang, its provincialization was a measure which had been debated previously within imperial policy-drafting circles. In an 1820 essay, Qing reformist scholar Gong Zizhen (龔自珍, 1792–1841) first stressed the eventual financial benefits of an initial investment into infrastructure, the resettlement of the populace from China proper, the abolition of military rule, and the introduction of the provincial system. Wei Yuan (魏源, 1794–1856), another influential Qing literatus, was also an advocate of the administrative uni- fication of Xinjiang with China proper by means of Han resettlement and the reclamation of land in the Southern Circuit (Millward 1998, 241–44, Newby 2005, 112–17). Zuo Zongtang himself was convinced of the need to provincialize Xinjiang long before the reconquest (Millward 2007, 132)..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Taiping Rebellion PMUNC 2017
    Taiping Rebellion PMUNC 2017 Princeton Model United Nations Conference 2017 The Taiping Rebellion Chair: Nicholas Wu Director: [Name] 1 Taiping Rebellion PMUNC 2017 CONTENTS Letter from the Chair……………………………………………………………… 3 The Taiping Rebellion:.…………………………………………………………. 4 History of the Topic………………………………………………………… 4 Current Status……………………………………………………………….7 Country Policy……………………………………………………………… 9 Keywords…………………………………………………………………...11 Questions for Consideration………………………………………………...12 Positions:.………………………………………………………………………. 14 2 Taiping Rebellion PMUNC 2017 LETTER FROM THE CHAIR Dear Delegates, Welcome to PMUNC 2017! This will be my fourth and final PMUNC. My name is Nicholas Wu, and I’m a senior in the Woodrow Wilson School, pursuing certificates in American Studies and East Asian Studies. It’s my honor to chair this year’s crisis committee on the Taiping Rebellion. It’s a conflict that fascinates me. The Taiping Rebellion was the largest civil war in human history, but it barely receives any attention in your standard world history class. Which is a shame — it’s a multilayered conflict. There are ethnic, economic, and religious issues at play, as well as significant foreign involvement. I hope that you all find it as interesting as I do. On campus, I’m currently figuring out how to write my thesis, and I’m pretty sure that I’m going to be researching the implementation of Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA). I’m also involved with the International Relations Council, the Daily Princetonian, the Asian American Students Association, and Princeton Advocates for Justice. I also enjoy cooking. Best of luck at the conference! Please don’t hesitate to reach out if you have any questions. You can email me anytime at [email protected].
    [Show full text]
  • Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory Pictures in a Time of Defeat: Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901
    Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory pictures in a time of defeat: depicting war in the print and visual culture of late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/18449 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. VICTORY PICTURES IN A TIME OF DEFEAT Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884-1901 Yin Hwang Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the History of Art 2014 Department of the History of Art and Archaeology School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 2 Declaration for PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the School of Oriental and African Studies concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person.
    [Show full text]
  • Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881
    China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 The East India Company’s steamship Nemesis and other British ships engaging Chinese junks in the Second Battle of Chuenpi, 7 January 1841, during the first opium war. (British Library) ABOUT THE ARCHIVE China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 is digitised from the FO 17 series of British Foreign Office Files—Foreign Office: Political and Other Departments: General Correspondence before 1906, China— held at the National Archives, UK, providing a vast and significant primary source for researching every aspect of Chinese-British relations during the nineteenth century, ranging from diplomacy to trade, economics, politics, warfare, emigration, translation and law. This first part includes all content from FO 17 volumes 1–872. Source Library Number of Images The National Archives, UK Approximately 532,000 CONTENT From Lord Amherst’s mission at the start of the nineteenth century, through the trading monopoly of the Canton System, and the Opium Wars of 1839–1842 and 1856–1860, Britain and other foreign powers gradually gained commercial, legal, and territorial rights in China. Imperial China and the West provides correspondence from the Factories of Canton (modern Guangzhou) and from the missionaries and diplomats who entered China in the early nineteenth century, as well as from the envoys and missions sent to China from Britain and the later legation and consulates. The documents comprising this collection include communications to and from the British legation, first at Hong Kong and later at Peking, and British consuls at Shanghai, Amoy (Xiamen), Swatow (Shantou), Hankow (Hankou), Newchwang (Yingkou), Chefoo (Yantai), Formosa (Taiwan), and more.
    [Show full text]
  • Sino-US Relations and Ulysses S. Grant's Mediation
    Looking for a Friend: Sino-U.S. Relations and Ulysses S. Grant’s Mediation in the Ryukyu/Liuqiu 琉球 Dispute of 1879 Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Chad Michael Berry Graduate Program in East Asian Studies The Ohio State University 2014 Thesis Committee: Christopher A. Reed, Advisor Robert J. McMahon Ying Zhang Copyright by Chad Michael Berry 2014 Abstract In March 1879, Japan announced the end of the Ryukyu (Liuqiu) Kingdom and the establishment of Okinawa Prefecture in its place. For the previous 250 years, Ryukyu had been a quasi-independent tribute-sending state to Japan and China. Following the arrival of Western imperialism to East Asia in the 19th century, Japan reacted to the changing international situation by adopting Western legal standards and clarifying its borders in frontier areas such as the Ryukyu Islands. China protested Japanese actions in Ryukyu, though Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) leaders were not willing to go to war over the islands. Instead, Qing leaders such as Li Hongzhang (1823-1901) and Prince Gong (1833-1898) sought to resolve the dispute through diplomatic means, including appeals to international law, rousing global public opinion against Japan, and, most significantly, requesting the mediation of the United States and former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885). Initially, China hoped Grant’s mediation would lead to a restoration of the previous arrangement of Ryukyu being a dually subordinate kingdom to China and Japan. In later negotiations, China sought a three-way division of the islands among China, Japan, and Ryukyu.
    [Show full text]
  • Comprehensive Encirclement
    COMPREHENSIVE ENCIRCLEMENT: THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY’S STRATEGY IN XINJIANG GARTH FALLON A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy School of Humanities and Social Sciences International and Political Studies July 2018 1 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: FALLON First name: Garth Other name/s: Nil Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: MPhil School: Humanitiesand Social Sciences Faculty: UNSW Canberraat ADFA Title: Comprehensive encirclement: the Chinese Communist Party's strategy in Xinjiang Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASETYPE) This thesis argues that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has a strategy for securing Xinjiang - its far-flung predominantly Muslim most north-western province - through a planned program of Sinicisation. Securing Xinjiang would turna weakly defended 'back door' to China into a strategic strongpointfrom which Beijing canproject influence into Central Asia. The CCP's strategy is to comprehensively encircle Xinjiang with Han people and institutions, a Han­ dominated economy, and supporting infrastructure emanatingfrom inner China A successful program of Sinicisation would transform Xinjiang from a Turkic-language-speaking, largely Muslim, physically remote, economically under-developed region- one that is vulnerable to separation from the PRC - into one that will be substantially more culturally similar to, and physically connected with, the traditional Han-dominated heartland of inner China. Once achieved, complete Sinicisation would mean Xinjiang would be extremely difficult to separate from China. In Xinjiang, the CCP enacts policies in support of Sinication across all areas of statecraft. This thesis categorises these activities across three dimensions: the economic and demographic dimension, the political and cultural dimension, and the security and international cooperationdimension.
    [Show full text]
  • ZUO Zongtang Zuǒ Zōngtáng ​左宗棠 1812–1885 Chinese Military Leader and Statesman
    ◀ Zuglakang Monastery Comprehensive index starts in volume 5, page 2667. ZUO Zongtang Zuǒ Zōngtáng ​左宗棠 1812–1885 Chinese military leader and statesman Zuo Zongtang was a renowned military leader of nineteenth-​­century China; he led the Chi- nese military in the suppression of the Muslim and Nian rebellions (1868– 1880), negotiated with the Russians, and led the war against the French in 1884– 1885. uo Zongtang 左宗棠 (1812– 1885) was born to a scholarly family in Hunan Province; in his early years he studied works in the fields of his- tory, classics, geography, and agriculture. In 1852 he joined the military in the campaign against the Taip- ing Rebellion and soon displayed his military ability and wisdom. He was promoted to governor-​­general of Fujian and Zhejiang provinces in 1863 and remained in this position until 1866. Zuo founded China’s first modern dockyard and naval school in Fuzhou dur- ing this period. In 1866 Zuo was appointed governor- Portrait of General Tso (Zuo Zongtang), by Pavel general of Shaanxi and Gansu provinces to suppress Piassetsky, 1875. Zuo Zongtang, a Chinese states- the Muslim rebels there. Between 1868 and 1880, Zuo man, served during China’s fourteen-​­year-long suppressed Nian rebels in Shandong Province and the Taiping Rebellion. Muslim rebels in the northwestern China and consoli- dated China’s northwestern frontier. He militarily sus- tained China’s negotiation with Russia in recovering of the cotton industry in Xinjiang and the mobiliza- Yili, a Chinese territory occupied by Russia during the tion of soldiers to farm unused land. In 1881 Zuo was Muslim rebellion.
    [Show full text]
  • THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC of EASTERN TURKESTAN and the FORMATION of MODERN UYGHUR IDENTITY in XINJIANG by JOY R. LEE B.S., United
    THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF EASTERN TURKESTAN AND THE FORMATION OF MODERN UYGHUR IDENTITY IN XINJIANG by JOY R. LEE B.S., United States Air Force Academy, 2005 A THESIS submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF ARTS Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2006 Approved by: Major Professor David A. Graff Form Approved Report Documentation Page OMB No. 0704-0188 Public reporting burden for the collection of information is estimated to average 1 hour per response, including the time for reviewing instructions, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding this burden estimate or any other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing this burden, to Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 1204, Arlington VA 22202-4302. Respondents should be aware that notwithstanding any other provision of law, no person shall be subject to a penalty for failing to comply with a collection of information if it does not display a currently valid OMB control number. 1. REPORT DATE 2. REPORT TYPE 3. DATES COVERED 13 SEP 2006 N/A - 4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE 5a. CONTRACT NUMBER The Islamic Republic Of Eastern Turkestan And The Formation Of 5b. GRANT NUMBER Modern Uyghur Identity In Xinjiang 5c. PROGRAM ELEMENT NUMBER 6. AUTHOR(S) 5d. PROJECT NUMBER 5e. TASK NUMBER 5f. WORK UNIT NUMBER 7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER Kansas State University Manhattan, Kansas 9.
    [Show full text]
  • These Sources Are Verifiable and Come From
    0 General aim: To give institutions a report as unbiased, independent and reliable as possible, in order to raise the quality of the debate and thus the relative political decisions. Specific aims: To circulate this report to mass media and in public fora of various nature (i.e. human rights summits) as well as at the institutional level, with the purpose of enriching the reader’s knowledge and understanding of this region, given its huge implications in the world peace process. As is well known, for some years now highly politicised anti-Chinese propaganda campaigns have targeted the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, often spreading groundless, non-verifiable or outright false information, triggering on these bases a sanctions war and causing serious damage to international relations. There is a dramatic lack of unbiased and alternative documentation on the topic, especially by researchers who have lived and studied in China and Xinjiang. This report aims to fill this gap, by deepening and contextualising the region and its real political, economic and social dynamics, and offering an authoritative and documented point of view vis-à- vis the reports that Western politicians currently have at their disposal. The ultimate goal of this documentation is to promote an informed public debate on the topic and offer policymakers and civil society a different point of view from the biased and specious accusations coming from the Five Eyes countries, the EU and some NGOs and think-tanks. Recently some Swedish researchers have done a great job of deconstructing the main Western allegations about the situation in the autonomous region of Xinjiang.
    [Show full text]
  • The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933
    The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933 The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Schluessel, Eric T. 2016. The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:33493602 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933 A dissertation presented by Eric Tanner Schluessel to The Committee on History and East Asian Languages in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of History and East Asian Languages Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts April, 2016 © 2016 – Eric Schluessel All rights reserved. Dissertation Advisor: Mark C. Elliott Eric Tanner Schluessel The Muslim Emperor of China: Everyday Politics in Colonial Xinjiang, 1877-1933 Abstract This dissertation concerns the ways in which a Chinese civilizing project intervened powerfully in cultural and social change in the Muslim-majority region of Xinjiang from the 1870s through the 1930s. I demonstrate that the efforts of officials following an ideology of domination and transformation rooted in the Chinese Classics changed the ways that people associated with each other and defined themselves and how Muslims understood their place in history and in global space.
    [Show full text]
  • Uyghur Papers 5-Dina Doubrovskaya.Pdf
    Uyghur Initiative Papers Uyghur Initiative Papers No. 5 November 2014 Qing Dynasty and Uyghurs in the 19th Century (Controversy over the Question of Re- . conquering Xinjiang) Dina V. Doubrovskaya (Institute of Oriental Studies, Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia) In the second and third quarters of the 19th century, the Qing Empire experi- enced considerable difficulties due to the political crisis caused by the two Opium Wars and the ignominious “opening up” by Western superpowers. Confrontation with Japan over Ryukyu Islands and Taiwan, the Taiping re- bellion and the uprisings of non-Han peoples added up to the Empire’s prob- lems. A bewildered victim of the incursions of European colonizers, and with the Manchu Dynasty enfeebled, China was in need of inner strength and re- solve, as well as external resources to maintain and restore its power over the vast territories of modern Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region, which it lost as a result of Uyghur and Dungan liberation movement in 1864-1878. So let us try to understand why the Qing Empire decided to regain control over Dzungaria and Kashgaria (Eastern Turkestan), which it had lost almost 15 years previously, in spite of the seemingly unfavorable political and eco- nomic situation, because the existence of China within its modern borders is a direct result of the Qing military undertakings of the time. The opinions expressed here are those of the author only and do not represent the Central Asia Program. Uyghur Initiative Papers No. 5, November 2014 First, emperor Qian Long (r. 1736-1795) performed some truly spectacular conquests in Xiyu, and then later generals Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, and Li Hongzhang did much to defend their country during the devastating 1860s and 1870s, recovering the lost territorial acquisitions of Qian Long.
    [Show full text]
  • Interlopers, Rogues, Or Cosmopolitans? Wu Jianzhang and Early Modern Commercial Networks on the China Coast
    Interlopers, Rogues, or Cosmopolitans? Wu Jianzhang and Early Modern Commercial Networks on the China Coast Peter C. Perdue, Yale University Abstract After the First Opium War (1839–1842), British and American merchants negotiated with Chinese officials in Shanghai to work out the framework of the new treaty port regime. One key player in these negotiations was Wu Jianzhang, a Cantonese merchant who became circuit intendant of the Shanghai region. Wu, however, also had links to Cantonese sailors and anti- Qing secret societies. When the Small Swords Society took Shanghai in 1853, he found himself entangled in conflicting responsibilities and networks. Foreign traders and Chinese officials regarded Wu, like other middlemen on the Chinese coast, with a mixture of respect and distrust. Wu’s situation, however, was not unique to the mid-nineteenth century. This article compares Wu to other intermediaries who played similar roles in the sixteenth and late nineteenth centuries, in order to show the ways in which Wu, his predecessors, and those who followed in his footsteps connected China to the wider world by navigating the treacherous waters of diplomacy, war, and commerce. The work of John K. Fairbank, who in the 1950s pioneered the study of such people as Wu Jianzhang, can find new meaning in the twenty-first century, enabling us to understand the transnational implications of China’s local social history. Keywords: Shanghai, Opium War, treaty ports, hong merchants, Canton, Fujian, Taiping rebellion, Small Swords Society, Qing dynasty, China coast, Wu Jianzhang Introduction Wu Jianzhang (ca. 1810–1865), a Cantonese merchant who served as the daotai 道台 (circuit intendant) of Shanghai, barely survived the 1850s.
    [Show full text]
  • History 172/ASLC 146: MODERN CHINA Amherst College, Fall 2016 Tues-Thurs 10:00-11:20
    History 172/ASLC 146: MODERN CHINA Amherst College, Fall 2016 Tues-Thurs 10:00-11:20 Professor Jerry Dennerline Office hours: Tues/Thurs Office: Chapin 12 11:30-12:00, 1:00-2:00 E-mail: [email protected] And Wednesday by appointment Phone: 542-2486 (office hours) Course Materials Available for purchase at Amherst Books and on reserve: Jonathan Spence. The Search for Modern China. 3rd edition, 2013, ONLY. Pei-kai Cheng and Michael Lestz. The Search for Modern China: Documentary Collection, 3rd edition, 2014, ONLY. Additional required readings are either included in a Course Packet, parts I and II, available at the History Department office in Chapin 11, on e-reserve or on line as indicated in the syllabus. The documentary videos are streamed and can be viewed from computers on the Amherst campus; DVD and cassette versions are also on reserve at Frost Library. Course Description and Requirements This course will survey the history of China from 17th to the 21st century through lecture, reading, and discussion. No familiarity with China or previous experience in the study of history is required. Students will develop skills in reading and using documents, interpretive articles, and documentary videos. Class meetings include lectures and discussions of primary sources, articles, and videos. The first requirement is to read the assigned material and view videos before class in preparation for lecture and discussion. If you know that you will be unable to attend a class, inform me of the reason in advance. Regular attendance and completion of all writing assignments is required; repeated unexcused absence will lower the grade; and plagiarism or other serious violation of the honor code will result in failure of the course.
    [Show full text]