1 Racism, Religion and Governmentality In

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

1 Racism, Religion and Governmentality In Racism, religion and governmentality in China the Muslim rebellion in the 19th century Yuehua Dong Field of study: Religion in Peace and Conflict Level: Master Credits: 30 credits Thesis Defense: Spring 2016 Supervisor: Mattias Gardell Department of Theology Uppsala University 1 Abstract: This thesis consists of historical narratives on Muslim rebellion (1864-1877) in Xinjiang together with several parts of theoretical applications on racial-culturalism, nationalism, governmentality and further discussion on colonialism in the 19th century of China. By taking this 14 years’ historical event as a prototype, with analysis on historical archives, thesis has explored lots of issues which reflect ethnic conflicts on religion, racial-culturalism and governmentality on Xinjiang. With discourse analysis as leading method in analyzing original archives, this thesis depicts racial notions as “shengfan (raw barbarian)”, “shufan (cooked barbarian)” as core opinions in rulers’ political colonial view, hence formed Chinese unification and national identity and even influenced on governmentality in Xinjiang in Qing dynasty. And this vigilance of Qing rulers came from a mixed political consideration which combined islamophobia with frontier security issues. The results of the analysis indicate that there are three features from the events within the empiric materials’ analysis: there was strong evidence to present Qing rulers’ political discourse on ethnocentric view also with racial cultural superiority; the formation of Chinese nationalism was changed with enlarging territory; defects in Qing’s governmentality in Xinjiang became a blasting fuse which led to rebellion. By this researching conclusion, this paper provides more inspirations and indications on perspectives like cultural differences, Qing’s governmentality, frontier security and unification thought in rulers since ancient times. These will give more clues to understand ongoing conflict in modern China. Keyword: racial culturalism, nationalism, governmentality, ethnocentric 2 1. Background introduction and topic framing............................................................................ 5 1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5 1.2. Historical events as research scope .............................................................................. 5 1.2.1. Selected events in history as researching subjects ............................................. 5 1.2.2. Historical meanings of these events ..................................................................... 6 1.3. Themes of the research, questions and structure ....................................................... 8 1.3.1. Themes and meanings of the research ................................................................ 8 1.3.2. Researching questions are as below: ................................................................... 8 1.4. Relevance and potential limitation of the study ......................................................... 9 1.4.1. Relevance ............................................................................................................... 9 1.4.2. Delimitation and Theoretical frame .................................................................. 10 2. Method selection and literature review ................................................................................... 12 2.1. Methods and materials resources .............................................................................. 12 2.1.1. Discourse analysis on materials—realities of the rebellion............................. 12 2.1.2. Fictional interviews based on related figures ................................................... 12 2.2. Literature review on the previous studies................................................................. 15 3. Uprising and rebellion in Tongzhi times ................................................................................. 17 3.1. Narrating the core of events ....................................................................................... 17 3.1.1. Time to revenge—Discourse analysis on events ............................................... 17 3.1.2. Factors from China which lead to the revolt .................................................... 17 3.1.3. Situation before uprisings in Xinjiang .............................................................. 20 3.2. Discussion on interviews ............................................................................................. 24 3.2.1. Problematic situation as background ............................................................... 24 3.2.2. The uprising and rebellion ................................................................................. 25 3.2.3. Hesitation of reconquering ................................................................................. 26 4. Analysis on historical events .................................................................................................... 27 4.1. Racism and violence in China in the 19th century .................................................... 27 4.1.1. Cultural violence triangle in Xinjiang .............................................................. 27 4.1.2. Perceptions on racial issues and Qing rule ....................................................... 27 4.2. Ethnic groups’ leaders in gambling game with the royal power ............................ 30 3 4.3. Racism in administration of the Qing government .................................................. 31 4.3.1. Segregation policy in Qing rule in Xinjiang ..................................................... 31 4.3.2. Segregation on administration in Xinjiang ...................................................... 32 4.3.3. Cultural segregation—the key racial discrimination ...................................... 34 4.4. Discussion on segregation policy in Xinjiang ........................................................... 36 4.5. Nationalism and National identity ............................................................................. 39 4.5.1. The changing borders with changing Chinese national identity .................... 39 4.5.2. The concept of “China” ...................................................................................... 42 4.5.3. Discussion on Qing dynasty’s national identification ...................................... 47 4.6. Governmentality in Xinjiang in the 19th century ..................................................... 52 4.6.1. Beg system and Segregation policy in Qing rule .............................................. 52 4.6.2. Muslim state and its ruling structure--a mutant form of governmentality ... 55 4.6.3. The discussion on nationalism in governmentality .......................................... 56 4.6.4. The Qing government’s ruling structure in Xinjiang ..................................... 61 4.7. Further discussion on colonialism and nationalism in Xinjiang............................. 63 5. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 67 4 1. Background introduction and topic framing 1.1. Introduction Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region in the northwest of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and shares borders with eight countries. It is also bordered, to the south, by Tibet. It is a home to a number of ethnic groups including the Uyghur, Han, Kazakhs, Tajiks, Hui, Kyrgyz, and Mongols. More than a dozen autonomous prefectures and counties for minorities are in Xinjiang. It has a documented history of at least 2,500 years and with a succession of peoples (tribes) and empires has taken control over all or parts of this territory. Several civilizations of Asia came across here and left long-lasting marks on the history of this area. Hence these brought a variety of changes on politics, social patterns, and cultures to this region. Before the 21st century, all or part of the region has been ruled or controlled by various states. The Chinese part of central Asia, that is the Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous region, is divided into two unequal parts by Tianshan range: eastern Xinjiang which is mostly desert; and Zhungharia1, which is a grassland steppe in the plains and mountain valleys. Around the mid-19th century, there were only one to two million people lived in this region2. 1.2. Historical events as research scope 1.2.1. Selected events in history as researching subjects After careful observations and considerations, I decide to build up my thesis’s study with scope on an earlier historical period in the 19th century, basically from 1864-1877, the events I select to researching theme are: The Muslim rebellion (1864-1877) in northwest of China and Qing government’s reconquest of Xinjiang (1876–1878). This special period started with an enormous political upheaval that quickly swept the whole 1 Note: also can be spelled as “Zungharia” 2 Note: Under the Qing Dynasty China, its territory covered 10 per cent of the Earth’s land area and became one of the largest empires in history. (Map resource: https://year9historyjoestewart.wordpress.com/2014/09/12/the-physical-features-and- geographic/) 5 Xinjiang in 1864. And this revolt led to the establishment of an independent Muslim state ruled by Yaqub Beg3. This independent state ended up with Yaqub Beg’s death and the Qing government's conquest in 1877. This state
Recommended publications
  • HRWF Human Rights in the World Newsletter Bulgaria Table Of
    Table of Contents • EU votes for diplomats to boycott China Winter Olympics over rights abuses • CCP: 100th Anniversary of the party who killed 50 million • The CCP at 100: What next for human rights in EU-China relations? • Missing Tibetan monk was sentenced, sent to prison, family says • China occupies sacred land in Bhutan, threatens India • 900,000 Uyghur children: the saddest victims of genocide • EU suspends efforts to ratify controversial investment deal with China • Sanctions expose EU-China split • Recalling 10 March 1959 and origins of the CCP colonization in Tibet • Tibet: Repression increases before Tibetan Uprising Day • Uyghur Group Defends Detainee Database After Xinjiang Officials Allege ‘Fake Archive’ • Will the EU-China investment agreement survive Parliament’s scrutiny? • Experts demand suspension of EU-China Investment Deal • Sweden is about to deport activist to China—Torture and prison be damned • EU-CHINA: Advocacy for the Uyghur issue • Who are the Uyghurs? Canadian scholars give profound insights • Huawei enables China’s grave human rights violations • It's 'Captive Nations Week' — here's why we should care • EU-China relations under the German presidency: is this “Europe’s moment”? • If EU wants rule of law in China, it must help 'dissident' lawyers • Happening in Europe, too • U.N. experts call call for decisive measures to protect fundamental freedoms in China • EU-China Summit: Europe can, and should hold China to account • China is the world’s greatest threat to religious freedom and other basic human rights
    [Show full text]
  • Performing Masculinity in Peri-Urban China: Duty, Family, Society
    The London School of Economics and Political Science Performing Masculinity in Peri-Urban China: Duty, Family, Society Magdalena Wong A thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London December 2016 1 DECLARATION I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/ PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 97,927 words. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I confirm that different sections of my thesis were copy edited by Tiffany Wong, Emma Holland and Eona Bell for conventions of language, spelling and grammar. 2 ABSTRACT This thesis examines how a hegemonic ideal that I refer to as the ‘able-responsible man' dominates the discourse and performance of masculinity in the city of Nanchong in Southwest China. This ideal, which is at the core of the modern folk theory of masculinity in Nanchong, centres on notions of men's ability (nengli) and responsibility (zeren).
    [Show full text]
  • ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REPORT December
    Xinjiang Aksu San Jiang Breeding Co., Ltd CDM Biogas Power Generation Project Environmental Impact Report E2027 Public Disclosure Authorized ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REPORT Public Disclosure Authorized December 2007 Public Disclosure Authorized 6XUYH\LQJ3ODQQLQJDQG'HVLJQLQJ5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHRI;LQMLDQJ 3URGXFWLRQ &RQVWUXFWLRQ&RUSV Public Disclosure Authorized 6XUYH\LQJÃ3ODQQLQJÃDQGÃ'HLVJQLQJÃ5HVHDUFKÃ,QVWLWXWHÃRIÃ;LQMLDQJÃ3URGXFWLRQÃÉÃ&RQVWUXFWLRQÃ&RUSVÃ -1-Ã Xinjiang Aksu San Jiang Breeding Co., Ltd CDM Biogas Power Generation Project Environmental Impact Report Content Foreword..................................................................................................................... 7 1General Provisions .................................................................................................... 9 1.1Preparation basis.................................................................................................................9 1.2 Evaluation Principle and Preparation Purpose ..................................................................11 1.3 Evaluation key point and evaluation class ........................................................................12 1.4 Evaluation range and standard..........................................................................................15 1.5 Environmental protection target .......................................................................................18 2. General Situation of Regional Environment .......................................................... 19 2.1
    [Show full text]
  • Trapped in a Virtual Cage: Chinese State Repression of Uyghurs Online
    Trapped in a Virtual Cage: Chinese State Repression of Uyghurs Online Table of Contents I. Executive Summary..................................................................................................................... 2 II. Methodology .............................................................................................................................. 5 III. Background............................................................................................................................... 6 IV. Legislation .............................................................................................................................. 17 V. Ten Month Shutdown............................................................................................................... 33 VI. Detentions............................................................................................................................... 44 VII. Online Freedom for Uyghurs Before and After the Shutdown ............................................ 61 VIII. Recommendations................................................................................................................ 84 IX. Acknowledgements................................................................................................................. 88 Cover image: Composite of 9 Uyghurs imprisoned for their online activity assembled by the Uyghur Human Rights Project. Image credits: Top left: Memetjan Abdullah, courtesy of Radio Free Asia Top center: Mehbube Ablesh, courtesy of
    [Show full text]
  • Forced Labour in East Turkestan: State-Sanctioned Hashar System
    FORCED LABOUR IN EAST TURKESTAN: State -Sanctioned Hashar System World Uyghur Congress | November 2016 WUC Headquarters: P.O. Box 310312 80103 Munich, Germany Tel: +49 89 5432 1999 Fax: +49 89 5434 9789 Email: [email protected] Web Address: www.uyghurcongress.org Copyright © 2016 World Uyghur Congress All rights reserved. The World Uyghur Congress (WUC) is a n international organization that represents the collective interests of the Uyghur people in both East Turkestan and abroad. The principle objective of the WUC is to promote democracy, human rights and freedom for the Uyghur people and use peaceful, nonviolent and democratic means to determine their future. Acting as the sole legitimate organization of the Uyghur people in both East Turkestan and abroad, WUC endeavors to set out a course for the peaceful settlement of the East Turkestan Question through dialogue and negotiation. The WUC supports a nonviolent and peaceful opposition movement against Chinese occupation of East Turkestan and an unconditional adherence to internationally recognized human rights standards as laid down in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It adheres to the principles of democratic pluralism and rejects totalitarianism, religious intolerance and terrorism as an instrument of policy. For more information, please visit our website: www.uyghurcongress.org Cover Photo: Uyghurs performing forced labour under the hashar system in Aksu Prefecture, East Turkestan (Radio Free Asia Uyghur Service). FORCED LABOUR IN EAST TURKESTAN: State-Sanctioned Hashar System EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The importance of the protection of human rights has been trending downward under China’s current leader, Xi Jinping, since he took power in 2013.
    [Show full text]
  • China in 50 Dishes
    C H I N A I N 5 0 D I S H E S CHINA IN 50 DISHES Brought to you by CHINA IN 50 DISHES A 5,000 year-old food culture To declare a love of ‘Chinese food’ is a bit like remarking Chinese food Imported spices are generously used in the western areas you enjoy European cuisine. What does the latter mean? It experts have of Xinjiang and Gansu that sit on China’s ancient trade encompasses the pickle and rye diet of Scandinavia, the identified four routes with Europe, while yak fat and iron-rich offal are sauce-driven indulgences of French cuisine, the pastas of main schools of favoured by the nomadic farmers facing harsh climes on Italy, the pork heavy dishes of Bavaria as well as Irish stew Chinese cooking the Tibetan plains. and Spanish paella. Chinese cuisine is every bit as diverse termed the Four For a more handy simplification, Chinese food experts as the list above. “Great” Cuisines have identified four main schools of Chinese cooking of China – China, with its 1.4 billion people, has a topography as termed the Four “Great” Cuisines of China. They are Shandong, varied as the entire European continent and a comparable delineated by geographical location and comprise Sichuan, Jiangsu geographical scale. Its provinces and other administrative and Cantonese Shandong cuisine or lu cai , to represent northern cooking areas (together totalling more than 30) rival the European styles; Sichuan cuisine or chuan cai for the western Union’s membership in numerical terms. regions; Huaiyang cuisine to represent China’s eastern China’s current ‘continental’ scale was slowly pieced coast; and Cantonese cuisine or yue cai to represent the together through more than 5,000 years of feudal culinary traditions of the south.
    [Show full text]
  • Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881
    China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 The East India Company’s steamship Nemesis and other British ships engaging Chinese junks in the Second Battle of Chuenpi, 7 January 1841, during the first opium war. (British Library) ABOUT THE ARCHIVE China and the Modern World: Imperial China and the West Part I, 1815–1881 is digitised from the FO 17 series of British Foreign Office Files—Foreign Office: Political and Other Departments: General Correspondence before 1906, China— held at the National Archives, UK, providing a vast and significant primary source for researching every aspect of Chinese-British relations during the nineteenth century, ranging from diplomacy to trade, economics, politics, warfare, emigration, translation and law. This first part includes all content from FO 17 volumes 1–872. Source Library Number of Images The National Archives, UK Approximately 532,000 CONTENT From Lord Amherst’s mission at the start of the nineteenth century, through the trading monopoly of the Canton System, and the Opium Wars of 1839–1842 and 1856–1860, Britain and other foreign powers gradually gained commercial, legal, and territorial rights in China. Imperial China and the West provides correspondence from the Factories of Canton (modern Guangzhou) and from the missionaries and diplomats who entered China in the early nineteenth century, as well as from the envoys and missions sent to China from Britain and the later legation and consulates. The documents comprising this collection include communications to and from the British legation, first at Hong Kong and later at Peking, and British consuls at Shanghai, Amoy (Xiamen), Swatow (Shantou), Hankow (Hankou), Newchwang (Yingkou), Chefoo (Yantai), Formosa (Taiwan), and more.
    [Show full text]
  • Portfolio Investment Opportunities in China Democratic Revolution in China, Was Launched There
    Morgan Stanley Smith Barney Investment Strategy The Great Wall of China In c. 220 BC, under Qin Shihuangdi (first emperor of the Qin dynasty), sections of earlier fortifications were joined together to form a united system to repel invasions from the north. Construction of the Great Wall continued for more than 16 centuries, up to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), National Emblem of China creating the world's largest defense structure. Source: About.com, travelchinaguide.com. The design of the national emblem of the People's Republic of China shows Tiananmen under the light of five stars, and is framed with ears of grain and a cogwheel. Tiananmen is the symbol of modern China because the May 4th Movement of 1919, which marked the beginning of the new- Portfolio Investment Opportunities in China democratic revolution in China, was launched there. The meaning of the word David M. Darst, CFA Tiananmen is “Gate of Heavenly Succession.” On the emblem, the cogwheel and the ears of grain represent the working June 2011 class and the peasantry, respectively, and the five stars symbolize the solidarity of the various nationalities of China. The Han nationality makes up 92 percent of China’s total population, while the remaining eight percent are represented by over 50 nationalities, including: Mongol, Hui, Tibetan, Uygur, Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Bouyei, Korean, Manchu, Kazak, and Dai. Source: About.com, travelchinaguide.com. Please refer to important information, disclosures, and qualifications at the end of this material. Morgan Stanley Smith Barney Investment Strategy Table of Contents The Chinese Dynasties Section 1 Background Page 3 Length of Period Dynasty (or period) Extent of Period (Years) Section 2 Issues for Consideration Page 65 Xia c.
    [Show full text]
  • Ming China As a Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, and Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620 Weicong Duan Washington University in St
    Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations Arts & Sciences Winter 12-15-2018 Ming China As A Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, And Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620 Weicong Duan Washington University in St. Louis Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds Part of the Asian History Commons, and the Asian Studies Commons Recommended Citation Duan, Weicong, "Ming China As A Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, And Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620" (2018). Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1719. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds/1719 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts & Sciences at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY Dissertation Examination Committee: Steven B. Miles, Chair Christine Johnson Peter Kastor Zhao Ma Hayrettin Yücesoy Ming China as a Gunpowder Empire: Military Technology, Politics, and Fiscal Administration, 1350-1620 by Weicong Duan A dissertation presented to The Graduate School of of Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2018 St. Louis, Missouri © 2018,
    [Show full text]
  • Cup of Solid Gold) Words By: Yan Fu Music By: Bo Tong in Use: 1911-1912 China's First Official Anthem Was Used in the Last Months of the Qing Dynasty
    CHINA-NATIONALANTHEMS – 1911-1912 – INFO Die offiziellen Links von „nationalanthems“ (.htm und .mid) funktionieren leider nicht hier auf dem PDF – 18. MÄRZ 2012 Ruth Kissling de Bâle-Suisse Malerin – Anthems of China 鞏金甌 " " "Gong Jin'ou" (Cup of Solid Gold) Words by: Yan Fu Music by: Bo Tong In use: 1911-1912 China's first official anthem was used in the last months of the Qing dynasty. The anthem was by Bo Tong, a high-ranking officer of the Imperial Guard and Yan Fu, commander of the Qing Navy. Guo Cengxin, Master of Ceremonies, made some minor adjustments and arranged the music. The anthem was officially adopted on October 4, 1911, but was used for centuries beforehand in official Qing dyansty functions, going back to when Emperor Kang Xi was crowned in 1675. It's official use as China's royal anthem was shortlived, as the Wuchang Uprising, meant to end China's imperial era, started six days after the anthem was officially adopted. The Republic of China was created on January 1, 1912 and the emporer abdicated on February 12. As such, the anthem did not gain much notoriety in China. The primary purpose of the anthem was to advocate the Qing Dynasty and create a sense of well-being among the Chinese. This song was banned in Communist China, but the ban is now lifted (probably after 1978). "Gong Jin'ou" was made the anthem again in 1917 for 12 days when a former Qing general started a coup and reinstated Qing Dynasty. Since this was used as a praise to the emporer, this is also a royal anthem.
    [Show full text]
  • Making the Palace Machine Work Palace Machine the Making
    11 ASIAN HISTORY Siebert, (eds) & Ko Chen Making the Machine Palace Work Edited by Martina Siebert, Kai Jun Chen, and Dorothy Ko Making the Palace Machine Work Mobilizing People, Objects, and Nature in the Qing Empire Making the Palace Machine Work Asian History The aim of the series is to offer a forum for writers of monographs and occasionally anthologies on Asian history. The series focuses on cultural and historical studies of politics and intellectual ideas and crosscuts the disciplines of history, political science, sociology and cultural studies. Series Editor Hans Hågerdal, Linnaeus University, Sweden Editorial Board Roger Greatrex, Lund University David Henley, Leiden University Ariel Lopez, University of the Philippines Angela Schottenhammer, University of Salzburg Deborah Sutton, Lancaster University Making the Palace Machine Work Mobilizing People, Objects, and Nature in the Qing Empire Edited by Martina Siebert, Kai Jun Chen, and Dorothy Ko Amsterdam University Press Cover illustration: Artful adaptation of a section of the 1750 Complete Map of Beijing of the Qianlong Era (Qianlong Beijing quantu 乾隆北京全圖) showing the Imperial Household Department by Martina Siebert based on the digital copy from the Digital Silk Road project (http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/II-11-D-802, vol. 8, leaf 7) Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6372 035 9 e-isbn 978 90 4855 322 8 (pdf) doi 10.5117/9789463720359 nur 692 Creative Commons License CC BY NC ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0) The authors / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2021 Some rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, any part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise).
    [Show full text]
  • Download Article
    Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, volume 165 Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Economics, Management, Law and Education (EMLE 2020) Research on the Influences of Tourism on the Process of Local Urbanization in Western Regions Taking Heavenly Pond in Tianshan Scenic Spot of Xinjiang Province as an Example Min Liao1,* Tao Zhang1 1City University of Macau, Macau, China *Corresponding author. Email:[email protected] ABSTRACT In recent years, urbanization research has gradually become a research hotspot in academia, but there are few literatures on the influences of tourism development on urbanization in the western region. By consulting the relevant literature and materials of Heavenly Pond in Tianshan Scenic Spot in Xinjiang and Fukang City, this paper studies the regional and industrial reallocation of resources in Fukang City due to tourism development, the transfer of surplus rural labor force to urban employment, and the changes in space, economy and society based on the current situation of the research area by interview method. The research results show that tourism has a significant impact on population urbanization, economic urbanization, social and cultural urbanization and environmental development in Fukang City. Keywords: tourism, western region, urbanization process, Heavenly Pond in Tianshan Scenic Spot Spot on the urbanization process of Fukang City based I. INTRODUCTION on urbanization theory and stakeholder theory. In the academic circles, there is a general consensus that the development of tourism has a significant role in II. LITERATURE REVIEW promoting the process of local urbanization, which is based on the national level. However, China has a vast A. Research status in foreign countries territory, the economic development of each region is In the early 1970s, the level of urbanization in significantly different, and the development stage of developed countries in Europe and the United States urbanization process is also different.
    [Show full text]