Ecotoxicology of Pesticides on Natural Enemies of Olive Groves. Potential of Ecdysone Agonists for Controlling Bactrocera Oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

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Ecotoxicology of Pesticides on Natural Enemies of Olive Groves. Potential of Ecdysone Agonists for Controlling Bactrocera Oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae) UNIVERSIDAD POLITÉCNICA DE MADRID Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos Ecotoxicology of pesticides on natural enemies of olive groves. Potential of ecdysone agonists for controlling Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae) TESIS DOCTORAL Paloma Bengochea Budia Ingeniera Agrónoma 2012 DEPARTAMENTO DE PRODUCCIÓN VEGETAL: BOTÁNICA Y PROTECCIÓN VEGETAL Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos Ecotoxicology of pesticides on natural enemies of olive groves. Potential of ecdysone agonists for controlling Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae) TESIS DOCTORAL Paloma Bengochea Budia Ingeniera Agrónoma Directora: Mª del Pilar Medina Vélez Dra. Ingeniera Agrónoma Madrid, 2012 Tribunal nombrado por e Magfco. Y Excmo. Sr rector de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, el día de de 2012. Presidente D. Vocal D. Vocal D. Vocal D. Secretario D. Suplente D. Suplente D. Realizada la lectura y defensa de la Tesis el día de de 2012 en Madrid, en la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Agrónomos. Calificación: El Presidente Los Vocales El Secretario A mis padres, a mi hermano y a mis abuelas Gracias…. A todos aquellos que me habéis apoyado y/o ayudado durante antes y durante la elaboración de esta Tesis…espero no olvidarme de ninguno… A la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, porque sin la beca que me concedieron no hubiese realizado esta Tesis, y sobre todo… A todo el personal de la Unidad de Protección de Cultivos, sin cuyo apoyo y ayuda no hubiese podido realizar este trabajo ni sobrevivir a todos los “problemillas” surgidos durante estos años. Por todas esas comidas terapéuticas en las que arreglamos el mundo, nos reímos y nos desahogamos. Por vuestra amistad. Gracias… A mi tutora, Pilar Medina, por su apoyo incondicional y su ánimo en todos estos años. Por estar siempre dispuesta a ayudarme y aclarar todas mis dudas existenciales. Por animarme a escribir esta Tesis en inglés, que ha sido un reto. Por dejarme hacer millones de cursos y llevarme a tantos Congresos. Por escucharme cuando lo he necesitado. A Flor, Ángeles, Elisa y Pedro, por transmitirnos a todos vuestro entusiasmo por la entomología, vuestras sugerencias y aportaciones. A Luis, por tener siempre a punto a mis “pobres” Psyttalias para los ensayos. A mis compañeros de laboratorio: los siguieron otros caminos: Sara, Guille, Edu, Raquel, Cherre (tu consejo para las larvas de la Ceratitis no tiene precio) y con los que sigo codo con codo compartiendo horas de laboratorio y se han convertido en buenos amigos: al incondicional equipo desayuno con los que empezar el día es otra cosa, y a los que se unen de vez en cuando: Mar, Yara, Nacho, Andrea, Jader, Agus y Rosa. A Fermín, que además es un gran apoyo y un grandísimo amigo; porque siempre está dispuesto a echarme una mano y a escucharme; por todos los momentos en que en el laboratorio nos hemos reído a más no poder (la fuga de las chrysopas, el pobre piticli…) A Román Zurita, el “guardián de los campos”, por resolver todos los problemas tecnológicos que nos surgen y por habernos ayudado a transformar la enfermería del águila en el invernadero en que mis olivos se han refugiado durante estos años. A Ángela Alonso y Ezequiel Cabrera, que me ayudaron a identificar los hongos que aparecía en la dieta de las pobres Bactroceras. Al equipo INIA, especialmente a Manuel por resolver las dudas que me surgían sobre el olivar y a Ismael, por ayudarme con todas mis dudas estadísticas. A Jose Luis Porcuna y Mamen Alaurín, por permitirme visitar en insectario de Silla y darme las primeras calabazas para comenzar mi cría de Aspidiotus. A Manuel Ruiz-Torres y Bárbara Castellanos, que me mandaron aceitunas desde Jaén y Cáceres para poder hacer mis ensayos. A Andrew Jessup, de la sede de la FAO/IAEA de Seibersdorf, por dejarme visitar las instalaciones para aprender cómo criar la mosca y enviarnos material siempre que necesitábamos… y aun así la mosca se resistió… A Carmen Calleja por resolver las dudas moleculares. A Ian, Mª José, Olivier, Pieter y a todos aquellos que han contribuido a que esta Tesis tenga unas pocas menos de faltas de ortografía… A Josep Jacas y Alberto Urbaneja por aceptarme dos meses en el IVIA. A todas las personas que conocí allí y que me acogieron como una más: Laura, Francesc, Sara, Alejandro, Óscar, Óscar, Pablo, Joel, Elena, María, Paco, Miquel, Consuelo… (mil perdones si me olvido de alguien). A Tati, que me introdujo en el mundo de los ácaros y además fue un gran apoyo el tiempo que estuve allí. A Pili, Poli, César y Helga que me adoptaron para ir a San Sebastián. Moltes gracies a tots! A Guy Smagghe por acogerme por dos veces en la Universidad de Gante y permitirme introducirme en el “mundo molecular”. A todos aquellos que me ayudaron en el laboratorio el primer año, el segundo o los dos y que con paciencia me traducían las conversaciones en dutch: Marteen, Rick, Didier, Patrick, Luck, Peter, Dorin, Ivan, Hanneke, Jisheng, Ruben, Moises, Astrid, Sara… (y alguno más de los que espero me perdonen pero se me ha olvidado el nombre…). A Jochem, el “spanishsitter”, que además intentó ayudarme a distinguir los Chilocorus de las Chilocoras (aunque no tuviésemos mucho éxito), a Pieter, por los buenos momentos, y sobre todo a Olivier: sin tu ayuda (y vigilancia) quién sabe qué habría salido de las PCR, que al llegar a Gante me parecían máquinas dificilísimas de entender. Gracias por enseñarnos Flandes y compartir tantos ratos buenos con nosotros. Dankjewel! A Marta y de nuevo a Fermín, el resto del “spanish team”, porque sin vosotros las estancias en Gante hubiesen sido muy diferentes y probablemente menos divertidas. Por haberme hecho poner cada mañana al mal tiempo buena cara (en el sentido más literal de la frase). A todos los jolgorianos, con quienes paso tan buenos momentos sea donde sea A Eva, Marta, Juli, Jesús, Eva, Isa e Irene, por una amistad que viene de lejos. A mis frijos, Cris y Ángeles, porque son un apoyo incondicional pese a la distancia. A Ana, Bea y Marta, que me animaron tanto a seguir con esta beca. A Yuse, Sergio, Bea, Eva, Sergio y demás agrónomos. A Sara, Susi, Berta y Gema, mis compis agronómicas desde el primer día de carrera. A Miguel, Cris, Alberto, Elena, Inés, Irene, Yoli, Mariano, Javi y demás ruteros con los que siempre parece que he quedado ayer aunque pueda haber pasado un año. A Ceci, Freya, Vero y Vera, las amigas al otro lado del charco. A mis padres y mi hermano. Por haberme animado a realizar el doctorado cuando yo no tenía las cosas muy claras, pero sobre todo por su gran apoyo diario y su cariño. A mis abuelas, que son todo un ejemplo, y al resto de mi familia. La paciencia es la madre de la ciencia… Index Index INDEX i RESUMEN vii SUMMARY ix 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The olive tree 1 1.1.2 The origin of the crop 2 1.1.3 Geographical distribution 3 1.1.4 Importance of the crop 3 1.1.4.1 Economic importance 4 1.1.4.2 Social importance 4 1.1.4.3 Environmental importance 5 1.1.5 Olive growing in Spain 5 1.1.6 Pests and diseases: characteristics of the most important pests and diseases of olive groves 6 1.1.6.1 The olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) 10 1.1.6.2 The olive moth (Prays oleae) 14 1.1.6.3 The black scale (Saissetia oleae) 15 1.1.6.4 The olive leaf spot (Spilocaea oleagina) 16 1.2 Control of pests and diseases 17 1.2.1 Integrated Pest Management 18 1.2.2 Organic farming 21 1.2.3 Integrated Protection in olive groves 23 1.2.4 Organic olive farming 28 1.3 Side-effects of pesticides on non-target organisms 28 1.4 Natural enemies used in the experiments 30 1.4.1 Psyttalia concolor 30 1.4.2 Chilocorus nigritus 35 i Index 2. OBJECTIVES 41 3. GENERAL MATERIALS AND METHODS 43 3.1 Environmental conditions of insect rearing and laboratory experiments 43 3.2 Insect rearing 44 3.2.1 Psyttalia concolor 44 3.2.1.1 Mass-rearing of Ceratitis capitata 45 3.2.1.1.1 Adults’ cage 45 3.2.1.1.2 Eggs handling 45 3.2.1.1.3 Larvae rearing 46 3.2.1.2 Mass-rearing of Psyttalia concolor 47 3.2.1.2.1 Parasitization 47 3.2.2 Chilocorus nigritus 48 3.2.2.1 Mass-rearing of scales 49 3.2.3 Bactrocera oleae 51 3.3 Common characteristics of the experiments 52 3.4 Parameters evaluated 54 3.4.1 Mortality 54 3.4.2 Life span 54 3.4.3 Effects on reproductive parameters 54 3.5 Statistical analysis 56 ii Index 4. LETHAL AND SUBLETHAL EFFECTS OF KAOLIN PARTICLE FILMS AND COPPER-BASED COMPOUNDS ON THE NATURAL ENEMIES PSYTTALIA CONCOLOR AND CHILOCORUS NIGRITUS 59 4.1 Introduction and objectives 59 4.2 Material and methods 60 4.2.1 Chemicals 60 4.2.1.1 Kaolin 62 4.2.1.2 Copper 64 4.2.2 Laboratory tests 65 4.2.2.1 Residual contact on glass surfaces 65 4.2.2.2 Oral toxicity 67 4.2.2.3 Treatment of parasitized pupae 68 4.2.2.4 Treatment of the parasitization surface 69 4.2.3 Extended-laboratory experiments 71 4.2.3.1 Treatment of olive tree leaves 71 4.2.3.2 Treatment of the parasitization surface and olive tree leaves 72 4.2.4 Semi-field experiment 73 4.2.5 Dual choice and no-choice experiments 75 4.2.5.1 Psyttalia concolor 75 4.2.5.2 Chilocorus nigritus 76 4.3 Results 79 4.3.1 Direct mortality 79 4.3.2 Life span 80 4.3.3 Emergence 84 4.3.4 Beneficial capacity 85 4.3.5 Dual choice and no choice experiments 88 4.3.5.1 Psyttalia concolor 88 4.3.5.2 Chilocorus nigritus 92 iii Index 4.4 Discussion 95 4.4.1 Lethal and sublethal effects of kaolin, Bordeaux mixture and copper oxychloride 96 4.4.2 Effects of kaolin treated surfaces in dual choice and no- choice experiments 102 4.5 Appendix (tables of results) 104 5.
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