South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research Contents

Minister’s Foreword...... 1

WRC CEO’s Foreword...... 5

Introduction...... 9

Informing policy and decision making...... 19

The water research journey of transformation...... 49

Transforming South African society...... 67

Empowering communities...... 85

New products and services for economic development...... 105

Sustainable development solutions...... 139

Human capital development...... 169 The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Water Research Commission, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products or Prospects 2014 and beyond...... 181 services constitute endorsement or recommendation. Abbreviations...... 190 © 2014 Water Research Commission All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without written permission of the copyright holder. Editor: Lani van Vuuren Authors: Inga Jacobs, Mitzi du Plessis, Kim Trollip and Lani van Vuuren Design, layout and typesetting: HPG Advertising Printed in the Republic of South Africa ISBN 978-1-4312-0577-6 SP 77/14 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research Minister’s Foreword

The role of R&D in solving South Africa’s water challenges. Water is life: Sanitation is dignity. The water that quenches your thirst in Siyabuswa, Mpumalanga and Qunu, Eastern Cape, does the same for communities in Sandton, Gauteng and Bishopscourt, Cape Town, and of course countrywide. Water does not discriminate.

It is without a doubt the research, undertaken those standards. Since then, the country has by the Water Research Commission (WRC) and made satisfactory progress with regard to its network of partners and experts that has improving access to water supply: It reached informed our many water legislation and water universal access to an improved water source management successes in South Africa over in urban areas, and in rural areas the share of the past two decades. those with access increased from 66% to 79% from 1990 to 2010. After the end of apartheid, South Africa’s newly elected government inherited huge We can look back on the past 20 years with services backlogs with respect to access to great pride. Today we stand on the shoulders water supply and sanitation. About 15 million of giants who pioneered democratic South people were without safe water supply and Africa’s water legislation. We undertake to over 20 million without adequate sanitation continue this proud tradition of building upon Minister of Water and Sanitation, services. The government thus made a strong the solid foundations that had been put in Nomvula Mokonyane commitment to high service standards and to place. high levels of investment subsidies to achieve 1 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Minister’s Foreword

The demands on South Africa’s water research and development initiatives. The We require of the WRC continued assistance resources are growing as a result of population initiatives supported by the WRC have been in strategic identification of needs in the growth rate, rapid urbanisation, economic of importance to our water sector, providing water sector and we continue to commit to development, demand for higher levels of the scientific basis for the development of new investing in knowledge creation, transfer and service and as aquatic eco-systems are policies and strategies as well as process- and dissemination in strategic research areas. negatively impacted and require rehabilitation. product-directed technologies. In addressing the water and sanitation Nomvula Mokonyane challenges in South Africa, research plays a The DWS recommits to ensuring that the WRC Minister of Water and Sanitation primary role, because the decision-making remains at the cutting edge of water-related that’s based on scientific research is what’s research in South Africa. going to be sustainable going into the future. Looking ahead New ideas and innovations informed by research and development (R&D) in partnership The recent renaming of the Department with the WRC will be welcomed so that we indicates our intention to promote integrated can continue to break new ground informed by approaches to meeting South Africa’s societal science and technology. and water-sector needs. In the first week of August 2014 we convened a two-day Summit The Department of Water and Sanitation where all stakeholders in the water family came (DWS), as the WRC’s shareholder, works together and defined our working relationships. closely with the WRC to provide the sector with knowledge and capacity. This is focused In order to ensure the delivery of water and on ensuring sustainable management of water sanitation services to all South Africans, the resources and enhancing water services. Department is charged with the responsibility of integrating its work, through infrastructure The role of research development for the eradication of backlogs and sustained delivery of quality services to the South Africa, during the past twenty years of people of South Africa. To facilitate effective democracy has seen a series of factors that and timely investment, a comprehensive reshaped the water science and technology investment framework for the water and The WRC has – during the 20 years landscape. sanitation sector is being developed. of democracy – mobilised the development of research expertise The Department depends upon the WRC and Capital investment in new water and sanitation over a wide range of disciplines, its network of partners and experts to continue infrastructure for the entire value chain including to contribute towards improving the quality the refurbishment of existing infrastructure over resulting in a significant expansion and the capacity of South Africa’s research the next ten years is projected to require an and upgrading of expertise in the base and its ability to undertake water related estimated R670 billion. South African water sector. WRC CEO, Dhesigen Naidoo, WRC Executive Manager, Dr Inga Jacobs, Water and Sanitation Minister, Nomvula Mokonyane, 2 Acting Director-General, Trevor Balzer and Deputy Minister, Pamela Tshwete at the National Water Summit in 2014. 3 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

WRC CEO’s Foreword

Democracy in action: improving people’s lives through water research Access to water was historically dominated by those with access to land, as well as political and economic power. In 1994, we inherited a South Africa with an antiquated water law derived from a history of conquest and expansion. Inevitably, water under apartheid was used in the interests of the privileged class and the white minority.

In the twenty years since, the world has become as the continent with the strongest average a remarkably different place. South Africa has growth rate, albeit it from a lower baseline, but been through a rollercoaster ride of divided continues to show the promise of sustainable experiences. The black euphoria of liberation in growth despite the lukewarm global recovery. 1994 combined with cautious optimism among the white folk was a cocktail that characterised The story of South Africa during this period the start of our fledgling democracy. Over time of time is reflected by the story of water we experienced galvanising of the South African resources, water use and sanitation, and “rainbow nation” under the stewardship of Tata, in particular our water laws. South Africa’s former President Nelson Mandela, arguably one antiquated water law, embodied in the 1956 of the greatest leaders in human history. Water Act, was in force in 1994 and its effects were humiliating to the majority of our The world has seen leading economies people. We could not allow such a situation to Dhesigen Naidoo, undergo severe challenges. We’ve seen the continue, especially against the ever-present Water Research Commission CEO rise of the economies of the South, significantly background of our Constitution and in the China, India and Brazil leading a shift in the context of a democracy that was struggled for global economic balance. Africa has emerged so hard and for so long. 4 5 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | CEO’s Foreword

Deeply rooted in South African At the dawn of democracy in 1994, it was the and carefully define and redefine the role Climate change has the potential to reduce invariably complex, inter-disciplinary problems society, the WRC not only endeavours late Prof Kader Asmal who was called upon of the WRC in the water knowledge value food production and the availability of potable and invests in knowledge creation, transfer and to address the water services challenges chain. Critical to this is how we complement water, with consequences for migration dissemination. to ensure that its commissioned inherited from apartheid. As Minister of Water other players playing in this chain and how patterns and levels of conflict. South Africa is research remains real and relevant to Affairs, Prof. Asmal brought to the water we support each other through various particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate Futures planning for the water sciences the country’s water scene, but that sector the first real legislative framework for partnerships and other agreements. change on health, livelihoods, water and food, the knowledge generated from this comprehensive water management in South with a disproportionate impact on the poor, The WRC continually reviews its research research contributes positively to Africa. This resulted in various successful water In nearly every facet of life, advances are being especially women and children. While adapting agenda through an objective and transparent management initiatives, policies and strategies. made in building an inclusive society, rolling to these changes, industries and households process. Regular stakeholder consultation uplifting our communities, reducing The WRC was a proud and crucial role-player back the shadow of history and enabling have to reduce their negative impact on the ensures appropriate prioritisation of water inequality and growing our economy in these efforts, providing the science behind opportunities for all. Access to services has environment. Research will continue to play a research in South Africa; it also ensures that while safeguarding our natural the decisions. We should not forget that it been broadened, the economy has been crucial role in climate mitigation and adaptation. potential areas for research synergy and resources. was the new water law, based on solid WRC stabilised and a non-racial society has begun collaboration as well as knowledge gaps and research in preceding years, that spearheaded to emerge. Millions who were previously Science is breaking new frontiers in lowering intersections are identified. the recognition of the concept of “the excluded have access to education, water, the cost of water purification. environment as a prime water user”. electricity, health care, housing and social Thus our new impact areas for 2014 and security. The role of the WRC in the water beyond are: ‘informing policy and decision South Africa had to make fundamental policy knowledge value chain making’, ‘empowering communities’, changes. Over the last two decades, led by To accelerate progress, deepen democracy ‘transforming South African society’, the Ministers of Water, we have brought about and build a more inclusive society, South Africa The WRC is South Africa’s premier funding ‘new products and services for economic the National Water Policy and new legislation, must translate political emancipation into socio- agency dedicated to water research. The development’, ‘sustainable development in particular, the National Water Services Act economic well-being for all. It is up to all South strategic approach of the WRC focuses on options’, and ‘human capital development in of 1997 and the National Water Act of 1998. Africans to fix the future, starting today. promoting integrated approaches to meeting the water science sector’(i.e. capacity building). We have transformed organisations; changed South Africa’s societal and water-sector mind-sets; and changed attitudes! New horizons: regional cooperation, R&D needs, providing integrated solutions The WRC and its network of partners will forge climate change and the frontiers of to the complex, inter-disciplinary problems ahead in the effort to realise the goals of the Research to policy: exploring issues and science facing the water sector, encouraging strategic National Development Plan 2030 and a future clarifying strategies identification of needs in the water sector and water prosperous South Africa that could boast Several of South Africa’s challenges can only investing in knowledge creation, transfer and sustainable economic growth enabled by water The impact of the WRC’s research is now be addressed through regional cooperation. dissemination in strategic research areas. security, while simultaneously guaranteeing a benchmarked in terms of policy uptake, in This is true of the water sector too. While dignified quality of life for all through universal terms of broader public dissemination and South Africa is a water-scarce country, several By delivering on these strategic goals the safe water and sanitation access. understanding of trends in water research neighbouring countries have abundant supply. WRC has emerged as one of the key research, and development (R&D) in South Africa and There are other areas in which complementary development and innovation leaders in the Dhesigen Naidoo, how it compares to international standards national endowments offer opportunities for South African water sector. This publication Water Research Commission CEO, and trends. Efforts are made to continuously mutually beneficial cooperation. demonstrates how over the past 20 years of democracy, the WRC provides solutions to 6 7 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Introduction

“I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can rest only for a moment, for with freedom comes responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk is not yet ended.” Nelson Mandela, “Long Walk to Freedom”

These, the immortal words of our late former momentous occasion presented an opportunity President Nelson Mandela and founding father for us to reflect, not only on how our freedom of South Africa’s democracy, were brought and democracy were achieved, but also on the to life in 2014, when all South Africans were progress we have made over the past 20 years afforded the opportunity to take a proverbial in the delivery of water science to South Africa. rest and reflect on what freedom and democracy means to them, as we ushered in As we focus on the benefits of freedom South Africa’s celebratory year of 20 years of we should also reflect on the strides we Freedom and Democracy. have made in achieving the vision of a better life for all. Much has changed since For the Water Research Commission (WRC), 1994, and similarly, the pre-1994 water and South Africa’s premier national funding agency sanitation landscape has undergone a major dedicated to water and related R&D, this transformation.

8 9 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Introduction

The state of water and In the homeland areas particularly, these In addition to the inequalities in land ownership capacity gap and the immense challenge of municipal services were often non-existent. and municipal services, the state of water in transforming the education and training system sanitation pre-1994 In black urban areas, if they did exist they often pre-1994 South Africa was also influenced by to one capable of producing the skills required did not meet basic needs and were intermittent a range of other sectors and services most by a rapidly growing economy. Water flows through human society and its in nature. It was estimated that at the time of notably education and South Africa’s foreign settlement. Yet, in many parts of South Africa the elections in 1994 at least 12 million South policy, to mention only a few. In the water sector specifically, most water and as a result of apartheid spatial patterns, this Africans did not have access to potable water. electricity sector staff are employed in flow was redirected and/or interrupted as a The lack of basic services contributed to high Following the Bantu Education Act of 1953, 1) technical and trade workers result of resettlement projects that moved incidences of waterborne diseases such as government instituted racially segregated 2) professional 3) clerical & administrative non-white South Africans from the centre diarrhoea and cholera. education and per capita spending on black workers and 4) machinery operators and of town to the outskirts, and thus further education was held at only one-tenth of drivers. The majority of vacancy rates from work and affordable amenities. In rural Although the legislation governing access to spending on white education. According are found in the ‘Technicians and Trade areas, resettlement had agriculturally related water in South Africa was not, in itself, overtly to the Presidency’s 20-Year Review, the Workers’ category level (46%), followed by outcomes, and involved changes in land racist, access to water was linked to ownership apartheid regime actively sought to make black the ‘Professionals’ level (20%) and lastly the allocation and land tenure. Resettlement left of land through the concept of riparian rights, students only fit for unskilled and semi-skilled ‘Elementary Workers’ level (12%). Economic people in their new settlement situations with and ‘private’ ownership of groundwater or occupations. growth has led to an increased demand for a less arable and/or grazing land, and further small tributaries found on or under private land. skills resource base, especially in the fields of from their land and from wood and water. Race-based access to land therefore resulted The implications for the water and sanitation engineering, technology and artisans, and it is in race-based access to water, and the natural sector was that a predominantly white and expected that demand will continue to outstrip Services designed to promote agricultural resources of the country were concentrated in male professional cohort presided over the supply. production in the new setting were poor the hands of a small, white minority. water R&D community. Black schools had poor and soon collapsed, leaving people unable facilities compared to white schools, usually In the water services domain there is an to continue within the new production The black population in South Africa suffered, without electricity, water, sanitation, libraries, increasing demand for civil, mechanical, regime. These spatial changes involved therefore, under a double deprivation in laboratories or sports fields. Moreover, little chemical and electrical engineers, hydrologists, Workers at De Hoop Dam. In the water sector there with resettlement brought about changes in relation to water: lack of water services was or no career guidance as to the opportunities hydraulic specialists, microbiologists, is increasing demand for various technical and people’s access to resources. The apartheid compounded by a lack of access to water in the water and sanitation sector were construction project managers, technical scientific skills. government forced the black majority onto less for economic purposes, including irrigated communicated to black schools. Black project managers, process controllers and than one quarter of the land, through a variety agriculture. New houses and residential teachers were often under-qualified and poorly technicians. However, while employers are able of legislative instruments. The most notorious sites were significantly smaller than before trained particularly in mathematics and science. to identify the occupations that are in demand of these was the 1913 Land Act, under which resettlement, with temporary structures there seems to be very little intervention at least 3 million black South Africans were becoming de facto permanent homes for Black students had limited access to quality in terms of developing continuous training forcibly resettled. resettlers in a number of cases. Compensation higher education and were prohibited from programmes for employees. for lost land or resources has by and large attending so-called white universities except In pre-1994 South Africa, most black South been inadequate and often very slow, making for the University of South Africa (UNISA) and The institutionalisation of apartheid generated Africans were not provided with access to it even more difficult for people to get back on the Natal Medical School. Remnants of the resistance and activism. In 1955, the Freedom In 1994 at least 12 million people did not have basic municipal services such as clean water, their feet. apartheid education and training system still Charter was adopted as a vision for a access to safe water supply. sanitation, refuse collection and electricity. linger on today in the form of the skills and democratic, non-sexist and non-racial 10 11 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Introduction

“Along the miles of steel that span my South Africa. On 9 August 1956, a diverse were devastated. South Africa was ostracised foundation for a democratic and inclusive state The post-apartheid government also developed land threadbare children stand group of more than 20 000 women marched internationally, and labelled as a pariah state, founded on the values of human dignity, human several key strategies aimed at reducing to the Union Buildings to demand the abolition with the United Nations General Assembly rights, freedom, non-racialism, non-sexism poverty and socio-economic inequality through knees ostrich-bulbous on their reedy of the pass laws and other discriminatory laws. condemning South African racial discrimination and the rule of law. The next step for the meeting people’s basic needs for social legs, their empty hungry hands lifted Indeed, apartheid policies, which facilitated the as “reprehensible and repugnant to human democratic government was to work towards security, education, employment, housing, as if in prayer.” movement of able bodied black men into the dignity” by a vote of 95 to 1. reconciliation and social cohesion and ensure infrastructure and basic services. These Dennis Brutus, 1962 urban environment in order to provide a ready that mechanisms were put in place to deal include a housing programme, land reform, labour pool, lead to a disproportionate number As a result of this, South Africa’s water foreign with the legacy of apartheid and redress past electrification, a community based public of women and women-headed households in policy was also limited to project-based imbalances. The state also faced challenges in works programme, a primary school nutrition under-developed rural areas. bilateral agreements. In fact the Southern terms of integrating the country into a rapidly programme, a welfare programme, a poverty African Development Community’s foundational changing global environment. relief fund, and a rural community water supply In 1996, 33.9% of the population between objectives included the establishment of and sanitation programme. 15 and 65 years were unemployed, with an institutionalised common front against By the early 2000s, South Africa had unemployment rates for African women being apartheid South Africa, and to combat transformed its governance landscape and built 52.4%, African men 34.1% and African people against South Africa’s military aggression and institutions needed to uphold our constitutional 42.5%. 26% of the employed earn R500 economic hegemony. It was only after the democracy, such as the National Assembly, or less per month (<$85) while 62% of the abolition of apartheid that South Africa was National Council of Provinces, provincial employed earn less than R1501 per month allowed to join regional political institutions, legislatures and municipal councils. Balkanised (<$250) (Census 1996). as part of the process of resuming its position apartheid-era administrations and homelands among sovereign states. This historical had been amalgamated into a unified and The apartheid state adopted a hostile foreign development has had its effect on the nature of decentralised governance system with national, policy position towards African countries that regional hydropolitics today, with neighbouring provincial and local government spheres. were in the frontline of resistance against states adopting an arguably cautionary the apartheid system, including southern approach to South Africa’s leadership role South Africa’s political transformation also African countries such as Angola, Botswana, in several multilateral fora and institutions. brought with it a host of progressive reforms Mozambique, Lesotho, Swaziland, Zimbabwe However, over the past two decades, South in the water sector, as discussed in Chapter and Zambia. These countries were subjected Africa has been successful in slowly reducing 1. The Water Services Act was ratified in to frequent military attacks, including bombing the distrust with which it was perceived. 1997 and the landmark National Water Act in raids and land-based incursions. Apartheid 1998. The 1998 NWA is regarded as one of South Africa also organised and provided arms The water landscape the pioneering pieces of legislation that has and training to opposition groups in these influenced the international wave of reform, countries, thus fuelling civil wars, particularly in post-1994 and as one of the most innovative and far- Angola and Mozambique. reaching water acts in the world. However, The first democratic elections in 1994 brought South Africa’s challenge has not been the The death toll ran into the millions of people with it a new social order characterised by development of its progressive water reform that died as a result of this destabilisation, a new constitutional, policy and legislative policy, but rather the implementation thereof. and the economies of the neighbouring states framework. The Constitution of 1996 laid the 12 13 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Introduction

These strategies were based on the water in its legislation, and our democratic quality and functionality of municipal services making structures, and must be listed as understanding that economic growth is a government has worked tirelessly over the in some municipalities due to poor operation farmers, landowners or household heads where 1994 prerequisite for human development and the last 20 years to realise this human right for all and maintenance. This has been a contributing appropriate. eradication of poverty in South Africa. The its citizens, and has made great strides in this factor to the rise in municipal service delivery rural community water supply and sanitation regard. protests in recent years. These challenges After 1994, the National Skills Development 2008 programme aimed to provide 25 litres of relate to institutional and governance Strategy (NSDS) was drafted with the aim potable water per South African within 200 The latest available figures indicate that around weaknesses and a lack of capacity in some of increasing the number of skilled people metres of their dwellings. The Land Reform 95% of our people now have access to water, municipalities. to meet the needs of the growing economy. 2013 and Restitution programme aims at restoring while 80% have access to safe sanitation. It is The new system increased the range of land to black South Africans who were important to realise that providing more taps Over the last decade, attention has also shifted available pathways for learners to obtain skills deprived of the right to land or forcibly resettled and toilets is not just about boosting numbers to increasing the capacity of the state and to and increased the degree to which learners during the apartheid era. The social welfare – it is about bringing safety, dignity, health and improving the quality of administration and could move between these pathways, thus programme through grants has arguable been job opportunities to our poorest communities, service delivery at provincial and municipal broadening access to skills development water supply the democratic government’s most effective especially women and children, who are most levels. There is also a focus on improving the opportunities. Five-year national skills poverty-reduction tool, with the number of vulnerable. management of the intergovernmental system development frameworks were also put in grant beneficiaries increasing from 2.7 million and improving coordination within and between place, the most recent (2012 – 2016) of which 95% people in 1994 to more than 16 million people The provision of clean water is thought to be the three spheres of government. ensures the alignment of Sector Skills Plans by 2013. one of the major factors in the reduction of with the government’s strategic priorities as Access to safe water: 1994: 60% of the population infectious diseases in Europe and America in Considering the history of disempowerment articulated in the 10 MTSF Outcomes. It also (population 39 million); 2008: 88% of the Democratic South Africa also focused its the last 130 years. A WRC project on the state and lack of education of the black population provides for common commitment to an population (population 49 million); 2013: 95% of attention on vulnerable groups affected of diarrhea in children in poor communities in in South Africa, the provision of both domestic inclusive society with strategic focus areas the population (population 53 million) by discriminatory laws such as women, South Africa revealed higher levels of diarrhea water supply and irrigation water requires of equity impact, class, race, gender, age, children and orphans, young people, people in situations where a communal tap was appropriate and committed capacity building. disability and HIV&AIDS. with disabilities and the poor. A range of used instead of on-site taps. This seems to Capacity must be built in communities and in laws, policies and programmes have been imply that an on-site tap lowers the risk of individuals around issues such as health and The NSDS calls for a wider spectrum of developed to ensure greater representation water borne disease. Communal taps require hygiene, financial management, operation and learning programmes to lay a broader and inclusiveness, ensure the provision of basic water to be carried and stored and higher maintenance of water supply systems, farming foundation for occupational competence, services, create jobs, reduce poverty, eradicate contamination levels were observed after and marketing. This cannot be achieved in a stipulating success indicators and deadlines violence, and promote and protect the human handling and storage. short space of time, but requires the dedication on agreed-to targets. It emphasises the rights of vulnerable groups. Additionally, South of funds and capacity from government importance of programme delivery partners Africa has also seen major achievements The focus now in the fifth administration is on departments. and the need to uplift their capacity to increase in access to a basic level of essential reaching those remaining communities without the number of learners served, with particular municipal services, especially for communities access to basic services, particularly in informal In particular, capacity building and empowerment focus on public institutions that cater for deliberately excluded by apartheid. settlements in urban areas and in remote rural must benefit women if the transfer of benefits learners unable to pay market-set fees. Tens areas. Various government departments have to community and other household members of thousands of learners are now being put South Africa was one of the first countries in made serious commitments in this domain is to be maximised. At the same time, women through learnership programmes each year, South Africa’s basic housing programme was the world to entrench the human right to clean particularly given the challenges with the must be involved in management and decision although we have experienced challenges in implemented after 1994. 14 15 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Introduction

1) a drop in the number of qualifying artisans In her mid-July budget speech, the Minister of relationships and partnerships while maintaining empowering communities, transforming South and 2) the placement of learners in experiential Water and Sanitation, Ms Nomvula Mokonyane sovereignty over domestic economic and African society, providing new products and learning and sustainable employment. indicated that her budget would immediately social policy. Today, South Africa is party to 25 services for economic development, promoting address the 10% of existing services that agreements with its neighbours on shared rivers. sustainable development solutions, and In terms of economic growth, South Africa were dysfunctional and a further 26% where supporting human capital development in the has also seen incremental improvement with the provision of water was not reliable. The 1998 NWA includes provisions for water and science sectors. the economy growing at a rate of 3.2 percent She said capital investment in water and international arrangements, and provides for each year from 1994 to 2012, despite the sanitation infrastructure for the entire value bilateral and multilateral bodies to implement This is not meant to be an anthology of the global setback of the 2008 recession. In 2005 chain, including the refurbishment of existing international agreements pertaining to the WRC’s work over the past 20 years. It is a prices, gross national income per capita also infrastructure over the next 10 years, was management and development of water snapshot of some of the key developments increased from R28 536 in 1994 to R37 423 in projected to require an estimated R670 billion. resources shared with neighbouring countries. and successes in WRC projects. It is by no 2013. While this is an improvement over pre- On the basis of current projected budget It therefore emphasises regional cooperation means comprehensive and is designed to give 1994 growth rates, it is modest compared with allocations, about 45% of this is currently of water resources. The establishment of the a taste of the work of the WRC and its role in other emerging economies, and has not been funded. NWA has also been instrumental in influencing defining democracy for all South Africans. adequate to meet the objective of reducing the national water management frameworks of unemployment. South Africa will need to While economic growth and poverty reduction neighbouring states. Water service delivery in South Africa forms sustain higher economic growth rates in order objectives are some of government’s top part of our challenge to meet the milestones in to substantially reduce unemployment in future. priorities in post-1994 South Africa, so is In summary, in 1994 the country embarked on our very own National Development Plan and sustainable development. The necessary an ambitious project of democratic nation- the United Nations’ Millennium Development The growing economy and a widening of the legislation has been put in place and building and socio-economic transformation. Goals (MDGs). Water nourishes our bodies and middle-class band have also resulted in sharp commitments have been made to reducing Twenty years later, South Africa is a markedly our crops; it trickles through the machinery of increases in the demand for road, rail, port, pollution, improving the quality of the different place to the South Africa of 1994, industry; it cools mining operations deep in the water, electricity and telecommunications environment and addressing the impacts of in almost every respect, and the water and bowels of Gauteng and the North West. Rivers infrastructure. In the second decade after climate change with South Africa even hosting sanitation sector has reflected similar changes. and water pipelines are like arteries, pumping 1994, demand for such infrastructure the 17th Conference of the Parties that meets life across our beautiful country. South Africa’s exceeded supply and power outages annually to assess progress in dealing with waters run through the veins of each and About the book basic water supply became more and more frequent. Since the climate change. The meeting was held from the every one of us. Water is our life blood, our mid-2000s, government has placed greater 28 November to 9 December 2011 in Durban. This book intertwines the country’s journey future, and the promise of a better tomorrow. emphasis on economic infrastructure, and Implementation, monitoring and enforcement since democracy with the journey and As a knowledge-based organisation, it is the 6000 investment has increased dramatically, with of these commitments will receive greater developments in water R&D since then. It’s a responsibility and commitment of the WRC a continuing growth trajectory into the new attention in the fifth administration. story of scientific transformation – some may to ensure that the power of knowledge on The South African standard relating to a “basic” level future. Major areas of infrastructure investment even call it a scientific revolution – it’s a story water is given to all South Africans who can in of water supply, sufficient to promote healthy living, include new ports, expansion of container Finally, in terms of its global positioning, South about innovation, but most importantly, it’s a turn use it to empower themselves and those is based on the internationally accepted standard of capacity, new national roads, new airports and Africa has gone from being a pariah state to a story about people. In the chapters that follow, around them. This is our commitment to water 25 litres per person per day. This amounts to 6 000 improvements to international airports, new widely respected member of the international we track the journey of South Africa and the service delivery. litres per household per month, based on a household public transportation systems, new dams and community. It has managed its entry into the journey of water research in South Africa – of eight people. new power stations. international community tactfully, building new from informing policy and decision-making, 16 17 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Informing policy and decision making

“To be free is not merely to cast off one’s chains, but to live in a way that respects and enhances the freedom of others.” Nelson Mandela

This has been both the opportunity and challenge of the post-1994 South African water and sanitation sector, that is, changing access to water and water services in South Africa, redressing the wrongs of the past, particularly in relation to racial and gender discrimination, and the eradication of poverty. In order to addresses these challenges, the effective management of South Africa’s water resources requires an informed and reliable scientific foundation to provide appropriate evidence-based information to guide decision-making. Through its funded research, the WRC provides this foundation, aiming to ensure that the country’s water resources are managed sustainably. This chapter outlines the tremendous road we have paved in terms of water policy development and highlights a few key WRC initiatives that have contributed to this.

The effectiveness of any sector is however only as good as its leadership. And so we begin with an overview of the water and sanitation sector’s ministerial leaders and shape-shifters that influenced the sector’s strategic direction defining pivotal turning points in our country’s water Chapter 1 history. 18 19 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

At the helm over the past two decades…

The Department of Water as the custodian of South Africa’s water resources, leads The Department has undergone several strategic reorientations and subsequent name the management of water resources, and is responsible for the formulation and changes since 1994: from Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, to Department of implementation of policy governing this sector. The department also has an overriding Water and Environmental Affairs, to the more recent coupling of Water and Sanitation. responsibility for water services provided by local government. With its vision of being Additionally, each of the six ministers and the accompanying deputy ministers dynamic and people-centred, the department is strategically positioning itself to ensure spearheaded key strategic initiatives that directed the course of the department. that the whole value chain, from ‘source-to- tap’ and ‘waste-to-source’, functions effectively.

Prof Kader Asmal Ronnie Kasrils Buyelwa Sonjica Lindiwe Hendricks Edna Molewa Nomvula Mokonyane 1994 – 1999 1999 – 2004 2004 – 2006 and 2006 – 2009 2010 – 2014 2014 to present 2009 – 2010

Ministers of Water during Democracy, 1994 – 2014 20 21 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

“In a few short years as Minister Prof Kader Asmal As Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry, Prof Minister Ronnie Kasrils financial years was followed by a further “Let us use water for the common of Water Affairs and Forestry, I feel (1994 – 1999): Asmal spearheaded the recognition of the (1999 – 2004): €25 million for 2003/04. good, to enrich the lives of all our I was able to introduce some far- Some, for all, forever – concept of “the environment as a prime water Minister of Toilets citizens. Let us all work for a better user.” While serving as Minister of Water Affairs He advocated for the provision of water reaching changes, changes that have transformation through water policy Minister Ronnie Kasrils’ strategy in the earlier South Africa. Let water wash away and Forestry, he also served as the chairman of to improve food production, especially for genuinely improved people’s lives and days of his term focused largely on water poverty.” In one of President Nelson Mandela’s many the World Commission on Dams (1997–2001). emerging farmers, and implemented South services provision. This strategy was added - Ronnie Kasrils particularly the lives of South Africa’s strokes of genius, he appointed as his first His time as Minister of Water Affairs is widely Africa’s Free Basic Water policy. In late 1999, to as a result of the KwaZulu-Natal cholera women. For this I will be forever water minister a human rights lawyer who regarded as being very successful. Much of Kasrils visited the isolated rural community outbreak in 2000. Referring to it as “the human knew little about the science of water but a that success being attributed to Prof Asmal’s of Lutsheko in the Eastern Cape. A new grateful and proud. If, in the fullness of waste factor” Kasrils put sanitation firmly on great deal about water’s role in creating an dynamism and ability to work with the then still departmental scheme providing the village with time, anyone cares to remember my cabinet’s agenda. His awareness led him to equitable and humane society. Minister Asmal largely Afrikaner dominated civil service. a supply of water from community standpipes time as head of this portfolio, I should the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative had a huge task, not only to develop new, had recently been completed. Despite the Council (WSSCC), a Geneva-based UN agency like to be remembered as the minister equitable legislation, but to simultaneously start He saw water as an instrument for fact that the scheme was in full working order, run under the auspices of the World Health who provided taps and toilets, who addressing the enormous water and sanitation transformation, and produced a series of Minister Kasrils noticed that some residents Organisation (WHO). During Kasril’s term, services backlog inherited from the Apartheid discussion papers and white papers leading to were getting their water from the almost dry planted a few trees, and opened a South Africa hosted the AfriSan Forum in South government. He brought the first real legislative the National Water Act of 1998, which won him, riverbed nearby. On enquiring, he was informed dam or water scheme here or there. Africa, just a few weeks before the WSSD– the framework to the sector for comprehensive and South Africa, the Stockholm Water Prize. that even though the costs were minimal, I should like to think that I contributed UN Summit on Sustainable Development – in water management in South Africa. To Asmal He remains the only recipient of this prestigious R10 per month, many residents were so poor August 2002, and his job was to put sanitation to a more hopeful future, expressed by and the team he assembled, water could world prize who is not a scientist. that they could not afford to pay for the water on the agenda. Philip Larkin’s astute words: If I were became a means to redress the injustices of supply. They had reverted to their original called in to construct a religion, apartheid. unreliable and unsafe sources to avoid paying In this regard also, Minister Kasrils did much for water. I should make use of water.” to strengthen ties with the global water sector, Prof Asmal announced the South African Water - Prof Kader Asmal among others, using the incredible opportunity Based on this observation, Minister Kasrils Law Review as one of his first initiatives on presented by South Africa’s hosting of the resolved to explore an alternative policy taking office in May 1994. In 1998, South Africa World Summit on Sustainable Development. In approach. The government solution, gave birth to a landmark water law. The new 2001, the Department launched Masibambane, announced in September 2000 was to provide logo was grounded in the ethical precept of a donor-supported programme that created free basic water and sanitation services. Based the ‘public trust’ and the concept of national a single-window funding arrangement on an approach pioneered in Durban, it was custodianship of the water resource. One channelling donor contributions towards proposed that a basic water supply of 25 litres important aspect of this was the establishment outcomes collectively prioritised by sector per person per day would be provided free to of the Reserve. The Reserve called for meeting players. The South African budget was each household every month (this amounts the basic water needs of all people and of the complemented by a European Union grant, to approximately 6 kiloliters per household ecosystems “on which humans depend” before International Rivers as well as contributions from the bilateral co- per month). The costs of maintaining a basic granting water entitlements to industry, irrigation operation programmes between South Africa sanitation facility – normally understood as a and other economic uses. The Reserve turned Prof Kader Asmal with former President Nelson and the United Kingdom, Ireland, Netherlands ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) – would also water allocation on its head and grounded it in Mandela at the launch of the World Commission of and France. The European Union contribution be covered. Any level of service ‘consumed’ principles of equity and ecological health. Dams report in 2000. of €50 million for the 2001/02 and 2002/03 over and above this would have to be paid for. 22 23 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

Buyelwa Sonjica (2004 – 2006 and 2009 – 2010): The sectoral view As Minister Buyelwa Sonjica declared plans Additionally, in 2003 a new vision for the to eradicate the bucket system and made water services sector was necessary and significant gains in this regard. She also the Strategic Framework for Water Services initiated an assessment of the state of South was approved by Cabinet. The Strategic Africa’s wastewater systems and interventions Framework updates the 1994 White Paper. to deal with the challenges. During her tenure While the 1994 White Paper focused on the a Water Indaba was held to debate the role of the Department in the direct delivery of challenges faced by the water sector and to basic services to people living in rural areas, agree on the best action plan to meet the the Strategic Framework mapped out a vision needs of all water users. It was during her for how the water sector as a whole will work stewardship that the Blue Drop and Green in providing water services. It addresses “the Drop certification process was also launched. full spectrum of water supply and sanitation services and all relevant institutions”. A The restructuring of Local Government started series of more detailed strategies were also in 1998 with the introduction of institutional developed during Sonjica’s term of office changes, this set in motion the development including: a national institutional reform Minister Buyelwa Sonjica meeting with the Kat River of the Municipal Infrastructure Grant (MIG) strategy; a regulatory strategy; a support Community Forum in the Eastern Cape in 2005. which came into fruition in 2003. The MIGs strategy; and a monitoring and evaluation catalysed the Department’s withdrawal strategy. from direct water services delivery, and consolidated the various parallel programmes for municipal infrastructure funding. Before this, the Department utilised capital funds, initially from the RDP fund, and later funds from its own budget allocation (Community “Water can either be a contributor to Water Supply and Sanitation Programme growth or a constraint, and we must Funding) as well as Masibambane Funding, to directly finance infrastructure development. make sure that it is not the latter. We MIG funding was channelled directly to must think how to get more jobs per municipalities according to an allocation drop and more products per drop.” formula. - Buyelwa Sonjica (CSIR) 24 Minister Ronnie Kasrils during the launch of the first State of the Rivers report in the Kruger National Park. 25 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

Lindiwe Hendricks Edna Molewa this exercise had implications for the WRC “In 1994 a mere 59% of the population directly, among other things through the (2006 – 2009): (2010 – 2014): had access to clean drinking water. At amendment of the founding legislation, an Addressing the backlogs From source to tap and back to source update of the business case and model of this moment in time (2014) a massive the WRC, and the WRC contributions to the 95.2% of our people have sustainable Minister Lindiwe Hendricks faced some serious In 2011, Minister Edna Molewa launched the revised NWRS. The process as a whole has access to a clean water supply.” challenges during her tenure – including the Business Process Realignment process. The strongly informed the development of the new cholera outbreaks in Limpopo in 2008, tracking process aimed to co-ordinate the appraisal - Edna Molewa multi-year strategic plan of the WRC. backlogs in access to infrastructure and the and strategy for the reorganisation of the water identification of pollution as being responsible sector and its institutions into a well-oiled During her term of office as Minister of Water, for the crocodile die-offs in Kruger National Park machine for development and implementation Molewa was a strong contender for dealing rivers. Tracking backlogs became particularly of solutions. This is to ensure a highly with South Africa’s water challenges along the politicised in the second decade of democracy productive and delivering water sector to the entire value chain, from ‘source to tap and and there was an intensification of efforts to economy, meeting social needs and those of back to source’. She faced several challenges meet sectoral targets. Hendricks conceded the environment, and carefully organising for during her tenure, such as the possibility of to the huge challenges facing the water South Africa to be internationally competitive fracking in South Africa and the functionality of sector and announced corrective measures while ensuring a direct improvement in the daily municipal infrastructure and sustainable service to avert a crisis. She also started initiatives to quality of life of all who live here. delivery. improve the drinking water quality standards In particular, it was vital to ensure that the in underperforming municipalities. It was poor and marginalised are real beneficiaries Minister Molewa, along with Deputy Minister during Minister Hendricks’ tenure that Cabinet of increased efforts to expand the frontiers of Rejoice Mabudafhasi, implemented a series approved the implementation of phase two of human dignity through the proliferation of water of research projects to investigate these and the Lesotho Highlands project, which will supply and sanitation services. The three components Former Water Minister, Lindiwe Hendricks. provide solutions such as the Interim Water water to Gauteng and the rest of the Vaal River of this exercise affected the WRC intimately. Supply Programme. Minister Molewa launched water supply area. The first was the review of, and possible the WRC report on the state of South Africa’s amendments to, the three cornerstone pieces “We need to build strong institutions non-revenue water, which revealed that we of legislation – the National Water Act (1998), are losing 36.8% of our clean drinking water to be able to handle future water the Water Services Act (1997) and the Water in the distribution system due to leaking challenges such as those brought on Research Act (1971 and amended six times pipes, dripping taps and illegal water use. by the impact of climate change.” since, most recently in 1996). Minister Molewa also announced a process to - Lindiwe Hendricks streamline South Africa’s policy and legislation The second was the Institutional Reform and with regard to water services and water Realignment, which, among other things, resources management “to meet the growing re-examined the rationale and business case demands for water and achieve the goals of a for the WRC. The third was the development Water & Environmenta Affairs Minister, Edna Molewa, developmental state.” of the second version of the National Water addresses the media during National Water Week Resource Strategy (NWRS II). Many parts of activities in 2013. 26 27 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

Nomvula Mokonyane (2014 to date): Water is life, sanitation is dignity On May 25 2014, Mokonyane was appointed She stated that municipalities must ensure “In finding solutions to the current Minister of Water Affairs and Sanitation, a new that the management and maintenance of challenges, this calls for our collective Ministry created to combat water issues and infrastructure are carried out as stipulated in serious sanitation problems across the country. their budgets. “We will no longer hear about wisdom in changing the lives of Minister Mokonyane started her tenure with the excuses of ageing or non-functioning women. In a place like Kwa-Mhlaba a promise to refocus her new Department of water infrastructure,” said Minister Mokonyane. Uyalingana, for example, women Water and Sanitation on the ‘basics’ of water According to Minister Mokonyane, all water should no longer share water with services delivery. One of her first actions was service authorities (WSAs) are now going animals or walk barefooted and to launch a National Water Summit with Deputy to be instructed to set aside at least 7% of Minister Pamela Tshwete, which allowed their total budgets towards maintenance and pregnant to fetch water in the river for open and frank discussions around the management of infrastructure. The money will whilst there is the Jozini dam next to state of the water sector in South Africa. She also be used to ensure that each municipality their village.” also announced a review of current water guarantees that there is capability and capacity – Nomvula Mokonyane legislation, with the possible amalgamation of to carry out this task efficiently and effectively. the NWA and the Water Services Act. Further, the Minister warned that Government is set to introduce legislation to make sure that Minister Mokonyane emphasised the this matter is implemented without fail. guiding frameworks for the Department in She supported Cooperative Governance this administration, these being the National Minister Pravin Gordhan’s attention to meeting Development Plan (NDP), the Manifesto of the service delivery challenge in South Africa, the ruling party, the African National Congress and added that the Summit was a fitting “Our future water security and and the NWRS II. She also highlighted the platform to discuss related game-changers in a sustainability will only be guaranteed ‘integrated water approach,’ that entails a radical way. Resolving the water and sanitation when government, the private sector sustainable and holistic value chain of water challenge was not just about the provision of supply from source to tap and from tap back and civil society take full responsibility money, but about capacity, efficiency of the to source. for conserving and preserving the system, proper planning and planning within water resources which we have Mokonyane also noted that decisive a dedicated space to ensure that everybody access to today.” leadership was needed to assert authority becomes a beneficiary of the service and across government, and bring about radical ensures quality service delivery. Other game- Water and Sanitation Minister, Nomvula Mokonyane, - Rejoice Mabudafhasi socioeconomic transformation. changers include the role of science and at the National Water Summit in 2014.

Former Deputy Minister of Water & Environmental Affairs, Rejoice Mabudafhasi, 28 undertakes sampling of the Eerste River. 29 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

technology for renewal and innovation as well technology and innovation choices, enhancing as development and research; the role of the the state of South Africa’s water resources, private sector in helping to unlock the growth and understanding and defining the role of and development of the water and sanitation the private sector; and, charting a pathway sector; as well as the role of civil society in the toward national water security and sustainable water and sanitation space. universal access to water and sanitation services within the longer-term NDP timeframe Minister Mokonyane also emphasised the of 2030. It also commits to the development of need for the private sector to invest in social the Water and Sanitation 10-Year Plan (2015- infrastructure, and therefore contribute to 2025) as the water and sanitation pillar of the social transformation, and the de-racialisation NDP. of communities through better water and sanitation plans. She concluded by highlighting, as one of the game changers, the participation of ordinary communities, and participation of the disenfranchised. “The challenge with fetching water from rivers is that river Minister Mokonyane stressed that we cannot water is not as clean as it used to be in my era. I grew have ‘business as usual’, that we need to up fetching water from the rivers, but over the years, embrace the spirit of ‘oneness’, with water urbanisation, farming, and mining have dominated water being life and sanitation being dignity. In this regard, we have to revisit water ownership usage, which has also resulted in polluted rivers.” patterns and water use rights in South Africa. – Pamela Tshwete In crafting a shared vision for water and sanitation in South Africa for the next five years and beyond, one of the key outcomes of the Summit was the development of the National Water and Sanitation Summit Declaration, tabled and approved in the Closing Plenary. The declaration acknowledges the importance of doing things differently through communication and partnerships focusing on people-centred solutions; the need to realize solutions in the identified deliberation areas of: meeting the service delivery challenge, enabling water and sanitation policy, developing and implementing water research,

Deputy Minister of Water and Sanitation, Pamela Tshwete (centre) addressing the youth during a 30 river field trip to Modderfonteinspruit as part of the Department of Water’s Youth Summit in 2014. 31 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

A new National Water Act and economic development for the benefit Added to this were the astonishingly rapid of all South Africans, but many existing laws, political and social changes in South Africa, for a new democracy including the law relating to water, were found which introduced a suite of new and complex to be not at all appropriate to achieving these values into decision-making around resource Before 1994, the frameworks governing objectives. The fact that access to water was utilisation and management. The way was the public service were highly centralised to a large extent tied to land ownership via cleared for an almost total revision of water and regulated, resulting in a bureaucratic, the riparian system, together with restrictions policy and legislation, in a relatively short period unresponsive and risk-averse public service. on land ownership by the majority black of time compared to similar reform processes population, meant that most people in the in other countries. In addition, the public service lacked country could not claim access to water under transparency and accountability, providing the 1956 Water Act. Setting the wheels in motion space for abuse of power and corruption. Post-apartheid South Africa needed a reformed Few countries have been able to create the During March 1995 two important governance system that would allow all South environment for peaceful change that existed developments took place. The first was the Africans to claim political and social ownership in South Africa after the political settlement release of the publication You and Your Water of the country. This meant changing the was negotiated in the early 1990s, and few Rights on which public comment was invited, systems of governance to be geared towards new governments have had the opportunity to and the second was the intention to establish transformation by addressing the legacy of scrutinise all the existing laws of the country, a Water Law Review Panel. apartheid. There was a need to modernise and to make dramatic changes to ensure that the public service, to make it more efficient, they are consistent with the new democratic Three phases were identified to guide the water effective, accountable and people-centred, so order. There is no doubt that this rare window law review process. The first phase was to that it would be able to fulfil its transformative of opportunity facilitated the profound changes include public consultation and consisted of role. that culminated in the passage into law of the the distribution of the above publication, the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998). soliciting of comment and the facilitation of SA’s new water legislation takes shape countrywide workshops, particularly in rural and A number of factors contributed to the poor communities. The second phase was to The technical and social deficiencies of the development of South Africa’s sweeping new be the setting up of a monitoring committee (the 1956 Water Act had become increasingly water policy and water legislation. During the Panel) to consider responses and to recommend evident over a number of years, but it was early 1980s, real data from the national water principles. The third phase was to consist of not until 1994, when the first democratically quality monitoring networks, which were the drafting of new legislation by a second elected government came to power in South established from 1970 onwards, began to offer monitoring committee that also included legal pre-1998 water act

Graeme Williams/South Photos/Africa Media Online Graeme Africa, that the opportunity presented itself for concrete evidence for the steady, and in some experts. a thorough review of the existing law. areas rapid degradation in the quality of water resources in South Africa. At the same time, 38 years Voters queue at a polling station north of Pretoria on 27 April 1994. This day did not only signify the start of The new government’s policies focused world concern regarding environmental issues South Africa’s democracy, but also a new chapter in the history of the country’s water sector. strongly on equitable and sustainable social and sustainable development was becoming The Water Act preceding the National Water Act more urgent. of 1998 was in force for 38 years 32 33 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

“The call of the new Government and of the people is of fairness and equity. The publication of You and Your Water In the latter years of that decade, the focus of precursor to the Ecological Reserve, for This is the demand of the Constitution and the basis of the review we are Rights can be seen as the start of the impact assessments broadened considerably all rivers on which dams were mooted for water law review phase with the call for to include the aspects of the biophysical construction. The first of these studies was undertaking. This will call for brutal honesty.” submissions and comment on what a new environment that are habitually included in carried out in February 1992 for the Lephalala – Prof Kader Asmal, 1995 water law should address and include. an environmental impact assessment (EIA) River, a tributary of the Limpopo River in During December 1995 various road shows today. What was remarkable about this period the north west of the country. The studies were held to mobilise public comment and was that EIAs for proposed dams were being ultimately led to the development of a distinctly 173 written submissions were received in carried out before there was any legislative South African approach — the Building Block response to the booklet. requirement to do so, and before regulations Methodology - for assessing the ecological were made prescribing the processes and water requirements for rivers. Scientific and technical groundwork procedures by which the assessments were to be undertaken. Instead, the Department, in At the close of this first phase of the Water The establishment of the new democratic collaboration with the WRC and the national Law Review, Cabinet had accepted the government in South Africa presented the body of aquatic scientists, began to develop recommendations of the Panel that water opportunity for aquatic scientists and water appropriate procedures, and implemented to meet basic human needs and water to resource managers to propose measures them with some success until the regulations maintain ecological functioning – jointly, the for the protection of aquatic ecosystems were eventually published. Reserve – should ‘enjoy priority of use by right’. that would eventually be included in national The use of water for all other purposes was policy and legislation. However, the roles of Among the many environmental impacts of to be authorised by processes that were not the Department and the WRC, in laying the dams, those linked to damming a river and defined in the Principles document. scientific and technical groundwork, should not altering, usually profoundly, the flow regime go unmentioned. of the watercourse downstream of the dam wall, were among the most severe, a fact that It is reasonable to say that, for most of aquatic scientists had been pointing out to its existence up to that point, one of the the Department for many years. In order to Department’s principal preoccupations was the mitigate these impacts it was necessary to creation of storage for surface water runoff by know what the downstream flow regime should building dams. It was not until the late 1970s, be – the quantity, pattern and timing of releases midway through a period of intensive dam from the dam – to maintain the ecological construction, that the Department began to functioning of the river at some acceptable give serious consideration to the environmental level. impacts of its activities. In the early 1980s the focus in this respect was on issues such as the Accordingly, in the early 1990s, the Department The Wolwedans Dam, outside Mossel Bay, was The booklets, You and Your Water Rights and the Discussion Document on Water Law Principles, restoration of dam sites after construction or on embarked on a series of studies to determine one of the first dams in South Africa for which an were crucial in the dialogue leading to South Africa’s new water legislation in 1998. decommissioning, and reducing visual impacts. inflow stream requirements or IFRs, the environmental impact report was completed.

34 35 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

The White Paper on a National Water Policy tor South Africa (1997)

Cabinet later adopted the White Paper on a Because achieving objectives for protecting aquatic ecosystems National Water Policy for South Africa (NWP) in would involve controlling water use ... it would be necessary to April 1997. The framework for managing water involve water users and other interested and affected parties resources was considerably expanded and the Policy also proposed the introduction of a in making recommendations and decisions about the level of national Water Resource Classification System. protection to be afforded to them.

A distinction was made between resource- directed measures, by which objectives would be set for the desired level of protection for the aquatic ecosystems of each water resource, and the more traditional source-directed controls, by which the uses of a water resource (abstraction of water, discharge of wastewater, for instance) that impact on its quality would be controlled to achieve the agreed level of ecosystem health, and so ensure its sustainable use.

The links between the protection of aquatic ecosystems and their use were thus firmly established in the Policy. It was explicitly recognised that because achieving objectives for protecting aquatic ecosystems would involve controlling water use (in particular, in many cases, curtailing existing use), it would The Sabie River was one of the first rivers be necessary to involve water users and other interested and affected parties in making in South Africa for which environmental recommendations and decisions about the water requirements were determined. level of protection to be afforded to them.

36 37 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

National Water Act (1998)

The State President assented to the NWA on which the sustainable use of water resources 20 August 1998, thereby giving legal effect to depends, by means of an integrated system of Government’s intentions for managing water water resource protection that includes a Water resources as they were expressed in the NWP. Resource Classification System, the Ecological Central to the NWA of 1998 is the principle that Reserve, and Resource Quality Objectives. water is a scarce natural resource that belongs The Ecological Reserve and Resource Quality to all of the people of South Africa, and that Objectives depend on the Management it must be used beneficially and in the public Class at a water resource, and the class, interest. in turn, reflects the outcome of stakeholder consultations in terms of the needs of the users By 1998, South Africa had a new water law of the water resource and the agreed water which, after almost two centuries of one based requirement for the aquatic ecosystems. on riparian rights, returned the control of all water resources in the country to the State. Government, acting through the Minister and the Department, was declared to be the public trustee of the nation’s water resources, and all The South African National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) was hailed by the water, wherever it occurs in the water cycle, international water community as one of the most progressive pieces of water now enjoys a consistent legal status. legislation in the world.

The Act is premised on balancing the three legs of social benefit, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability, and sets out the legal framework for the national government to protect, use, develop, conserve, manage and control water resources in the country. It The human right to water also incorporates the principle of subsidiarity – management of water resources at the is encapsulated in the lowest appropriate level – through catchment National Water Act. management agencies (CMAs). The Act provides the means to protect the integrity of aquatic ecosystems, which are acknowledged to be the resource base on Guy Stubbs/Africa Media Online 38 39 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

The WRC’s role in informing policy and decision-making --A number of WRC studies have investigated Department of Water and current Chair of the A significant part of the WRC’s “The NWA was hailed internationally of the early wave of policy reform the feasibility of the Free Basic Water (FBW) WRC, Barbara Schreiner, discusses some of research portfolio has been dedicated as the Rolls Royce of IWRM policy. It affords a basic amount of water the challenges facing the implementation of this to supporting the implementation of The WRC played a critical supporting role in why we were in such a strong position to deliver to each South African household free of remarkable piece of legislation and the failure legislation. But implementation has South Africa’s water policy, which much of the work leading up to the national high-quality, technical policy and legislation with charge. Enshrined in national water policy, it to achieve the initial high ambitions within the proven extremely difficult.” is entrenched in the National Water Act and the Water Services Act. The water policy of 1997 and the drafting and early in-country capacity from 1996 through 2000.” can only be implemented by the provincial South African water sector. – Barbara Schreiner WRC Chair country’s water policy centres on implementation of the NWA. The organisation government. Studies have suggested that promoting equitable access to water also helped to mobilise significant in-country The WRC continues to support the with good management, FBW would be “The NWA was hailed internationally as the Rolls services, the sustainability of water capacity in the water sector to support development of management competence sustainable in the long-term as long as Royce of IWRM legislation. But implementation resources, beneficial use of water, safe the water policy and processes involved in to facilitate the NWA’s implementation and a national government provides sufficient levels has proven extremely difficult,” notes Schreiner. supplies of water, and tackling water- promulgating the NWA. number of projects were embarked upon to of equitable share revenue to municipalities. “It would, perhaps, have been better to write a centred issues which relate to social help people understand the new concepts that Volkswagen piece of legislation, one that is more development and growing the economy. Many years of cutting-edge WRC-funded it entailed. Some of these include the following: The profound changes to water policy and suited to the technical and human resource research had no place in the water legislation law in South Africa were as a result of, capabilities of a developing country.” that preceded the NWA, but it was sufficiently --It has become critical to clearly establish and were enabled by, the equally profound advanced to be taken up into the new water existing lawful water entitlements; hence the changes in the political dispensation. The She went on to highlight that, in the process law principles, the policy and the NWA. These urgency of providing a consolidated source measures to protect aquatic ecosystems of implementing a sophisticated and nuanced include, explains former WRC Research of information on previous legal decisions and in the NWA are a significant improvement piece of legislation, many of the basics like Manager, Dr Heather MacKay, studies in judgments with respect to water. A remedy on those in the previous legislation, and the maintaining the monitoring infrastructure, and the areas of environmental flows, integrated has been found through the compilation of Act is acknowledged to be one of the most ensuring compliance with licence conditions, catchment management and small-scale a comprehensive work that brings together progressive in the world in this respect. have been poorly addressed. “Where there is irrigation. The WRC was also able to fund all facets of water law during the greater part limited capacity, which is true in all developing consultancy research projects or initiate of the 20th century, from 1912 up until the The NWP and NWA clearly established a new countries, it is, in my opinion, better to focus directed research projects to assist with various promulgation of the NWA. kind of vision and a radically different way of on the key challenges in the particular context, technical aspects and questions that arose conducting the business of natural resource than to strive to do it all at once.” during the drafting process. --The right to sufficient water cannot be management. The policy and legislation are far denied, and is enshrined in the South African more sophisticated and complex than anything The Department is currently amending the “There is no doubt in my mind that in the lead Constitution. Yet, the new constitutional which existed previously; the implications NWA to address some of the challenges up to the 1997 water policy (which was really rights are not yet fully understood by the for the roles of government, civil society and that have arisen during implementation over a period of about 15 years, with a window spectrum of stakeholders. The WRC has professional service providers are profound. the past 15 years. And the WRC, at its side, of political opportunity to effect change embarked on a number of studies to close continues to provide the necessary scientific opening from 1994 to 1996), the WRC laid the this gap. A major achievement is the human Yet, 16 years down the line, it is evident that evidence to complete the picture. foundations for water policy which was well rights framework, a succinct, accessible implementation of the Act has been only grounded in science; in other words, research- presentation of an array of complex human partially successful. In an article published in The WRC has also informed various other Research in areas such as the Inkomati catchment based policy,” says Dr MacKay. “The fact that rights principles that have key practical Water Alternatives in 2013, former Deputy water and related policies subsequent to the has contributed significantly to water resource the WRC was so good at addressing long-term uses for those involved in WRM and service Director-General: Policy and Regulation of the NWA. management in South Africa. issues during the years from 1971 to 1995 is provision. 40 41 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

Free basic water From the case studies it was concluded­ that, while difficult, imple­menting FBW in rural areas Apart from issues such as water resource remained feasible. A common factor in efficient, limitations and induced scarcity, South Africa cost-effective provision of FBW was found to has specific challenges relating to inequities in be the contracting of organisations with the the physical, social, administrative as well as necessary expertise to success­fully manage institutional access to this important resource. water provision within a budget by local This applies especially to the poor and authorities without sufficient own capacity. disempowered majority, whose ability to pay for water is limited and who don’t have water FBW in the rural areas of South Africa is allocations. difficult, but possible. With good management, FBW could be sustainable in the long term As part of its strategy to alleviate poverty in as long as national government provides the country, the South African government sufficient levels of Equitable share revenue announced a policy for the provision of free to municipalities. From the lessons learned basic water to all in 2000 to ensure that no in this research, the key factors in successful one was completely denied access to water implementation are good planning; the honest supply because they were unable to pay for the assessment of the WSA capacity and the service. This consisted of providing 6 000 litres consequential contracting of experts to fulfil the per month free of charge to each household. roles and responsibilities they cannot; political support for FBW policy; and accountability. When the South African government started rolling out its FBW policy in 2001, critics argued that it was not feasible, especially in poor rural municipal areas. However, a WRC-funded study in 2005 found that FBW could work.

The WRC study, concluded in 2005, SA’s Free Basic Water policy investigated the rollout of FBW in rural areas. Five areas came under the spotlight – uThukela provides for 6 kilolitres per Water Partnership­ and Vulindlela Water Project in KwaZulu-Natal; Alfred Nzo District household per month free Municipality and Ngqushwa Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape; and Nhlungwane Water of charge. Project, a small community-run scheme in the uMzinyathi District, in KwaZulu-Natal. 42 43 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

Translating policy into practice: across South Africa. In one case, for example, performance of the treatment plants, a municipality’s compliance to the national knowledge and skills of the operators as well Water and sanitation guidelines and tools drinking water standard increased from 64% as other technical and management issues, to 94% four months after it starting using the among others. The study shed significant light Improved water quality a click away eWQMS. on the challenges hampering the performance of the country’s small water treatment systems. Innovation in water and wastewater treatment Management, was recognised internationally In May 2008, Emanti Management also won The primary reasons for the failure of these and supply has been a WRC focus since its for the development of an electronic water the National Science and Technology Forum plants included inappropriate technology, poor establishment in 1971. In the years following quality management system (eWQMS) Award for Category E (Innovation developed operation, lack of training, municipal financial South Africa’s democracy, water service rolled out to all 166 municipal water services through a small, medium or micro enterprise) constraints, lack of motivation of operators and delivery became the responsibility of many authorities in South Africa. for the eWQMS. Later that year the company lack of knowledge of basic water treatment newly formed municipalities, who faced severe received international recognition when it, operations. WRC research is aimed at improving access to safe challenges in water and wastewater treatment The eWQMS development team received together with the DWS and the Institute of water quality for communities. and supply. It became increasingly evident that the International Water Association’s Global Municipal Engineering of Southern Africa won The resultant guidelines describe methods more had to be done to relieve the plight of Project Innovation Award in the Operations/ the International Water Association’s Project and processes for tackling some of these especially poor, rural communities. Management category in Vienna, Austria in Innovation Award in the Operations and problems experienced at small water 2008, after winning the regional awards. The Management Category. treatment plants. Practical solutions are This prompted the WRC to develop a growing awards recognise excellence and innovation offered, with emphasis on the multiple- number of guidelines and tools designed in water engineering projects throughout the Help for small water treatment plants barrier approach to optimising disinfection. In to assist municipalities to explore ways of world. addition, the survey results have been shared addressing these challenges. The guides deal Water infrastructure in South Africa is generally with relevant stakeholders with an emphasis with topics ranging from selecting the right Rollout of the open source, Internet-based well developed in urban areas. However, on the areas where water quality problems are water or wastewater treatment technology to system started in 2006. Today, around 95% rural water treatment plants often experience being experienced. Nationwide workshops on improved operation and maintenance. of WSAs provide drinking water data on a technical and management problems leading the emergency disinfection of drinking water monthly basis. Water quality and other water to the production of drinking water of an inferior have also been held. One of the most popular of these is the service information is captured and stored on quality with potential health consequences for international award-winning eWQMS the central database. This information can then affected communities. To address this problem, An illustrative training kit for rural water (electronic Water Quality Management be easily retrieved via the Internet to generate the WRC funded a study involving 181 such treatment plant operators is now available from System), which many municipalities are now reports, tables and graphs for management plants (mostly municipal owned) across seven the WRC, the end-product of a series of on- using successfully to help manage their review and decision-making processes. provinces. The goal was to determine the site mobile training of 26 operators from seven water and wastewater treatment processes. nature and full extent of the problems in order different small water treatment plants in the It is reported that the use of the system has to provide practical and user-friendly guidelines Eastern Cape. It emphasises why each step in “It is important that everyone in the The efforts of the Department of Water to contributed significantly to an improved level for intervention. water treatment is important for the sustainable water sector works together to assist Receiving the IWA Award for Project Innovation in improve municipal drinking water quality of awareness of drinking water quality matters, production and delivery of safe drinking water municipalities to provide the best 2008 are Jay Bhagwan of the WRC, Mziwabantu have scooped national and international a growing improvement in effective drinking The study, led by Prof Maggie Momba from and how to check the performance at each Ramba of Emanti, Dr Rivka Kfir of the WRC and Grant awards. The department, along with the water quality management and a direct TUT, gathered information on the methods stage. quality water to their communities.” Mackintosh of Emanti. Institute of Municipal Engineering and Emanti improvement in drinking water quality provision of disinfection applied, equipment employed, – Prof Maggie Momba 44 45 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Informing policy and decision making

Sludge management guidelines, developed The application of wastewater sludge to arable integration of the process for consideration of with funding from the WRC in collaboration with land is an effective method to dispose of water use licences due to recent amendments the Department of Water, is playing a significant wastewater sludge, and there are examples to related legislation including the national role in growing the status of wastewater sludge in South Africa where this is not only proving environmental laws. In recent years, the WRC as a valuable resource. They provide guidance beneficial to the municipalities concerned, has coordinated a Policy Review, and has also on the selection of appropriate disposal but also to end-users. In the Swartland in engaged with many stakeholders to explore the options, but also create an understanding the Western Cape, the land application of implications of the National Water Amendment of operational and legal requirements for wastewater sludge has significantly improved Bill for water R&D needs. different disposal options. The guidelines also the nutrient and moisture content of the soils recommend the beneficial use of the sludge and farmers have been able to realise profitable Similarly, the Water Research Act (No. 34 of where possible and sludge disposal is seen as yields from previously unprofitable areas. 1971) has been amended to include textual a last resort. improvements and name changes. The The cost-benefits of using wastewater sludge draft Amendment Bill is well considered and The guidelines show great promise in improving for brick-making and fertiliser manufacture incorporates all of the comments that have the management of wastewater sludge. The were also studied. The reuse of sludge in this been offered to date. The Bill, in the manner City of Cape Town set a sterling example by way could not only have environmental and in which it sets out the compliance clauses, using sludge for composting, land application, human health benefits, but could also assist in captures a good balance between creating an and palletisation, which has resulted in the creation of much needed jobs, specifically enabling environment and ensuring the correct significant cost savings for the city. for semi-skilled people. legislative checks and balances. Compost made from sanitised wastewater sludge. “Much is already being done to improve drinking water quality in rural areas,” notes Conclusion Finally, the WRC has also been heavily involved Prof Momba. “It is important that everyone in the implementation of NWRS II, which has in the water sector works together to assist Today, the water and sanitation sector is made a significant shift to a knowledge-based municipalities to provide the best quality water undergoing substantive changes in its policy paradigm, as reflected in the consultations to their communities.” landscape. More recent policy developments as well as the gazetted NWRS II, and calls include the amalgamation of the NWA and for a much larger contribution from R&D to From waste to resource National Water Services Act, as well as a empower the implementation of the strategy. In revision of the Water Research Act. addition, the strategy also engages the further Increasing population levels and high “We have, at last, achieved our development of water sciences in South Africa. urbanisation rates, along with international The National Water Amendment Bill was tabled One of the key deliverables that the NWRS political emancipation. We pledge trends to view sludge as a resource rather as a in Parliament in February 2014 in order to II emphasises is the Sector Research and ourselves to liberate our people from waste material, have underlined the importance clarify departmental roles relating to water use Innovation (R&I) Strategy. In support of this, the continuing bondage of poverty, of finding new, safer ways of managing licences applicable to prospecting, exploration, it is incumbent upon the WRC to coordinate wastewater sludge sustainably. Mismanaged deprivation, suffering, gender and mining or production activities. The Bill, which the development of the National Water R&D wastewater sludge can have a considerable other discrimination.” will amend the National Water Act (1998), Plan, the latter also emphasised in the Water negative impact on the environment and is required to provide for an alignment and Research Amendment Bill. - President Mandela, Inauguration Speech, human health. A sludge drying bed. 10 May 1994 46 47 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

The water research journey of transformation

As well as supporting the transformation of the South African water sector, the WRC, as the country’s premier water knowledge broker is continuously reviewing its effectiveness against government objectives.

The first democratic decade and Water Research Commission Chairpersons 1994-2014 its impact on research --AJ Raubenheimer, 1994 Since 1971, water-related research and development on behalf of the --Colin Johnson, government and water sector of South Africa has been vested in the 1995-1998 Water Research Commission (WRC). Funded in terms of the Water Research Act of 1971 through a levy on water use, the WRC reports --Prof Kingston Nyamapfene, to Parliament through the Minister of Water. The WRC commissions 1999-2000 research to address identified needs and disseminates resulting --Dr Hamanth Kasan, knowledge with a view to solving water-related problems. The WRC 2001-2005 also plays a key role in capacity building in the water sector. The objectives of the WRC, as stated in the Act, are to co-ordinate, promote --Dr Snowy Khoza, and encourage research in respect of a wide range of purposes and 2006-2008 activities. The WRC has therefore been the key shaper of the national --Prof Janine Adams, water and sanitation R&D agenda since its inception. 2008-2011 A WRC project conducted scientometric analyses of the water --Barbara Schreiner, research landscape and concluded that South Africa has undergone 2012-2014 significant changes in the output and structure of water research Chapter 2 over the past few decades. There has been substantial growth 48 49 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

in output with a total relevant sample The year after Dr Odendaal’s retirement, Four water-related KSAs were identified – publication record of 6007 articles and Dr Rivka Kfir was appointed as CEO in water resource management; water- research reports and a current annual July 2001, with a clear mandate to transform linked ecosystems; water use and waste output of over 350 articles and reports per the organisation. In December 2001, Dr HC management; and water use in agriculture. year. The number and sources of journal Kasan was appointed as the new Chairperson The fifth key strategic area, water-centred articles over this period have increased and of the Board. knowledge, focused on the widest possible diversified while WRC research report output dissemination of existing knowledge relating has also increased. From 2001 to 2002 the foundation for to water. The research thrusts of each key a strategic journey of organisational strategic area support, directly or indirectly, the This study also pointed out that two reasonably transformation was laid, a journey with a country’s water policy. distinct research paradigms and two transition clear target of turning the organisation into a periods have emerged between 1977 and dynamic and innovative ‘hub’ for water-centred Between 2003 and 2010, the WRC supported 2011. The first paradigm occurs in a period knowledge; a networking organisation linking various knowledge-centred activities aimed at dominated by the quest to supply water, which the nation’s stakeholders in water and working improving South Africa’s ability to appropriately is interrupted dramatically by changes in the through partnerships. This was achieved via a address future water problems in the short political landscape. The Constitution, the NWA process of ‘business transformation’. to the long term. It addressed issues such as among others, and the shift in the national water for all, quality of life, and environmental balance of power, introduce the next paradigm The new vision of the WRC was formulated: sustainability, which are part and parcel of shift and an emphasis on integrated water to be a globally recognised leader in providing South Africa’s national priorities and require resource management. This new paradigm innovative solutions for sustainable water considerable attention. The WRC also is characterised by a research effort that is management to meet the changing needs of welcomed two Board Chairs in this period: centred on new themes and concepts such society and of the environment. The key to this Dr Snowy Khoza (2006-2008), the first black as sustainability, community, governance transformation was being relevant and effective, woman chairperson of the WRC, and Prof and adaptation. The shift from the 1980s, supporting both the creation of knowledge, by Janine Adams (2008-2011), a former WRC- once dominated by research efforts that funding research and development, and the funded postgraduate student that has walked focused on treatment, technical interventions, transfer and dissemination of the knowledge two decades with the WRC through her chemistry and so forth, now features research created. Dissemination of knowledge required research. interests, themes and approaches such as an appropriate, sustainable knowledge base integrated water resource management and that would be effective in its ability to absorb In addition, the WRC led numerous studies research focus areas multidisciplinary studies in water research. new knowledge. on strategic and implementation issues arising from recent water legislation, including In terms of the WRC journey, the period 1994 Under the leadership of the Board, the WRC the strategic approach to integrated water 5 - 2000 brought with it a host of institutional revised its funding strategy and developed a resource management, the recognition of water transitions. In 2001, Executive Director Dr Piet new mode of operation, transforming its 17 as a basic human right and the resultant free The WRC’s five key strategic areas in 2000 were water Odendaal retired after a long and distinguished research fields into five key strategic areas with water policy, as well as the right of the aquatic resource management, water-linked ecosystems, water Former CEO of the WRC, Dr Rivka Kfir, with then career in the national and international water an additional four crosscutting domains. environment to its sustaining share of water use and waste management, water use in agriculture Minister of Water, Ronnie Kasrils, in 2003. field. (the Ecological Reserve). and water-centred knowledge 50 51 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

In a very similar vein, the WRC is a very Despite these achievements, South Africa different organisation to what it was 20 years continues to be burdened by significant market ago, with a greater focus now on impactful failures in the water innovation value chain. research that informs policy, transforms the The WRC remains under-funded, and its sector, capacitates a younger and more impact and implementation visibility is limited representative cohort of water and sanitation to specific segments of the water sector. scientists, empower communities, and Additionally, the WRC’s internal systems and develops products and services for economic knowledge management strategy are being development. strengthened to absorb a broader and deeper portfolio approach, and to ensure that the The appointment of Dhesigen Naidoo as WRC knowledge generated is accessible to all parts CEO in 2011 was another turning point in the of society. WRC’s history and strategic orientation. In this period, the WRC adopted the concept From 2011 to the present, the WRC has of the water science and technology (S&T) focused its attention on developing its impact Knowledge Tree and the Transformation Bridge narrative that provides a pathway from research as its main strategic planning objectives. This to impact (What is our impact story? How are entails moving South Africa from a resource we relevant to everyone else?). This entails a driven economy to a knowledge economy with review of current actions and activities as well a successful water industry; science driven as the identification of new actions that will “Empirical evidence suggests that not policy, decisions and actions; and a larger ensure impact realisation. WRC CEO, Dhesigen Naidoo (far right) with former Water Parliamentary Portfolio Committee Chair, more diverse water community. Additionally, only does the academic enterprise Johnny de Lange and former Minister of Science & Technology, Derek Hanekom at the WRC Symposium in 2012. these planning tools also signify the need to But one thing that has not changed is the fact of science in the water sector not move from a focus on knowledge generation that South Africa is a water-scarce country. diminish through an increased focus to impact. Even in the parts of the country where rainfall on socio-economic development The Second Democratic Decade: The Knowledge Tree era figures are more favourable, climate and on the core issues of a developing Today, the South African water science sector weather variability has added to the availability The country is a remarkably different place NWA and the Water Services Act, which is relatively strong, ranking 18th in the world in challenges, with periods of intense flooding country such as ours, but may even than it was in 1994, characterised by the could profoundly change the way the sector terms of research publications and the WRC interspersed with long dry periods. This has derive enhanced benefit from this rollercoaster ride of divided experiences operates. In May 2014, we have seen the has been a catalytic agent in this regard. We made storage difficult and assurance of supply orientation. It perhaps describes a witnessed in the last 20 years. Additionally, ushering in of a ministry unifying water and have also seen the positive impact of the WRC hard to attain. pathway to South Africa eventually the sector is in a state of flux. The legislative sanitation, and also the appointment of the dialogues as a glue factor in bringing together becoming a global hub of excellence and policy environment is undergoing major Honourable Minister of Water and Sanitation, diverse stakeholders on various issues related Water and sanitation services remain core changes, most notably the amalgamation Ms Nomvula Mokonyane, and Honourable to water. The WRC’s partnership record is also challenges of our time globally, and particularly in water development science.” of the sector’s key pieces of legislation, the Deputy Minister, Ms Pamela Tshwete. a high point. for South Africa’s growing political economy. – Dhesigen Naidoo, WRC CEO

52 53 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

Today, the South African water science Yet while South Africa has met the MDG targets sector to unlock growth and development in development and management. From 2012 quality in order to promote sustainability.This sector is relatively strong, ranking in these areas, our primary goals remain that of the water and sanitation sector. onwards, the WRC has reinforced its efforts to cluster included the conservation of water universal access to safe and sustainable water fund appropriate research projects aimed at ecosystems; water quality management; 18th in the world in terms of research and sanitation services to all in South Africa The WRC embraces this new paradigm in its actively informing both policy development by municipal wastewater treatment; and mine- publications and the WRC has been a as well as water infrastructure to support new current strategy. The project portfolio gives government partners and decision-making by water management. catalytic agent in this regard. entrants into the economy. effect to the notion of water as a Strategic all parties in the water sector. National Asset from the basic planning regimes The generous allocation of 8% to groundwater ‘MaDhlamini,’ the iconic symbol of black, rural of water sensitive design to the mining of A shift in focus in the WRC’s span research reflected the Board’s concern about or peri-urban women that bear the highest freshwater and valuable minerals from acid of research this important, but at the time somewhat burden with regards to water and sanitation mine water. The notion can be applied from poorly understood and managed resource. delivery, remains unserviced. The change in developing sustainable low/no-water safe A notable development of the years between In addition, 18% of the research budget was fortune for MaDhlamini with the achievement sanitation solutions to women-led small scale 1994 and 2000 was the shift in focus in allocated to research activities targeted at of universal access to sustainable water and agriculture initiatives, and from research to resource allocation – from a bias in favour of addressing the perpetual quest for new ways of sanitation services in South Africa should be empower the notion of ecological infrastructure the ‘hard sciences’ and engineering, to the improving water-use efficiency across all areas one of our main priorities. as a key element of water infrastructure, to ’softer’ issues that have more immediate and of use. novel governance mechanisms to encourage direct benefits for communities. Research Rather than be paralysed by these challenges, wider empowered participation. projects on softer issues permeated fields The WRC’s current investment in R&D from the WRC now regards these as opportunities such as rural water supply and sanitation; 2011 to the present is mainly through research for innovation. For the WRC, the challenge is to This, the WRC does this in partnership with water policy; water services (institutional projects and programmes in the directed (33%) get useful information to MaDhlamini that can South Africa’s small but highly productive water and management issues); integrated water and open (66%) categories. In accordance influence and aid service delivery interventions. and sanitation R&D community, the dedicated Resource Management; and Health Related with the WRC’s funding cycle, research Over the past few years, the WRC has worked South African water practitioners, the prudent Water Issues which, together, received 24% proposals are invited on an annual basis, to provide more information to MaDhlamini; water users and our friends around the world of the WCR research budget by the year however, in more recent years, the WRC has provide more appropriate information to her; in the quest to ensure the reality of universal 2000. expanded its portfolio as a result of increased but also look at the solutions that she can access to water and sanitation services. leverage funding, which has necessitated use to help her. This requires an expanded Indeed, the expanded partnership model This figure reflected the WRC’s serious the development of out-of-cycle Calls for Delegates Aidan Choles and Prof Tally Palmer at a knowledge dissemination strategy beyond is key to ensuring that water and sanitation commitment to South African citizens’ right Proposals. WRC social science research workshop in 2013. the confines of the water and sanitation innovations succeed being pulled through the of access to sufficient (and clean) water, as research and policy communities. It also entirety of the innovation value chain. enshrined in the Constitution and articulated in research budget requires a closer look at game-changers such the Water Services Act. A notable development of the years between 1994 and 2000, was the shift as: 1) How RDI can strengthen the role of The WRC recognises the need for the status in focus in resource allocation – from a bias in favour of the ‘hard sciences’ local government in service delivery; 2) How of South Africa’s water to be elevated to the Compared to historical patterns, significantly and engineering, to the ’softer’ issues that have more immediate and direct 75% to enable the water and sanitation policy core of the public agenda, and that advanced larger amounts of funding (27%) were environment; 3) How to increase community management practices should be applied allocated to the closely linked cluster of benefits for communities. The more recent emphasis from 2011 to the present 75% of WRC’s total annual budget goes towards involvement in RDI solutions; and 4) How to and implemented to address the increasingly research fields which aimed to protect the incorporates this focus and stretches it further to prioritise transdisciplinary supporting research strengthen R&D partnerships with the private complex business of water resource water environment and its associated water research and the inclusion of social science and humanities research projects. 54 55 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

New funding model demands an increase in --Limited support for capacity building (student international income support),

The WRC’s 2002 funding model ensured --Research currently limited to basic and a greater emphasis on internationalisation. applied research, limited scope for innovation Leveraging income for the creation, sharing support, and dissemination of water-centred knowledge meant that the WRC had to leverage income --Low levels of R&D participation by most by striving to obtain funds from other sources players in the water sector, to support water research. Leveraged income had to be obtained from both local and --Low uptake/implementation of research international sources, where the main source outcomes (including technology of income was due to support by various development, piloting and demonstration). government departments for specific research and other knowledge-sharing projects. Other Given these challenges, one of the WRC’s sources of income increased steadily from special emphases post-2011 has been to the transformation that began in 2001 and substantially increase the resources available amounted to about 15% of total income by for water R&D in South Africa through a revised 2007, continuing to grow thereafter. By 2013, funding strategy. The following mechanisms are the leverage figure had increased to 10% of being engaged: total income. 1. Exploring the feasibility of securing a Noting the increasing demand for R&D funding dedicated Parliamentary Grant for the WRC and other WRC services in South Africa’s as enabled by the Water Research Act. water sector, the WRC needs to explore ways 2. Exploring the diversification of funding of increasing its funding streams. Some of the through new and increased resourced current realities for the WRC are: partnerships with the public and private sectors as well as foundations and --Limited R&D funding – The WRC can donor agencies, including foreign direct research budget research portfolio currently only fund 1 out of every 3 proposals investment. Public private partnerships will that are recommended by the peer review be explored through formal arrangements. process, 3. Providing directed support to the R&D AWARD 44% R160m --A highly productive but very small community community to better enable our collective of practice - Limited support for emerging ability to be more successful in gaining Currently about 44% of the WRC’s current budget In 2013 the WRC supported 85 social research projects Following the WRC’s transformation issues such as the inclusive governance of water resources have received researchers (historically disadvantaged access to international competitive funds for is focused on water resources and about 56% on worth R160m. increased attention. researchers), water R&D. projects that focus on water utilisation 56 57 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

Additionally, the WRC’s strategy from 2011 to Another key pillar of the WRC’s post-2011 Making water knowledge accessible the present has been devoted to achieving a strategy has been research concentration multiplier effect in WRC projects. As a guiding for accelerated knowledge and solution Management of knowledge within the WRC Published six times a year, The Water Wheel Conveying water research in a framework we have constructed for ourselves development. The construct of the WRC entails all the processes associated with had its origins in the transformation years popular scientific manner to different the ‘WRC Knowledge Tree’. The tree metaphor Lighthouse is a strategic tool that is used the identification, sharing and creation of of the WRC when the original newsletter, interest groups in the water field has reflects strength in foundation (i.e. roots firmly to direct research in key areas identified by knowledge. SA Waterbulletin, was revitalised to reflect a embedded in sound knowledge) and strong the WRC. These Lighthouses are flagship new image and a new beginning. The name always been a WRC priority. growth (i.e. branches and leaves growing programmes, and are trans-disciplinary, The WRC produces a number of publications symbolises the WRC as a dynamic hub for vigorously). Every WRC project will strive to multi-KSA and inter-institutional mega-projects aimed at realising this vision, and there is an water-centred knowledge, and this is reflected achieve as many of the WRC Knowledge Tree that examine priority water issues across the increasing focus on offering these products in the fact that the magazine boasts more than outcomes as reasonably possible. This applies innovation value chain. The WRC actively seeks in an electronic format. Completed research 8 000 subscribers, making it the most widely within the project, to post-project actions, and to direct key projects into these programmatic products are published in the form of WRC read sanitation- and water-related publication to follow-on projects. areas. reports, which are available for free through the in the country in terms of distribution, and one WRC website or publications department. that is read as far afield as Kazakhstan! The core of our value proposition to the The five lighthouses include: South African water sector, and, in particular, Water SA is an WRC’s accredited scientific The younger generation has not been forgotten, to the South African public, is that from 1. Water Sensitive Design journal which contains original research articles with a special section dedicated to them in the knowledge generated in the WRC 2. Climate Change and review articles on all aspects of water The Water Wheel, named Water Kidz, which project portfolio we are able to contribute to 3. Water–Energy–Food Security science, technology, engineering and policy. deals with a variety of topics ranging from sustainable development, inform policy and The journal has been in publication since biodiversity to health and hygiene. The WRC 4. The Green Village decision-making, contribute new products, 1975 and includes articles from both local and also publishes special editions of The Water technologies and know-how to grow the 5. Freshwater Governance international authors. Issued quarterly, it is now Wheel aimed specifically at children. The most economy, and build human capital and published mainly as an e-journal with open, recent publications aimed at a young audience entrepreneurship with the aims of direct free access to the published information since include a cartoon-style water-related activity empowerment of communities and taking April 2005. In 2009, access to Water SA was book published in 2013 in collaboration with the forward the national transformation agenda. further enhanced with the completion of the CSIR, and the Water@Work Career Guide. process of digitising all back copies, creating an online archive of the entire Water SA The WRC’s annual Knowledge Review is aimed collection, dating back to its very first edition at giving stakeholders a complete overview in 1975. of its fund management, research portfolio, capacity-building initiatives, investment in the Conveying water research in a popular generation and transfer of knowledge, and scientific manner to different interest groups in operational activities of the preceding year. the water field has always been a WRC priority. Specific examples are given where research This role is fulfilled by The Water Wheel, a has led to improved technology, decision- The WRC’s five Lighthouse programmes address climate change, water governance, water-sensitive urban magazine aimed at improving general public making and operational management in terms design, the Green Village and the water-energy-food nexus. understanding of science and technology. of the current five KSAs. 58 59 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

The Water Wheel is widely read, counting school teachers, farmers, church environmental groups and members of the portfolio committee among its readers.

60 Student participation is an important element of WRC research. 61 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

Policy Briefs the aim of which is to serve as a platform to exchange ideas and opinions related to water. Policy-makers often need to rapidly react In this regard, the WRC Dialogues are guided to the public, the media, as well as various by the principles of transparency, openness structures within government. At the same time and honesty; plurality of perspectives and they also need a solid basis to develop their inclusivity, mutual respect; a commitment to own initiatives within their field of responsibility. problem-solving and mutual accountability; and Short written briefing notes help to improve in the broader interest of knowledge sharing. the legislative assistance to policy-makers and The value of the WRC’s role as convenor of strengthen their competence in this respect. these events lies in its ability to be a neutral knowledge broker as South Africa’s premier The WRC publishes policy, ministerial and water knowledge resource. technical briefs on various research findings, and topical issues of national relevance. The WRC, in partnership with the then Briefings can be requested on an ad-hoc basis Parliamentary Portfolio Committee (PPC) on from the WRC along with the more extensive Water and the Environment, organised a public reports that have been written on a particular engagement dialogue with parliamentarians subject. on the Future of Water in South Africa and the Role of the Scientific Community of Practice in Assessment and research capacity September 2013.

Given the WRC’s wealth of scientific research The Dialogue provided a platform for open within the WRC funding portfolio, as well engagement between the scientific community as the fact that the WRC employs technical and parliamentarians to better understand Members of Parliament engaging in the ‘People’s Parliament’ (from left) MP Advocate Johnny de Lange, MP Ms J Manganye and MP Ms P Bhengu. experts in domains spanning the entire water each others’ roles in ensuring the sustainable and innovation value chain, the WRC is able to management of water in South Africa. It also The WRC Knowledge Hub provide rapid regulatory impact assessments looked at the role of other key entities such as of policy proposals or examine the state of the WRC as a key knowledge broker between Increasingly, the WRC is focusing on the These are all searchable and contained in the implementation of existing legislation. science and policy, and interrogated how the electronic distribution of information and knowledge hub. The website forms part of WRC can better facilitate communication. a strong Web presence. Today, this has a larger drive to develop an electronic water Dialogues and events developed to such an extent that a fully knowledge hub, which will be a world-class The ‘People’s Parliament’ as it fondly functional, content-based, searchable website digital water information centre. Additionally, One of the newer instruments that the WRC became known, surprised all expectations in is offered, containing all WRC documents through the WRC Knowledge Hub, we provide has launched to very favourable result has attendance and the richness of the discussion including annual reports, knowledge reviews, free access to over 6 000 resource material been the WRC Dialogues. The WRC Dialogues due in large part to the informal nature of the The Water Wheel, Water SA, technology items. are discussion-based events on topical water dialogue and by providing a safe space for all MP Adv Johnny de Lange, and MP Ms J Manganye. transfer reports and all other research reports. issues affecting the South African public, to debate. Indeed the highlight of this session 62 63 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | The water research journey of transformation

was the way in which the chair, Advocate chasm, where on the one side you have WRC continues to spread its wings Johnny De Lange, (Chairperson: PPC on Water scientists claiming that they have many of the 2004-2014 and Environment, Parliament of the Republic of scientific solutions needed to address South South Africa) encouraged the participation of a Africa’s water challenges, and on the other The organisation has spent the last ten years wide range of stakeholders on various issues. side the decision-makers and water users consolidating its position as a strategic, feeling insufficiently supported by science to dynamic, water-centred knowledge hub, One such issue pertained to equity in water enable better and smarter management of to serve South Africa in the first instance. and the fragmentation of the constitutional our precious water resources. This has led to Increasingly, it is proving to be a credible and legal framework in the water sector. This the knowledge chasm being described as the role-player in Africa as well as globally, discussion focused on the need for a model void between scientists, who feel that they are thereby enhancing South Africa’s position to pull all mandates together, including the not heard, and a society and economy that internationally. The WRC recognises that it is funding model of the water sector. The issue of says that they are not adequately served by just one entity in the water innovation value governance was also addressed in terms of the science. chain in South Africa. We therefore recognise need to draft regulations that align policies. the importance of partnerships and actively The People’s Parliament was a cornerstone build our partnership profile for informing Additionally, a question was posed: “Do we in the bridge across the chasm. Both priorities, leveraging funds, developing research need more scientists in Parliament or more parliamentarians and scientists very quickly products and services and transferring parliamentarians interested in science?” converged on the core issues defining the knowledge. Here, the discussion centred on the need national water challenge, and with amazing for water science to be more focused, and efficiency, to the surprise of the many who It is through co-ordination, co-operation and able demonstrate how it benefits society and expressed reservations on the potential communication in water R&D that the WRC has the vast majority of South African people. success of the exercise, found resonance on been able to punch above its weight and make This discussion also alluded to the need for many of the positions. inroads to global solutions. Understanding improved communication between scientists that achieving full implementation of research and members of Parliament. The WRC We should take our hats off to both to the outputs requires specialist inputs and resources was encouraged and challenged to be the MPs and the truly remarkable candour in beyond those available to the WRC, we actively information-sharing tool of R&D to parliament. which they approached the dialogue, and the pursue mutually-beneficial partnerships that will remarkably constructive nature in which the improve our overall effectiveness. Collaborative Apart from this being the first type of scientists unpacked the challenges and the partnerships have been established with private interaction between legislators and water scientific solutions. The PPC also expressed and public entities, as well as governmental scientists outside the hallowed halls of their pleasure at the great progress this water departments and international institutions. Parliament, it gave resonance to the very science community has made to ensure that important notion of creating a sustainable the pursuit of science is increasingly resulting dialogue between the science community in positive socio-economic outcomes and political decision-makers. Much has and impacts, as enunciated in the WRC been said and written about the knowledge Knowledge Tree. 64 WRC CEO, Mr. Dhesigen Naidoo providing the contextual background for the ‘Peoples Parliament’. 65 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Transforming South African society

The WRC continues to focus on research that helps to promote development through the reduction of poverty and inequality in South Africa. Of special interest is the role that water may play in achieving social transformation and justice in the context of deepening democratic practices, the extension of water services and redressing the wrongs of the past.

This is complicated by the country’s commitment to ecological sustainability, and addressing the effects of climate change, HIV/AIDS and the daily realities of households living in poverty. Where appropriate, the WRC includes a social perspective in aspects of water research. This includes issues of gender, class, disability, urban and rural location, culture and religion.

WRC research integrates a variety of methodologies to provide a holistic view while emphasising respect for people’s rights, and encourages participation in monitoring and decision-making as entrenched in South Africa’s Constitution. Research projects in this domain are aimed at developing a greater understanding of social dynamics in the water sector and people’s needs for and views on water; encouraging people’s participation in water management and decisions about water; and searching for ways to use water for transformation and social justice. Chapter 3 66 67 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

Water Allocation: A human rights issue and a development challenge

Inequalities in access to land and water in women and children, as well as social stability South Africa arose as a result of prevalent laws and well-being. initially under European Colonial rule and later under apartheid. Combined, these resulted in As custodians of the national water resource, black people being denied access to water for the Department of Water must promote the productive use. beneficial use of water in the best interests of all South Africans. Reforms, based on the principles of equity and fairness under the democratic government The allocation of water should, therefore have seen a number of programmes and promote equity, address poverty, generate policies aimed at redressing the imbalances of economic growth and create jobs. The water the past. Among these are the Reconstruction allocation process must also recognise that and Development Programme, Land Reform redressing the effects of previous discriminatory Programme as well as reforms in the water legislation also provides social stability, which sector. The NWA is the main instrument in turn promotes economic growth. Moreover, that governs access to water for productive the water allocation process must allow for use. The NWA seeks to ensure that the the sustainable use of water resources and country’s water resources are protected, promote the efficient and non-wasteful use of used, developed, conserved and managed in water. accordance with the principles of efficiency, sustainability as well as equity. All spheres of government, water agencies and research agencies need to work together to The NWA removes the notion of private promote the productive and responsible use ownership of water and instead recognises of water. water as a national resource, owned by all the South Africans held in trust by the state. The NWA provides the legislative framework for water allocation reform (WAR). The NWA makes provision for The struggle for access to sufficient water a number of water entitlements. in semi-arid South Africa is both a human rights issue and a development challenge, impacting on health, agricultural and economic productivity, the education opportunities of Water is also required for productive uses. 68 69 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

The NWA makes provision for a number of Another important document is the Strategic of those cooperative governance arrangements borne diseases that thrive in unsafe water “The struggle for equal rights for water entitlements: Framework on Water for Sustainable Growth required to support the productive use of water. sources. women and men is not unique to and Development which is based on a vision In many instances, this is a difficult and costly 1. The Reserve: Water required to meet basic of “a robust, accountable and people-centred process. Accordingly, approaches to water But while some progress has been made, the South Africa and is not a recent human needs as well as for carrying out water sector, which ensures that water allocation are initially being rolled out in areas decisions pertaining to water use and allocation phenomenon. It can be traced in all ecosystem functions. security, supports social transformation and experiencing water stress. However, in order to continue to be dominated by men. Unless societies and over a period of many 2. Schedule 1 Use: Limited quantities of economic growth without compromising address the short-term need for equity in other these traditional roles and decision making years and even centuries. The issue of water required for household use, watering environmental integrity”. In this regard, areas, the approaches will include options that patterns are shifted, women will continue to women’s rights and women’s position WAR is recognised as having a potential to promote the beneficial and equitable use of have their efforts to achieve economic growth of stock, etc. with low potential for negative in society has also come to be part of impacts on water resources. contribute towards growth and development water in all catchments. and independence, undermined. thus raising the need for accelerated the post-World War II discourse on 3. General Authorisations: Larger quantities reallocation of water for productive use in Striking a gender balance As in many spheres water research struggles development, even for this, a number of water with potential for negative impacts. order to enhance diversification of livelihoods to reach beyond the rhetoric of gender of approaches exist.” Authorisation can be granted for a specific among the rural poor. Gender is a central organising principle in all equality and translate understanding into – Eiman Karar, type of water use, and/or any category of societies, northern and southern, urban and action and change. As such, WRC projects, WRC, Executive Manager: user. Water allocation reform process kicks off rural, agrarian and industrial alike. Yet efforts programmes and partners must understand, Water Resources Management to address gender‐based inequities have not acknowledge and mainstream gender in order 4. Licensed Water Use: Larger volumes of In 2005 the Department of Water announced levelled the playing field as expected. to sustainably reduce poverty and improve water for commercial use. the start of the water allocation reform process. food security. Gender issues in development Compulsory licensing may eventually be The department recognised that allocating Women and girls are responsible for collecting go beyond gender per se, and relate to citizen used everywhere to license water use, but water without ensuring that all users have water for household use, often having to walk engagement and social justice, where the real the priority areas for compulsory licensing will the capacity to use this water productively long distances carrying heavy loads of water. war on poverty is fought. be areas of water shortages (where current will limit the benefits. Consequently, water Having access to water not only for domestic or future demand exceeds supply) or where allocation should not only aim at realising the purposes, but for productive purposes, can be The WRC aims to bridge the gap between pollution is severe (stressed catchments). The goals outlined in the framework, but must a critical part of rising out of poverty. rhetoric and practice. It looks at gender as compulsory licensing process may also be work closely with all spheres of government to the different roles and responsibilities that used where it is required to assist historically promote the productive and responsible use But there are significant gender differences in societies ascribe to people based on sex, excluded people to gain access to the resource of water. Likewise, water allocations should the use, access to and management of water. age and other social constructs. Gender is as well as to: try to minimise the impacts on existing lawful Women often have little or no water rights, and reflected in differential power relationships, users of water who are already contributing to form the highest proportion of people without of particular importance to any development --achieve a fair allocation of water from our development. As such, water allocations access to safe drinking water. initiative concerned with access to and control stressed water resources, should promote shifts in water use patterns of natural resources. --improve the efficient use of water in the public that are equitable but also gradual and carefully The consequences of this are well documented interest, and considered. as the burden of collecting water detracts from --ensure efficient management of the water productivity, access to education and makes Having access to water not only for domestic resource, and This goes well beyond the Department of women and girls the most vulnerable to water purposes, but for productive purposes, can be a --to protect water quality. Water mandate and requires the active pursuit critical part of rising out of poverty. 70 71

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“When I was appointed as a WRC takes leading role at Water Advisory Thankfully she met up with the late Hugo Dr Mjoli, has a passion for finding solutions Analysis of water allocation under South “The study proposed principles for the WRC research manager for water Council Maaren, then also a research manager at to the water supply and sanitation challenges African law revision of South African water law the WRC. “Hugo made it his business to facing the people of South Africa. She has and sanitation for developing In 1996 WRC research manager Dr Nozi mentor me and exposed me to opportunities been instrumental in incubating and catalysing A report by Advocate Maritza Uys in late 1997 in order to create a system of water communities, I was surprised by the Mjoli was appointed Deputy Chairperson for to participate in sector conferences and research and development in the subject area tackled the issue of water allocation under allocation that will accommodate the lack of researchers from the target the National Water Advisory Council for a workshops. In recognition of my interest in of water supply and sanitation for marginalised South African law. She concluded that water water requirements of all user sectors communities. I grew up in a rural period of two years. The Council advised the gender and water issues, he nominated me communities. She is a role model for the younger legislation pre-democracy had not provided in a balanced and equitable way.” Minister on matters relating to the development to be the organiser of a UNESCO gender generation of black women. protection for the ecobiotic water requirements, area with no water or sanitation – Adv. Maritza Uys, and management of water resources, workshop for eastern and southern Africa, nor had it contained sufficient measures for the Advocate of the Supreme Court of South Africa services; therefore, I had a better including subterranean and private water, which was held in Pretoria in 1997. I consider The international recognition of Dr Mjoli’s sustainable conservation of water as a scarce understanding of the problems faced environmentally and ecologically sensitive this to be one of my career highlights in the contribution to the water sector has seen her resource. by these communities. I started a issues related to the development of water water sector.” contribute to water allocation issues, represent research programme on gender and resources, also the provision of water supply women – and the country – on a number of This critical evaluation of water allocation in water to highlight the role of women and sanitation services, pollution and disposal Boosting women’s participation in water bodies and fora, such as the Water Supply and South Africa proposed fundamental principles of effluents, and any other water-related matter management Sanitation Collaborative Council, the United whereby ecobiotic water requirements would in addressing the problem of lack of referred to the Council by the Minister. National Development Programme, and the be included among the water user sectors that water and sanitation services.” The objectives of the regional Unesco workshop Global Water Partnership. enjoy statutory protection. – Dr Nozi Mjoli, Dr Mjoli was the first black woman to be included the development of strategies for Hlathi Development Services appointed in a managerial position at the WRC. improving women’s participation, to create She was instrumental in incubating and Many water sources were already in state of Although the environment was not enabling at conditions and regulations favouring women’s catalysing research and development in the over-utilisation and applying environmental the time, Dr Mjoli took the decision that she empowerment in water resources development subject area of water supply and sanitation considerations may have been seen to deprive was going to make a success of her career programmes and to stimulate international for marginalised and poor communities. This the holders of existing lawful water rights the in the water sector. As the research manager and regional cooperation for the exchange of was achieved in a very difficult environment use thereof. The report proposed a revision responsible for research projects relating to the information and experiences. dominated by years of First World science. Her of the allocation system to increase water provision of water and sanitation for unserved research output resulted in policy change in availability to all users. One way would be to communities she was committed to improving this area. Dr Mjoli was later appointed Director reconsider the distinction between public and the lives of all those millions of South Africans of Water Resource Management at the WRC. private water which had been the cornerstone who lacked access to water and sanitation of the water allocation mechanism and which services prior to the country’s democratisation. In 2003, she formed her own consultancy, Hlathi had justified the exclusion of various water Development Services. As a consultant she sources from the statutory allocation system. Among others, she introduced a theme on has developed several research strategies for gender and water and sanitation as she the WRC, for example, the sanitation research The subsequent review of the Water Law made believes that women have an important role strategy, water services research strategy and provision for the protection of river ecosystems to play in sustainable water management as Strategic Framework for Water and Health by allocating water rights to the reserve which mothers, managers of their households and Research. provides for instream water requirements and citizens. basic human needs. Dr Nozi Mjoli. 72 73 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

Revitalising rural communities intended for decision makers, technical and extension staff, consultants, development There are more than 300 smallholder irrigation practitioners and scheme leadership. schemes in South Africa, covering about 50 000 ha. Most of these are located in the former As the authors of the WRC Irrigation homelands. The schemes continue to draw Revitalisation guidelines, Jonathan Denison substantial funding from government for social and Siyabu Manona, point out, there is 302 and economic upliftment, often with limited no simplified answer. “Hard experience success. of programmes across the country since 1994 shows clearly that unlocking potential Typically, poor performance has been through revitalisation initiatives is far more associated with a range of factors, including difficult, time consuming and costly than many poor maintenance of infrastructure and professionals and politicians have realised.” equipment; high energy costs where pumping was involved; lack of institutional support in The central theme of the guidelines is the terms of credit; marketing and draught power; critical need to appreciate and address the lack of extension and farmer training; conflict; complexity of these schemes. Development and weak local organisation. principles, specific fieldwork approaches, planning tools and inspiring case studies are Guidelines for the revitalisation of small- presented. Exciting new ways of addressing scale irrigation schemes the challenge are put forward, for example the categorisation of farming styles that allow A set of WRC guidelines aimed at providing a interventions to respond to the fundamentally map to the rocky road of smallholder irrigation different needs of distinct groups on any scheme recovery was published in 2006. schemes. The four typical groups reflect As part of the three-year project to develop the reality of different plot sizes, livelihood 200 000 guidelines for the revitalisation of small- strategies, investment capability, skills level, scale irrigation schemes in South Africa, a risk appetite, cropping interest and marketing national database of 317 schemes covering interest. irrigation approximately 50 000 ha was compiled. The guidelines are based on meaningful The guidelines, presented in two volumes, involvement and information exchange 302 are based on extensive case-study research, between farmers, plot holders and technical multi-stakeholder workshops and reviews experts, ensuring co-constructed plans for In 2011, there were 302 smallholder irrigation of major South African and East African land-tenure, agricultural, technical, institutional, schemes in South Africa, supporting around 200 000 smallholder irrigation programmes and are marketing and financial aspects. Plot holders farmers and their families 74 For smallholder revitalisation to be successful, significant resources need to be poured into human capital development. 75 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

need to be at the centre of the planning and type of irrigation schemes to be constructed. “Critical to the success of the technique is financial income. Various community-based implementation process, which demands The findings confirmed the continued relevance that it sold fast among villagers,” says Cobus bodies in the area have formed the Tswelelopele substantial two-way information transfer so that of canal irrigation and showed that gravity- Botha, project leader of the water harvesting Small Farmers cooperative, a municipal-based the implications of their decisions can be fully fed canal schemes were more likely to be research projects. A major advantage is that water-harvesting group that includes 42 appreciated. operational and to last longer than pumped IRWH costs very little, apart from manual communities. schemes. labour, in an area where jobs and wage money Irrigated food plot production are almost as scarce as food. Building vital capacity The final output of this WRC-funded research Prof Wim van Averbeke of the Tshwane was a comprehensive report that documents During the WRC studies, basic principles like The success of this project is attributed to the University of Technology (TUT) was approached the holistic approach followed in addressing the grading of soils as well as how different various capacity-building initiatives as well as by the WRC to investigate irrigated food plot the challenges confronting smallholder irrigation mulch combinations can reduce evaporation communication methods used to ensure the production on smallholder irrigation schemes in farmers and lessons learnt, as well as practical from the soil surface were investigated. growth and sustainability of the technology. The the central Eastern Cape. The project explored crop and animal production manuals for Intensive field experiments on clay and duplex technology has been successfully transferred Villagers from Thaba ‘Nchu celebrate following a the circumstances in which irrigated food plot smallholder farmers and their advisers. soils in the Free State, conducted over six to the small-scale farmers in ‘Thaba ‘Nchu and successful harvest using rainwater harvesting. production occurred on a selection of irrigation seasons, showed that IRWH increases Botshabelo on whose plots the experiments schemes using a factor approach. The study “The findings of this project have brought us maize and sunflower yields by as much as were carried out and also to the Department also quantified the benefits participants derived a step closer to full understanding of how 50% compared to conventional production of Agriculture. Technicians from previously from irrigated food plot production. farmer-managed smallholder irrigation schemes techniques. disadvantaged communities have been fully function, what their impact on livelihoods of equipped to provide further guidance in the From 2003 to 2007, Prof Van Averbeke led rural people is, and how this impact can be Further research has proven infield rainwater application of the IRWH system. another key project titled ‘Best management further enhanced,” says Prof Van Averbeke. harvesting technology to be sustainable, practices for small-scale subsistence farming not only in terms of increased agronomic Communication methods used to disseminate on selected irrigation schemes and surrounding In-field rainwater harvesting and productivity, but also in terms of containment knowledge of the IRWH technology include the areas through participatory adaptive research conservation of risk, conservation of the natural resources development of simple and practical training in Limpopo Province’. The project centred base, social acceptability and economic guides in collaboration with researchers, mainly on Dzindi, Rabali and Khumbe irrigation Since the WRC launched its first IRWH feasibility. Furthermore, the technique frees technical assistants, farmers and technical schemes. research project in the Free State in 2001, farmers from unaffordable mechanical officers, as well as materials incorporating this technique has been successfully applied dependence to produce crops. indigenous farming knowledge in efforts Rainwater harvesting is successfully applied in 42 Prof Van Averbeke also served as project in backyard food gardens by more than 1000 to improve present farming practices and villages in Thaba Nchu and Botshabela, allowing leader on another WRC-funded research households in 42 villages at Thaba ‘Nchu The villagers in the Thaba ‘Nchu and Botshabelo systems. In addition, demonstration plots households to grow food for their families. “The project demonstrated that in project aimed at identifying practical ways and Botshabela. The IRWH technique that area had been neglecting their cropland due presented the opportunity to involve farmers in areas where farming is still important to improve the performance of smallholder succeeded in breathing new life into village land to a lack of finance and agricultural equipment, activities throughout the growing season and to people, smallholder irrigation canal irrigation schemes in the Vhembe which has been lying fallow for ages, providing as well as continuous crop failures on account fallow period. Active participation rather than schemes constitute a viable rural district of Limpopo at both scheme and plot food and income, was developed by a team of the low and erratic rainfall and marginal soil passive observation was encouraged, both to level. Limpopo is the heartland of smallholder of Free State researchers from Glen College of quality. Nowadays, rainwater harvesting initiatives assist farmers in taking ownership of the IRWH development option.” irrigation schemes in South Africa, more Agriculture. are helping to feed thousands of villagers in the technology and mastering the various related – Prof Wim Van Averbeke, TUT specifically canal schemes, which were the first area. The new technique also provides additional activities. 76 77 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

Amplifying the benefits Aquaculture in South Africa – relieving “Through the project’s constant hunger and improving livelihoods communication and interaction WRC funding is continually geared towards finding new rainwater harvesting techniques. Over the past two decades, the WRC with various agriculture department One such technique combined the advantages initiated and invested in a number of research personnel and stakeholders, of water harvesting, no-till, basin tillage and projects on aquaculture, particularly focused aquaculture has been placed firmly mulching on high-drought-risk clay soils. This on alleviating hunger and improving rural on the agenda.” practice reduces run-off to zero. Additional livelihoods. The first was a baseline study on the - Prof Trevor Britz, Rhodes research has also been undertaken into the contribution of aquaculture to rural livelihoods in types of soils that are suitable for IRWH. The South Africa. In this report, published in 2004, report sets a benchmark for soil scientists and a number of priorities for further research were also benefits subsistence farmers by assisting identified. them to identify soil types suitable for IRWH in different farming areas in South Africa. In cooperation with Rhodes University, widely- based consultation with provincial departments Although this research work was completed in of agriculture followed. This culminated in the semi-arid region of central South Africa, the a report by Qurban Rouhani, WRC project principles are applicable in different regions of leader and director of the Rural Fisheries all provinces. The technique is currently being Programme at Rhodes University and his upscaled to communal croplands. Work is also colleague, Prof Peter Britz of the Department continuing to assess the social and economic of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science. The acceptability of rainwater harvesting and report, Participatory Development of Provincial conservation practices in selected peri-urban Aquaculture Programmes for Improved Rural and rural communities. Food Security and Fisheries Science, was published in 2011.

Rhodes University The WRC guidelines for rainwater harvesting use simple illustrations to explain techniques. 78 An emerging aquaculture farmer with fish from a dam in the Eastern Cape. 79 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

This research coincided with the evolvement originally established in 1982 as a catfish of a national policy on aquaculture driven production and research facility in the former by the then Department of Agriculture, Lebowa homeland. The facility, which ceased Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF), who co-funded operation in the early 1990s, began operating the WRC-solicited research projects. An again following investment from the provincial important first step in the development of rural agriculture department and support by the aquaculture was the development of draft WRC project team. In 2008, the hatchery provincial aquaculture strategies in participative spawned catfish for the first time in ten years workshops for six provinces – Limpopo, following intervention by the WRC-funded Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, project team. By 2009, Turfloop was producing Northern Cape and North West provinces. The its first male tilapia with technical assistance strategies provide a valuable ‘road map’ for the from Limpopo University’s aquaculture unit. provincial agriculture departments to plan and Emerging aquaculture farmers develop aquaculture in the provinces. Another highlight has been the publication of a manual for rural freshwater aquaculture, need practical advice on This project set out to revitalise selected which was guided through the various stages provincial hatcheries to act as development of testing by the Rural Fisheries Programme. how to produce fish more hubs for emerging farmers, and from which to The manual covers topics ranging from basic provide services such as advice, training and fish biology, setting up ponds, production and efficiently. fingerlings. The hatcheries were found to be in shipping, to feeding, health and disease issues. a general state of disrepair, operating on low budgets and with few skilled staff, and were not performing. A critical aspect was that these provincial facilities had no guiding operational policy and their existence seemed to be disassociated from the needs of the province.

The project team provided technical support not only in the training of staff at the various provincial hatcheries, but also in developing strategic plans for the revitalisation and operation of these hatcheries, in close

cooperation with the provincial agriculture Rhodes University Rhodes University departments. Fish is sold along the roadside in Limpopo. Farmers Aquaculture is not just about producing food. Here a can establish a considerable number of customers by farmer in KwaZulu-Natal sorts fish for the ornamental One of the hatcheries to receive a makeover selling fish informally. fish trade. Rhodes University was Turfloop near Polokwane in Limpopo, 80 A successful ornamental fish farmer KwaZulu-Natal. 81 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Transforming South African society

Training a new generation To strengthen and improve the current level of extension officers of training presented to extension workers for the tasks they have to perform on irrigation The advancement and expansion of South schemes, the WRC funded the development Africa’s agricultural base – particularly small- of learning material for eight learning areas scale agriculture – remains an important identified to form the ‘knowledge profile’ of the objective of national Government. It is an aim extension officer. This training material covers that requires improving and extending skills the main elements which directly or indirectly development and training in the agricultural inform irrigation water management. sector, including entrepreneurship training. This includes the training of a new corps of extension The aim of the learning material is to officers that will respond effectively to the needs support tertiary training organisations, such of smallholder farmers and contribute to their as agricultural colleges and universities of successful integration into the food value chain. technology, offering agricultural programmes on a NQF Level 5, as well as to support training There are around 390 extension officers providers offering short courses in irrigation currently serving small-scale and commercial management. The project was co-funded by irrigation farmers. The extension services the DAFF. A total of 93 learning modules were offered include advisory services for sustainable included in the material, which have been income generation; providing and facilitating divided into technical- and extension-related access to agricultural information for improved modules. planning and decision-making; facilitating access to technology; providing and facilitating The learning package covers the entire access to advice on sustainable agricultural spectrum of irrigation water management, production and skills development; and starting with a brief overview of the soil-plant- strengthening institutional arrangements. atmosphere continuum, then moving on to agri-climatology, irrigation water management, Functional irrigation equipment is but one irrigation engineering, and the irrigation requirement of successful irrigation farming. legislative context and irrigation economics. The science of irrigation management is The package also covers irrigation crop and complex and comprehensive, and therefore fodder production as well as general skills the irrigation extension officer requires required for productive agricultural extension. comprehensive technical knowledge and This research output fills a major knowledge skills in irrigation management, as well as gap by making comprehensive training appropriate knowledge and understanding modules available for in-service training of regarding human behaviour, in order to serve extension officers. his farming community effectively. 82 Extension officers have a crucial role to play in the SA agricultural sector. 83 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Empowering communities

Poverty and inequality remain significant challenges in South Africa’s development. The WRC recognises that the role of water is pivotal in guiding communities onto the path towards economic and social prosperity. WRC research is not only aimed at improving the lives of South African communities and helping them to thrive in the South African economy, but also at equipping them with the necessary water-related knowledge to adapt to future challenges, such as those brought on by climate change.

While WRC developed technologies, such as desalination of brackish groundwater, had aided in the provision of clean water to rural communities for decades, it was not until 1990 that the WRC really started to contemplate the potential impact of scientific innovation on the lives of particularly underprivileged South Africans. While WRC research had rapidly started to increase towards the end of the previous decade, it was only once a meaningful research programme had been put in place that the Commission’s focus in this regard started to gain real “The high cost of providing services and infrastructure in momentum. This programme was aimed at not only rural areas, and especially places that are remote and have addressing technological aspects, but also the socio- low population densities requires innovative solutions.” economic problems associated with water supply and Chapter 4 NDP 2030 sanitation in developing communities. Guy Stubbs/Africa Media Online 84 85 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

“The provision of adequate water Sanitation: vital for people’s health, well-being and dignity supplies and sanitation services to the total population is a major objective In 1994, the Reconstruction and Development A lot of the information emerging from of the RDP. Since 1990 the WRC Programme (RDP) mandated the government WRC studies during the 1992 to 1996 has been stepping up its research in to ensure that all South Africans would obtain period contributed to many of the policy equitable access to water services. This and legislative initiatives in the early years of this field when a strategic planning required a new policy and strategy in order to democracy. So the RDP planning, the new workshop afforded the development of respond to the water services challenge and water legislation, the planning around water affordable and acceptable sanitation threw a new spotlight on basic sanitation. and sanitation were all beneficiaries of the new technology for developing communities direction in WRC research. a highest priority.” The pre-1994 work of the Standing Committee on Water Supply and Sanitation (which brought After that, in terms of sanitation, a lot of the – WRC Annual Report, 1994 together various water sector stakeholders, focus went into the implementation side and such as municipalities, the WRC, organised meeting the backlogs that South Africa was labour, various non-government organisations, dealing with. In its funding of sanitation-related the water boards government departments, research the WRC was increasingly becoming and various extra-parliamentary organisations) involved in projects on ‘non-technological’ fed into the Department of Water’s efforts to issues. Furthermore, it became clear that with draw up that new strategy. the many ‘non-technological’ issues which 21 were common to sanitation, there was a need A significant milestone in the development for a strategic research plan and for a research of the new policy was a national stakeholder coordinating committee to focus on these 1994 2008 2013 conference held at Kempton Park at which issues. sector role players agreed on the key recommendations for inclusion in the future White Paper on Water Supply and Sanitation.

The WRC was simultaneously stepping up its access to sanitation research funding in this field when a strategic planning workshop afforded the development of affordable and acceptable sanitation 78% technology for developing communities a highest priority. The strategic research plan was Percentage of population who has access announced to the water research community to basic sanitation: 48% in 1994; 73% in 2008 at large in order to stimulate relevant research and 78% in 2013 Providing low-cost, sustainable sanitation options remains a priority for South Africa. submissions to the WRC. 86 87 1994 2008 2013 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

Ventilated improved pit toilets Sanitation research fund for Africa successful of these technologies has been More recently WRC research has adapted pour What is a VIP? urine diversion toilets, which has become an flush sanitation – a popular on-site sanitation For a pit latrine to qualify as a ventilated Ventilated improved pit (VIP) toilets continue to An exciting recent development has been the accepted basic sanitation solution in areas option in Asian countries, for use in South improved pit, it must comply with certain be considered the minimum level of sanitation establishment of the Sanitation Research Fund such as eThekwini (Durban). Africa. Similar to a full flush toilet, with pour requirements, it must: of choice for many municipalities responsible for Africa (SRFA) by the WRC and the Bill & flush sanitation water is poured in by the user for improving access to services in their rural Melinda Gates Foundation. The purpose of The eThekwini Municipality, which is considered rather than coming from a cistern. The system --Provide hygienic separation of human and peri-urban communities, and millions of the fund is to provide impetus for scientific- as one of the leading municipalities in South uses significantly less water – only one or two waste from contact with people; these units have been constructed all over the based knowledge and practical solutions for Africa in the provision of basic sanitation litres as opposed to the five to seven litres --Have a vent pipe fitted with a flyscreen country during the past 20 years. faecal sludge management. The development services and has won a Stockholm Industry needed for conventional flush toilets. Since to minimise odour and flies; of local capacity and solutions is a key project Water Award, has selected urine diversion, it is an on-site sanitation system, there is no While they remain and offer a good basic objective. ventilated improved double pit (UD/VIDP) toilets complex sewerage and wastewater treatment --Be built on a secure slab that will resist sanitation delivery option, their long-term as the preferred delivery mechanism for certain network required making it much cheaper to collapse of the superstructure; and sustainability poses a number of challenges The two key areas which have impact on the communities in their area of responsibility. install, operate and maintain. --Provide privacy and dignity for the user. when the pits fill up. This is compounded by sustainability of VIP technologies are being the fact that, generally, the contents of the pits investigated namely establishing a sound The first units were installed in 2003, with some and/or their characteristics are historically not understanding of the scientific processes 10 500 new units being installed per year. well known or understood. occurring in pit latrine sanitation systems and the development of innovative solutions for the Once pits are full they can no longer fulfil safe extraction, disposal and beneficial use of their function of providing safe, hygiene and faecal sludges from pit toilets. dignified sanitation. As a first step in improving this situation, the WRC has lead VIP-related This information will allow designers and research through partner organisations such as practitioners to impact the most appropriate the Pollution Research Group at the University solutions and technologies to deal with these of KwaZulu-Natal. aspects of faecal sludge management. A total of 12 research teams from eight African Research into VIPs has focused on, among countries were selected for the SFRA project. others, understanding the contents of VIP This project provides a unique opportunity sludge, finding innovative and safe ways of for a locally driven initiative to generate local pit emptying as well as sustainable ways in solutions. disposing of VIP sludge. It has been made clear through these studies that management Sanitation innovations of pit latrine sludge is not a one-dimensional problem, but may require different approaches Over the last 20 years WRC research has not that are dependent on the nature of the pit only focused on improving known sanitation A typical VIP system. A municipal worker cleaning a VIP toilet. contents. technologies but also at introducing innovative, alternative sanitation solutions. One of the most A urine diversion toilet outside Durban. A typical urine diversion toilet. 88 89 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

The first project, initiated in 2009, investigated Further units have been constructed in pilot the possibility of adapting pour flush sanitation studies in the Western Cape to test the efficacy Advantages of pour flush technology for use by South Africans. This research of these systems in dense settlements. Toilets --Unlike a pit latrine pour flush toilets can be was led by Partners in Development. Some have been successfully installed in three areas, built onto a house. changes had to be made to the pour flush namely in Klipheuwel informal settlement, Cape toilets usually used in Asia – for one, South Town; the Klein Begin community, Grabouw; --Unlike conventional waterborne systems, Africans prefer to sit rather than squat, so and Enkanini informal settlement, Stellenbosch. pour and low flush sanitation use only a a pedestal had to be provided. The toilets litre or two for flushing. also had to be able to handle anal cleansing In order for the technology to work in an --Cheaper to build than full flush toilets with material, such as toilet paper or newspaper. institutional setting, such as a school, the pour septic tank and soak pit. flush was converted to low flush technology The new pour flush toilet is designed to be – i.e. a small cistern was added so that users --Greywater can be used for flushing as simple as possible to avoid parts which would not need to fill a bucket in order to flush. without the need for a piped recycling can break or block. While looking very similar This prototype was successfully piloted in two system. to a full flush toilet, there is no water tank, schools in the Durban area in partnership with --The water seal prevents smells and flies, cistern, flusher or ‘liquefier’ (a problematic eThekwini Municipality, namely Sizimesele as well as trash and solid waste entering feature of certain low flush systems which Primary School and Thandaza High School. the pits. were introduced to South Africa in the last 20 years). Since there is no plumbing no leaks are --Users cannot use the pit as a receptacle possible. The toilet is flushed by pouring one or for domestic waste (unless they access two litres of water into the pan. The pan funnels the pit separately). steeply to a 70 mm-diameter outlet. Greywater --Pits are smaller, so there is no need for can be used for flushing. deep excavations. This also allows for easier access and emptying. Rather than a conventional sewerage system, the pour flush toilet block is attached to two leach pits. When one leach pit becomes full, then a switch is made to the alternative pit.

After extensive testing, the first two toilets were installed in Pietermaritzburg in September 2010. They have been in operation since then without problems or blockages. Consequently, Maluti Water a further 20 household demonstration units were built as well as three toilets at a crèche. Resident with pour flush toilet, Western Cape.

The prototype pour flush toilet being tested. 90 91 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

Following the successful piloting of the low tremendously, especially the girl learners, who flush technology in the Durban schools a WRC now have access to private, clean and hygienic project started in 2014 whereby the possibility toilets. The sanitation improvements have seen of providing timber frame pour flush sanitation an increase in attendance rates at schools blocks for use in schools is being tested. which are being serviced. Constructing sanitation structures from timber opens up the possibility of a rapid response to Furthermore, six emergent franchisee the needs of schools facing a sanitation crisis. micro-entrepreneurs have been established and supported. Furthermore, a training Social franchising – the business approach to programme has been developed, consisting removal and disposal of faecal sludge of formal training, on-site mentoring, regular get-togethers, report backs and sharing of Studies undertaken by the CSIR and WRC experience, and ad hoc training. Operational have found that social franchising partnerships methodologies for school and household for the routine maintenance of infrastructure situations have been developed. could alleviate and address many challenges in the management of water services. The More than 20 sustainable jobs and more research started in 2005 when Dr Kevin than 50 part-time informal employment Wall formerly of the CSIR, Built Environment opportunities have been created (mostly wondered about the possibility of applying taken up by rural women). A public-private franchising principles, usually associated with partnership, supporting job creation and the fast food outlets, to water and sanitation. establishment and nurturing of emergent micro-entrepreneurs, has been created. A pilot project, started in the Eastern Cape “The WRC is particularly proud of since 2009, provided selected infrastructure Introducing franchising to the South African driving the social franchising concept maintenance services to approximately 400 water and sanitation sector has not ended with in the water sector. In striving for job schools in the Butterworth education district. the pilot project. In January 2014, a significant creation and finding better techniques Half a dozen franchisee microbusinesses milestone was reached when Impilo Yabantu were created, and of the order of three dozen (the franchisor) signed up its first franchisee, within the sanitation and water previously unemployed people were taught Nocawe Lupuwana, who will trade under services environment we decided workplace skills. Irish Aid funded the concept her own dedicated franchise company, IY to examine the whole concept of development, but the franchisees were paid East London, trading as Impilo Yabantu East franchising at a very local level: from the normal Department of Education London. operation and maintenance.” schools operation and maintenance budgets. – Jay Baghwan, WRC Executive Manager: The report boasts some significant numbers. Water Use and Waste Management Low flush system installed in a school setting. The learners at the 400 schools have benefited Trainee franchisees and their employees during the pilot in 2010. 92 93 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

Improving food security with less water

As the foremost funder of water-related Food security remains a priority issue for South nutritional water productivity of several food agricultural research in South Africa, the Africa despite the country’s national ‘food crops. From the findings it does appear that WRC is playing a vital role in ensuring the secure’ status. An estimated 14 million people, poor, rural households lack dietary variety. sustainability of the country’s farming activities, or about 35% of the country’s population, are Diets have generally been found to be from household through to commercial estimated to be vulnerable to food insecurity, monotonous and cereal-based, with a low scale. The overall objectives are to assist while the development of as many as 1,5 intake of fruit, vegetables and food of animal farmers to utilise scarce water resources million children under the age of six is reckoned origin. efficiently, beneficially and sustainably to to have been stunted by malnutrition. increase household food security and farming profitability, thereby increasing social and It has been recognised that the home- economic welfare. Key issues currently being production of specific foods among rural addressed are the productivity of water use communities should be based on scientific for crops and livestock, poverty reduction and evidence, taking not only current best practice wealth creation in rural areas, as well as the in agricultural and human nutrition into prevention of resource degradation. These account, but also the socio-cultural context efforts are aligned with government aims to within which the interventions are to take reduce poverty and ensure sustainable socio- place. Internationally, it is accepted that better economic growth and development. understanding of the links between agriculture, nutrition and health is a priority. Thus, Over the last 20 years the WRC has made a before researching water use and nutritional strategic shift to achieve a balance between productivity of crops, it is essential to know research projects in irrigated and rain-fed what food is consumed by poor people, what agriculture, agro-forestry and aquaculture; the nutrient content is of these food products, to promote farmer involvement in poor rural and which of these foods can be produced food security communities and through participatory action by household members, either in homestead research; and to take research projects further gardens or communal croplands. toward practical application of results with 53% technology transfer projects. Agriculture and These arguments motivated the initiation of water-related projects include the evaluation a WRC-funded scoping study to investigate Food security in SA: 53% of households experience of water use and nutritional productivity of present-day knowledge about the current regular hunger, 10% have access to agricultural land food crops in the diet of poverty-stricken rural food intake of rural communities in South and 18% can potentially grow food in homestead people. Africa. The project also investigated the backyard gardens in rural villages

94 Improving dietary variety is crucial to improving malnutrition in South Africa. 95 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

While this study has identified many challenges such as most parts of rural South Africa, it is Proving the value of indigenous crops including beta-carotene (Vitamin A), folate, to food security and nutrition in South Africa, of utmost importance to focus the promotion Vitamin C, and iron. Regular consumption of it has also identified opportunities. The WRC of home production of foods not only on those Over the last 20 years, WRC research aimed at African leafy vegetables can assist in balancing has commissioned a follow-up study focusing crops and livestock that have the potential to improving agricultural water use has become the common, largely starch-based diets of on rain-fed and irrigated production of food address nutritional deficiencies, but also on increasingly embedded in South African many South Africans by adding these essential crops and their potential to meet the all-year food products that are simultaneously water realities. One of the important focus areas of micronutrients, particularly beta-carotene and nutritional requirements of rural poor people productive. Combining human nutrition needs research was the harvesting and use of water iron. They are generally easier to produce and in South Africa. The provinces of North West, with water productivity has resulted in a new for food production in homestead gardens usually require fewer resources such as water. Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern concept among researchers, namely ‘nutritional for improved family diets and the possibility Cape have been prioritised, as this is where water productivity’. of generating additional income. Recognising A WRC project has generated valuable the majority of South Africa’s rural poor live homestead farming (and especially food knowledge about the nutritional status of South R Nutritional water productivity and produce crops under rain-fed and irrigated Nutritional water productivity combines gardening) as a coping strategy for poor Africans and its links to agriculture and water. It combines knowledge of the conditions. knowledge of the composition of food products households to overcome vulnerabilities caused has also developed science-based information composition of food products in in terms of nutrients (for example the protein or by poverty, the WRC generated comprehensive that enables optimisation of important Water as a route to nutritional security vitamin A content of a food) with knowledge of training packages for use by development agronomic practices used in the production food expenditure terms of nutrients with knowledge of the water productivity of that food product. facilitators engaged in supporting poor of traditional South African leafy vegetables, the water productivity of that food Water and nutritional health of people are households in their efforts to grow food. particularly with regard to water use, plant product. intricately linked. In water-limiting environments, This was the focus of a scoping study initiated, nutrient requirements, germination and R8485 managed and funded by the WRC. The project Micronutrient under-nutrition, also called emergence, as well as the response to drought was led by the Department of Human Nutrition ‘hidden hunger’, affects many South Africans, and heat stress. Furthermore, the project has Poor households spend on average R8 485 a year on at UP, supported by the UP Department of particularly the poor. It often goes unnoticed, generated comprehensive new knowledge food, which accounts for 34% of their total household Plant Production and Soil Sciences and the but it curtails both the physical and mental regarding the highly beneficial aspects expenditure. Maize meal is the most common purchase. Nutritional Intervention Research Unit of the development and health of those affected. of African leafy vegetables in addressing South African Medical Research Council. It prevents children from reaching their full important micronutrient deficiencies in poor potential, thus placing a burden on the future of rural communities. The result is an index for a given food product South Africa. which includes nutrient-based output per Laboratory, on-station and action research was unit water use, for example micrograms of The potential value for food security and rural undertaken to develop best practices aimed at β-carotene in 100 g raw spinach per cubic development of gathering wild foods, growing improving food security and the well-being of metre of water used to produce the food. locally adapted species and eating from the local households. One of the products of this project This knowledge can be used to promote the ecosystem is recognised internationally. has been South Africa’s first comprehensive production of those food products that may guide on the production of African leafy contribute to closing the nutrient gaps in Traditional South African leafy vegetables have vegetables. The guidelines focus on amaranth, vulnerable communities while, simultaneously, important advantages over exotic vegetable Jew’s mallow, Chinese cabbage, nightshade, leaving a sustainable water footprint. species. These ‘wild vegetables’, locally spider flower, pumpkin, tsamma melon and Wim van Averbeke referred to as morogo or imifino, are excellent cowpea. sources of several important micronutrients, A group of youths harvesting nightshade. 96 97 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

The study preceding the development of the “While water wise indigenous crops will not in the short term offer the solution production guidelines confirmed that African to bring 850 million people out of chronic hunger, it certainly holds promise for leafy vegetables can be grown in home gardens using local resources. The indigenous several million people, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa to not only ensure an vegetables selected were shown to be more end to hunger, but also offers the possibility of sustainable livelihood to very drought- and heat-tolerant than introduced small scale, largely subsistence farmers and their communities” exotic vegetables, such as Swiss chard. – Dhesigen Naidoo, WRC CEO This could prove significant in the context of projected climate change.

The guidelines not only provide previously unrecorded information on production practices, such as seed selection, fertilisation, pest control and water use in relation to environmental variables at localities where these crops are growing, but also aim to raise the status of these traditional food plants in South Africa by pointing out the valuable contribution these plants could make to the food security and, hence, nutrition security of South African households.

They also offer considerable opportunities for commercialisation and, through this, the creation of new livelihood opportunities. The guidelines are already being actively used by non-profit organisations focusing on food security and home gardens.

The WRC is continuing its investment in these The WRC is continuing its investment in traditional food plants, with research being undertaken on water requirements, fertilisation these traditional food plants. and nutritional productivity of African leafy Wim van Averbeke vegetables and yellow-fleshed sweet potatoes, Harvested nightshade is loaded into a truck for delivery In Vhembe, Limpopo, the flowers, leaves and young including the modelling of water use of these to a supermarket in Thohoyandou. fruit of pumpkins are used in the preparation of a crops. delicious side dish. Wim van Averbeke 98 99 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

Improving communities’ resilience to Department of Water and Sanitation (DWS). the impact of these changes on vulnerable climate change Besides the knowledge gained, significant communities. The impacts on both rural and contributions were made to the development urban communities, particularly in the absence South Africa’s climate is subject to high of local climate-related research capacity of effective risk reduction strategies, are inter-annual variability and presents significant in climate science and its linkages to water expected to be significant in a changing climate vulnerabilities in the face of probable global resources. scenario and require an effective response. In climate change. Regional impacts from global communities where access to clean water is Communities such as those found in the changes are most likely to be manifest in the Later the WRC also started focusing on already a problem, a slight decrease in rainfall hydrological aspects which will impact water determining the impact of potential climate has an amplified effect, for example. So climate uMgeni River catchment have been found to be resources and water dependent infrastructures change on water resources. The first major change will become another stress that cities most strongly. study focusing explicitly on climate change have to deal with, along with growing informal particularly vulnerable to climate change. impacts on South Africa’s water resources settlements, pollution, poverty, and health The WRC first recognised the potential impacts started in 2002, with a comprehensive report issues, to name but a few. of climate change on the water resources of being published in 2005. Climate Change and South Africa as a priority area for research area Water Resources in South Africa: Potential in the mid-1980s. At the time it was impossible Impacts of Climate Change and Mitigation even to begin to address the topic in a Strategies provided valuable insight into the meaningful way because of the lack of scientific magnitude of the potential impacts and the capacity and (especially computational) consequential adaptation needs in the sector. resources. The WRC report followed hot on the heels of South Africa’s National Climate Change In the face of the long lead times required Response Strategy, approved by Cabinet in for planning and policy development, it was September 2004. decided that an accurate understanding be developed for the probable regional The WRC report confirmed that global climate “Model projections show that consequences of global environmental change change is a threat to sustainable development, changes in temperature and rainfall for future decades. The WRC funded various that it can undermine poverty alleviation efforts, are most likely to have significant research projects in the 1990s in this regard to and have severe implications for food security, create more robust climate change scenarios clean water, energy supply, environmental impact on water resources in for use by South African climate change impact health and human settlements. The report southern Africa. Climate models researchers. produced credible regional projections using projections show a likely increase the latest general circulation models, as well in the number of people who could Partners in the WRC’s climate change research as regional climate models and empirical experience water stress by 2055 in have included various departments at the downscaling techniques. universities of Cape Town, KwaZulu-Natal and northern and southern Africa”. Pretoria, Witwatersrand and Zululand, as well But climate change is not only about – Dr Chris Moseki, as the South African Weather Service, and the changes in the earth system, it is also about former WRC Research Manager 100 101 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Empowering communities

“The impact of climate change on the In 2009 The WRC contributed to the South vulnerability assessments and development of water sector might be felt sooner than African position paper in preparation for the appropriate adaptation options and solutions at United Nations Framework Convention on various scales. we think. We could see a significant Climate Change. Input was made to the United reduction in runoff in certain areas in Nations Climate Change Conference (COP15) Research under this portfolio also includes the west of the country by as early as and negotiations in Copenhagen in December developing appropriate quantitative 2015.” 2009 by providing support on strategic water understanding, tools and strategies for issues as and when required by the Ministry managing the impacts of climate variability – Prof Roland Schulze, UKZN and the Department. and change as well as for managing risks associated with extreme events. These aim to More recent climate-change related projects support the development of policy responses, by the WRC include research on predicting at regional, national or catchment scale, to the secondary impacts on water resources existing and emerging problems. due to primary changes in precipitation and temperature associated with climate change; applications of rainfall forecasts for agriculturally-related decision making in selected catchments; using enhanced knowledge of climate variability for the benefit of water resource management; and multidisciplinary analysis of hydroclimatic variability at the catchment scale.

Newer climate change-related projects include identification, quantification and incorporation of risk and uncertainty in water resource management tools; an evaluation of the sensitivity of socio-economic activities to climate change in climatically divergent South African catchments; and integrating water research projects resources and water services management At the climate change dialogue held in March Improving food security and nutrition tools. 2013 were Imraan Patel (Department of Science & Technology); Dr Sylvester Mpandeli (Department of has been one of the WRC’s greatest R30m Climate change research at the WRC now Environmental Affairs); Prof Roland Schulze (University focuses on developing a better understanding of KwaZulu-Natal); Chris Moseki (formerly of WRC); objectives over the past 20 years. Between 1988 and 2008 the WRC invested around of global climate change and hydro-climatic Dr Sabine Stuart-Hill (UKZN) and Dhesigen Naidoo R30-m in 30 research projects aimed at climate change. variability impacts, crafting methodologies for (WRC). 102 103 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

New products and services for economic development

Science and technology continue to revolutionise the way goods and services are produced and traded. Government’s National Development Plan recognises that South Africa needs to sharpen its innovative edge and persistently contribute to global scientific and technological advancement.

At the same time, given the limited availability of freshwater resources in South Africa, innovative new approaches are required to reconcile demand and supply, particularly in the most water-stressed catchments and areas of development, so as to ensure that South Africa’s growth is not negatively impacted. The WRC has recognised that in order to meet these objectives, greater investment in research and development to facilitate innovation is required.

During the past two decades, several innovative developments – some with commercial properties – have been funded by the WRC. The Commission also continues work with partner organisations to facilitate the transfer of WRC innovation along the water knowledge value chain to further stages of technology development, commercialisation Chapter 5 and uptake. 104 105 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

Enhancing knowledge on to create a Web-based, interactive reporting system to continually quantify both surface and SA’s water resources groundwater resources as well as the general water quality of South Africa. Such a system Water is South Africa’s scarcest resource. will be essential in the continuous updating of It is therefore crucial that we ensure that the NWRS and the country’s water resources the water we do have is developed and planning. managed optimally for the country’s citizens, WR2012 is due for completion in April 2016. for economic development and for the It will, for the first time, include a publicly aquatic environment. This makes quantifying accessible, Web-based, interactive surface and how much water we have, one of the most groundwater resources reporting system. important tasks to be undertaken in the local water sector. Over the last 30 years the WRC has commissioned and funded four major national surveys of South Africa’s national water resources i.e. the Surface Water Resources of South Africa in 1980 and in 1990 and the Water Resources of South Africa in 2005 and the Water Resources 2012 study (WR2012). These studies play an important part in legislation and policies. They provide the cornerstone of baseline national water resources assessment and planning for South Africa, as required in the NWRS. A new study is been roughly conducted every tenth year, but this 10-year gap between assessments was proving to be too long in a water stressed country with accelerated annual mean runoff demands in which rainfall is highly variable with real threats of climate change impacts. The WR2012 study was officially launched in March To bridge this gap the WRC commissioned a 49 210m 2012. Present at the launch were study project leader four-year integrated Water Resources of South Allan Bailey, WRC CEO, Dhesigen Naidoo, Mbangisani Africa study (also known as WR2012 Study) in 49 210 million m3/year – Nepfumbada from the Department of Water and WRC Lani van Vuuren April 2012. The main purpose of the study is South Africa’s mean annual runoff Research Manager, Wandile Nomquphu. Olifants River, Mpumalanga 106 107 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

Striving for excellence in wastewater improvement in the area. Furthermore the two WasteMin clubs are a group of management initial clubs have spawned 30 other WasteMin industries working together to clubs nationally in various sectors, including the reduce their environmental impact, mining industry. Waste minimisation clubs and improve the efficiency of their National survey (Natsurv) of water and businesses. The past two decades have seen an increasing wastewater in industry awareness of the footprint of organisations in the area of wastewater management. The In 1985 the WRC, in collaboration with the water footprint of a business refers to the total Department of Water commissioned a national volume of freshwater that is used to produce industrial water and wastewater survey of all its goods and services. Waste minimisation classes of industry in order to ascertain the clubs (WasteMin clubs) have been found to be minimum water requirements (specific water an effective way of improving local industries’ intake) of particular industries, as a blanket environmental performance by promoting restriction in times of drought would be grossly cleaner production. unfair. Furthermore, the study surveyed the wastewater and typical pollutant loads WRC research led to the establishment of generated which allows regulators to manage two WasteMin clubs. The first of these clubs discharge to sewers. was in the metal-finishing sector in the greater eThekwini Metropolitan area, and the second one, a cross-sectoral club in the Hammarsdale region, both in KwaZulu-Natal. These clubs proved to be a great success, with open sharing of information and ideas among club members, financial benefits to the companies A guide for establishing waste and a reduction in their environmental impact. minimisation clubs in South Africa has been translated into Chinese, with The two pilot WasteMin clubs have since permission from the WRC. The guide evolved into two spin-off initiatives. The first, a was originally compiled for the WRC Metal Finishing Association was initially formed South Africa’s mean annual runoff. by Susan Barclay of the University of in the KwaZulu-Natal region and subsequently KwaZulu-Natal’s Pollution Research became a national organisation, promoting “South Africa’s climate is characterised by complex hydrological features. Not only is it highly variable Group. The translation and free waste minimisation as one of its core activities. distribution of the guide was sponsored in space and time, it is not unusual to experience extreme climatic conditions in different parts of the The second, the Hammarsdale Industrial by the EU-China Environmental country at the same time, for example drought in one part and floods in another.” Conservancy, has adopted waste minimisation Management Cooperation Programme. – Wandile Nomquphu, WRC Research Manager as a key activity to promote environmental 108 109 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

The survey resulted in the publication of the different industrial sectors and make firm for the treatment of high-strength industrial Natsurv series of guidelines on water and recommendations. effluents containing recalcitrant pollutants. wastewater management for the following The significant advantage is that this industrial categories: sugar production, poultry The WRC is currently revising all 19 Natsurvs. process design can be retrofitted to existing abattoirs, red meat abattoirs, soft drinks, dairy This is a process that commenced in 2013 infrastructure with relatively low capital products, metal finishing, sorghum beer, malt with four studies supported per year and the expenditure. Because the reticulation and brewing, laundry, edible oil, pulp and paper, aim is to complete all current revisions by process flow control of this system is relatively textiles, wine-making, leather tanning, fruit 2019. In addition, the Department of Water is simple insofar as hardware requirements and vegetable processing, pelagic fishing, fish supporting this process and has commissioned are concerned, automated control of the processing and most recently, the oil refining a survey on a new industry – the steel industry. process would be significantly less complex and re-refining and power-generation industry. This will result in the 20th Natsurv being made and relatively inexpensive compared with Altogether 19 different guides were published available to the sector inclusive of best practice the current systems presently considered by the WRC from 1987 onwards until 2005. approaches. when new activated sludge processes and Most of the guides have been incorporated associated infrastructure are designed. in courses presented by universities and The dual-stage membrane bioreactor (MBR) universities of technology. The technology, which proved to be successful As the national driver of innovation in the for the treatment of a variety of industrial The Natsurv reports for different industries have water sector, the WRC is involved in projects process wastewaters generated by diverse been well used since they were developed that promote on-site treatment of industrial industries, has been patented. by the sector. However, South Africa and its wastewater for reuse, thus promoting the industrial sectors have either grown or in some concept of zero liquid effluent discharge. cases shrunk considerably since the 1980s. Dr Wade Edwards came up with such an Thus, the landscape has changed. New innovation – the Dual-stage MRB Process technologies and systems have been adopted Technology licensed exclusively to ATL-Hydro. by some of the industries, and therefore certain information contained in the national surveys “While innovative and considered as Best can be regarded as obsolete. Available Technology, the membrane bioreactor process comprises a relatively simple flow Furthermore, initiatives like the UN CEO configuration and is therefore ideally suited mandate, water stewardship, water to industries characterised by effluents which allocation and equity dialogues, among are difficult to treat; footprint constraints; and others, suggest growing awareness related requirements for high-quality treated water,” The Natsurv guides have been among the most widely sought and applied to water use, water security and waste says Dr Edwards. publications of the WRC and have made a huge impact managing pollution and production. It is therefore considered an water usage in industry. The guides have had wide usage by industry, academics, opportune time to review the water and The MBR technology is a unique operations regulators and consultants. wastewater management practices of the strategy employing membrane bioreactors 110 111 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

Harvesting fog assist. An automatic weather station was also “The joy on people’s faces when we installed to record rainfall, wind speed and first succeeded in harvesting water The idea of harnessing fog as a source of wind direction. Within four days of completion, drinking water has been studied for decades. learners and members of the local community from the fog nets was priceless.” The first experiments were conducted in 1901, were drinking water collected by the fog – Prof Hannes Rautenbach, UP on Table Mountain. screen.

Fog harvesting in low rainfall areas could The same system was later also set up by enhance water security in water-scarce parts of Prof Van Heerden at Lepelfontein, a small South Africa, particularly in rural communities. missionary station about 400 km from Cape To this end, studies undertaken by the WRC Town. Although groundwater here is abundant, since 1995 have established the feasibility it is of such poor quality that it is considered a of using fog to supplement existing water health risk. supplies. The studies are aimed to design, erect and operate a fog water collection system The fog screens were installed in 1999, and in rural communities. the overflow from one of the 10 kl tanks is now being used to supplement the water from the Profs Jana Olivier and Johan van Heerden from desalination plant. At least 80 per cent of the the Department of Geography, Geoinformatics water collected at this site is from fog alone, and Meteorology at UP have been involved as the region receives very little rain. While in fog harvesting research for the WRC since Lepelfontein’s water initially showed high levels 1995, together with Prof Hannes Rautenbach, of sodium – possibly due to the proximity of the Director of the UP Water Institute. ocean and wind-blown spray – Prof Olivier says that water quality at both sites is good, with no In 1999, a prototype system under leadership disease-forming organisms present in samples. of Prof Olivier was set up at Tshanowa Junior Primary School, on the Soutpansberg in “In fact, at Tshanowa, water was rated as Limpopo. The only water sources the children Class 0 – ideal quality,” she says. “Since the had before the erection of the fog nets were a water is used for drinking purposes, quality is non-perennial spring 2 km away, and a dam, 5 tested regularly.” She adds that experiments km away. conducted at other high elevation sites around the country have yielded more than 10 Permission was obtained from the relevant per square meter of collecting surface per local and tribal leaders to erect a fog water day. “This shows that in terms of quality and Prof Hannes Rauten­bach of UP (right) with Regent collection system on vacant land adjacent magnitude of yield, fog harvesting could go a Mpapatla Bakhoma Modjadji of the Rain Queen to the school. Construction commenced in long way to alleviating water shortage problems Dynasty during his WRC-funded research project on 1999 and local inhabitants were employed to in the fog-prone mountainous regions of the fog harvesting in Limpopo. 112 Fog harvesting screens on the West Coast. 113 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

country. “The costs are low, the technology during wet conditions to none during sunny WEROP – Generating clean energy and Simon Wijnberg, who originally conceived It is estimated that in 20 years more is simple and the source is sustainable for periods. Conventional water flow meters water for communities the idea while surveying the coast around than half the population will live within hundreds, even thousands of years.” invariably fail during these conditions. southern Africa. The plight of remote coastal 10 km of the shore. The southern African coastline has been communities in northern Mozambique who had As a direct result of these projects, the Prof Johan van Heerden has built a low-flow identified as one of only six wave power rich no access to fresh water inspired him to find UP Meteorology Group has introduced a meter (LFM) that can measure such flows. It is areas in the world by the US Department of a solution to their problem. WEROP has since ‘community project’ module that forms part based on a tipping bucket principle, but can Energy (DoE). The estimate of wave power become his full-time occupation and has led to of its BSc Meteorology curriculum, where measure 1 to 1.5 per tip. The LFM is made potential is very high, with the US DoE the establishment of a wave energy conversion students go to rural schools on an annual from perspex to enable easy identification of calculating that in the Pacific North West R&D company, Impact-Free Water (Pty) Ltd, of basis to teach and perform maintenance on blockages. The system has been tested under coastline alone wave energy could produce which Wijnberg is the CEO. fog harvesting structures. In 2010, the WRC field conditions over the last two years and has some 40-70 kW per metre of coastline. approved a new project worth R2,4 million been found to be robust and accurate. Anchored to the sea floor, with a buoy that under leadership of Prof Olivier to expand fog The WRC-funded wave energy reverse rides the surface waves, the WEROP uses harvesting in areas where applicable. The second innovation, the Whirly, can be osmosis pump (WEROP) is such a wave both the rise and the fall of the passing waves used to harvest fog water during near-windless energy solution. In WEROP, wave power is to generate energy. Seawater is pumped Two nine-panel systems have been erected at conditions. Previous systems – and those harvested to provide the energy for desalinating through a flexible pipeline to a reverse osmosis Cabazana near Kokstad in the mountains of used world-wide – are static nets that rely on sea water in order to supply high-quality desalination unit on the beach. Theoretically, the Eastern Cape, and one nine-panel system fog-bearing winds to blow through the system, freshwater for local community use just off the present size WEROP can pump an average at Lamberts Bay and Doringbaai on the West depositing tiny fog droplets of water on the Simonstown in the Western Cape. “The of 45m3 of filtered seawater per day. Coast. These systems are robust and have screen. These droplets then coalesce, become elegance of the solution lies in WEROP’s ability withstood numerous storms. heavier and trickle downwards. They drip into to generate electricity while at the same time “WEROP provides an alternative water supply a gutter attached to the bottom of the screen. providing water fit for drinking,” says WRC technology that works with nature rather than Additional research has resulted in a method From there it is channelled to storage tanks. Research Manager Dr Jo Burgess. against it,” notes Dr Burgess. “It mitigates to grade different fog water system sites, while climate change by using only wave energy to research dealing with a wide range of features The new invention consists of a vertical shaft The system is potentially unique in the world, desalinate seawater, with carbon credit awards relevant to fog water extraction, including with three nets attached. An electronic system while the know-how around operating it is as a valuable by-product.” The ‘whirly’, an innovative WRC design, is aimed at design features and water yield, is ongoing. has been attached that cause a rotor to turn totally novel. Primary research was carried out increasing water yield from fog in windless conditions, - thereby rotating the nets when the relative on-site, around the Cape Peninsula, where the The data have been gathered and the WEROP as is often the case along the West Coast. The rotation Researchers from UP have developed two humidity reaches 98% (as it does during foggy WEROP was assembled, launched and tested initiative has been channelled to the Technology of the three screens has resulted in an increase in WRC innovations on fog harvesting. The first conditions). The system switches off when the in order to improve its operation and design. Innovation Agency (TIA) for development water volumes captured during fog events. innovation is a measuring instrument for low fog ceases. The batteries that drive the system Once scaled up, it will be among the world’s funding. and intermittent water flow. The volume of fog are charged by means of solar power. This first off-grid drinking water systems. Just off Simonstown in the Western Cape, wave varies considerably – from hundreds of litres system allows the capture of water during near power is harvested to provide the energy for per day to less than one. Water collection is windless conditions – a situation that often The WEROP system was designed and desalinating sea water. This results in high-quality also intermittent, with a lot of water collected occurs on the West Coast. developed by freelance oceanographer freshwater for use by the local community.

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environmental conditions were before the Non-point sources of pollution are of major commencement of mining activities and how importance in certain catchments. This these activities will influence the environment realisation came to the fore particularly in during and after completion of the activities. It 1992 in the light of the new approach of also needs to be shown how the environmental the then Department of Water to integrated impact will be managed. catchment management. Mining, in particular, was identified as a potential, important non- In prioritising research needs, it was found that point source of pollution about which more the most pressing need was for research on information was needed. the identification, evaluation and development of cost-effective strategies and technology Against this background, in collaboration with for the management of the impact of mining the Chamber of Mines of South Africa, the activities. The secondary research needs establishment of guidelines and procedures to were identified as being the quantification of determine and counteract the impact of gold Acid mine drainage, especially the current use and contamination of water mine activities on the water environment was sources by mining activities, determination of initiated during the year. from abandoned mines is a economic, socio-political and regulatory issues relating to water sources, and formulation of A project to study the occurrence of bacteria huge challenge in many areas of the best available technology which would not causing acid mine drainage in the outer layers incur excessive costs. of coal waste dumps was also initiated. It South Africa. was at this time that the WRC foresaw that Prior to 1990 most South African mine water the significance and extent of mining-related related research was conducted by the now water research both inside and outside the disbanded Chamber of Mines Research Commission will increase to such an extent Mine-water – from pollutant to resource Organisation. The WRC’s involvement in mine that it decided to establish a Coordinating water research was limited to determining the Committee for Mining Related Water Research Mining provides crucial jobs to thousands of people Mining was and still is one of the primary Since the main part of the impact of mining on water requirements and pollution potential of (CCMRWR). in South Africa. driving forces behind the development of the aquatic environment is diffuse in nature and gold and uranium mines. South Africa. The areas in which development therefore difficult to quantify and to control, it and progress are currently centred were was only in recent decades that the regulatory Two aspects of research related to improved “Between 1990 and 2000, research focused on the impact mining has on mainly determined by the relative paucity authorities started paying attention to the predictive ability have received special the surface environment, on treatment options for mine effluents and on the and disproportionate distribution of our problem of how to regulate this impact. attention: firstly, the ability to predict the rehabilitation of mining spoils. Since 2000 the emphasis has shifted to the water sources on the one hand, and by the generation of acid drainage, and secondly, the development of predictive tools and modelling techniques, with the focus on relative abundance and location of our mineral Mines are expected to present the authorities ability to predict the rise in water levels and/ resources on the other hand. Mining remains with an environmental management or time and point of decant when pumping treatment options shifting to implementation and passive systems.” the single, most important industry in our programme in which it should be indicated associated with active mining stops. - Dr Jo Burgess, WRC Research Manager country. among others, what the background 116 117 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

Schematic diagram of the IMPI process The Integrated Managed Passive Treatment An urgent need was, therefore, identified “The IMPI process was a Process technology (IMPI) was a world first. to develop low-cost, self-sustaining, low INFLUENT breakthrough, because it could treat Using naturally available energy sources such maintenance passive treatment systems to as topographical gradient, microbial metabolic address the problems of acidification and mine wastewater at less than half the energy, photosynthesis and chemical energy salinisation (in terms of sulphate) at operating, capital cost required for an active the system requires nothing more than defunct and closed mines in South Africa. system, which would use, among PRIMARY regular, but infrequent maintenance to operate other capital-intensive elements, DEGRADING PACKED SULPHIDE successfully over its design life. The minimum The integrated passive treatment technology BED REACTOR OXIDISING electricity and chemical dosing. DEGRADING PACKED design life of an IMPI treatment plant is 15 was designed in three primary configurations REACTOR Indeed, the operational costs of BED REACTOR SECONDARY years. as follows: Impisure – applications where SULPHIDE reduction of sulphates, metals and acidity running IMPI are less than one-tenth OXIDISING This research programme succeeded is required; Impimare – applications where that of an alternative system.” REACTOR in improving the efficiency of existing reduction of metals and acidity is required – Dr Ralph Heath, Golder Associates technology by a factor of 20 over conventional and Impiplume – applications where in-situ anaerobic passive reactors, thereby making it remediation of contaminant plumes is required. commercially viable. The final phase in this successful development EFFLUENT The South African mining industry faces major programme is the design and implementation problems relating to the management and of full-scale systems within the mining industry. The development of passive treatment Acid water is neutralised with a discharge treatment of contaminated mine water. These systems, capable of ameliorating the various or recycle in mind. Acid water contributes problems exist with regard to operational mines The IMPI process involves the subdivision of forms of mine effluent on a long-term self- to corrosion of pipelines and contributes to and, importantly, they also exist for mines the overall mine-water treatment process into sustaining basis, was identified as a high surface water mineralisation. It is generally which have ceased operations and which have individual units, each designed and optimised priority research need. One of the early detrimental to aquatic life and has a negative long-term water quality problems. to perform a key function. If required, a final responses was a project by the CSIR to assess aesthetic impact on rivers and streams. aerobic polishing stage can be added, primarily the full extent of the problem and the depth of That is where IMPI came into its own. Effluent to remove residual levels of volatile fatty acids knowledge worldwide. Lime neutralisation is largely applied to meet treatment technology for dealing with water and nutrients. legislative requirements regarding discharge of quality problems was previously of a chemical Another study funded by the WRC in 1997 effluent into receiving rivers. or physical nature. Although this technology Full scale versions of the IMPI system are demonstrated that underground mine water is generally effective, it typically has very high being implemented at various sites, based on can be neutralised effectively with limestone in In 2002 a WRC-funded research consortium capital and operating costs and intensive, the knowledge gained over seven years from a fluidised bed reactor. Limestone neutralisation announced that after eight years of ongoing, long-term maintenance requirements. the pilot plant at Vryheid Coronation Colliery in of acid water in this manner offers advantages development, they had made a dramatic This is a particular problem for those mines KwaZulu Natal. over conventional neutralisation processes and breakthrough in the field of mine water that have ceased operations and where it is it can be implemented on a full scale after site- treatment. not practical or cost-effective to construct an The full scale implementation of the technology specific tests have been conducted to obtain active treatment plant that requires constant needs to take into account various site-specific design criteria for specific waters. supervision and maintenance. factors. In order to address these uncertainties, 118 119 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

“During the past 20 years, a standardised four-phase implementation effort and a sustained support from the South Two aspects of research related to improved --Investigate the applicability of existing global South Africa has made valuable procedure was developed to ensure an African research funding agencies and South predictive ability have received special ABA technologies to South African opencast optimised site-specific plant design when African mining industry. attention: firstly, the ability to predict the coal mines. contributions towards finding rolling out full scale versions of the system. generation of acid rock drainage (ARD) or acid solutions for AMD and the local The monitoring programme at the Vryheid mine drainage (AMD), and secondly, the ability --Refine ABA methodologies for local research fraternity has a range of Additional evaluations and research are Coronation Colliery pilot plant continued for to predict the rise in water levels and/or time conditions through experimentation. world-class solutions on offer.” still continuing. The researchers have seen a ten-year period from 1996 to 2006. With and point of decant when pumping associated progressive improvement in the performance of more than 1 million data points, this pilot plant with active mining stops. --Establish a creditable database, detailing – Dr Jo Burgess, WRC Research Manager the system as the research has gone through is undoubtedly the world’s best monitored results from this investigation for future the different phases. passive sulphate removal plant and has In view of the plethora of techniques used reference. revealed very valuable information about the to predict the likelihood of AMD, research The technology developed during this long-term performance of these reactors. targeted at opencast coal mining led by --Select and recommend ABA methodologies research project is firmly based on two major the Institute for Groundwater Studies at the to be used in South African opencast coal South African biological sulphate reduction Quantifying the acid mine drainage problem University of the Free State (UFS) started in mines. research initiatives. The first initiative has been 1999 to standardise the methods used to ongoing for a period of around 15 years by Between 1990 and 2000, WRC mining quantify the potential and magnitude of AMD. WRC research targeted at opencast coal Pulles Howard & de Lange and subsequently research focused on the impact of this sector Based on extensive testing of existing static mining started in 1999 to standardise the “The WRC played an integral role Golder Associates Africa and has focused on the surface environment, on treatment methods, standardised methods of measuring methods used to quantify the potential and on passive sulphate removal technology. The options for mine effluents and on the initial pH, neutralisation potential and acid magnitude of AMD. Based on an extensive in the development of the IMPI second initiative has been ongoing for a period rehabilitation of mining spoils. From 2000 to potential of water have been recommended. testing of existing static methods, the process. Without the WRC, we would of around 15 years by the Environmental 2010, the emphasis shifted to the development researchers recommended standardised not have been able to run the pilot Biotechnology Research Unit at Rhodes of predictive tools and modelling techniques, Prediction of AMD is done by lab methods methods for measuring initial pH, neutralisation plants, let alone role out the full scale University. with a focus on treatment options shifting to such as Acid-Base Accounting (ABA); however potential and acid potential of water. They implementation that followed.” implementation and passive systems. it is still difficult to predict the rate and quantity described and justified the advantages of the These two initiatives started off operating of AMD. ABA is a procedure performed in the recommended methods. – Dr Ralph Heath, Golder Associates independently but have been cooperating with Discharge of acid rock drainage (ARD) or acid laboratory to determine the potential of AMD true synergy for the last 10 years. The collective mine drainage (AMD) wastewaters following generation, confirm if there will be potential for They also developed an easy to use manpower investment in these two initiatives the closure of gold and coal mines, has played acid generation and salt load. spreadsheet tool, ABACUS, to standardise the is believed to be of the order of 120 man years a major role in driving much of the WRC’s interpretation of static ABA data and, where the and the collective budget in 2009 value would mining research agenda since 2000. Acidic The WRC undertook to investigate the suggested sampling methodology has been exceed R100 million. The leading position effluents arise in the mining industry mainly standardisation of methodologies to be followed, to provide a method for extrapolation occupied by South African researchers in the from discarded overburden, slimes dams, followed to quantify the potential and to the field through volume-weighted field of passive sulphate removal technology sand dumps, underground workings and magnitude of AMD under South African techniques. is therefore not accidental, but is rather the metallurgical plants. opencast mining conditions. The UFS project, product of a sustained and concerted research undertook to:

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Defining a suite of acid-drainage Support System to facilitate decision-making “The difficulties pertaining to the prediction tools was completed in 2008. treatment of AMD are mostly not Although the project focused on ABA, it strived The ability to predict the rise in water levels, On-Site scientific or technical, but rather to define a suite of acid-drainage prediction and hence when and where decant to surface involve institutional arrangements tools. The researchers coined a new acronym, would take place after the cessation of mining, Monitoring Field Test and funding. More than 20 ABATE (derived from Acid-Base: Accounting, has received considerable attention. This ability Data Techniques and Evaluation), for the approach is particularly important in view of the recovery different models for treating all the that integrates a range of tools to predict the of water levels in deep gold mines and the types of mine water have been potential for acid generation. This also helps seepage of ARD from old shafts. Pioneering developed worldwide, so the issue to prevent confusion from arising in the use of research in this regard was undertaken in a Static Laboratory is not that people do not know the term ABA, since most people associate 1995 investigation into the flooding of Central Tests Kinetic Test ABA with the static test component of drainage and East Rand gold mines which have become how to treat the water.” chemistry prediction, rather than the entire largely interconnected through mining activities. – Dr Shafick Adams, WRC Research Manager suite of tools. Research is in progress regarding Prediction of the use of geochemical modelling techniques A series of collaborative research projects Spoils Chemistry to predict the evolution of ARD over time. between the WRC and Coaltech (a non-profit research organisation funded by coal mining There are about 270 gold mine tailings covering companies) captured the mine plans and coal (ARATF) 180 km2. Continued efforts to remine and seams in a three dimensional GIS, enabling Total Metals & Hydraulic consolidate the tailings into mega-dumps, the the mines to determine decant points and the Whole Rock Tests contamination and reclamation of the footprint extent of intermine flow within the Mpumalanga beneath them and the degree to which tailing coal fields. This ability is used to determine the properties and time affect the depth and rate of position and capacity of plants to treat the ARD weathering of typical tailings dams, have been emanating from the coal fields. investigated. Total Metals & Geochemical In 2006 the WRC joined the global alliance An empirical model was developed to predict of research organisations, which support the Whole Rock Modelling the likely period over which tailings dams will activities of the International Network for Acid produce acidic drainage. Efforts are currently Prevention (INAP). underway to develop a coherent process to facilitate transparent and effective regulatory In the late 2000s, concerns around the present decision-making regarding the sustainable and predicted decanting of AMD from gold There are around 270 gold mine tailings design, operation and closure of residue mines on the Witwatersrand again thrust this The Prediction Wheel for Mine Drainage Chemistry and ABA’s part therein in South Africa. disposal facilities. A preliminary Decision complex pollution issue into the limelight. (after Morin and Hutt, 1999).

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Sustainable treatment of acid mine drainage wastewaters

One of the indigenous AMD treatment at Rhodes started to look at different reactor Following detailed process kinetic modelling technology developments, the Rhodes configurations and the use of primary studies which included the development of a University’s BioSURE Process, developed sewage sludge as the electron donor. These computational process simulation programme through the WRC, focused on the specific observations were transferable across a in collaboration with engineers at the University process development objectives of large range of complex organic carbon wastes and of Cape Town and the University of KwaZulu- volume treatment linked to long-term process were shown to be particularly effective where Natal, design work commenced on the sustainability. sewage sludges were used. construction of a full-scale BioSURE process plant to treat ten megalitres a day. The process Following observations by students at Following laboratory bench-scale studies in was designed to remove sulphate to levels Rhodes some years ago, on the enhanced which the various features of the process below 250 mg/ and long-term operation has breakdown of complex organic substrates were characterised, a programme of process resulted in the removal of more than 12 t a day in sulphate-reducing environments, it was development scale-up commenced. of sulphate. shown that sewage sludge (and other organic This led to the construction in 2005 of a wastes) could be used to fuel a microbially- One of the main outcomes of this development 40 m3/day pilot plant at Grootvlei Gold Mine driven process in which acidity in AMD was has been the demonstration that the utility in Springs, where AMD was being actively neutralised, and sulphate salts and heavy company provides a feasible operational pumped from the mine to the Blesbokspruit metals could be removed. Apart from the low- environment for dealing with the long-term Ramsar site wetland. Primary sewage sludge cost advantages of biological processing, the management of the AMD problem. These as the carbon source for the process was opportunity costs in the co-disposal of waste organisations have the infrastructure, supplied by ERWAT’s Ancor Sewage Treatment and recovery of treated water as a value-added technology and expertise required to manage Works close by. product offered additional possibilities. large volumes of wastewaters on a daily This pilot plant was operated over an 18 month basis and at as low a cost as possible. Their The development of the Rhodes BioSURE period and the operational and design criteria business investment model focuses over the Process has followed a more or less textbook derived provided the basis for a decision to long-range (50 to >100 years) and the cost case of technology R&D, with a lead time of proceed to the construction of a technical- recovery potential in waste co-disposal and about 15 years from initial observations in scale plant at the Ancor Works. This required water recovery present income opportunity the early 1990s and fundamental descriptive the installation a 2.4 km pipeline to pump AMD incentives. studies to full-scale process demonstration and from the Grootvlei Mine to the Ancor Works implementation in 2005. Untreated AMD could possibly be used by and Dortmund tanks available at the site were The Rhodes Biosure process makes use of municipal sewerage works to aid nitrate Initial observations of complex organic converted to function as process reactor digestion, thus eliminating water treatment substrate utilisation in fueling sulphate- vessels. The technical-scale plant was sized wastewater sludge to neutralise acid mine-water. costs, while also saving clean water. The reducing microbial processes were made in to treat 1.6 m a day AMD and over the study BioSURE treatment process is built on this tannery ponds. Enhanced sulphate reduction period it was shown that sulphate levels could principle and is being considered by the was achieved in follow-up fundamental be reduced to less than 100 mg/ at hydraulic Department as part of the long-term solution. enzymology and kinetic studies. The team retention times of around 12 hours. 124 125 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

small-scale hydropower systems to generate The hydroelectric energy generation technology The current status of global energy hydroelectricity for on-site use and, in some has been successfully demonstrated at the shortages requires new thinking cases, to supply energy to isolated electricity first closed-conduit hydropower pilot plant in due to the emphasis to reduce CO demand clusters or even to the national South Africa, which was constructed at the 2 electricity grid, depending on the location, type Pierre van Ryneveld reservoir situated in the emissions, development of alternative and size of installation. It taps into an unutilised Country Lane Estate, south of Pretoria. This energy generation methods and source of hydropower by using excess ±15 kW installation utilises a cross-flow turbine growing energy consumption. pressure in conduits to produce clean and discharging through the roof into the reservoir. renewable hydroelectric power. A controlled flow is supplied to the turbine from the main supply line into the reservoir. This type of energy generation, referred to as conduit hydropower, is different to conventional The generated power is used on site hydropower generation where large dams for lighting, as well as for alarm and are used to store river water in a reservoir. communication systems. The Homeowners’ Its simplicity is what makes this solution so Association of the estate have also indicated elegant: harnessing energy that is already that they would like to utilise the power for present within the existing infrastructure and street lighting. Annually, approximately 131 000 The Hartbeespoort Dam was originally that would usually be lost through the use of a kWh could be generated with this unit, which is constructed with a small hydropower installation. pressure valve. enough to supply 10 households.

WRC Executive Manager, Jay Bhagwan, Marco van Dam Water Treatment Residential and Wastewater and Dijk and Prof Fanie van Vuuren, both of the University Tapping untapped renewable energy Plant Industrial Treatment Plant of Pretoria, with the Community Renewable Energy 1 2 3 4 5 Award scooped by the WRC conduit hydropower Energy is the lifeblood of worldwide economic UP, supported by the WRC and collaborating project in the 2014 Mail & Guardian Greening the and social development. When considering organisations such as the City of Tshwane Future awards. the current status of global energy shortages, Metropolitan Municipality, Bloemwater and the

the emphasis to reduce CO2 emissions, eThekwini Municipality, undertook a research development of alternative energy generation project to investigate and demonstrate the methods and the growing energy consumption, potential of extracting the available energy from it is clear that there is a need to change the existing and newly installed water supply and way energy is generated and used. The distribution systems. renewable energy technologies are without a doubt the means how the future economic The aim of the project was to enable the Potential energy-generation locations in the water supply and development will be supported and energy owners and administrators of the bulk water distribution system demands satisfied. supply and distribution systems to install 126 127 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

The technology has also proven to be a huge For the WRC the success of the pilot projects Ensuring more crop per drop Use of rainwater in agriculture success in converting the main supply of heralded the start of a journey that would energy for operating the Bloemwater head potentially result in the provision of renewable The commercial irrigation sector is responsible office in Pellisier to a sustainable energy and low-cost energy to all areas of the for over 62% of South Africa’s total water use. source. The Bloemwater facility can produce country. Conduit hydropower requires a small If the challenging objectives set by the NWA, 96 kW/h of energy from a bulkwater supply capital investment and has a short return on which calls for water to be used in an equitable, pressurised conduit. investment period. As long as people use efficient and sustainable manner, are to be water, renewable electricity can be generated. adequately met, appropriate decision support 2% For the Brandkop hydropower installation, a is required for the agricultural industry. Over the 96 kW crossflow turbine and synchronous years, the WRC has attempted to do just this, used by irrigation generator was installed. At this site this is and a number of models catering for specific about 30% of the full potential of the pipeline. aspects of water resource management have The turbine is housed in a turbine room been developed with funding from the WRC. 74% 12% located next to the Brandkop Reservoir. The Bloemwater head office is directly connected WRC Executive Manager of Agriculture, Dr is being used for Dryland crop to this hydropower plant, says Mokutu Kgwale, Gerhard Backeberg, explains that the roots dryland agriculture production uses Director for Infrastructure Development, of many of the benefits being reaped today Operations and Maintenance at Bloemwater. were already laid down decades ago. These include landmark work in the field of irrigation. WRC first when it comes to agricultural water research Approximately 30% of the water supplied via Smart solutions with high impact include the Crossflow turbine and generator installed for the the Caledon–Bloemfontein pipeline is diverted water administration system (WAS), which is According to an investigation into project data for all water-related agriculture in Bloem Water project. through the turbine. Sufficient renewable now being rolled out under the auspices of the the country conducted in 2010, the WRC is the foremost funder of water-related energy is generated to supply the peak Strategic Water Partnership Network (SWPN). agricultural research in South Africa. demand of Bloemwater’s head office as well The study considered all projects related to irrigated and rain-fed agriculture, as meeting the electricity requirements of the Additional boons include the possibility of woodlands and agroforestry, grassland and livestock watering as well as freshwater reservoir terrain. Annually ±800 MWh could developing whole new market mechanisms aquaculture and inland fisheries. A total of 65 water-related agricultural research be generated with this micro-hydropower for indigenous crops. This may mean that projects were identified valued at a total of R208-million. Of this, the WRC contributed installation. economic access may be improved, as around R130 million. The Commission is also funding the highest number of projects. cost of energy indigenous crops are shielded from the Numerous municipalities and water utilities, commodity trading mechanisms which are The high number of projects in the irrigation agriculture category reflects the maturity of including Rand Water, are now investigating the current key price drivers and in many South Africa’s irrigated commercial sector, and shows big investments being made into 30% whether there is potential for conduit instances, together with the sophisticated the sector, which not only uses most of the country’s water, but contributes significantly hydropower in their water infrastructure as well distribution chains, the mainstay reason for to food production and employment. Many research projects also address water The average percentage of water utilities’ operational as being open for other alternative low-head The turbine room located next to the Brandkop food price inflation. utilisation for poverty reduction. cost represented by the cost of energy. options. Reservoir.

128 129 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

Increasing irrigation efficiency economic and crop growth simulation models. It is the result of a research project aimed at Irrigation technology has improved significantly developing a decision-support system for over the past two decades, and a number of increasing the economic efficiency of using WRC research projects have led to models that water and energy for irrigation at whole-farm are contributing to increased efficiency in water level and was undertaken by researchers at use and planning. UFS. The research also took into account the risk irrigation farmers are willing to take. PUTU: The PUTU irrigation models, conceptualised by the Department of BEWAB: This irrigation water management Agrometeorology at the UFS, effectively program calculates the total crop-water simulate irrigation scheduling, crop growth and requirement and is the result of WRC-funded yield potential. The validity of the models, which research by soil scientists of the UFS. employ weather data among other inputs, has been demonstrated. The models result in SWB: Researchers of the Department of increased crop yields and savings in pumping Plant Production and Soil Science at UP costs. developed the Soil Water Balance (SWB) computer program to assist irrigation farmers SAPWAT: This model’s primary function is and specialists with irrigation scheduling. It to estimate crop evapotranspiration, from stimulates water dynamics in the soil-plant- which irrigation requirements for application atmosphere water continuum, making use of in planning, design and management can weather, soil and crop management data. be derived. A supporting database allows it to be used to estimate the crop water use Gravity irrigation systems: In 1989, the requirements of different crops under different Department of Agricultural Engineering at UP irrigation management regimes throughout set out to develop a computer program for South Africa and neighbouring countries. the design of gravity irrigation systems and Models like ACRU and BEWAB, developed consequently Rehab Consultation did the by the Universities of Natal and the Free State research and developed the OPTIVLOED 2.2. are incorporated. The most recent version, Six OPTIVLOED 2.2 design courses in South SAPWAT 3, includes comprehensive long-term Africa were funded by the WRC. The user weather data and provides for the introduction is able to see how modifications of design of enterprise budgets as part of the planning options will affect the system performance. process (more on this innovation below). The WRC provided financial support for a SIMCOM: A dynamic model called SIMCOM number of research projects concerning the Irrigation remains the biggest user of water in was developed to successfully link irrigation, optimal management of irrigation systems. South Africa. 130 131 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

The internationally acclaimed WAS The University of Johannesburg (UJ) was degree of irrigation efficiency at relatively low programmer Dr Nico Benadé, with funding through improved water releases in canals the country’s third WatSave Award for the use system is currently used by all major responsible for the development of PROCAN, cost. The award-winning technology, based on mainly from the WRC. The initial research and rivers. The program is currently used by of WAS at the Vaalharts scheme. The award, which simulates unsteady flow of water in an Australian invention, has been extensively project involved the development of a all major irrigation schemes in South Africa, in the ‘Innovative Management’ category, was irrigation schemes in South Africa, any canal or river. A second, the award- tested in South Africa, with outstanding results. computer model to simulate water flow in totalling about 167 000 ha, which is almost presented at ICID’s 61st International Executive totalling about 167 000 ha. winning WAS, handles all water requests by irrigation canals. “This is where my career as 28% of the irrigated area of South Africa Council Meeting held in Jogyakarta, Indonesia. farmers and is running on all major irrigation The WAS Program - saving water throughout a water researcher started, and I have been serviced by water user associations. This schemes throughout South Africa (more on this South Africa involved in water research ever since,” says Dr includes 9 991 abstraction points, with a total innovation below). Benadé. water allocation of 1 206.5 million m3. Productivity of water use in irrigated agriculture RISKMAN: The Risk Management simulation remains a contentious issue, and pressure is The idea was to use this model to minimise In September 2006, Dr Benadé scooped model is a model of net cash flow for water use increasingly being placed on irrigation farmers water losses on irrigation schemes that deliver the International Commission on Irrigation and crop combinations at specified risk levels, to reduce their water use in the wake of limited water on demand through canal networks. and Drainage’s (ICID’s) Innovative Water generally applied at farm scale. water resources and competing demands “We had great success with this model, which Management Award for WAS at a ceremony from domestic and industrial uses. To provide received international recognition,” he explains. held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; a significant GIS: The development of an integrated irrigation schemes with decision support “The only problem was that it was not the recognition for two decades of hard work and information system for irrigation farming using for efficient water management, the Water solution to the problem of saving water. It did, dedication and the first time a South African WAS, SWB and RiskMan computer models Administration System (WAS) was developed however, trigger an array of research projects scooped the award in this category. represents the culmination of research and with funding from the WRC. which led to the development and successful development previously done under three implementation of WAS.” Dr Benadé is actively involved in further different WRC research projects. The result is WAS is a uniquely a South African, integrated research, development, training, support and a tool that can be used on irrigation schemes management tool for irrigation schemes that WAS is a decision-support program for use by implementation of WAS. He has turned the to minimise water distribution losses, maximise delivers water on demand through rivers, canal water user associations on irrigation schemes outcome of the research into a sustainable efficiency of water use through effective networks and pipelines. It is used for water in managing water accounts and their water business. When asked about the impact and irrigation scheduling and incorporate risk distribution management and for the calculation supply to clients through rivers, canal networks value of the WRC in the WAS innovation cycle, analysis into crop and cash-flow planning. Prior of dam and canal operating procedures for a and pipelines. It makes use of eight modules: he says: “The impact has been enormous and to integration, all three models made extensive given downstream water demand. the administration, water order, measured data, really difficult to quantify. The WAS program use of separate databases, which have now water release, crop water use, water report, makes a huge difference on all our major been integrated and linked to a geographical Twelve years of research went into the bulk SMS and water account modules. These irrigation schemes in terms of water savings information system (GIS). Each model in the development of the WAS program, with its modules are fully integrated, making it possible and productivity. If you ask any of the big integrated information system can be used main aim to minimise water losses on irrigation to cross-reference relevant data and information. irrigation schemes whether they can do without alone, or information can be transferred directly schemes. By implementing the water release The system can be installed on a single WAS, the answer is a definite no.” between constituent models. module of the WAS program alone, field computer or on a server for use over a network. measurements have indicated water savings of In 2010, three years after Dr Benadé won Wetting front detectors: These provide the between 10% and 20%. Largely as a result of Dr Benadé’s efforts, South Africa’s first WatSave Award from the means for irrigation farmers, whether they be and with assistance from the WRC, irrigation International Committee on Irrigation and small-scale, emerging farmers or established, This internationally acclaimed system was schemes which have implemented WAS have Drainage (ICID), the Head Water Control Officer commercial farmers, to achieve a higher developed in 1985 by civil engineer and reduced their water losses by up to 20% of Vaalharts Water, Kobus Harbron, scooped 132 133 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

SAPWAT – SA does it again SAPWAT uses data from a countrywide network of weather stations. It serves as a In 2011, ICID awarded the country another training aid and planning tool for crop water WatSave Award during the 21st International needs, production systems and the use of river Congress on Irrigation and Drainage held systems, for comparing irrigation strategies and in Iran. The accolade, in the ‘Innovative for irrigation scheduling, taking into account Management’ category, was awarded to Pieter such aspects as evaporation at different stages van Heerden and Charles Crosby for their of plant development. outstanding contribution to water saving and water conservation in agriculture through the Correctly applied, it can help a producer development and support of irrigation planning achieve optimal production in relation to his and management tool SAPWAT3. outlay on irrigation. Designed as a ‘calculating shell’, it gives the user full control of data used The original SAPWAT program was developed in irrigation water estimation. Existing data can by agricultural engineer Charles Crosby and be added to, edited or reviewed by the user. released in 1999. SAPWAT is not a crop growth model, but rather a planning and management tool relying on an extensive South African climate and crop database. It is general in applicability in that the same procedure is used for vegetables and field crops, annual and perennial crops, as well as pasture and tree crops. With this program it is possible to simulate wide-bed planting, intercropping and different irrigation methods.

“SAPWAT ‘imitates’ irrigation and, to do this realistically, must take into account all the inputs that influence irrigation as well as the interactions between them,” says SAPWAT co- developer Pieter van Heerden, an agricultural consultant specialising in agricultural extension At the Loskop, Oranje Riet and Lower Olifants Computers were installed at the Vaalharts Water and irrigation practice, with the emphasis on irrigation schemes the water-supply losses in the office to assist in the capturing of water orders. Water water needs planning. “SAPWAT can pin-point canal system have been reduced to 20% per year. control officers visit the water office once a week to the factors that are critical in the management capture their own water orders, which are used for of irrigation,” he notes. the release calculation.

A total of 1 120 km of main canal, feeder, community and drainage canals criss-cross the Vaalharts area, delivering 134 water to hundreds of commercial and emerging farmers according to a set allocation. 135 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | New products and services for economic development

In addition, the effect of soil water management Namibia and Uzbekistan. Through the years the Since its introduction, SAPWAT has options, such as deficit irrigation, can be program has been continuously upgraded and been applied by more than 300 users evaluated. Irrigation strategies can be varied to improved, mainly with funding from the WRC. in 13 countries, including Angola, demonstrate the effect of different strategies on irrigation requirement. This allows the user to The latest version, SAPWAT3, essentially an Mali, Mozambique, Swaziland, Niger, devise irrigation strategies aimed at maximising enhanced and improved version of SAPWAT, Namibia and Uzbekistan. rainfall use efficiency and thus reducing was released in 2008. The program was irrigation water requirement. In addition, salinity developed for estimating irrigation water stress and water stress situations can be requirements of crops, farms and drainage or imitated. All irrigation requirement estimates administrative regions for planning purposes. can be stored and revisited to determine what Today, SAPWAT3 is used by all irrigation effect changes in irrigation water management, designers in South Africa to optimise water use irrigation system and planting dates could to its fullest extent. possibly have. In addition to the WatSave award, Van Since its introduction, SAPWAT has been Heerden has received the SABI (South African applied by users in 15 countries, including Irrigation Institute) silver medal for exceptional Angola, Mali, Mozambique, Swaziland, Niger, contribution to irrigation technology in 2011.

Pieter van Heerden (right), pictured here with Prof Vice-President Honoraire of ICID, Felix Reinders hands Giel Viljoen of the University of the Free State, who over the WatSave Innovative Water Management developed the SAPWAT irrigation planning and Award 2010 to Kobus Harbron from Vaalharts Water. management tool. 136 137 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Sustainable development solutions

Water underpins all socio-economic development in South Africa. A reliable supply of water in sufficient quantities at the desired quality is critical for economic growth, social development and job creation.

Sustainable development remains a core principle of all WRC projects and activities. Consistent with the WRC’s vision, there is specific focus on sustainable development solutions. This is undertaken by addressing enabling principles of sustainable development, namely, protection of water resources, optimal water use, equity between generations, current equitable access, environmental integration and good governance.

Chapter 6 138 139 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Looking after South Africa freshwater resources

Protecting SA’s freshwater biodiversity

The WRC was ahead of its time, embarking on was giving predictably consistent results, environmental research long before it became and was being applied routinely in different fashionable. areas by government departments, statutory organisations and private bodies. The year 1990 saw the entrance of the WRC into the sphere of aquatic ecosystem research. In total, five projects commenced in January 1990 ranging from the freshwater requirements of estuaries through to the legal aspects of water for the environment to the assessment of instream flow requirements, both biotic and abiotic, of rivers. wetlands Aquatic ecosystem research in 1990, expressed as a percentage of total WRC research expenditure at the time comprised 65% only 3,49% of the funding, but many of the The WRC has been supporting environmental projects were set to make waves internationally Around 65% of wetland ecosystems research since the 1990s. in coming decades. are threatened in South Africa

By 1995, the research being funded in the WRC’s Conservation of Water Ecosystems programme was aimed at alleviating the effects of human interference in natural ecosystems. The research looked at the effects of inter- basin transfers on both donor and recipient river ecosystems rivers. The South African Scoring System (SASS), 57% a rapid method for the bioassessment of river health using the invertebrate fauna, had Around 57% of river ecosystems by the mid-1990s reached a point where it are threatened in South Africa 140 141 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

adoption of a strategic adaptive management system for KNP river management. The major challenges to scientists during the KNPRRP era included a need to develop and describe a common understanding of the heterogeneity and dynamics of the river systems and then to articulate this understanding to management within a strategic framework.

The WRC was one of the key organisations that conceived of and initiated this programme. During the 1990s the WRC provided the lion’s share of financial support for the programme. Australian visiting researcher, Dr Angela Arthington The Sabie River is filmed from the air as part of the visited the KNPRRP during 1992. Here she is with KNPRRP. The first (1988–1993) and second (1994– Andrew Deacon (then of SanParks) and Dr Peter Reid, 1996) phases of the KNPRRP provided a formerly of the WRC. multi-disciplinary, scaled understanding and predictive base for better decision-making involving the KNP’s river systems. This was important because causal links between catchment processes (land-use, water The KNP’s rivers are a welcome abstractions and sediment production) and downstream biotic responses were previously haven for many creatures. fraught with problems of scale and inter- disciplinarity.

One of the outstanding achievements of the KNPRRP was the development of a Studying the Kruger’s arteries of life multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional research management team that contributed The Kruger National Park Rivers Research Initiated in the late 1980s to further river substantially to the understanding of A KNP tigerfish with a WRC biotelemetry transmitter. Researchers and officials from DWS on a field visit to Programme (KNPRRP) was a highly successful conservation efforts, a major thrust was the fundamental environmental processes in rivers. the dry Sabie River in the Kruger National Park during multi-disciplinary, multi-organisational development of capacity to predict impacts Furthermore, a decision support system was the early 1990s. programme aimed at addressing major of upstream influences on the biophysical developed which can provide users with an concerns about the quantity and quality of the condition of the rivers, for mitigation purposes. information pathway to assist in management waters of the perennial rivers flowing through This approximately 10-year multidisciplinary decisions, or to explain and motivate the Kruger national Park (KNP). research programme, ultimately led to the environmental water use. 142 143 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Co-ordinating the national rivers research effort

A conference in 1998 was organised University of Cape Town (UCT), had by 1997 specifically to formulate a National Rivers already developed a method to estimate the Initiative (NRI) to address research needs in flow volume and pattern of flow required to rivers nationally. The conference was held maintain a viable ecosystem in a river for under the auspices of the Southern African which little or no data exist. The existence of Society of Aquatic Scientists (SASAQS) a methodology to quantify environmental flow and was supported by the WRC and other requirements came just in time to allow the stakeholders. concept of an Environmental Reserve to be included in the water law review that was being The conference aimed to describe all aspects of undertaken in South Africa at that time.

river research and management in the country SanParks identifying strengths and weaknesses and The method, known as the Building Block The deaths of hundreds of crocodiles in the KNP in outlining a way forward. The delegates made Methodology (BBM) for instream flow 2008 due to pansteatitis turned the attention again to recommendations for improved management assessment, may be made in a relatively short the state of the country’s rivers. of rivers; identification of glaring deficiencies in time (six to nine months). knowledge; determining priorities for the future; and for an umbrella structure to oversee and Developed to enable managers to balance the coordinate all river research in South Africa. abstraction and impoundment of water to the A task group was mandated to develop the requirements of the riverine ecosystem, it was proposals made at the conference. used initially in the pre-feasibility studies for proposed impoundments. The management of the NRI process built on the experience gained during the KNPRRP, but The method was included in the new Water the issues addressed went wider. The NRI was Act of 1998 as a requirement for all significant made up of a number of separate research catchments and the methodology was programmes, each addressing identified subsequently exported to other countries strategic needs for the management of water around the world. resources. Some of the research programmes already running at the WRC, such as the “The WRC, over the last 20 years has been at the forefront of funding and research programme on the Surface Water supporting work relating to environmental flows. Simply put, this is water for Ecological Reserve, were included within the the environment. Even our Constitution talks about water that should first be NRI. given to people, then to the environment and then water for other purposes. Timing is of the essence. As a result of WRC The Reserve is comprised of human needs and environmental needs.” Cecile Reed funding, the Zoology Department at the – Dr Stanley Mbofho Liphadzi, Executive Manager: Water-Linked Ecosystems 144 Students from the Freshwater Research Unit at the University of Cape Town undertaking river monitoring. 145 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Publication of the Manual for the Building Block Methodology

While there are a number of methods riverine vegetation, aquatic invertebrates, the WRC has been the crucial factor in our Environmental or instream flows are worldwide for the estimation of instream flow fish, amphibian, reptiles, riverine mammals, success. flows that are left in, or released into, a requirements, none were found to be adequate sociology, anthropology, resource economics, river system with the specific purpose of for South African conditions. Many of the water law, macro-economics, water Among the funding bodies she has worked managing some aspect of its condition. existing methods relied on specific indicators. management and politics. with, Dr King says the WRC stands head Their purpose could be as general as South Africa needed an approach which would and shoulders above the others in terms of maintenance of a ‘healthy’ riverine give estimates with an acceptable level of “In the early days we worked much in good working relationships, trust, belief in ecosystem, or as specific as enhancing confidence for data-poor systems. isolation from the rest of the world because what the scientists are doing and pride in the survival chances of a threatened of apartheid, and independently developed their results. “Given that the WRC has equally fish species. They could be targeting Through a decade of extraordinary cooperation methods for assessing environmental water good working relations with the national water the river channel and its surface and willingness to contribute, the national body of needs that influenced our new post-apartheid ministry and has successfully brought together waters, groundwater, the estuary, linked aquatic scientists, water managers and engineers National Water Act (particularly the policy of the water scientists, water engineers and water wetlands or floodplains, the riparian developed the BBM to the point where it became Environmental Reserve). managers, there is no doubt in my mind that zone, and/or any of the plant and animal one of only a few advanced environmental flow the WRC is a great force for good in water species associated with any of these methodologies in the world with a formal manual. While she has entered private practice, management in South Africa,” she adds. system components. Dr King still teaches at the UCT Summer The lead author of the manual, Dr Jackie King, School – all about water issues learnt from her The BBM advanced the field of environmental had been with the Freshwater Research Unit WRC research years. Dr King, along with her flow assessment in an entirely new direction, at UCT and subsequently worked on flow colleagues, she has since also developed the being a holistic methodology that addresses assessments in various capacities. She recalls DRIFT (Downstream Response to Imposed the health (structure and functioning) of all the build-up to what became the Manual for Flow Transformation) methodology to catalogue, components of the riverine ecosystem, rather the Building Block Methodology to Determine analyse and assess the multi-variate effects of than focusing on selected species as do the Flow Requirement of the Ecological changing flow patterns in rivers. many similarly resource-intensive international Reserve. The manual was published in 2000. methodologies. This kind of approach has been Dr King has received many accolades, spearheaded in South Africa and Australia, “In my opinion the funding and intellectual support, and just plain good and South Africa’s work in this field was – and still including a Women in Water Award for in close collaboration, and because of its kind project management, of the WRC has been the crucial factor in our is – at the forefront of global practice and we her efforts. The WRC was (and remains) a pragmatic and all-encompassing nature, has success. From the initial foresight to fund this field of research, through the have developed a wide international reputation. significant funder of these developments. triggered exceptional growth in communication between many scientific disciplines, and years of uncertainty of turning a ‘grey’ science into an internationally accepted Dr King learnt her way across the According to Dr King, South Africa’s work in between scientists and water managers. one, to the growing international exposure of the decade from 2000 to 2010, multidisciplinary nature of what came to this field was – and still is – at the forefront of the WRC has stood fast in support.” be called environmental flow assessments, global practice and the country has developed An updated version of the manual was – Dr Jackie King, Architect of BBM methodology helping to bring together specialists in a wide international reputation. “In my opinion, published in 2008. hydrology, hydraulic modelling, sedimentology, the funding and intellectual support, and just Dr Jackie King. fluvial geomorphology, water chemistry, plain good and kind project management of 146 147 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Landmark series of guides on invertebrates

Between 2000 and 2007, the WRC such as educators,” says Prof Day. published a nine-volume series of They are also of great value to people guides that include keys to most of the involved in assessing river health and fresh- and brackish-water invertebrates for a WRC-funded research project in southern Africa. Today this series is currently underway to investigate aquatic still regarded as the definitive work on invertebrates as indicators of thermal the identification of Southern African change. freshwater invertebrates.

The aim of the series was, firstly, to improve understanding of biodiversity in the region. The geographical coverage, while focusing principally on southern Africa, also includes distribution records from elsewhere in Africa. Secondly, the guides drew together all previous definitive works (some dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries) and all recent literature of the time.

The volumes were the culmination of years of effort by a large number of people and organisations. In 1998 Prof Jenny Day of the Freshwater Research Unit at the University of Cape Town took on the role of senior scientific editor, and writer Irene de Moor was contracted to take on the job of managing editor to ensure an easy-to- use format for the guides.

“The guides are still extensively used, particularly by postgraduate students, but what is encouraging is that they are used by other groups as well, 148 149 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Diatoms as water quality assessment tool

Diatoms are microscopic algae found in Among others, a diatom assessment protocol almost all aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats. (DAP) was developed for South Africa. Use They are one of the most common types of of the application was successfully employed phytoplankton. Within the last two decades in the State of the Rivers assessment for the diatom indices have gained considerable Crocodile-Marico West river system. popularity throughout the world as a tool to provide an integrated reflection of water quality. Water quality assessment protocols based on the use of diatoms are well developed.

In many cases it has been shown that the use of diatoms for predictive or forensic assessments provides a more sensitive, robust and seasonally-durable methodology when compared with similar approaches based on invertebrate populations. The value of diatom material retained in sediment layers provides an historical perspective that can be retrieved through the expedient of careful sediment coring. Such analyses provide a fingerprint of change that can extend back over centuries. While sediment coring is commonly applied to pollen studies, its use for studying diatoms and molluscs is virtually unknown in South Africa.

The use of diatoms in particular, and phytoplankton in general, in South African water quality studies has, until recently, been virtually non-existent. The results Diatoms in their different shapes can emanating from WRC research in the early "Up to 70% of what happens in the 2000s awakened a wider recognition of the water quality can be reflected in offer much insight into water quality. value of this technique such that today it is applied across entire river systems, in urban diatom assemblages." environments and in wetland assessments. - Dr Bill Harding, DH Consulting 150 151 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Contributing towards river health

The assessment of aquatic life in rivers is a widely recognised means of determining the condition or health of rivers. Macroinvertebrates, in particular, are recognised as valuable organisms MiniSASS has allowed citizen for biological assessments, due largely to their visibility to the naked eye, ease of identification, science initiatives, such as rapid life cycle often based on the seasons and Adopt-a-River to take off. their largely sedentary habits. Numerous bioassessment techniques have been developed over the last three decades, varying in complexity and region of implementation.

Through strategic partnerships, the WRC has ensured that South Africa has an exemplary history in this field, culminating in the refinement of invertebrate and other techniques and their application in a National River Health Programme. The highly successful SASS method forms the backbone of this programme.

The SASS index offers a cost-effective method for assessing the health of the macro- invertebrate community in a river. During the development of the SASS, the methodology was widely discussed, and it is now routinely being used as part of the biological monitoring of river health. It is also one of the indices

which form the basis of the National River CSIR Health Programme.

Scientist sampling invertebrates in the Buffalo River. 152 153 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

“The mini-version reduces the Encouraging citizen science This cheap, effective set of tools is easy to by users as citizen science. Users can explore taxonomic complexity of SASS to a use and has the potential to make a real all results, compare and contrast river health In 2012, the WRC in collaboration with local change at the community level. MiniSASS across catchments and in relation to land use few aquatic invertebrate groupings partners, launched the latest South African provides ‘eyes and ears on the ground’ in activities, while connecting with others who are (13 instead of 90) and forms a useful Scoring System version 5 (SASS 5) and its terms of identifying water quality problems and sampling rivers in their community. educational tool for school learners simplified version, MiniSASS, at a special event raising red flags. Community involvement and and non-specialists. It also allows in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal. A key tool understanding of water quality issues would communities to play an active role in in the assessment of the health of the country’s ensure that connections are made between rivers for a number of years, the system still uses broader catchment activities and water quality. the monitoring of water quality of the 100km the composition of invertebrates living in rivers, MiniSASS is an effective way of ensuring that rivers in their area.” and is based on the sensitivity of various animals the next generation of consumers, river health – Bonani Madikizela, to water quality. monitors and potential polluters, as well as WRC Research Manager the next generation of leaders have a greater The revision to version five was conducted by appreciation and understanding of aquatic GroundTruth, an environmental consultancy in ecosystems. Hilton, KwaZulu-Natal. The consultancy is run by Dr Mark Graham, who was one of the original The new version underwent testing at the developers of miniSASS. WESSA Environmental Centre in nearby Dr Mark Graham of Groundtruth explains the Howick by river health practitioners and miniSASS concept to a group of learners at an About 6 000 records have been taken from full environmental educators. Subsequently, a information session during the WRC Symposium in environmental assessments using the SASS new website, www.minisass.org, has been 2013. methodology and the data has been analysed developed by GroundTruth and WESSA, and showing a very good correlation between this incorporates an interactive Google Earth the SASS data and the miniSASS data. The map and database that allows miniSASS An example of the MiniSASS information guide. tool itself consists of a simple net and a site users to upload their results and view those free flowing rivers information sheet to record samples found in submitted by others. the river and give ecological information about the site. High scores indicate high sensitivity to The miniSASS project team recently developed pollution and low scores indicate high tolerance the miniSASS website, the most important 25 of pollution. A quantitative score of the system feature of which is the interactive Google Earth is translated into health categories ranging from map and database. The interactive map allows South Africa has only 62 free flowing rivers remaining. Natural to Seriously Modified. Support tools, miniSASS users of all ages to explore their Only 25 of these are longer than 100 km. such as field guides, assist identification and catchment, find their river and then upload understanding of the bugs and worms found their own miniSASS results. In this way it is in the water and form part of the miniSASS anticipated that a public-access, interactive Learners get closer to river critters during the tool kit. map of river health across Southern Africa will MiniSASS information session at the WRC Symposium develop, with results continuously contributed in 2013. 154 155 “Possibly the biggest highlight of this project has been that maps have been produced that feed directly into both water and biodiversity policy and legislation.” – Mandy Driver, SANBI

WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Freshwater ecosystems atlas

Freshwater ecosystems provide a valuable also relied on the participation of some 150 natural resource, with economic, aesthetic, stakeholders. spiritual, cultural and recreational value. Yet the integrity of freshwater ecosystems in South The criteria for identifying freshwater priority Africa is declining at an alarming rate, largely as areas were based on earlier work in which a consequence of a variety of challenges that government departments agreed on a vision are practical (managing vast areas to maintain for managing and conserving freshwater connectivity between land and freshwater ecosystems. These criteria included areas ecosystems), socio-economic (competition where populations of threatened or near- between stakeholders for utilisation of threatened freshwater fish occur; areas ecosystem services) and institutional (building that are considered high water yield or high appropriate governance and co-management groundwater recharge areas; and free-flowing mechanisms). rivers and connected ecosystems which are most likely to support biodiversity. An atlas that maps river, wetland and estuary priorities for South Africa was launched in The project used data from the national river November 2011. The Atlas of Freshwater health programme as well as from a multitude Ecosystem Priority Areas is one of the of river surveys and assessments, some of products of South Africa’s first comprehensive which were coordinated by the Department of assessment of the country’s freshwater Water Affairs. The research team also sourced The results of the freshwater atlas were extensively ecosystem priority areas, or those areas of the data from the different provincial structures in workshopped among stakeholders. country that are most important for ensuring the various water management areas. These the integrity and continued functioning of our data sets were then put into a spatial format freshwater ecosystems. and were taken to freshwater ecologists and biodiversity experts at regional review Partners of the WRC in the project included workshops. the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), the Council for Scientific and Industrial The atlas contains 19 priority area maps – one Research (CSIR), the World Wide Fund for for each water management area in South Nature South Africa (WWF-SA), the Department Africa. The maps show river priority areas of Water, the Department of Environmental and the associated land that drains into Affairs, the South African Institute for Aquatic that particular river reach, called the sub- Biodiversity (SAIAB) and South African catchment. It also shows wetlands, or clusters National Parks (SANParks). In addition to the of wetlands that are priorities. It has different Signatories to the National Freshwater Ecosystem project team and reference group, the project colour fish symbols to indicate the presence of Priority Areas. WRC CEO, Dhesigen Naidoo (left) with the former Deputy Minister for Water and Environmental Affairs, Rejoice Mabudafhasi (centre) 156 and SANBI CEO Tanya Abrahamse at the launch of the Freshwater ecosystems atlas in 2011. 157 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

a fish sanctuary for critically endangered and It is estimated that over 90% of the surface with the publication of a manual on quantitative endangered and other threatened indigenous area of South Africa’s groundwater occurs estimation of groundwater recharge and freshwater fish. Upstream management areas in secondary hard rock aquifers, consisting aquiver storativity, based on a collaborative are also indicated – in these areas development primarily of zones of weathering and fracturing. project between the WRC and DWA. can go ahead, but must not impact on the Location, development and management of condition of the downstream priority areas. these supplies are considerably more difficult One of the first WRC-funded studies into than supplies located in primary sedimentary artificial recharge, undertaken by Drs Ricky The atlas is available as a hardcopy format aquifers. Consequently groundwater Murray and Gideon Tredoux, who worked as well as on a DVD with a GIS viewer. The research in South Africa has largely focused for the CSIR in Stellenbosch at the time, led project team compiled an implementation on groundwater exploration in hard rock to four WRC-funded pilot case studies being South Africa has very few free-flowing rivers remaining. manual to provide guidance on how the aquifers, groundwater resource evaluation and implemented at Windhoek in Namibia, Calvinia Irrigated freshwater ecosystem priority areas should be groundwater management, in particular the and Kharkams in the Northern Cape, and Agriculture ––– Free flowing rivers implemented. A technical report explaining the protection of groundwater from the adverse Polokwane in Limpopo. All the pilot projects ––– Flagships science behind the maps is also available. effects of pollution. were focused on artificial recharge to hard-rock aquifers, which make up 90% of South Africa’s 59% Groundwater – SA’s hidden treasure About 9% of the WRC’s total research aquifers. Domestic investment over the last two decades has been 12.9% Water Supply Groundwater is the sole or main source of in groundwater research. Based on the encouraging results of the potable water for some urban and many rural CSIR-supervised pilot study, and an economic 13% communities in South Africa. Although only ‘Banking’ water for dry spells feasibility study indicating that artificial recharge 3.4% 6% 15% of the country’s total water consumption was the most viable option available to them, Other 5.7% is obtained from groundwater sources, very Artificial recharge and the principles of the Windhoek Municipality decided to go uses Mining often those communities dependent upon conjunctive use offer a valuable tool for ahead with full-scale implementation – the Schedule groundwater have no other viable sources of augmenting the rather limited natural recharge. first ever major scheme in fractured rocks. 1 uses Livestock Watering supply. Water can frequently be stored more effectively Ultimately the full-scale scheme – with an initial in suitable aquifers than on the surface, planned injection rate of 200 /s – secured Over the past two decades, initiatives to where losses through evaporation may be 25-30 Mm3 in Windhoek’s ‘water bank’, groundwater use accelerate the provision of potable water considerable. This conservation technique is of representing a couple of years’ supply for the to rural communities have focused on local special significance in semi-arid and arid areas. burgeoning city. groundwater resources. The results of many 100% years of research, particularly in terms of the It was the prospect of storing treated sewage The success in piloting several artificial portrayal of groundwater resource potential in water in the sand beds of the Cape Flats that groundwater recharge schemes in fractured Who is using groundwater in South Africa? the form of hydrogeological maps, have made initially led to the WRC funding groundwater rock aquifers in southern Africa culminated 59% Irrigated agriculture, 12.9% Domestic water an increasingly important contribution to these research nearly 40 years ago, the first work in the production of a booklet titled Water supply, 13% Mining, 6% Livestock watering, 5.7% efforts. of its kind to be undertaken in South Africa. Banking – A Practical Guide to Using Artificial Schedule 1 uses, 3.4% Other uses (industry, A significant milestone was attained in 1995 Groundwater Recharge. recreation, aquaculture, power generation) 158 159 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

The WRC with the Department of Water “The Groundwater Strategy fed directly into the then published a national artificical recharge NWRS II,” says Dr Shafick Adams, Research strategy. This is an excellent example of where Manager at the WRC, “which has undoubtedly research led to a national strategy and policy. served to raise the profile of this valuable The strategy was published in 2008. resource. The investments from the WRC in these areas over the years have led to a greater The roots of Proteaceae have been The roll-out focused on increasing awareness understanding of South Africa’s complex of artificial recharge; incorporating artificial aquifer systems, and finding ways to manage found to tap into groundwater. recharge into relevant planning documents them effectively.” such as the National Water Resource Strategy and Groundwater Strategy; and developing successful demonstration sites. These elements were vital in getting artificial recharge accepted as a tool of choice.

The strategy and roll-out led to widespread awareness and further studies at Sedgefield, Hermanus and in the Vermaaks River Valley near Oudtshoorn, as well as borehole injection tests carried out on the Langebaan Road Aquifer. Feasibility studies were undertaken for a number of other areas where artificial recharge had been proposed, like the sand dams of Limpopo and Mpumalanga, the Lephalale artificial recharge assessment, and the Kenhardt and Kathu proposals.

Recent projects include conducting feasibility studies for the towns of Plettenberg Bay and Prince Albert; transferring groundwater from one aquifer to another in Williston (western Artificial groundwater recharge Karoo); conducting trial borehole injection presents a practical, cost effective tests in Langebaan (Cape west coast); and and environmentally acceptable water substantially increasing the artificial recharge and abstraction capacity in Windhoek by management alternative for water drilling new injection and deep abstraction supply authorities, rural communities Malachite Media boreholes. and farmers. 160 161 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

South Africa’s exploitable groundwater resources. Close to 60% of South African towns either use groundwater as a sole source or in conjunction with surface water.

What is artificial recharge? Artificial recharge describes the practice of taking excess surface water when it is available and redirecting it so that it fills up groundwater aquifers at a higher rate than would happen naturally. Artificial recharge can be done in different ways. For example, water can be diverted to recharge basins where it the naturally infiltrates into aquifers. Alternatively, water can actually be pumped down boreholes to fill up aquifers when there is excess water available Shafick Adams

Scientists visiting the Windhoek groundwater The WRC together with the Department of Water Even in the Kruger National Park groundwater is a valuable source of water. recharge scheme. published an Artificial Recharge Strategy in 2007. 162 163 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

Building SA’s fracking knowledge base He also believes that dolerite intrusions in the Several environmental concerns have been flagged around hydraulic fracturing. Karoo are an unresearched concern. Dolerite is Unconventional gas mining and in particular the An early report commissioned by the WRC in unique to the South African situation. Dolerite exploitation of shale gas in the pristine Karoo 2012 concluded that the volume of gas in the intrusion temperatures exceed 900 °C. has been a hot topic and highly debated issue Karoo Supergroup formation is still unknown Migration Migration in South Africa since 2011. and no relevant data is available to give even Amid increasingly heated debates over the of of a rough estimate. The project aimed to define impact of the mooted shale gas extraction in Gas Fluid Hydraulic fracturing is the fracturing of rock the state-of-the-art in terms of the Karoo the Karoo, WRC research manager Dr Shafick Water Seismicity by a pressurised liquid. Induced hydraulic hydrogeological conditions, potential shale Adams said it was time South Africa gave Use fracturing, or fracking, is a well-stimulation gas reservoirs and the activities associated science a chance to speak. technique in which a high-pressure fluid (usually with fracking. The report also gave high level

Danie Vermeulen water mixed with sand and chemicals) is guidance on monitoring the fracking activities. While the exploitation of shale gas holds Desalinasation Management of injected into a wellbore in order to create small promise for South Africa with regard to Prof Danie Vermeulen of the University of the Free plant Produced fractures in the deep-rock formations in order One of the leading fracking experts in South boosting energy security, mitigating carbon inefficiency Water State at a production site in the US just completed CONCERNS to allow natural gas, petroleum, and brine to Africa is geohydrologist and geologist Dr emissions and enabling economic and social before it is rehabilitated. migrate to the well. Danie Vermeulen, Director of the Institute for gains, there are also potential negatives, Groundwater Studies (IGS) at the UFS. He has such as water scarcity, potential toxicity and Well Identification of In South Africa there is a genuine concern that, conducted some of the preliminary research environmental degradation. Construction Additives despite its promise to ease the energy crunch into the possibilities of fracking. in our country, hydraulic fracturing or fracking There has been particularly strong resistance poses a threat to available water supplies, both According to Dr Vermeulen, unknowns to be to the proposed use of the shale gas extraction Fauna Surface groundwater and surface water systems. addressed in research and exploration are the method, hydraulic fracturing, or fracking in and Flora Spills gas reserves and gas needs of South Africa. some quarters. Anthropogenic The technique is commonly used to enhance Do we have enough water? What will be the Road Traffic, Dust, Noise the production of low permeability formations visual and social impact? Who must do the In early 2014, the final regulations for the such as tight sands, coal beds, and deep exploration? exploration of shale gas in the Karoo were shales. Hydraulic fracturing is a technically being consolidated. An inter-Ministerial complex process. Fracking not only involves “Only exploration will give us these answers,” committee had been focusing on the public Danie Vermeulen the injection of potentially hazardous chemicals says Dr Vermeulen. Water use for shale-gas comments and inputs to the draft regulations, “In addition to its environmental sensitivity, the Karoo is also one of the Active fracking site, US. but also the management of these chemicals at exploration is lower than for other kinds of which include looking at the terms for an driest parts of the country, and currently the water intensive hydraulic the surface. energy, but the fact that the Karoo is an environmental-impact assessment. These fracturing or fracking methodology is being examined as the mining arid region makes the use of groundwater a stipulate that water resources should not The WRC has commissioned several research sensitive issue. Dr Vermeulen highlights this be polluted. They also propose drafting a methodology of choice to harvest the Karoo shale gas. In a country that is reports looking at the state of fracking and the aspect as his major concern regarding shale- geological map of the area, which could energy stressed and being increasingly challenged because it is a net large potential impact on water resources. gas exploration. indicate potential structural problems. importer of oil, shale gas holds much promise.” – Dhesigen Naidoo, WRC CEO 164 165 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Sustainable development solutions

The draft regulations were open for public comment after being approved by Cabinet 20 Years of Groundwater Research, in October 2013. Proponents of shale gas Development and Implementation in exploration, together with lobby groups against South Africa hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, submitted A new publication tracing the history extensive documents backing up their and outcomes of South African arguments for and against fracking. groundwater research, development and implementation over the past 20 years The final regulations are keenly awaited. has been published by the WRC.

Within the span of two decades, “Proponents are arguing past each groundwater has become a source of living water to communities in every other and the politics and emotions corner of our country. The most visible are ahead of the science. We should change has been from the past focus allow science to inform policy and on resource exploration to country-wide informed decision-making. Over quantification of groundwater resources. Research focus has shifted to resource the next few years, the answers will protection and understanding of start to emerge. There is also an groundwater as part of the overall opportunity to review the lessons hydrological system and ecosystem. learnt by other countries to make The publication reflects this South Africa a global leader in transformation and also offers a glimpse applying and developing best of recent advances made in both practices in this domain.” assessment and management of this vital resource. The authors are Prof – Dr Shafick Adams, Eberhard Braune of the University of WRC Research Manager Current exploration areas and companied involved in hydraulic fracturing in the Western Cape, Dr Shafick Adams South Africa. of the WRC, and Fanus Fourie of the Department of Water.

166 167 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Human capital development

The importance of focused and targeted skills development within the water sector is a fundamental ingredient for supporting the socio-economic development of South Africa while sustaining its scarce natural resources. Having good, knowledgeable people at all levels of water value chain management is critical.

The WRC has taken up this challenge by making the development of a skilled water science force a key organisational priority. In the science and technology domain the WRC manages to support the training of some 500 Masters and PhD students each year.

The WRC’s human capital development portfolio is as diverse as the country we live in. The provision of financial support to students working on WRC projects, and from institutional sponsorship of national capacity building events, career guidance and a recently published comic book teachingyoung people about the importance of valuing water – building a workforce that is adequate in size, capable Since 2001 the WRC has supported 6 952 students, in skills and strong in leadership all require a nuanced approach to most of them from designated groups. capacity building. Chapter 7 168 169 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Human capital development

“From initiation of projects to Capacity development: community. In more recent years, the WRC has to post-graduate (Masters and PhD) students within universities, however, it is encouraging made capacity building a core requirement of participating in its research projects. Since to note that 22% of new projects are now From Masters student to Chair of the publishing of WRC reports, I a personal journey of all WRC projects. 2001 (when student numbers started to performed by small, medium and micro Board appreciate the cooperation with be systematically recorded) the WRC has enterprises and have had record participation challenges and growth “As an ecologist focused on estuaries I scientists in a range of disciplines, Moreover, students have found their supported 6 952 students. In the 2013/14 of historically disadvantaged individuals in the have witnessed first-hand the impact of experiences working on WRC projects financial year alone the WRC supported 484 projects portfolio. the creativity of the innovation cycle It is widely recognised that capacity building the WRC. I have been involved in WRC to be invaluable in their personal growth students. It is encouraging to note that many of and ensuring results are useful for and sustainable knowledge transfer are critical research since my days as an MSc and development. A recent WRC project these former students are now research project The general consensus from the community of decisions and actions in practice. concerns for several sectors in Southern Africa, student and completed my PhD on a investigated the experiences of WRC- leaders in their own right and/or are serving as practice is that the value-add of this injection and the water sector is no different. The loss of WRC project focused on the freshwater In the process it is particularly supported students in order to produce a user- members of steering committees as well as of diversity is already having a positive impact intellectual assets is a major threat to effective requirements of estuarine plants. encouraging to observe how young friendly resource for students that would aid reviewers of new proposals. on the overall portfolio. This large number of water management particularly in water-scarce This was a very enriching experience them in managing the transitions experienced Masters and PhD candidates provides the researchers participating in the countries such as South Africa where the onus having the best estuarine scientists in in water research projects. A wide range of This is a substantial contribution to the amount critical mass required for the next generation of research effort obtain experience and has always correctly been on the scientific the country on a steering committee anonymous student stories were collected. of postgraduate degrees completed in the academics and researchers in the water sector. providing valuable input and advice on gain self-confidence to discuss their community to find technological solutions for water and sanitation field. In a WRC project my research.” research findings and respond to sectoral challenges. The state of postgraduate examining the state of production of post- constructive criticism.” graduate human resources in South Africa, The repercussions for the sector include high human resources in the the findings show that 250 PhDs and 1 331 – Dr Gerhard Backeberg, staff turnover as well as the loss of skills and masters of different types (e.g. MSc; MA WRC Executive Manager: institutional memory. Young people entering water and sanitation domain etc.) were awarded during the period 2000 Water Utilisation in Agriculture. the water and sanitation sector in South Africa to 2011. These figures could be considered are therefore faced with the threefold challenge As pointed out by the Presidential Review adequate for the South African reality. South of developing their skills; finding mentors to Committee on Human Capital Development Africa currently produces a small number of help them do so; as well as grappling with the pre-1994, the education and training capital post-graduate students in general (1 380 PhDs added responsibility of re-learning knowledge in South Africa was gratuitously prejudiced during 2009) and in comparison to the field of that could have been retained through towards furthering white progress. Since the energy – another multidisciplinary field – the sustainable knowledge transfer policies and advent of democracy in 1994, South Africa field of water produces four times as many programmes. has made significant gains and progress in post-graduate students. overcoming the skills development legacy of In response to these challenges, the value the past. By its nature, skills development is In recent years the WRC has adjusted its add of the WRC’s human capital development a long-term process and thus sustained and portfolio to train and mentor new research portfolio is that of a glue organisation linking efficient interventions are necessary to achieve leaders. Around 50% of research leaders on students to supervisors, providing real and enduring sustainability of the water sector. The crowning achievement in new projects are now from designated groups relevant in-the-field experience for young this domain is the greater than and mostly less than 50 years old. This is Janine Adams, Professor of Botany at people, enabling the completion of appropriate For the two decades the WRC has placed 70% representation of students in both assisting with the national transformation Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University qualifications, growing the sector skills base strong emphasis on building research capacity project as well as building the next generation WRC projects who are previously and former Board Chair of the WRC and linking individuals to a water and sanitation in South Africa. This it does through support of researchers. Historically, most projects lay disadvantaged individuals. 170 171 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Human capital development

principal researchers. These Empowerment of the Act. The creation of knowledge and From young hydrogeologist to How do current students experience WRC support? Projects will receive intensive mentorship and its transfer was conducted via small training President of WISA be precursors to full-scale WRC projects. networks, composed of the leading individuals --“I have always had a passion for water- --“Presenting my initial findings at one of and institutions in the country in each thematic Dr Kevin Pietersen’s paths first crossed related activities. WRC funding provided the stakeholder meetings was a very Strategic capacity-building initiatives area. with the WRC when he worked at the me with the opportunity to continue informative experience as I got valuable CSIR in Stellenbosch as a hydrogeologist. developing my skills as a researcher.” feedback that helped me shape my In addition to the focus on human capital Phase one saw the establishment of six Here he completed his Masters degree as research focus and helped me interrogate part of a Commission project on the Table --“WRC funding changed my life totally and development in the WRC funding model, the networks focusing on themes such as resource further ideas.” Mountain Aquifer. This was followed by gave me a platform to look to the future institution has also embarked on a wide range directed measures, groundwater, the beneficial a large-scale project in partnership with with confidence.” --“When I started my PhD I felt a lot of of strategic capacity building initiatives with use of water, and expertise development in the University of the Western Cape, which pressure and had low self-confidence, but various partners. catchment management. While FETWater --“I consider it a privilege and a major formed the basis of his PhD. Dr Pietersen’s working with other students at my level I provided financial and structural support, career path later led him to become Water responsibility to be awarded a WRC found comfort and encouragement.” These include support to national and local these networks identified particular needs Resource Management and later Director: bursary as the funding essentially stems government as well as the development of new in their fields of expertise and developed Water Centred Knowledge at the WRC. from the general SA public.” --“It was a wonderful journey. I learned a training material for different levels of learners specialised content for training courses that FETWater students and lecturers during a field trip to He then left the organisation to lead his lot and managed to overcome some gaps --“This [WRC funding] opportunity has and for academic institutions. build the capacities of students, practitioners, Namibia. own groundwater consultancy. He has from the previous degree. I would advise also served as the President of the Water opened more doors for me and is leading water management professionals and industry everyone to work on a WRC project Institute of Southern Africa. to some very interesting collaborations with FETWater stakeholders. because there is a lot to learn.” other researchers in my field.” (Student feedback from 2014 project A programme called FETWater was launched During 2007, phase two came on stream when --“Working as part of a WRC project investigating the experiences of WRC- in 2002 as a direct response to a 1998 study the Department of Water and UNESCO signed team gave me the opportunity to learn supported students) by the Department of Water, the United an education and training agreement to build from accomplished academics and Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural additional, much needed capacity in the South professionals which would not otherwise Organisation (UNESCO) and the World African water sector. FETWater phase two have been possible.” Meteorological Organisation (WMO), which provided institutional support and financing revealed a marked lack of human resources in the form of seed funding to encourage the and competencies in the local water sector. creation of training networks as a method for The WRC Empowerment Fund This deficiency not only jeopardised the co-operation between universities, research implementation of the National Water Act, but institutions, as well as public and private sectors An exciting new development in the realm of The aim of the project is to develop and also hampered the country’s ability to conform in the country. capacity building has been the appointment implement a cross-cutting programme to with, and take advantage of, global trends in of the WRC as the implementing agent to contribute to transformation in the researchers integrated water resources management. The second phase saw 1 052 professionals facilitate the Empowerment Project on Water and practitioners of the water and wastewater in the South African water sector receiving The DWS and the WRC signed a Memorandum Resource Management for the Department of sectors. The project will preferentially select FETWater was initially aimed at developing training through the FETWater programme. of Understanding (MoU) appointing the latter as Water, which will contribute to the development projects that will directly contribute to building and transferring knowledge so that a critical Concurrently, a vast amount of training material the implementing agent for the new phase of the of previously disadvantaged socio-economic the capacity of previously disadvantaged mass of water scientists could be created to was produced, and two groundwater test Framework Programme for Education and Training in researchers in water resource management. individuals in the roles of project leaders and facilitate the process of the implementation sites were developed at the universities of Water, also known as FETWater in early 2014. 172 173 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Human capital development

Pretoria and KwaZulu-Natal. The programme However, the most crucial directive of Phase WRC 101 for project leaders financial audit requirements; and know what for YWPs; and to support employers with At present, the YWP programme has more places special emphasis on the training needs III will be the National Water Resources resources are available to enhance the success the recruitment and retention of YWPs. than 1 000 student members and over 3 200 of women and previously disadvantaged Strategy II (NWRS II), and will be guided by Over the past few years, the WRC noted of the project. Membership includes all members up to, and professionals, with provincial chapters set up individuals. the priorities set in NWRS II for the next five an encouraging trend of proposals being including, the age of 35 years old, as well as in the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu- years. Addressing participants at the signing submitted by research groups who have Supporting Young Water Professionals those members who recently started a career Natal, Limpopo, Gauteng and further afield in In early 2014 the Department of Water ceremony, Acting Director-General, Trevor previously not applied to the WRC for funding. in the water sector. Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Namibia. and WRC signed a new Memorandum of Balzer stated that “FETWater provides a Many established research groups also have In addition to assisting students, the WRC Understanding appointing the latter as the practical expression of the NWRS II, and to new project leaders managing WRC projects. is also an ardent supporter of the Young “The YWP programme is fully inclusive, with implementing agent for the third phase of making an impact in terms of capacity into the Water Professionals – a joint initiative of the no agenda regarding gender, location, race From PhD student to leading hydrologist FETWater. The programme will run until sector, as well as on the ground.” The WRC, like any other research funding International Water Association and the Water or nationally,” said former YWP President, Currently head of the Centre for Water September 2017. organisation, has project management Institute of Southern Africa. Established Dr Jo Burgess, in 2010. “Any and all individuals Resources Research at the University Also speaking at the signing ceremony, and administrative requirements, which in South Africa in 2009, the aim of this with an interest in any aspect of water, of KwaZulu-Natal, Prof Graham Jewitt By the end of 2009, 1 052 professionals Dhesigen Naidoo, WRC CEO indicated that are reviewed periodically. Additionally, the programme is to fulfil the present and future and especially those with a need to find a first cut his teeth on a WRC project in the South African water sector received “The expectation is very high around Phase Commission has sought to improve its needs of the water and wastewater industries community of colleagues to belong to, are during the Kruger National Park Rivers training through the FETWater programme. III, but it fits in well with where we are as a interaction and coordination with current in southern Africa, an aim which requires the welcome. Research Programme doing his PhD in Concurrently, a vast amount of training material country. Capacity development in general, and and prospective project teams, in order to continuous development of a workforce that is the early 1990s. This remains a career has been produced, and two groundwater scientific training in particular is at another level streamline administrative processes and to adequate in size, capable in skills and strong in According to former YWP President, highlight. “The big strength of that tests sites were developed at the universities of the game to where we were 10 years ago. In render to the research community a better leadership. Dr Inga Jacobs, young people have found the initiative was the way it was structured of Pretoria and KwaZulu-Natal. Emphasis has the science and technology space, the water understanding of the WRC’s strategic objective programme immensely supportive in career to allow high levels of interaction also been given to the training of women and sector actually performs extraordinarily well. We as defined in its five-year Corporate Plan. To fulfil this aim the YWP body aims to provide development, networking, technical skills between junior, senior and emerging previously disadvantaged individuals. are currently 18th in the world with regards to opportunities for young professionals in the training and having a supportive network of scientists, and the way it operated knowledge production.” This involves informing institutions of the water sector to meet and communicate; individuals who are going through the same across disciplines.” Today, Prof Jewitt The new capacity building needs and WRC’s focus areas and direction for the provide career development opportunities challenges when developing their career. is a world leading hydrologist. He is requirements that will be considered in Phase Funding of the FETWater Phase III will be prioritisation of funds in the next financial year, also the Umgeni Water Chair of Water III are the advancement of technologies in the supported mainly by direct and indirect as well as encouraging WRC staff to gain a Resources Management. water space, climate change and variability, contributions to the programme by the better understanding of how various institutions strengthening of the water regulatory system Government of South Africa, as well as by operate. and development of regulatory tools, local UNESCO through the Flanders UNESCO government capacity building using water Science Trust Funds (FUST). In this regard, the WRC conducts the as a catalyst for economic growth and informative and increasingly popular one-day development, developing stronger inter- “The WRC is very keen to take this science WRC 101 course for aspiring and new project governmental relations, specialised skills partnership to another level, and we’re very leaders to, among others, understand the WRC and knowledge to manage water taking into keen alongside that, to take the water debate research cycle; discover the research priorities account the whole value chain and more to the next level, and the Category 1 Centre at of the Commission and the fund allocation for importantly indivisibility of the hydrological Rhodes University and the Category 2 Centre each of the priorities; prepare a comprehensive cycle. at UKZN will help us achieve this progression” proposal; manage the various aspects of a stated Naidoo. WRC project; understand the contractual and Attendees of the 2013 YWP Conference in Stellenbosch. 174 175 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Human capital development

There were two winners in the ‘Sustainable The last two winners were in the ‘New included in the guide. Readers can also find Development Solutions’ category, namely Prof Products and Services for Economic an exhaustive list of useful contacts, including Lingam Pillay of Stellenbosch University, for Development’ category. They were private those institutions which offer bursaries and his development of an innovative woven-fibre researcher and consultant, Dr Nico Benadé, internships. micro-filter for drinking-water supply, and Prof for the development of the WAS system, Leon van Rensburg of the University of the Free and Oliver Ive of Amanz’abantu Services, for State, for the development of guidelines for the lending private sector support to the pilot management of salinisation of agricultural lands. project involving franchising of water services to schools and homesteads in the Eastern The category, ‘Informing Policy and Decision Cape. Making’ also had two winners, namely Dr Sharon Pollard of AWARD, for her contribution to the Attracting an even younger cohort research comprising the Shared Rivers Initiative, and Dr Ronnie McKenzie from WRP Engineers, In addition to the various capacity building for his role in compiling the 2012 State of Non- initiatives supporting students and young Revenue Water in South Africa. professionals, the WRC has embarked on a relatively newer journey over the past ten years The first winner in the ‘Human Capital sparked by the demand to attract younger Development in the Water and Science Sector’ school learners into the water sector. category was Prof James Blignaut of the Department of Economics at the University of Water@Work Career Guide Pretoria, for his dedication to growing capacity in the water sector by training no less than The WRC revised and republished its 11 post-graduate students on his latest WRC successful Water@Work Career Guide, Knowledge Tree Awards project. The second winner in this category originally published 10 years ago. The new was Prof Neil Armitage of the University of guide lists detailed information on no less The WRC held its inaugural Knowledge operations, and acts as a yardstick by which Cape Town, for growing the cross-disciplinary than 62 career options in the water sector, Tree Awards at the 2013 Water Research, the Commission’s impact is measured in key Urban Water Management group. ranging from accounting and agriculture to Development and Innovation Symposium, held domains. social science, water history and zoology. The in Pretoria. In the ‘Empowerment of Communities’ colourful guide, which is available electronically In the category ‘Transformation and Redress’ category’ the winners were Simon Bruton of or in hard copy, is intended as an overview of The awards recognised outstanding the winner was Prof Ochieng Aoyi of the Ground Truth, for his development of the public career paths available in the world of water. performances by various WRC-funded Vaal University of Technology, for his work education tool MiniSASS, used for river health It is an ideal resource for learners ready to researchers in different disciplines within the in establishing and growing the water and monitoring, and Jonathan Denison, for his make subject choices or prospective students water domain. The awards are linked to the six wastewater research group in the Department development of the comprehensive learning exploring possible areas of study. New areas of impact areas of the WRC Knowledge Tree, the of Chemical Engineering. materials on water harvesting and conservation study, such as polymer science, one focus area The updated Water@Work Career Guide. corporate planning tool which guides all WRC aiding food security. of which is nanotechnology, have also been 176 177 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Human capital development

A comic book to inspire water careers! research project and those who benefit from it. The WRC has a huge responsibility to produce Boldly braving a man’s world In a similar vein, the WRC has created the necessary human capacity that is needed Chemical engineer Dr Katherine (Kitty) South Africa’s first water research-focused by the sector, but we would not be able to Foxon was involved with WRC- graphic novel or comic book for wide public achieve our impact objectives were it not for funded projects from the time of her dissemination and use. The novel, aimed at the thousands of project leaders and team PhD. The latter was a WRC project, children aged 11-15, follows the adventures of members, supervisors and students, experts which analysed an anaerobic baffled the Thirsty Three, namely Royston, Mpho and and new entrants, who ensure that research reactor for the treatment of domestic Steyn, as they uncover the value of clean water outcomes are communicated and used to wastewater. She worked as a research and the role played by water science. The first ensure greater awareness and uptake. fellow for the Pollution Research Group instalment of the proposed series includes at the University of KwaZulu-Natal an introduction to the WRC as a unique before becoming a lecturer at the same South African organisation, and its function to university, authoring several WRC assist Government in fulfilling its mandate to research reports. She has since become providing sustainable services to South African Group Leader Strategic Research at the communities. Sugar Milling Research Institute NPC.

It is envisaged that this graphic novel series can go a long way towards sharing the South African water story with a new generation of South Africans in a language that they can identify with. The comic is available electronically on the WRC website and hardcopies can also be order through the web site. Future discussions with the Department of Education is planned to further market and distribute the comic book to learners as part of their curriculum. With this kind of interest in water through early childhood development, imagine what the next twenty-year review would look like!

Conclusion

Although the formal products of the WRC are its research, the most important impact is felt by the individuals who grow within the 178 179 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

Prospects 2014 and beyond

The National Development Plan 2030: Our future - make it work says South Africa belongs to all and the future of our country is our collective future. Making it work is our collective responsibility. All South Africans seek a better future for themselves and their children. The National Development Plan is a plan for the country to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality by 2030 through uniting South Africans, unleashing the energies of its citizens, growing an inclusive economy, building capabilities, enhancing the capability of the state and leaders working together to solve complex problems.

Water is a strategic resource critical for social and economic development and there is growing concern about the potential impact of water-related risks. This is attributed, in part, to the poor state of its water ecosystems. South Africa also ranks 148th out of 180 countries in terms of water availability per capita, according to the 2012 World Water Development Report.

We have made gains in recent years as indicated by the Environmental Performance Index (EPI) hosted at Yale University. The EPI ranks South Africa 107 out of 178 countries overall and 72nd on issues regarding water sanitation. In the latter South Africa has had an improvement of 22.01% on access to sanitation in the last ten years.

While these improvements are encouraging, the target of universal access to sustainable “Our ability to be water secure services with a concomitant provision of ‘new’ water for accelerated growth remains a depends on the ingenuity, innovation big challenge. and dedicated effort of all who live in Water supply and sanitation services, which depend on adequate management, are a Chapter 8 South Africa.” priority for most South African communities. Their effective and sustainable management - Dhesigen Naidoo, WRC CEO is essential for community health, development and cohesion, and continued economic 180 181 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Prospects 2014 and beyond

activity. Some noteworthy WRC activities that the country. As such, it will contribute to, and look to the future, as well as broader water ultimately inform the sector’s knowledge base sector activities looking ahead and beyond and provide empirical material for additional 2014 are outlined below. research on policy, programmes, capacity, geographic spread and financing issues related The State of Water R&D to water R&D. 1 The outcomes of the project will become the The creation and maintenance of a point of contact for a broad sectoral overview coordinated, comprehensive, and balanced of water R&D trends in South Africa. The national water research agenda, combined with project will eventually lead to the development a regular assessment of the state of water RED of a national water R&D agenda for the sector. in South Africa, represents the nation’s best This will be achieved through extensive chance of dealing effectively with the many stakeholder dialogue, and will be brought to water crises sure to mark the 21st century. fruition in the Water Foresight Study. < The WRC wishes to develop and implement 148 Several Pulse Studies have already been the State of Water R&D Project to address the conducted and will together, form the first State need for a national reporting mechanism that of Water R&D Report to be launched in 2015. consistently reports on, evaluates and critically appraises the status of R&D trends in the water sector. This project comprises several The Aquaduct Study and components. Each will feed into the broader questions for future research framework to be conceptualised in the State of Water R&D in South Africa Report, a series Limited historical data are available to describe of biennial reports that provides an empirical water research in South Africa over the basis for further investigation on policies, first half of the 20th century. Many authors programmes and partnerships to support water recognise that this period was dominated by 180 research and development in South Africa. technological developments, breakthrough The Report Series will be based on extensive research and projects in water storage and desk research and on field work, as well as transfer, and frequently characterised by a water availability complementary pulse studies commissioned positivist approach to nature and development. by the WRC and other existing studies. But what are the future research questions for th the next 20, 50, 100 years? 148 The primary objective of the project is to provide a dedicated reporting mechanism South Africa ranks 148th out of 180 countries in and critical appraisal of water R&D trends in terms of water availability per capita 182 SA has a small but productive water research community. 183 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Prospects 2014 and beyond

A WRC project employed horizon-scanning The Water RDI Road Map The project comprises three phases. The first methodologies to identify and prioritise current is a status quo assessment of the water and and future water research questions through The WRC is working on a National Water R&D wastewater sectors, against which future the participation of a wide range of researchers and Innovation Roadmap (RDI) for South Africa. scenarios can be measured. The second from across the country, and to relate these The Department of Science and Technology’s phase entails the development of the Water questions to research paradigms, issues and (DST’s) ten-year plan Innovation Towards Research, Development Innovation Plan concerns in water in South Africa. Over 1600 a Knowledge-based Economy recognises and focuses on the transition from applied questions were collected, reduced in number the importance of science and technology research through industrial development to and then prioritised by specialists in the water in improving the country’s competitiveness commercialisation and/or application of the sector. The majority (78%) of questions offered and economic growth. The water sector products that emanate from South African by respondents in the South African case is recognised by Government as one that research. Phase three looks at a framework study dealt with relatively short- to medium- provides opportunities for job creation and for the implementation of the Water Innovation term research requirements with 47% of economic development, particularly in areas of Plan. questions focused on medium-term issues water treatment and wastewater beneficiation. such as service delivery, sanitation, access to The Water Foresight Study water, pricing and water quality. Additionally, A national viewpoint is required to provide a there was also a small set of questions ten year roadmap for innovation in the water The Foresight study will use as its point that is arguably more closely deal with with and wastewater sectors of South Africa. A co- of departure the findings of all the above- medium- to long-term critical concerns of funded WRC/DST project was launched to: mentioned studies to plot out different sustainability, establishing green economies scenarios of the future of water R&D. This and implementing new forms of integrated, 1. Provide a platform for South Africa to be the process will begin shortly after the Water RDI adaptive governance. These kinds of questions best in the developing world in water Road Map study has been completed and will pose extraordinary challenges necessitating technologies and to compete with leading be used to guide the WRC’s strategic planning considerable financial and institutional support. countries in providing sustainable solutions. processes. Two examples of these kinds of questions are: 2. Provide at least one breakthrough Water and Sanitation Summit, August 2014 technology every five years. --How can innovative process technologies, including nanotechnology, be applied to 3. Increase the numbers of small and Water and sanitation services remain one of benefit water and wastewater treatment medium sized enterprises (SMMEs) the core challenges of our time globally, and process? operating in the water sector, and not only particularly for South Africa’s growing political consultancies as the aim is to increase job economy. Yet, while South Africa has met the --What are the life cycle and systematic creation. MDG targets in these areas, our primary goal impacts of acid mine water and how can remains that of universal access to safe and these be managed, mitigated, remediated 4. Increase access to water for rural sustainable water and sanitation services to all and beneficiated? communities, and include sanitation in South Africa. Only when we have enabled provision for all in a sustainable manner. this expansion of the frontiers of human 184 WRC CEO, Dhesigen Naidoo, at the National Water and Sanitation Summit. 185 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Prospects 2014 and beyond

dignity can we begin to talk about growth and process. Several partners representing different Water and sanitation services remain one preferences, budgetary constraints and water prosperity in earnest. stakeholder groups would be invited to this of the core challenges of our time globally, resource requirements. session. In addition to that, A National Water and particularly for South Africa’s growing In this regard, the ushering in of a ministry and Sanitation Summit Declaration was drafted political economy. And despite several major Traditionally, we would implement conventional unifying water and sanitation, and also the and agreed upon and well as the commitment achievements in water services provision, flush toilets connected to the waterborne appointment of the Minister of Water and by all sector partners present to work with recently, Minister Mokonyane made a bold sewerage network. However, new challenges Sanitation, Ms Nomvula Mokonyane, and the Department in order to develop a 10-Year statement by saying that the target of associated with water availability, climate Deputy Minister, Ms Pamela Tshwete, were Water and Sanitation Plan. eradicating the buck system by December change, pollution and the rising costs generally welcomed by the water sector. One 2014 will not be met. “[O]n behalf of the associated with conventional technology are of the first tasks of the new ministry was to call The next 20 years President, I must apologise to the people of making us rethink and evaluate sanitation on stakeholders in the water family to come South Africa in that we were overambitious delivery, and more specifically the need for together and define our working relationship At the time this book was published, the in targeting the completion of the bucket different solutions. New technologies bring at the National Water and Sanitation Summit, world’s leaders met in New York City, for the eradication backlog by December 2014, a about another set of issues regarding user Acting Director-General, DWS, Trevor Balzer and held from 1 to 2 August 2014 at the Birchwood 69th session of the UN General Assembly target that we will not meet. However, with the acceptance and institutional management of To ensure the future of sustainable water supply COGTA Minister Pravin Gordhan. Hotel in Boksburg, Gauteng. to launch an intergovernmental process in budgets that we have secured and the plans waste streams post-toilet implementation. innovative solutions are required. preparation for the adoption of the post-2015 we have in place, we will meet the target during The aim of the Summit was to engage with development agenda. The optimists believe the 2015/16 financial year.” In response, several new sanitation stakeholders on the primary challenges facing that the new development agenda will revive technologies and innovations are beginning to water and sanitation in South Africa, and to several neglected challenges but the sceptics Members of the South African water and enter the South African market from all over identify game-changers and develop innovative believe that not much will change. sanitation sector applaud her for her open and the world. Toilets come a dime a dozen in all solutions that will enable us to take a significant transparent approach. shapes and sizes with as many “Made in …” leap forward as we collaboratively develop a Since 2000, the world reached targets stamps. Some of these have been developed national vision for water and sanitation over the on reducing poverty, increasing access to According to the 2012 National Report on the whilst some have been improved upon in order next five years, but also over the longer term. improved drinking water sources, improving Status of Sanitation Services roughly 1.4 million to meet the various requirements for sanitation the lives of slum dwellers and achieving gender formal households still required sanitation access across a wide variety of settings (from Various topics were discussed ranging from parity in primary school. Yet the sanitation services and around 0.5 million households in urban environment to the rural). However, in meeting the service delivery challenge; to target lags behind, maternal health is still low, informal settlements were making use of interim South Africa there has been no mechanism the water and sanitation policy environment; and inequalities within and among countries services. This situation is not due to a lack of to document or adequately establish the and from water research, development and remain high, and employment levels particularly trying or willpower. Eradicating the sanitation appropriateness of these innovation responses. Minister Nomvula Mokonyane and Elizabeth Moroaswi. innovation choices; to the state of South among youth remain high. backlog is one of the most challenging aspects A nanofiltration plant provides clean water to the Africa’s water resources; and finally, the role of to most, if not all, developing countries across Consequently, the innovations that are available small village of Madibogo, in North West. the private sector. And while the sanitation target lags, policy- the globe. One of the difficulties associated or have been developed are often not well makers look to the professional community to with sanitation provision is linked to the understood or appraised. In some cases, the The deliberations of the Summit will feed into provide appropriate technologies and are not availability and appropriateness of technologies lack of information has led to the wrong choice Department’s upcoming strategic planning always satisfied by what they find. to meet changing demography, user of sanitation technology being implemented,

186 187 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Prospects 2014 and beyond

Ending the lack of access to safe the proposed technology not meeting its intended purpose and / or uncertainties of water and sanitation is critical to the functioning, institutional and operational addressing water equity globally, and maintenance requirements of the new and can act as a catalyst for greater technologies have led to toilets being operated innovation to deliver human well- in an unsustainable manner. This has often led being and a sustainable future. to serious disrepair beyond normal operational and maintenance requirements several months or years after implementation. For this reason, emerging technologies are often met with scepticism and therefore fail to achieve wider uptake and application.

The responsibility now rests on the water and sanitation sector globally to provide demonstrated innovations that can have real impact on the ground.

Indeed, ending the lack of access to safe water and sanitation is critical to addressing water equity globally, and can act as a catalyst for greater innovation to deliver human well- being and a sustainable future. Only when we have enabled this expansion of the frontiers of human dignity can we begin to talk about growth and prosperity in earnest.

Where will we be as a sector in the next water publications twenty years (hopefully some of us will still be around!)? We may have to put this book into The responsibility now rests on the water and sanitation a time capsule and review our progress then, sector globally to provide demonstrated innovations that but what is clear is that the future is meeting 1.7% can have real impact on the ground. us half-way to the present – already the world South Africa contributes 1.7% of global publications and the water sector is changing – and we are in water while the average overall for the country is proud that the WRC and its partners are right less than 0.5%. there leading the way. 188 189 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research WRC | Abbreviations and acronyms

Abbreviations and acronyms

ADE Aquifer-dependent ecosystem DSS Decision support system KNP Kruger National Park NWP National Water Policy

AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome DWS Department of Water and Sanitation KNPRRP Kruger National Park Rivers Research Programme NWRS National Water Resource Strategy

AMCOW African Ministers’ Council on Water EDC Endocrine disrupting chemical KSA Key Strategic Area NWU North West University

AMD Acid mine drainage EIA Environmental impact assessment LFM Low-flow meter PPC Parliamentary Portfolio Committee

ARC Agricultural Research Council ELISA Enzyme-linked immune-assays MB:WHIG Municipal-based water harvesting interest group PRV Pressure-reducing valves

ARC-ISCW Agricultural Research Council’s Institute for eWQMS Electronic Water Quality Measurement System MBR Membrane bioreactor R&D Research and development Soil, Climate and Water ES Equitable Share MDG Millenium Development Goal RDI Research, Development and Innovation BABE Burst and Background Estimate FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations MIG Municipal Infrastructure Grant RDP Reconstruction and development BNR Biological nutrient removal FBW Free basic water NAEBP National Aquatic Ecosystem Biomonitoring Programme RQO Resource quality objective CB:WHIG Community-based water harvesting interest group FRU Freshwater Research Unit NATSURV National Industrial Water and Wastewater Survey RU Rhodes University CeBER Centre for Bioprocess Engineering Research GIS Geographical information system NDP National Development Plan SADC Southern African Development Community CEO Chief Executive Officer GRI Global Reporting Initiative NEMA National Environmental Management Act SAEON South African Environmental Observation Network CERM Consortium for Estuarine Research and Management GWRC Global Water Research Coalition NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development SAIAB South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity CMA Catchment management agency HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus NFEPA National Freshwater Ecosystem Priority Areas SALGA South African Local Government Association COD Chemical oxygen demand ICID International Committee on Irrigation and Drainage NIWR National Institute for Water Resources SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research IFRs Instream flow requirements NMMP National Microbial Monitoring Programme SANCI South African National Collection of Insects DAFF Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries IRWH In-field rainwater harvesting NSBA National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment SANCID South African National Committee on DBSA Development Bank of Southern Africa Irrigation and Drainage IRWH&C In-field rainwater harvesting and conservation NSDS National Skills Development Strategy DEA Department of Environmental Affairs SANParks South African National Parks IWA International Water Association NWA National Water Act DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid SASAQS Southern African Society of Aquatic Scientists IWRM Integrated water resources management 190 191 WRC | South Africa’s 20-year journey in water and sanitation research

SASRI South African Sugarcane Research Institute UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation SRFA Sanitation Research Fund for Africa UNISA University of South Africa SSA Support services agent UP University of Pretoria S&T Science and technology UV University of Venda SU Stellenbosch University UWC University of the Western Cape SWB Soil Water Balance (computer program) WAR Water allocation reform SWPN Strategic Water Partnership Network WAS Water administration system TAC Technical assistance centre WC Water conservation TCTA Trans-Caledon Tunnel Authority WDM Water demand management TIA Technology Innovation Agency WEROP Wave energy reverse osmosis pump TMG Table Mountain Group (aquifer) WFD Wetting front detectors TSFC Tswelelopele Small Farmers Cooperative WHO World Health Organisation TUT Tshwane University of Technology WISA Water Institute of Southern Africa UASB Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket WRC Water Research Commission UCT University of Cape Town WR2012 Water Resources 2012 study UD/VIDP Urine diversion ventilated improved double pit toilet WRM Water Resource Management UFS University of the Free State WSA Water services authority UJ University of Johannesburg WWF-SA World Wide Fund for Nature South Africa UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal YSF Young Scholars Forum UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme YWP Young Water Professional

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