THE : From God to Us Spring 2017 Syllabus

April 23 …………………………………. Inspiration and Uniqueness

April 30 ………………….………………. How the Bible Came to Us

May 7 …………………………….. Reliability of the

May 14 ………………………….. Reliability of the

May 21 ……………………….. The Canon Formation, , and

May 28 ………………..………. No Class; Memorial Day Weekend

JoLynn Gower 493-6151 [email protected]

1

INSPIRATION AND UNIQUENESS

The Bible continues to be the best selling book in the World. But between 1997 and 2007, some speculate that Harry Potter might have surpassed the Bible in sales if it were not for the Gideons. This speaks to the world in which we now find ourselves. There is tremendous interest in things that are “spiritual” but much less interest in the true God revealed in the Bible.

The Bible never tries to prove that God exists. He is everywhere assumed to be. Read Exodus 3:14 and write what you learn: ______

______

The God who calls Himself “I AM” inspired a divinely authorized book. The process by which the book resulted is “God-breathed.” The Spirit moved men who wrote God-breathed words.

Read the following verses and record your thoughts:

2 Timothy 3:16-17______

______

Do a word study on “scripture” from the above passage, and write the results here: ______

______

What would have been included in scripture at the time that Paul was writing this letter to his disciple, Timothy? What was the purpose of this inspiration? ______

______

______

2 Peter 1:21-21 gives more information. Read this section of scripture and write its content here: ______

______

Clearly, the Bible claims a verbal inspiration process. God spoke, men wrote.

2

Read the following verses for more information:

Exodus 24:4 ______

______

Isaiah 30:8 ______

______

______

In 26:2, the prophet was admonished not to omit a word! and the apostles stressed the truth of inspiration when they said, “it is written.” It is appropriate, then, to see what has been written and to what extent inspiration extends.

Our Bible consists of two Testaments, probably better translated “covenants.” The nature of the Old Testament, or Old Covenant, is represented by the Hebrew word “beriyth” which means a contract. It might be made between two persons or between groups of people; it might be conditional (if-then) or unconditional; it might have a time limit or it might be timeless. The nature of the New Testament, or New Covenant, is a “diatheke” which is more along the lines of a Last Will and Testament.

Read Hebrews 9:15-17 and write what you learn here: ______

______

Continue your thinking by reading Romans 8:16-17 ______

______

The Old Testament in our Bible consists of 39 books. The Catholic Bible consists of 46 Old Testament books because they include 7 books that the Protestant church considers to be apocryphal.

The Protestant Old Testament is exactly like the Jewish scriptures, but arranged in different order; consequently the Jewish scriptures contain only 24 books. Jewish scripture is known as the TANAKH, where T stands for the (Law), N stands for the Nevi’im (prophets), and K stands for the (writings).

3

1,2 Chronicles become just Chronicles 1,2 Samuel become just Samuel 1,2 Kings become just Kings and are combined into one book The twelve books beginning Hosea and ending with Malachi become known as one book, The Minor Prophets

In addition, the Jewish people study from a which includes the Mishnah (the writing down of the Oral Law) and the Gemara (rabinnical interpretation).

The Jewish scriptures, of course, lack a New Testament, even though the New Testament is studied as a historical book in the schools of . The Protestant and Catholic New Testament both contain 27 books.

The earliest scriptures have no chapter or verse divisions; these were added for convenience. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, is believed to have first divided the Bible into chapters is 1227. Robert Stephanus, a printer, first added verse numbers in 1551-1555.

The inspiration, and therefore the authority, of the Bible doesn’t extend to every copy and every translation in every language. Only the original autographs themselves, or perfect copies, are considered to be inerrant. The original text has been copied more accurately than any other known book from the ancient world, as we will see in future classes. This makes it very important to consider the translation, since we are not reading in the original languages and from original manuscripts.

It is important to note that the same translation might be contained within many different Bible formats. Therefore, it is important not only to consider the translation but also the editor. Remember, the editor adds the footnotes, not God!

We generally think of translations as Literal (word for word), Dynamic Equivalent (thought for thought), and Free (paraphrase). This chart, from Zondervan, will aid your understanding of the more popular versions available:

4

NASB New American Standard NIV New International Version Bible (1971; update (1984) 1995) TNIV Today’s New International AMP Amplified Bible (1965) Version (NT 2001, OT ESV English Standard Version 2005) (2001) NCV New Century Version RSV Revised Standard Version NLT1 New Living Translation (1952) (1st ed. 1996; 2nd ed. 2004) KJV NIrV New International reader’s (1611; significantly Version revised 1769) GNT Good News Translation NKJV (also Good News Bible) (1982) CEV Contemporary English HCSB Holman Christian Version Standard Version (2004) Living Living Bible (1950). NRSV New Revised Standard Paraphrase by Ken Taylor. Version (1989) Liberal treatment of ‘blood.’ NAB New American Bible Message The Message by Eugene (Catholic, 1970, 1986 Peterson (1991-2000s) (NT), 1991 (Psalms) NJB New Bible (Catholic, 1986; revision of 1966 Jerusalem Bible)

In the process of considering inspiration, it is important to note four points:

1. Inspiration is not “mechanical” or “automatic” writing in the sense of a process suspending the action of the human writer’s mind.

2. The inspiration of God doesn’t obliterate the personality, outlook, style, or cultural understanding of the writer. This does not, however, mean that His control of them was somehow imperfect.

3. We by no means believe that all translations, or paraphrases, are inerrant. This makes the job of textual criticism very important.

5

4. The inspiration of the Bible can’t be equated with the inspiration of classical literature

The Bible is believed to have been originally written in three languages. The Old Testament is primarily Hebrew with some , notably in the book of Daniel. The New Testament is primarily Greek.

The dates of writing range from 1800 BC until about 100 AD. The Bible was written over a period of nearly 2,000 years by approximately 40 different authors from three continents, who wrote in three different languages. These authors were shepherds, kings, scholars, fishermen, prophets, military leaders, a cupbearer, and priests. They composed their works from palaces, prisons, the wilderness, and places of exile while writing history, laws, poetry, prophecy, and proverbs. They express anger, frustration, joy, and love. Yet despite this marvelous array of topics and goals, the Bible displays a flawless internal consistency. It never contradicts itself or its common theme.

Summary

We can summarize this lesson as follows:

1. The Bible is infallible in its original autographs

2. God gave information to people, who in turn wrote it down at His direction

3. New testament apostles and others believed that Old Testament Scripture was entirely trustworthy; the church has accepted this position on the New Testament as well

4. Not all Bible translations are equal; serious Bible students who cannot study from the original languages carefully choose their translation

6

1. Collecting manuscripts, translations, etc.

2. Developing methods that enable the gathered information to be formulated into an accurate whole HOW THE BIBLE CAME TO US 3. Reconstructing the history of the textual transmission to identifyIn various this lesson, influences we will affecting be considering the text the texts and manuscripts that compose the Old and New Testaments. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, it is important 4. Evaluating the results and various readings in light of known to try to determine the original text with as high a degree of accuracy as evidence, and history possible. This process is called lower textual criticism. Higher criticism analyzes

the dates, unity, and authors of the Bible.

Lower criticism is generally described in four parts:

Until recently, the oldest Old Testament manuscripts were medieval. Consequently, secondary translations from Aramaic, Greek and Latin were the earliest witnesses to the Hebrew scriptures. As a result, their value to serious textual critics is limited even though significant. The Scrolls and other earlier manuscripts have provided earlier additions that are invaluable in determining the accuracy of previously known manuscripts.

The most recognized text for the Old Testament is the Masoretic text. It dates to around AD 500 and is the work of a sect of scribes known as the Masoretes. These texts are handwritten, usually on animal skins and papyrus. Their texts are believed to have been originally developed by a series of scholars as follows:

Sopherim: scholars between the fifth and third centuries B.C.

Zugoth: pairs of textual scholars assigned between the second and first centuries B.C.

Tannaim: repeaters (teachers) active until 200 A.D. They preserved the Old Testament text; they participated in the Midrash (textual interpretation), the

7

Tosefta (addition) and the Talmud (instruction) which was divided into the Mishnah and the Gemara

Talmudists: from AD 100 – 500 they carefully catalogued the civil and canonical law and developed an intricate system for transcribing synagogue scrolls.

Masoretes: scholars (meaning “tradition”) between 500 and 950 A.D. developed the final form on the Old Testament text. The Masoretes preserved the oral tradition in writing using correct vowels and accents, unusual words, and rare spellings. There were two primary schools of the Masoretes. One was in Babylonia and the other in Israel. The most famous of them was the Jewish center in Tiberias in Galilee led by ben Asher and Moses ben Naphtali in the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. The Asher text is the standard text in use today and is best represented in the Codex Leningradensis and the .

A question of maintaining accuracy over such a long time has always been in question. That question was largely answered by the with a resounding “YES.” Before the discovery, the oldest manuscripts were from around 900 A.D. How do we know they are accurate? One of the scrolls in the Dead Sea collection contains a complete manuscript of the book of in Hebrew which dates to around 125 B.C. Although more than 1000 years older than the previously known oldest manuscript, there are no significant differences.

The (LXX) is the Greek translation of the Old Testament, deriving its name from the fact that 70 Jewish scholars translated the Old Testament for the Alexandria, library. The early church, and possibly Jesus himself, used the Septuagint as the standard form of the Old Testament.

The Targums are the translations of the Hebrew Old Testament into Aramaic. Other notable versions are the Syriac, used in the eastern Aramaic church and the Latin versions used in western regions of the Roman Empire.

Not one original manuscript of the New Testament remains. The oldest extant copy dates to around 110 AD. It is the of John and is believed to have been copied only about 10-15 years after John’s original autograph. Beginning in the late 1800’s, scholars began to try to recover (reconstruct) the original Greek text from the various manuscripts at hand. Eberhard Nestle used the best known editions of the Greek New Testament to make a text that was as nearly a consensus among scholars as possible.

8

Later, Nestle’s son continued the work and lastly Kurt Aland continued the work, publishing the Novum Testamentum Graece in 1993, shortly before his death. Corrections were made in 1998. The same text is published in another volume by the United Bible Societies, called the Greek New Testament, published also in 1993.

We know these manuscripts, considered to be the most authoritative, as the Nestle-Aland and United Bible Societies translation. In Bible notes, this will be called the NU text. Because the King James translation predates the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, it is important to choose that translation in a Bible containing the NU text notes.

The Old Testament manuscript in favor with translators is the Masoretic text which has been shown by the Dead Sea Scrolls to be accurate.

Read Isaiah 40:8 and write what you learn about God’s Word here: ______

______

______

God has shown that He is concerned with inspiring and preserving His book of instruction. We owe a debt of gratitude to those whose lives were devoted to the labor-intensive scribal tradition.

As we complete this section, consider the following verses in light of the concept described:

God preserves His word: Psalm 12:6-7 ______

______

______

God wants nothing added to or taken away from His word: Deuteronomy 4:1-2

______

______

______

9

God cares about every word in the Bible: Proverbs 30:5-6 ______

______

______

God’s word is long-lasting: Mark 13:31 ______

______

______

God is really serious about the preservation of the word: Revelation 22:18-19

______

______

10

THE RELIABILITY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT

The word “canon” comes from the Greek word kanon which means a measuring reed. This means that the canon is the measurement of what is appropriately contained in the text of the Bible. There is a long history of disagreement about what books should be in the Old Testament canon. The Samaritans refused any books except the Pentateuch (first five books – the Law). There have been arguments about books that should have been included but were not.

The Catholic Bible contains a “deuterocanon” composed of , Tobit, Wisdom of , Judith, 1 and and Baruch as well as additions to the books of Daniel and Esther. The Protestant church considers these books to be apocryphal. In the early days of the church, there was a dispute regarding the canonicity of Ezekiel, Proverbs, Song of Solomon, , and Esther. Until the time of the Protestant Reformation, there was considerable discussion about whether the books composing the Greek and Latin Apocrypha should be regarded as inspired or not. Clearly, the Protestants said “no,” and the Catholic and Orthodox churches said, “yes.” The Protestant church held with the Jewish scholars who established the content of our current Old Testament.

Even though we see the doctrine of biblical inspiration emerging in the pages of the New Testament, it is apparent that people knew certain texts were inspired by God and responded accordingly. Read the following verses and record your thoughts here:

2 Kings 22-23 ______

______

2 Chronicles 34 ______

Exodus 24:7 ______

The Pentateuch presents as having been written by Moses; however, we note that Moses wrote it down as well as delivering it orally. It is believed possible that sections of the Old Testament may have been considered canonical before the final length of the book was established. An example of this is Exodus 20- 23. The books of the Pentateuch are referenced sufficiently often in other parts of the Old Testament to have been deemed inspired by God. By the time of Ezra, the Pentateuch was clearly defined and considered canonical. In the 3rd century B.C. it was translated into Greek, becoming the first part of the

11

Septuagint. The five books of the Pentateuch are identical in the Protestant and . The other 34 books of the Protestant Bible Old Testament compose only 19 other books in the Hebrew Scriptures, but the content, although arranged in different order, is identical.

The remaining portions of the Hebrew Scriptures were finalized around 165 B.C. 2 Maccabees speaks of a great crisis when Antiochus IV Epiphanes took over the temple and destroyed scripture that he found. Judas Maccabaeus collected all scriptural scrolls he could find after taking back the temple and organized and arranged it into a collection in the traditional order. He probably thereby established the traditional order and number of books. Interestingly, he listed Chronicles last. Read a quote from Jesus in Matthew 23:35 and reflect on the interpretation: ______

______

______

However we look at the Old Testament, it is clear that all of the Old Testament canon was clearly established and generally accepted by the time of Christ. The synod of Jamnia, around 90 A.D. is sometimes credited with finalizing the Old Testament canon; however, that council really only sorted out various apocryphal writings found in various editions of the Septuagint. The apocryphal books were clearly known to the church, but the farther back one looks, the more it is realized that they were not considered to be inspired.

Doubt about the canon can only be resolved as it has been resolved from the time of the Reformation forward: by returning to the New Testament teaching and the Jewish background against which it is understood.

Scholars generally accept seven criteria for determining which readings are correct:

1. Readings closer to the original are preferred to more recent manuscripts 2. The more difficult reading is preferred because scribes were more likely to try to smooth out difficult readings 3. The shorter reading is preferred because copyists were more likely to insert new material than to omit part of the sacred text 4. The reading that best explains the other variants is preferred 5. The reading with the widest geographical support is to be preferred because such manuscripts are less likely to have influenced each other

12

6. The reading that is most like the author’s usual style is preferred 7. The reading that does not reflect a doctrinal bias is to be preferred

There are other guidelines to be considered as well. It is helpful to compare duplicate passages of the Masoretic Text itself. Several Psalms occur twice (14 and 53 for example). Isaiah 36-39 is also found in 2 Kings 18-20; :24 is almost exactly like :1-3; Jeremiah 52 is a repeat of 2 Kings 25. Large portions of Chronicles are found in Samuel and Kings. Examining these passages for textual agreement helps conclude that the texts have not undergone radical revisions, even when it is assumed that the parallel passages have identical sources.

Archaeology is another major help in determining the reliability of the Old Testament. Numerous discoveries have confirmed the reliability of certain accounts in scripture.

The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah was considered to be largely fiction by many until archaeology revealed that all five of the cities mentioned in the Bible in connection with them were in fact centers of commerce and were geographically situated as the Bible describes. Earthquake evidence shows that various layers were hurled into the air Layers of rock have been molded together by intense heat, and these bituminous layers would have rained down on the cities. This in no way detracts from the fact that God was in control of the disaster since the timing of the event, in the context of warnings and angelic visitation, reveals its overall miraculous content.

Excavations of Jericho found amazingly that the city walls fell down and outward in such a way that attackers could have walked straight in. The archaeological evidence shows exactly what the Bible says:

The city was strongly fortified: 2:5-15 ______

______

The attack occurred just after spring harvest: Joshua 2:1 and 3:15 and 5:16 __

______

The inhabitants had no opportunity to flee with their food: Joshua 6:1 ______

______

13

The siege was short: Joshua 6:15 ______

The walls were leveled: Joshua 6:20 ______

______

The city was burned: Joshua 6:24 ______

______

Another interesting archaeological find relates to the death of King Saul. Samuel tells us that Saul’s armor was put in the temple of Ashtaroth but Chronicles says his head was put in the temple of Dagon. Scholars used to believe that this could not be true because the first was a Canaanite goddess and the later was a Philistine god. However, it is now known that both have their roots in the Babylonian cult religions. Excavations revealed that there were two temples at the Beit Shean site and they were separated by a hallway. One temple was for Dagon; the other for Ashtaroth

Excavations also proved that could have captured Jerusalem by a water tunnel that led to the Pool of Siloam. Formerly the pool was thought to have been outside the city; however, excavations in the 1960’s showed that the wall extended past the pool.

There are many more discoveries archaeologically that come from various places in the Middle East. If time permits, look for some of these discoveries. Particularly interesting are the Ebla tablets recovered from near modern day Aleppo, . Descriptions of the reign of Solomon found in those tablets show us that the Bible wasn’t exaggerating when speaking of the grandeur of his kingdom.

As we conclude this sections of the study, think through the things that the New Testament affirms from the Old:

Creation: Genesis 1 and :3, Colossians 1:16 ______

______

Creation of Adam and Eve: Genesis 1-2; 1 Timothy 2:13,14 ______

14

Murder of Abel: Genesis 4; 1 John 3:12 ______

Lot and Sodom: Genesis 18-19; Luke 17:29 ______

Provision of water and manna: Exocus 16:4 and 17:6; 1 Corinthians 10:3-5 ____

______

Daniel and lion’s den: Daniel 6; Hebrews 11:33 ______

______

Murder of Zechariah: 2 Chronicles 24:20-22; Matthew 23:35 ______

______

______

15

THE RELIABILITY OF THE NEW TESTAMENT

The New Testament is much easier to follow in terms of development. It was written over a period of about sixty years during the apostolic era immediately after the resurrection of Jesus. Tertullian, a Christian writer in the third century was one of the first to call the assembled books “the New Testament.” Before the canon was officially determined takes us to the fourth century. Although Tertullian is credited with clearly defining the concept of the , it was clearly identified and understood years prior to his writing.

During the first century of the church, the authority of the writings came from the writings themselves. There are repeated exhortations for the letters to be read to the churches. Read the following verses and record what you learn here:

1 Thessalonians 5:27 ______

2 Thessalonians 2:13 ______

1 Corinthians 14:37 ______

Colossians 4:16 ______

Revelation 1:3 ______

2 Peter 3:15-16 ______

In about 95 AD, Clement of Rome wrote to Christians in Corinth using portions of Matthew and Luke. He also seems strongly influenced by Hebrews and is familiar with Romans and Corinthians. He also alludes to 1 Timothy, Titus, 1 Peter, and Ephesians.

The John Rylands papyrus, found in Egypt, is a portion of the and shows how revered the writings of John were and how often copied around 125 AD. There is evidence that within thirty years of the John’s death, all the and Pauline letters were known and used in all those centers from which any evidence has come down to us.

Three church fathers, Clement, Polycarp, and Ignatius, used the New Testament materials in a casual and authenticated manner, indicating them to be accepted and authoritative without argument. Only Mark, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and 2 Peter are not clearly attested. Polycarp was fond of using combined quotations from

16

the Old and New Testament scriptures, putting them on the same authoritative level.

In the battle against , the church was pushed into declaring a canon when Marcion, an early heretic, created his own. Marcion chose only Luke’s gospel, eliminating chapters 1 and 2 as too Jewish, Paul’s letters except for the “pastoral ones.” During the same time frame, Justin Martyr described the worship services of the early church and clearly put the New Testament on authoritative level with the Old.

Irenaeus was trained by Polycarp, who in turn was trained by John and possibly other apostles. Iranaeus quotes from almost all of the New Testament on the basis of its authority and asserts that the apostles were endowed with power from on high. In addition to supporting all four gospels, he also refers to Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, the letters of Paul except Philemon, and Revelation.

By the time of the Council of Carthage, A.D. 397, the church decreed that “aside from the canonical Scriptures, nothing is to be read in church under the Name of Divine Scriptures.” Listed were the twenty-seven books we know as the New Testament.

The following outline, one of the best I have found, is published by CARM (Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry):

1. Beginnings to Constantine (4 B.C. – A.D. 325) 1. First Century (The New Testament Era) 1. c. 4 B.C. – Birth of Jesus in approximately 4 B.C. in Bethlehem of Judea. 2. c. A.D. 29 – Beginning of Jesus’ public ministry. 3. c. 33 – Jesus crucified and resurrected. 4. c. 33 – Pentecost with the impartation of the Holy Spirit. 5. 35 – The conversion of the Apostle Paul from . 1. Author of thirteen New Testament . 2. Emphasizes the death and resurrection of Christ as the means of salvation. 6. c. 41 – admitted in fellowship (Acts 15) with James as the head of the Church. 7. c. 45-c.100 – Writing of the New Testament including the Epistles (c.48-c.100), Synoptic Gospels (c. 45-70), and the writings of the apostle John (c.85-c.100). 8. 48 – The beginning of Paul’s three missionary journeys across Europe and Asia Minor – goes East first. 9. 64 – Neronic Persecutions due to blaming Christians for fires in Rome results in the death of thousands of Christians. 10. c. 67-68 – Peter and Paul are executed. 11. 66-70 – Destruction of the Jerusalem Temple by Emperor Titus as a result of a Jewish revolt resulted in redefining the structure of Judaism and Antioch becoming the center of Christianity. 12. 81 – Roman persecution under Diocletian. oust Christians from the synagogues. 13. c. 85-150 – Writings of including Clement of Rome, Ignatius, and Polycarp.

17

1. Clement of Rome 2. Ignatius 1. Wrote letters on the way to Rome to encourage churches 2. Martyrdom in 107 3. Polycarp (c.69-c.155) 1. Disciple of the apostle John 2. Dies as a martyr around the age of 86 while stating the famous words, “Eighty and six years have I served him, and he hath done me no wrong; how then can I blaspheme my king who saved me?” 14. c. 100 – Death of John the Apostle who was the last living apostle. 1. Vigorously opposed docetism the idea that Jesus was not fully man. 2. Closes the apostolic era. 2. Second Century (The Beginnings of the Fathers) 1. 100-130 – Christianity represented in various locations including, but not limited to Egypt, Armenia, France, Britain, Iraq, and Iran. 2. c. 100-c. 165 – Justin Martyr 1. Key apologist who wrote against Gnosticism. 2. Writes his first Apology (c. 155) in which he argues that traces of Christian truth can be found in pagan writers and Greek philosophy. 3. 125 – Christianity officially separate from Judaism 4. 125 – Spread of Gnosticism 1. Dualistic religious heresy – matter seen as inherently evil 2. Salvation through knowledge (gnosis) (Latin scientia) (English knowledge) 3. God of Old Testament seen as evil. 4. Apocryphal Gospels written such as the , , and Infancy Gospel of Thomas. 5. c. 130-c. 200 - Irenaeus 1. Bishop of Lyons 2. Wrote famous treaty Against Heresies which would become a significant work against Gnosticism 3. Appeals to Scripture as the rule of faith – accepts the four gospels and sixteen other books as canonical 4. Does not see a conflict between Scripture and tradition 5. A disciple of Polycarp who was a disciple of the apostle John 6. 132-35 – Bar Kohba Revolt/ Second Jewish Rebellion results in the destruction Jerusalem 1. Judaism moves away from strong Messianic expectations 2. Much of the Jewish population flees into the Diaspora 7. 140 – Marcion’s Canon of Scripture includes Luke and edited an edited version of Paul’s letters removing favorable references to the Jewish people. Orthodoxy would eventually have to respond with their own canon. 1. Excommunicated from the Christian Church 2. Believed Jesus did not have a real body nor a human birth due to the corruption of matter (doceticism) 3. Believed that there was no connection between the God of the Jews and Christians 8. c. 150-215 - 1. Teacher of 2. Like Justin Martyr argued that Christianity brought to fruition the insights of Greek Philosophy 9. c. 156 – Montanus preaches/prophesies a form of Christianity in Asia Minor called Montanism. 1. Claimed to receive new prophecies 2. Early synod condemns Montanism 10. c.160 – c.225 - Tertullian 1. First key Latin theologian – considered father of Latin theology 2. Was a Montanist for several years before conversion to Orthodoxy 3. Defended unity of Old and New Testaments against Marcion and laid foundation for the Trinity 4. Skeptical of the relationship between Christianity and Greek philosophy stating, “What is there in common between Athens and Jerusalem? Between the Academy and the church?” 5. Attacks Monarchianism the view that one God changes his mode of being 11. c. 175 – Tatian – wrote the Diatessaron – a harmony of the gospels 12. c. 175-200 – Apostle’s Creed formulated with the final form in the eighth century

18

13. c. 180 – Process of Canonization largely in response to Marcionism – Irenaeus defends the four gospels. Christians concerned with unity during this period. 14. 180 – Christianity all across Africa to Carthage and beyond. 15. c.185-c.254 – Origen 1. Wrote Contra Celsus, which was a significant work against pagan and Jewish objections to Christianity. 2. Died from injuries of Decian persecution 3. Believed in the preexistence of souls 4. Accepted universalism 5. Most dominant thinker of his time 6. Judged a heretic at the Fifth Ecumenical Council 7. Helped pave the way for the doctrine of the Trinity 16. 196 – Controversy between East and West regarding the day to celebrate Easter. 3. Third Century (The Era of Apologetics) 1. c. 200 – The Church recognizes 23 New Testament books as canonical. 2. c. 200 - School of Alexandria in Alexandria, Egypt is a key center for Christian apologetics. 1. Adopted an allegorical interpretation of Scripture 2. Some Alexandrians dabbled in Platonic dualism 3. Responsible for a number of apologists including Clement of Alexandria and Origen 3. c. 200 – School of Antioch was a rival of Alexandria 1. Emphasized a literal interpretation of Scripture and the humanity of Christ in contrast to Alexandria’s emphasis on an allegorical interpretation of Scripture and the deity of Christ 2. Produced a number of theologians including Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius 4. c. 200-250 – The reemergence and prominence of Modalism advocated by Sabellius 1. The idea that there is one person with three modes 2. Roots in the late second century with Noetus and Praxeas 5. c. 242 – Manichaeism emerges in Persia – dualistic heresy which denies the humanity of Christ and reappears in centuries to follow 6. 250 – Decian Persecution 7. c.250-c.300 – Martyrologies written by which they exalted martyrdom as an ideal of holiness 8. 273 –Antony of Egypt leaves his home for the desert to pursue a Monastic lifestyle. This would influence the Monastic movement for years to come. 9. c. 292 – Diocletian divides Empire into East and West which results in less of Rome’s influence 10. c.296 – c.373 – Athanasius 1. Strong opponent of Arianism and defender of Nicene Orthodoxy 2. Arguments for the deity of Christ 1. Only God can save; Jesus saves; therefore, Jesus is God. 2. Christians commit idolatry if they worship a Jesus who is not fully God. 3. Athanasius’ Canon lists the present 27 books of the New Testament (367) 1. Previously some books were disputed such as Revelation, 2 Peter, Jude, and Hebrews 2. Books not accepted such as letter of Clement and 4. Fourth Century (Heresies and Councils) 1. 303 – Persecution of Diocletian which results in burning of many scriptures and thousands killed 1. Libelles pacis – certificate given if one sacrifices to emperor and gods 2. Tratatore – name given to Christians who recanted 3. Diocletian even forced his Christian wife and daughter to recant 2. c.310-c.390 – Apollinaris of Laodicea 1. Opposed Arius by arguing that Jesus was not totally human stating, “The Word himself has become flesh without having assumed a human mind.” 2. Criticized at the Council of Constantinople (381) for his overreaction to Arianism. 3. 311-411 – Donatist Controversy 1. Question whether lapsi/traditores were allowed back into the Church 2. Some African Churches, championed by Augustine, believed lapsi were allowed back into fellowship since they believed the pureness and validity of the church depended upon the person of Jesus Christ 3. Donatists, such as Petilian, rejected this idea and believed only that the church could consist only of saints not sinners. 4. 312 – Conversion of Constantine

19

1. October 28, 312 – battle of Milvian bridge 2. Had a vision in a dream that he was to conquer by Christ 3. Went to battle and won 5. 313 – Edict of Milan 1. Christianity officially tolerated as a religion by the Roman government 2. Edict written by Galerius (c.311) 3. Demonstrated Christianity was a recognized religion by the empire 4. Christianity has a large influence now. 6. 320 - Arianism Begins to Emerge 1. Founder Arius (c.250-c.336) 2. Believes Jesus is a created being and not God by nature 1. Accepts that Jesus is fully man, but denies his deity. 2. Jesus created out of nothing – the firstborn of every creature 3. Arius’ views would be rejected at the council of Nicea (325) and finally at Constantinople (381) due to the arguments of Athanasius and others. 7. 320-5 – Pachomius founds an important monastery at Tabennisi, Egypt. There are many monasteries in the East by this time. 8. 324 – of Ceasarea writes Church History which was a foundational book for understanding the early Church including the authorship of the Gospels 2. Nicea to Chalcedon (325-451) 1. 325 – Council of Nicea 1. The first key council for the Christian Church 2. Called by Constantine with a desire to achieve unity in Christendom 3. Starts in 318 and lasts for several years. 4. A response to Arianism (homoiousia – “of like substance”) by affirming orthodoxy (homoousia – “of the same substance”) 5. States that Jesus is fully God and equal with the Father “very God of very God” 1. Raises more questions than it answered: no universal agreement reached 2. Chalcedon would give final definition 2. 329-95 – The Cappodocian Fathers 1. Began speculations on the Trinity through investigation of how they are experienced 2. Defended the deity of the Holy Spirit 3. Noted Theologians 1. Basil of Caesarea (c.330-79) who wrote extensively on the Trinity and defended the divinity of the Holy Spirit 2. Gregory of Nazianzus (329-89) wrote the Philokalia which contains extracts from Origen and stressed the humanness of the incarnation in response to Apollinarianism 3. Gregory of Nyssa (c.330-c.395) was a vigorous defender of the Trinity and the incarnation 3. 337 - Constantine dies 4. d. 341 – Eusebius of Nicomedia - Famous Arian bishop who baptized Constantine before his death and promoted Arianism at the Council of Nicea. 5. 346 – Death of Pachomius, the father of monasticism in the East 6. 347-420 - 1. Translator of the Latin Vulgate (404) which would be the standard Bible of Christendom for over a thousand years 2. Did not accept the Apocrypha in contrast to Augustine but made a hurried translation of the Apocrypha due to pressure before his death 7. c. 350-428 – Theodore of Mopsuestia 1. Believed in the unity of Christ with two natures 2. View condemned at Councils of Ephesus (431) and Constantinople (553) 8. 354-430 – Augustine of Hippo 1. Perhaps the most influential mind of Christian history 2. Developed Christian theology as an academic discipline 3. Wrote City of God in demonstrating Christianity as a credible belief system and its lack of responsibility for the fall of Rome 4. Helped explain the doctrine of grace, the church and sacraments, and the Trinity 5. Advocated concept of original sin in contrast to Irenaeus who believed that one is created good but becomes fallen by an act of the will 1. Believed sin to be a part of our human nature

20

6. Had a linear view of history 9. c. 375-425 – Pelagian Controversy 1. Pelagius was a British monk who believed in the importance of human improvement without the need for divine aid. 2. Believed humans could save themselves by works 3. Augustine responded that humans are fallen by nature and need the grace of God for salvation 4. The Council of Carthage (418) condemned Pelagianism and accepted Augustine’s view 10. 378-444 – Cyril of Alexandria 1. Appointed patriarch in Alexandria in 412. 2. Produced major statements in response to Nestorius defending the two nature of Christ and opposed him at the Council of Ephesus 11. 381 – Constantinople Creed helped settle the Trinitarian issue by reaffirming Nicene Orthodoxy and condemning Arianism along with Modalism. 12. c.390-c.460 – Magonus Sucatus Patricius (known as Patrick) helps advance Christianity in Ireland 13. 391 – Edict of Theodosius establishes Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. 14. Fifth Century (More Heresies) 1. 430 – Fall of Rome and death of Augustine 2. c.431 – Controversy with Nestorius (d. 451) 1. Became patriarch of Constantinople in 428 2. Huge emphasis on humanity of Christ which seemed to critics to deny divinity 3. Did not accept Mary as the Theotokos (God-bearer) and condemned as a heretic 4. Wanted a pure church like the Donatists and did not want lapsed people to have office in the church 3. 431 - Council at Ephesus 1. Condemned Nestorius who affirmed two natures and persons in Christ and rejected the Theotokos notion. 2. Affirmed Theotokos the notion that Mary was the bearer of Jesus as man and God 3. Condemned Palagianism also 3. Chalcedon to the Great Schism (451-1054) 1. 451 – The Council of Chalcedon 1. Chalcedon ended up by setting the standard for Orthodox Christianity by answering questions from the council of Nicea and affirming the statements of Nicea, Constantinople, and Ephesus.

2. Affirmed that Jesus had two natures in contrast to Monophysitism, Apollinarianism, and Nestorianism 3. Nestorius was in exile and did not show up to the council, but some think that the conclusions of Chalcedon were somewhat Nestorian 2. c.480-c.550 – Benedict of Nursia 1. Established a monastery in Monte Cassino around 525 2. Influential in causing many monasteries to grow with his “Rule of Benedict” 3. Monastic lifestyle consisted of a Rule, manual labor, study, etc. 4. Much theology came out of monasteries including many key theologians such as Anselm of Canterbury, Hugh of St Victor, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventure

One of the primary ways that scholars determine the reliability of manuscripts concerns how many manuscripts there are, their agreement, and the time between when the original autograph was believed to have been written and the date of the manuscript copy being considered.

Scholars believe that the closer in time that a copy is to the original manuscript, the less time there has been for errors to occur. There is more manuscript evidence for the Bible than any other ancient manuscript; yet the others are not questioned with nearly the voracity as the Christian texts.

21

AUTHOR BOOK DATE WRITTEN EARLIEST COPY TIME GAP #COPIES

Homer Iliad 800 BC 400 BC 400 yrs 643

Herodotus History 480—425 BC 900 AD 1350 yrs 8

Thucydides History 460-400 BC 900 AD 1300 yrs 8

Plato 400 BC 900 AD 1300 yrs 7

Demosthenes 300 BC 1100 AD 1400 yrs 200

Caesar Gallic Wars 100-44 BC 900 AD 1000 yrs 10

Livy History of 59BC-17AD 900 AD 1000 yrs 19 Rome

Tacitus Annals 100 AD 1100 AD 1000 yrs 20

Pliny Natural Hist 61-113 AD 850 AD 750 yrs 7

New Testament 50-100 AD 114 AD frag 50 yrs 100 AD books 100 yrs 5366 250 AD compiled 150 yrs 325 AD complete 225 yrs

22

THE APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHIA

The Old and New Testament writings inspired many people to begin writing down their own accounts of what they had been told, or what they had personally seen. These took the form of letters, books, “gospels,” , and general historical accounts. When these were not deemed to have been inspired by God, they are termed “apocryphal.” Sometimes the authors wrote anonymously, but some claimed the names of familiar Old Testament figures or members of the church. When people used “pen names” such as these, we know the writings as the “Pseudepigraphia.” Although these writings aren’t considered canonical by the Protestant church, they still have a great deal of value as historical accounts. Some of them are even quoted in scripture.

There is tremendous disagreement about which books are truly apocryphal insofar as importance. The lists generally go as follows:

First and Second Esdras (150-100 BC) Tobit (200 BC) Judith (150 BC) Additions to Esther (140-130 BC) Wisdom of Solomon (30 BC) Ecclesiasticus, also known as The Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach (132 BC) Baruch (150-50 BC) (300-100 BC) Song of the Three Holy Children, an addition to Daniel 3 (170-160 BC) Susanna (200-0 BC) Bel and the Dragon (100 BC) , or the Prayer of Azariah (200-0 BC) (100-0 BC) First Maccabees (110 BC) Second Maccabees (110-170 BC)

The same sorts of disagreements also apply to the pseudepigraphal books which are generally considered to be as follows:

Epistle of Barnabas First (and Second) of Clement to the Corinthians The letter of the Smyrnaeans (also known as The Martyrdom of Polycarp) The The (130-170 AD)

23

The Gospel of Thomas (140-170 AD) The The Odes of Solomon The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs Second Baruch The Books of Adam and Eve The Acts of Phillip The of Peter The Gospel of the Nativity of Mary The The Gospel of the Saviour’s Infancy The History of Joseph the Carpenter The (including Paul and Thecla) The Seven Epistles of Ignatius The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians

The more obscure pseudipigraphal books include: Bartholomew’s Book of the Resurrection of Christ Bartholomew’s Gospel Gospel Gospel of the Birth of Mary Gospel of the Ebionites Gospel According to the Hebrews The Protevangelium of James The History of Joseph the Carpenter Gospel of Marcion (considered heretical) Gospel of Matthias Gospel of the Nazarenes Gospel of Philip Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew

The church largely rejected these because of heretical tendencies and the Nicene Council of 787 even required that some be burned. For example, the pictured Jesus talking to John on the during the crucifixion and explaining that it was only a spectacle. The stressed sexual abstinence even between married persons. Comparative studies have shown that the New Testament apocryphal writings have little historical value and in some respects directly contradict the doctrine taught by the apostles and Jesus Himself. Some of the works are so trivial that is hard to imagine why they even survived.

24

There are, however, books mentioned in Scripture that are worth noting. Not all of them exist today; in fact, most do not.

• The Book of Jasher (whose title fully translated means the Book of the Upright or the Book of the Just) is mentioned in Joshua 10:13 and 2 Samuel 1:18 and also referenced in 2nd Timothy 3:8.

.[2] • The Book of the Wars of the Lord Referenced at Numbers 21:14

• A "Book of Songs" is referenced at 1 Kings 8:12–13 (Septuagint).

• The Chronicles of the Kings of Israel and Chronicles of the Kings of are mentioned in the (1 Kings 14:19,29). They are said to tell of events during the reigns of ings Jeroboam of Israel and of Judah, respectively. The Chronicles of the Kings of Israel is again mentioned in 1 Kings 16:20 regarding King Zimri, and many other times throughout 1 and 2 Kings.

• The "Book of Shemaiah, and of the Seer" (also called Story of the Prophet Iddo or The Annals of the Prophet Iddo) is mentioned in the 2nd Book of Chronicles. (2 Chronicles 9:29, 2 Chronicles 12:15, 2 Chronicles 13:22). Iddo was a seer who lived during the reigns of Solomon, Rehoboam, and Abijah. His deeds were recorded in this book, which has been completely lost to history, save for its title. However, it is interesting to note that Zechariah was the son of Iddo, but this was likely not the same Iddo. (Ezra 5:1, :1)

• The Manner of the Kingdom. Referenced at 1 Samuel 10:25.

• The Referenced at 1 Kings 11:41.

• The Annals of King David Referenced at 1 Chronicles 27:24.

• The Book of Samuel the Seer. Also called Samuel the Seer or The Acts of Samuel the Seer, which could be the same as 1 & 2 Samuel. Referenced at 1 Chronicles 29:29.

• The Book of Nathan the Prophet. Also called Nathan the Prophet or The Acts of Nathan the Prophet or History of Nathan the Prophet. Referenced at 1 Chronicles 29:29, and also 2 Chronicles 9:29. • • The Book of Gad the Seer Referenced at 1 Chronicles 29:29.

25

• The , might be a reference to 1 Kings 14:2–18. Referenced at 2 Chronicles 9:29.

• The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel Referenced in 2 Chronicles 16:11, 2 Chronicles 27:7 and 2 Chronicles 32:32. Might be the same as 1 & 2 Kings.

• The , could be a reference to 1 Kings 16:1–7. Referenced at 2 Chronicles 20:34.

• The Story of the Book of Kings Referenced at 2 Chronicles 24:27.

• The Acts of Uziah. Also called The Book by the prophet Isaiah. Perhaps the same as the Book of Isaiah Referenced at 2 Chronicles 26:22.

• The Vision of Isaiah Referenced at 2 Chronicles 32:32.

• The Acts of the Kings of Israel. Also called The Acts and Prayers of Manasseh. May be identical to The Book of the Kings of Israel, above. Referenced at 2 Chronicles 33:18.

• The Referenced at 2 Chronicles 33:19.

• The . Also called Lamentations. This event is recorded in the existing Referenced at 2 Chronicles 35:25.

• The Chronicles of King Referenced at Esther 2:23, Esther 6:1, Esther 10:2, and Nehemiah 12:23.

Books quoted in the New Testament include the following:

• Book of Enoch (Jude 4,6,13,14–15, 2 Peter 2:4;3:13) • Book of Jasher (2 Timothy 3:8) • Epistle to the Laodiceans (Colossians 4:16 "read the epistle from Laodicea") • (2 Corinthians 11:14 " as an angel of light", 12:2 "Third Heaven") • A lost section of the (Jude 9 "…body of Moses") • Martyrdom of Isaiah (Hebrews 11:37 "they were sawn in two") • Paul's letter to the Corinthians before 1 Corinthians (1 Corinthians 5:9 "I wrote to you in my letter...")

26

The Didache, or The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles is usually considered a separate category.

The apocalyptic writings tended to deal with the struggle between good and evil, while the apocryphal material dealt with political, military, social, and religious turmoil.

Although the earliest Old Testament apocryphal works were probably written as early as the end of the 4th century B.C., the majority appeared from the second century B.C. and onward. While the Dead Sea scrolls cannot be regarded as apocryphal, some passages are clearly apocalyptic. Examples are The Manual of Discipline, The War Scroll, and the New Jerusalem.

Jerome, in the fifth century A.D. seems to have been the first to call the apocrypha by the term “noncanonical.” He thought they should not be entirely disregarded but at the same time should not be used as a source for Christian doctrine.

27