The Vulnerability of Coastal Communities to Water Pollution in Jakarta Bay: Integrating Livelihood and Biophysical Approaches Amanda Putri A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Physical, Environmental and Mathematical Sciences University of New South Wales, Canberra July 2018 PLEASE TYPE THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Putri First name: Amanda Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: School of Physical, Environmental and Mathematical Sciences Faculty: UNSW Canberra Title: The Vulnerability of Coastal Communities to Water Pollution in Jakarta Bay: Integrating Livelihood and Biophysical Approaches Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) Jakarta Bay, located on the edge of Jakarta megacity, is suffering significant environmental degradation because of pressures from development and rapid urban growth. Water pollution of Jakarta Bay is a prominent environmental problem. Previous research has shown the serious impacts of water pollution on the biophysical system that has contributed to changes of the bay's ecosystem. The traditional fishing communities that rely on the bay's fishery resources have been seriously affected by the consequences of these changes. This research provides better understanding of the less studied aspects of water pollution in Jakarta Bay; that is, how it affects these fishing communities. An integrated approach, that combines livelihood and biophysical analysis, was applied to investigate the impacts of water pollution on the traditional fishing community, their coping strategies and the factors that shape their vulnerability to water pollution. Three occupational groups represent vulnerable household types (traditional fishers, mussel farmers and informal workers) took part in interviews. Information from the participatory activities of these households (n = 294) produced new data about their livelihood characteristics (in the context of livelihood capital) and their knowledge of water pollution. An analysis of water quality (analysed statistically and spatially from government data) was combined with the results of participatory mapping to estimate each group's exposure to water pollution. Concurrently, a vulnerability assessment, was performed based on the elements of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. This research contributes new insights about how groups in the community had been affected differently by and had adapted their livelihoods to the consequences of water pollution. This research has revealed that the fishing community was the most vulnerable to water pollution because of their high sensitivity and exposure to water pollution. This investigation of vulnerability contributes important evidence to guide management responses to improve the well-being of this fishing community. It became clear that an effective way to improve their livelihoods is to reduce their exposure and at the same time to build their capacity to adapt. Detailed recommendations for further research and management were developed to be a valuable source of information for researchers, policy makers and managers. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). …………………………………………………………… …………………… ..……………… ……….……………………...…….… Signature Witness Signature Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.' Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ Signed ……………………………………………........................... Date ……………………………………………........................... Originality Statement ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’ Signed Date i ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My PhD has been a challenging journey and an amazing one at the same time. It is a pleasure to thank those who made this thesis possible. I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Stuart Pearson. I value his insightful advice and warm encouragement that have contributed greatly to this PhD completion. His enthusiasm in every discussion was an enormous source of motivation. I also wish to thank my co-supervisors, Associate Professor Xiao Hua Wang and Dr. Nicolaas Warouw, for their continuous support and valuable comments in improving this thesis. My gratitude also goes to Dr. rer. nat. Wiwin Windupranata from Bandung Institute of Technology and Dr. Widodo Pranowo from the Indonesian Ministry of Marine and Fisheries Affair. I am thankful for all the insightful discussions and their support back when I did my fieldwork in Jakarta. I am indebted to the coastal communities of Muara Angke and Cilincing in Jakarta, especially the respondents, who, with their high enthusiasm, were willing to take part in this research and were very helpful during my fieldwork. Their generosity to share their insights and knowledge (and their delicious meals) has made this research possible. I would also thank the interviewees from the Indonesian Coalition of Fishers (KNTI), KIARA, Bogor Institute of Agriculture, University of Padjadjaran and DHI Indonesia who had given their valuable time and shared their expertise on Jakarta Bay. This research had been supported by the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP), the University of New South Wales (UNSW) and the School of Physical, Environmental and Mathematical Sciences (PEMS) in Canberra. I would like to express my appreciation for their financial support that has made one of my dreams, to pursue doctoral degree, came true. I would also like to extend my gratitude to the administration and academic staffs in the UNSW Canberra for their great support as well as the UNSW Statistical Centre in iii Kensington for their valuable statistical advice. My thanks also goes to my editor, Robin Brown, with his excellent support for improving the writing of this thesis. Special thanks to all my colleagues in PEMS, especially Bobbi, Saiful, James, Anne, Pearly, Mba Diah, Mas Bambang, Amerita, Dustin, Julia, Shengnan and Solomon. Thank you for all those tea-room and late night chats. You have inspired me with your energy and perseverance. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family in Indonesia, especially my parents. I would not have been where I am now without your never ending support, pray and blessing. Finally, to my number one supporter, Dimas, and our new bundle of joy and hope, Giri. I could not find a word that could describe how much grateful I am to have you two along this PhD journey. Bapi, thank you for always believe in me, for your understanding, love and selfless support. Giri, thank you