The Relationship Between Leadership Styles and Types of Organizational Culture in Orange and Umniah Telecommunication Companies in Jordan: a Comparative Research

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLES AND TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IN ORANGE AND UMNIAH TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANIES IN JORDAN: A COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

Hamza Mohammad Saleh AL-Elaumi

A Thesis Submitted in

Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Business Administration

University of Petra

Amman-Jordan

March 2014

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP STYLES AND TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE IN ORANGE AND UMNIAH TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANIES IN JORDAN: A COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

Hamza Mohammad Saleh AL-Elaumi

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Business Administration

University of Petra,

Amman-Jordan

March 2014

Major Supervisor Signature

Prof. Hala Abdulqader ------

Examination Committee Name Signature

1. Prof. Najem Al-Azawi ------

2. Dr. Musa Khair Eddin ------

3. Dr. Abdel-Aziz Al-Nedawi ------

ABSTRACT

The Relationship between Leadership Styles and Types of Organizational Culture in Orange and Umniah Telecommunication Companies In Jordan: A Comparative Research by Hamza Mohammad Saleh AL-Elaumi University of Petra, 2014 Under the Supervision of Prof. Hala Abdulqader

This research aims to examine the relationship between leadership styles and organizational culture in the Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies in

Jordan. It also aims to investigate and compare between the leadership styles and types of culture in these companies. To achieve these objectives a random stratified sample of

(265) employees working at Orange and Umniah companies in Amman/Jordan, was chosen. Leadership styles were measured by means of Burke (1983) instrument which measures the transformational and transactional styles of leadership. Organizational culture was measured by means of Harrison and Stokes (1992) “Diagnosing

Organizational Culture” instrument which measures four types of organizational culture: power, role, achievement, and support.

The Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to test hypotheses and analyze the research data. Results revealed the following:

1. There is no significant difference between the transactional and transformational

leadership styles at Orange Company. Mean scores show, however, that

transactional style was higher than the transformational in Orange company.

2. There is significant difference between the transformational and transactional

style at Umniah Company. The leadership style tends to be transformational style

than transactional style. III

3. There is significant evidence that the prevailing type of organizational culture at

orange is achievement culture and at Umniah is role followed by achievement

culture.

4. There is no significant difference between Orange and Umniah companies in

power and achievement cultures.

5. There is significant evidence that there are differences between the two

companies in role and support cultures. Meanwhile Umniah is higher than Orange

in role culture, Orange is higher than Umniah in support culture.

6. There is no significant evidence of the relationship between leadership styles and

types of organizational culture at both Orange and Umniah companies.

7. There is no significant evidence of the relationship between leadership styles and

types of organizational culture at Orange Company.

8. There is no significant evidence of the relationship between leadership styles and

types of organizational culture at Umniah Company.

9. There is no significant evidence regarding the differences between leadership

styles and organizational culture types between Orange and Umniah companies.

Key words: Leadership styles, Organizational culture, telecommunication companies, Orange, Umniah, Jordan.

Major Professor Prof. Hala Abdulqadr Signature Date

العالقة بين أنماط القيادة وأنواع الثقافة التنظيمية في شركتي أورانج وأمنية لالتصاالت في األردن: بحث مقارن

ملخص

يهدف هذا البحث إلى اختبار وتحليل العالقة بين أنماط القيادة وأنواع الثقافة التنظيمية في شركتي أورانج

وأمنية لالتصاالت السلكية والالسلكية في األردن. كما يهدف إلى إجراء مقارنة فيما بين هاتين الشركتين

بهدف التحقق من أوجه الشبه وأوجه االختالف بين أنماط القيادة وأنواع الثقافة السائدة في هاتين الشركتين.

لتحقيق هذه األهداف تم اختيارعينة عشوائية طبقية مؤلفة من )562( موظفاً ممن يعملون في المركز

الرئيسي لشركتي أورانج وأمنية في مدينة عمان/األردن. لقياس أنماط القيادة تم استخدام استبانة ورنر بيرك

)3891( والتي تقيس نمطي القيادة التحويلية والتبادلية. ولقياس أنواع الثقافة التنظيمية تم استخدام استبانة

هاريسون وستوكس)3885(المعنونة "تشخيص الثقافة التنظيمية" والتي تقيس أربعة أنواع للثقافة التنظيمية:

السلطة، والدور، واإلنجاز والدعم.

إلختبار الفرضيات وتحليل البيانات تم استخدام الحزمة اإلحصائية للعلوم االجتماعية ) SPSS(. بينت نتائج البحث ما يلي :

3. رغم عدم توفر داللة احصائية عن وجود فروقات فيما بين نمطي القيادة التبادلية والتحويلية في

شركة أورانج إال أن قيمة الوسط الحسابي للنمط التبادلي هي أعلى من النمط التحويلي.

5. هناك داللة احصائية بأن نمط القيادة السائد في شركة أمنية هو النمط التحويلي.

1. هناك داللة احصائية بأن الثقافة التنظيمية السائدة في شركة أورانج هي ثقافة اإلنجاز والثقافة السائدة

في شركة أمنية هي ثقافة الدور وتليها ثقافة االنجاز.

4. ليس هناك داللة احصائية على وجود فروقات فيما بين شركتي أورانج وأمنية في ثقافة السلطة

وثقافة اإلنجاز.

2. هناك داللة احصائية على وجود فروقات فيما بين الشركتين في ثقافة الدور وثقافة الدعم. حيث أمنية

أعلى من أورانج في ثقافة الدور وأورانج أعلى من أمنية في ثقافة الدعم.

6. ليس هناك داللة احصائية على وجود عالقة فيما بين نمطي القيادة التبادلية والتحويلية وأنواع الثقافة

التنظيمية في شركتي أورانج وأمنية.

7. ليس هناك داللة احصائية على وجود عالقة بين نمطي القيادة التبادلية والتحويلية وأنواع الثقافة

التنظيمية في شركة أورانج.

9. ليس هناك داللة احصائية على وجود عالقة فيما بين نمطي القيادة التبادلية والتحويلية وأنواع الثقافة

التنظيمية في شركة أمنية.

8. ليس هناك داللة احصائية على وجود فروقات فيما بين نمطي القيادة التبادلية والتحويلية وأنواع

الثثافة التنظيمية في شركتي أورانج وأمنية.

الكلمات الدالة: أنماط القيادة، الثقافة التنظيمية، شركات االتصاالت السلكية، أورانج، أمنية، األردن.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank everyone who helped me in the accomplishment of this research, starting with my research supervisor Prof. Hala Abdulqader, who guided me all through this research till it is completed.

My gratitude also goes to everyone who dedicated some of his time to help me go through the process of finalizing this thesis. To all the friends who helped through this process till it is finally materialized.

I also acknowledge my brothers, and sister for their encouragement and support. Finally my deepest gratitude goes to my parents for their dedication and many years of support, and being the ultimate educators in my life, I credit them for being the foundation that has allowed me to pursue and have me being able to achieve my goals.

Hamza Mohammad Saleh AL-Elaumi

Date: March 2014

VII

AUTHORIZATION

I, Hamza Mohammad Saleh AL-Elaumi, authorize the University of Petra to supply copies of my research to libraries or establishment or individuals whenever is required.

Signature

Hamza Mohammad Saleh AL-Elaumi

Date: March 2014

VIII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

III ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH V ABSTRACT IN ARABIC VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENT VIII AUTHORIZATION FORM IX TABLE OF CONTENTS XIV LIST OF TABLES XVI LIST OF FIGURES

CAHAPTER I 1 INTRODUCTION, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Context and Scope Of The Research 3

1.3 Problem Statement 4

1.4 Significance Of The Research 4

1.5 Research Objectives 4

1.6 Research Questions 5

1.7 Definition Of Terms 6

1.7.1 Leadership 6

1.7.2 Transformational Leadership 7

1.7.3 Transactional Leadership 7

1.7.4 Culture 7

1.7.5 Organizational culture 8 IX

1.7.6 Power Culture 8

1.7.7 Role Culture 9

1.7.8 Achievement Culture 9

1.7.9 Support Culture 9

1.8 Research Hypotheses 10

1.9 Limitations Of The Research 11

1.10 Methodological Framework of the research 13

CHAPTER II 14 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND PREVIOUS STUDIES

2.1 Introduction 14

2.2 Literature Review 16

2.2.1 Development of Leadership Theories 16

2.2.2 Great Man Theory, Trait Theory and Behavioral Theory 17

2.2.3 Contingency Theory 21

Modern Approaches of Leadership Transformational and 22 2.2.4 Transactional Leadership

Characteristics of the Transformational And Transactional 31 2.2.5 Leadership Styles

2.2.6 Organizational Culture 34

2.2.6.1 Culture 34

2.2.6.2 Organizational Culture 36

2.2.6.3 Difference Between Organizational Culture, Corporate 40 Culture and Organizational Climate

2.2.6.4 Creating Organizational Culture 41 X

2.2.7 Types of Organizational Culture: Harrison's Typology Of 46 Organizational Culture

2.2.7.1 Power Culture Orientation 48

2.2.7.2 Role Culture Orientation 49

2.2.7.3 Achievement Culture Orientation 50

2.2.7.4 Support Culture Orientation 51

2.2.8 Leadership and Organizational Culture 55

2.2.9 Leader's Role in Creating Organizational Culture 60

2.3 Previous Studies 66

2.3.1 Arabic Studies 66

2.3.2 International Studies 74

2.4 Contribution of the Research to Knowledge 87

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 89

3.1 Research Methodology 89

3.2 Research Design 92

3.3 Statistical Techniques in Data Analysis 92

3.4 Population and Sample 93

3.4.1 Population 93

3.4.2 Sampling and Sampling Methods 94

3.5 Research Instrument 94

3.6 Procedure for Data Collection 96

3.7 Validity and Reliability 97

3.7.1 Validity 97

3.7.2 Reliability 98

CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, DISSCUSSION AND 100 INTERPRETAION

4.1 Introduction 100

4.2 Demographic Profile of Research Sample 100

4.3 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 1 and 2 105

4.4 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 3 and 4 106

4.5 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 5 and 6 108

4.6 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 7 and 8 111

4.7 Results Pertaining to Examination of Relational Hypotheses A and B 112

4.8 Conclusion 123

CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 126

5.1 Summary 126

5.2 Conclusion 128

5.3 Recommendations 131

5.4 Suggestions For Further Research 133

134 REFERENCES

XII

APPENDICES 160

APPENDIX 1 General Background Of The Research Respondents 160

APPENDIX 2 Leadership Styles Questionnaire 161

APPENDIX 3 Diagnosing Organizational Culture Questionnaire 163

XIII

LIST OF TABLES

Table Table Caption Page No. No.

1 Development of The Major Theories Of Leadership 18

2 Questionnaires’ Response Rate at Orange and Umniah companies 94

3 Harrison and Stokes culture Measure Scale 95

4 Reliability Test of The Research Instrument 98

5 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample at Orange company 100

6 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample at Umniah company 103

7 criteria of evaluating the leadership styles and types of 105 organizational culture at Orange and Umniah companies

8 T-test to detect the difference between the leadership styles at 106 Orange and the leadership style at Umniah Companies 9 One Sample t-Test to Examine The Organizational Culture in each 107 of Orange and Umniah Companies

10 T-test, Means and Standard Deviations to detect differences in the 108 types of Organizational Culture between Orange and Umniah Companies 11 Pearson Correlation to Examine the Relationship between 109 Leadership Styles and types of Organizational Culture At Orange Company 12 Pearson Correlation to Examine the Relationship between 110 Leadership Styles and types of Organizational Culture At Umniah Company 13 Independent T-Test To Examine The Differences Between 111 Leadership Styles And types of Organizational Culture Between Orange And Umniah Companies

14 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Leadership Styles In Terms Of 112 Experience

15 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA Among The Leadership Styles In Terms 113 Of Age

XIV

16 Results Of The T-Test Analysis Among The Leadership Styles In 113 Terms Of Gender

17 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Leadership Styles In Terms 114 Of Educational level 18 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Leadership Styles In Terms Of Job 115 level

19 Scheffe' Test of The Leader Ship Styles In Terms Of Job level 116

20 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In Terms 117 Of Experience

21 Scheffe' Test Among The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Experience 117

22 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In 118 Terms Of Age 23 Scheffe' Test of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Age 119

24 Results Of The T-Test Analysis AMONG Organizational Culture In 120 Terms Of Gender 25 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In 121 Terms Of Educational level 26 Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In Terms 122 Of Job level

27 Scheffe' Test of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Job Level 123

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Figure Caption Page No.

1 Methodological Framework Of The Research 15

2 Organizational culture model by Homburg and Pflesser 42 (2000) 3 Schein Organizational culture model (1985) 42

4 Handy Cultures types 47

XVI

CAHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Since the eighties of the last century, organization culture has become an important topic of discussion among a broad audience of leaders including operational managers, organization development, human resources, and training professionals. Culture is considered now an important consideration for organization's strategic planning and throughout change management initiatives (Schein, 2004)

Employees are considered the organization's most valuable capital that accomplish its goals and success, especially in light of the new economic environment of globalization and free trade, where employees’ qualities, attitudes and behaviors in the workplace affect the organizational success. Therefore, it is important to analyze what factors impact this valuable capital and how they act to accomplish the organizations goals.

People communicate with each other using various ways like verbal or written words, actions, or expressions in order to convey a message. Humans do not depend only on the face-to-face communication, but also on the means of communications that bridge the gap between people in mere seconds across vast distances. Every house and company are now reached by the telecommunication facilities that makes life faster and minimize the pace transfer. People become closer and knowledge has become available in every place.

Telecommunication sector is a growing trade in the world and in Jordan. When an organization is in its infancy stage where the primary purpose and structure are being

developed, there is usually no organizational culture. At the point of staffing the organization, the founder establishes the expectations that will govern the business.

While leadership may influence organizational culture, organizational culture can also influence leadership behavior, although the most effective type of leadership can be debated; creating organizational change requires leadership changing the organizational culture (Lakomski, 2001).

Schein (1992) found that leaders are largely responsible for creating, developing, maintaining, and destroying culture, and must come to recognize both the importance of organizational culture, and their own ability to shape it in order to foster an organizational culture; that yields high performance and efficiency overall. Leadership and culture are intertwined and are best examined as if they were two sides of one coin.

The impact of culture will reflected on the employee's behavior and influences them toward achieving the required goals of the organization, and that’s needed for the telecommunication sector in order to move forward in the continuous development. The telecommunication sector considered one of the most growing sector in the world and in

Jordan it upstream to the state treasury and supportive of the national economy. The percentage contribution of this sector to gross domestic product (GDP) in 2008 accounted for 14.3% (Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation).

As the researcher has an interest to explore the degree that leaders play in designing their organizational culture in this sector, this research is a contribution to examine this notion at two telecommunication companies in Jordan Orange and Umniah.

1.2 Context and Scope Of The Research

This research examines the relationship between leadership styles (transformational leadership style, transactional leadership style), and the types of organizational culture

(power, role, support, achievement), In Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies operating in Jordan. It also examines if there are significance differences between these two companies in their leadership styles and types of organizational culture.

The researcher adopts both qualitative and quantitative approaches to achieve the objectives of the research. The qualitative approach focuses on reviewing the available literature, and quantitative approach is followed to collect data about the leadership styles and existing organizational culture by means of scientific questionnaire, from employees working in Orange and Umniah companies. Leadership style is measured by the field-test questionnaire developed by (W. Warner Burke 1983, as cited in Schermerhorn, 2002).

The organizational culture is measured by Harrison and Stokes (1992) instrument entitled

'Diagnosing Organizational Culture'. The researcher believes that utilizing an international and previously tested questionnaire design to collect the data, is an efficient way that will support the results of the research.

The sample consisted of employees working at the head offices of Orange and Umniah companies within the greater Amman municipality-Jordan.

The research offers a method that can be used by the managers to compare their leadership style with their organizational culture.

1.3 Problem Statement

Different research has discussed leadership styles on one hand and organizational culture on the other hand, although some the research is being conducted on the leadership styles alone and organizational culture alone, little researches focused on examining the relation between the leadership styles and the organizational culture. Moreover, as telecommunication companies operate in dynamic environment that need special leadership style and organizational culture, little research, however, has examined the topic in telecommunication companies and more specifically in Jordan.

1.4 Significance of the Research

Management scholars and researchers are becoming more interested in learning more about the relation between the leadership styles and types of organizational culture in order to enhance employees’ motivation and organization performance. However, although most of the researches focused on the topic in the developed countries, little is being produced in the developing countries and specifically in the Arab world. Hence, this research highlights the impact of leadership styles on the organizational culture in an

Arab country, namely Jordan. Hence, it is hoped that the research will be a staring base, for those who are eager to expand the topic and do similar research on other sectors in

Jordan or in other countries of the region.

1.5 Research Objectives

This research aims to achieve the following objectives:

1.5.1 To investigate the leadership styles in the Orange and Umniah

telecommunication companies in Jordan.

1.5.2 To examine the types of organizational culture in the Orange and Umniah

telecommunication companies in Jordan.

1.5.3 To analyze the relationship between leadership styles and organizational

culture in the Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies in Jordan.

1.5.4 To find out if there are significant differences in the leadership styles and

types of organizational culture between Orange and Umniah telecommunication

companies in Jordan.

1.5.5 To investigate if there is significant statistical evidence among respondents

from Orange and Umniah companies with regard to their perception of the

leadership style (transformational and transactional) and types of organizational

culture according to their (experience, age, gender, educational level, and job

level)?

1.6 Research Questions

1. Is there significant relationship between the leadership styles and the types of

organizational culture in Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies?

2. What is the existing leadership style in Orange and Umniah companies?

3. What is the type of organizational culture in Orange and Umniah companies?

4. Is there significant difference between the leadership style of Orange company

and the leadership style of Umniah company?

5. Is there significant difference between the existing type of organizational culture

at Orange company and the existing type of organizational culture at Umniah

company?

6. Is there significant relationship between the leadership style and the existing type

of organizational culture at Orange company?

7. Is there significant relationship between the leadership style and the existing type

of organizational culture at Umniah company?

8. Are there significant differences among the members of the research sample with

regard to their perception of the leadership styles (transformational and

transactional) according to their demographic variables of(experience, age,

gender, educational level, and job level?)

9. Are there significant differences among the members of the research sample with

regard to their perception of the organizational culture (power, role, achievement,

and support) according to their demographic variables (experience, age, gender,

educational level, and job level)?

1.7 Definition of Terms

1.7.1 Leadership

Bass (1990b: 4), described leadership as a “universal phenomenon”, and defined it as "an interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves a structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perception and expectations of the members".

Leaders are agents of change persons whose acts affect other people more than other people’s acts affect them. Leadership occurs when one group member modifies the motivation or competencies of others in the group. Howard (2005: 385) has also defined leadership as the “process of communication (verbal and non verbal) that involves coaching, motivating/inspiring, directing/guiding, and supporting/counseling others, this result in the timely production of predetermined organization goals”.

1.7.2 Transformational leadership

Burns (1978) was the first one who defined transformational leadership as an attempt to stimulate and encourage individuals, groups and organizations to change better. Bass and

Riggio (2006:3) indicated that "a transformational leader focuses on "transforming" others to help each other, to look out for each other, to be encouraging and harmonious, and to look out for the organization as a whole. In this leadership, the leader enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his follower group".

1.7.3 Transactional leadership

Aronson, (2004); Bass, (1990b); and Burns, (1978) agreed on that the basis of transactional leadership is an exchange or quid pro quo relationship between a leader and a follower, where each receives something of value in exchange for a particular action or behavior. Bass and Riggio (2006) indicated that transactional leaders are considered to concentrate on compromise, intrigue, and control; therefore they are more likely to be seen as more inflexible, detached, and manipulative than transformational leaders.

1.7.4 Culture

Hofstede (1980) defined culture as the collective thinking of minds which creates a difference between the members of one group from another. Schein(1986: 29) defined culture as ‘‘the sum total of all the shared, taken-for-granted assumptions that a group has learned throughout its history’’. Schein (1992: 12) added another definition of culture as

" a pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive think, and feel in relation to those problems". Schein (1992: 19) also indicated that a culture "is

a set of basic tacit assumptions about how the world is and ought to be that a group of people share and that determines their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and to some degree their over behavior."

1.7.5 Organizational Culture

Schein (1999) argued that organizational culture is the property of a group, and it is a powerful, latent, and often unconscious set of forces, that determine both our individual and collective behavior, ways of perceiving, thought patterns, and values. Van Fleet

(1991) indicated that organizational culture is the set of values, often taken for granted, that helps people in an organization understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are considered unacceptable. Cooke and Rousseau,(1988); King and Byers,

(2007); Zhang et al.,( 2009), argued that a commonly used definition of organizational culture is the set of shared, taken-for-granted, implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determine how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments.

Mullins (1999) defined organizational culture as the collection of traditions, values, beliefs, policies, and attitudes that constitute a pervasive context for everything one does and thinks in an organization.

1.7.6 Power culture

Harisson and Stokes (1992) the power oriented organization is based on inequality of access to resources. A 'resource' can be anything one person controls that another person wants. Martin (2001) argued that the main features of a power culture in organizational culture include: single mindedness in approach; dominated by the leader or central person and their personality; with a lack of bureaucracy in operations.

1.7.7 Role Culture

Harisson and Stokes (1992) the role orientation assumes that people work most effectively and efficiently when they have relatively simple, clearly defined, circumscribed and measurable tasks. Clarity and precision of roles and procedures are striven for in order to fit the parts of the organization together like a machine. Harmse

(2001) said that in the role orientation culture is that employees of an organisation are able to allocate more energy to do their work than without the rules and structures of the role orientation.

1.7.8 Achievement Culture

Harisson and Stokes (1992) Achievement orientation relies on self motivating strategies and is based on competence. It also creates a high energy environment and a greater probability of satisfying employee needs. An achievement orientated culture is one in which employees are internally motivated. The Achievement-oriented organization makes high demands on its people's energy and time, assuming that people actually enjoy working at tasks which are intrinsically satisfying.

1.7.9 Support Culture

Harisson and Stokes (1992) Support culture is based on a mutual trust between the employee and the organization, employees who work in this culture believe that they are valued as human beings, not only served to complete the work. The support culture is criticized for being too idealistic and humanistic. In the interest of harmony, this culture tends towards conflict avoidance.

1.8 Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are formulated to reveal the leadership styles and the types of organizational culture in the Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies in Jordan and to recognize if specific relationships and differences exist between the leadership styles and organizational culture in Orange and Umniah companies

Hypotheses

Null Hypothesis (Ho) 1.8.1: There is no significant difference at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance between the leadership style of Orange company and the leadership style of Umniah company.

Alternate Hypothesis (H1) 1.8.2: There is significant difference at (α ≤ 0.05,

µ=2.5) level of significance between the leadership style of Orange company and

the leadership style of Umniah company.

Null Hypothesis (Ho) 1.8.3: There is no significant difference between the existing type of organizational culture at Orange company and the existing type of organizational culture at Umniah company at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance.

Alternate Hypothesis (H1) 1.8.4: There is significant difference between the

existing type of organizational culture at Orange company and the existing type of

organizational culture at Umniah company at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of

significance.

Null Hypothesis (Ho) 1.8.5: There is no significant relationship between the leadership style and types of organizational culture at Orange and Umniah companies at (α ≤ 0.05,

µ=2.5) level of significance.

Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) 1.8.6: There is significant relationship between the

leadership style and type of organizational culture at Orange and Umniah

companies.

Null Hypothesis (Ho) 1.8.7: There is no significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) regarding the differences between leadership styles and types of organizational culture between Orange and Umniah companies.

Alternate Hypothesis (Ha) 1.8.8: There is significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05)

regarding the differences between leadership styles and organizational culture

types between Orange and Umniah companies.

Relational Hypotheses, these include:

Hypothesis (A):There are significant differences at(α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) among respondents with regard to their perception of the leadership style (transformational and transactional) according to experience, age, gender, educational level, and job level.

Hypothesis (B): There are significant differences at (0.05) among respondents with regards to their perceptions of the types of the organizational culture (power, role, achievement, and support) according to experience, age, gender, educational level, and job level.

1.9 Limitations of the Research

1. The researcher has faced some difficulties collecting the required data from the two

studied companies as some individuals of the research sample did not fully cooperate

in completing the questionnaire.

2. The instruments used to examine leadership and organizational culture may have

been influenced by the subjectivity of the respondents and their individual

perceptions.

3. The findings of this research are limited to companies covered by two

telecommunication companies Orange and Umniah and the time period that this

research was conducted. The research started in January 2013 and completed in

November 2013.

4. Some of the respondents did not fill their questionnaires; this issue decreases the

response rate of the study below 50%.

1.10 Methodological Framework of The Research

Figure 1: Methodological Framework Of The Research

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

LeadershipIndependent Styles: Variables: Organizational Culture:

-Power Culture

- Transactional Leadership Style -Role Culture

And -Achievement Culture

- Transformational Leadership Style -Support Culture

Demographic variables

Experience

Age

Gender

Educational level

Job level CHAPTER II

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

AND PREVIOUS STUDIES

2.1 Introduction

In the shape, rise and diversification of the nation's values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs, that lead to create what we call culture that reflects how people will behave in each nation, all of this had managed the business environment and how people

(employees, managers, leaders) act and interact with each other inside the work environment(Beach et.al., 2005).

Bauer and Elder (2006) Culture is the most important factor that shapes the organizations' members attitudes, which comes at first from their heritage, values, and beliefs; they bring it to the organization whom they work in, and affect the organization and organization members. However, every organization has its own goals and vision which tries to accomplish in its own way side by side with the employee's different beliefs, so here come the role of the organization leader, specifically; the transformational leader who offers a purpose that transcends short-term goals and focuses on higher order intrinsic needs (Burns, 1978).

Leaders raise the bar by appealing to higher ideals and values of followers who will try to change, manipulate and shape the organization culture (Burns, 1978). When we talk about the values, purpose, meaning of the followers in the organization we have to mention the leaders who strongly affect inside the organization who will shape their values, behaviors and attitudes inside the organization. Leaders are the corner stone of the

organization culture, and we have to distinguish between the cultures types to know what the dominant culture that control and reflect the people way in behaving, and through it will be possible to judge the type of the dominant leadership style in the organizations.

The researcher has an interest in telecommunication sector, which is considered one of the most important sectors in Jordan for many reasons. The telecommunication sector in

Jordan is growing at a very fast pace, and its infrastructure is updated constantly and broadened (www.Wikipedia.com). Telecommunication sector in Jordan is also the most competitive in the Middle East, which support many media include: phone, radio, television, and the Internet. The telecommunication sector in Jordan is growing at a very fast pace, and its infrastructure is updated constantly and broadened. Doubled the size of returns for telecommunications and information technology within five years, of $ 450 million in 2000 to one billion dollars in 2005 and still growing (www.Wikipedia.com), it is worth mentioning that, the telecommunication sector and information technology in

Jordan, is one of the most important sectors upstream to the state treasury and supportive of the national economy.(Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation 2013) The percentage contribution of this sector to GDP in 2008 accounted for 14.3%, and estimated employment opportunities provided by the sector with 82 thousand jobs are cumulative, which indicates the important role played by the sector in contributing to upgrading the community career in Jordan, as well as its role in providing thousands of jobs, where a large number of companies invested in the software development industry, which has become a major source in the region.

2.2 literature review

2.2.1 Development of Leadership Theories

Chapman (2013) indicated that leadership is centrally concerned with people. Leadership involves decisions and actions relating to all sorts of other things, but leadership is special compared to any other role because of its unique responsibility. Leadership can be performed with different styles. Some leaders have one style, which is right for certain, situations and wrong for others. Some leaders can adapt and use different leadership styles for a given situations. Adaptability of style is an increasingly significant aspect of leadership, because the world is increasingly complex and dynamic.

Scouller and Chapman (2013) argued that leadership is a vast and important subject, yet full of confusing ideas and terminology, open to widely different interpretations leadership definitions and descriptions also vary enormously. Scouller and Chapman

(2013) argued that we can find leadership in every sort of work and play, and in every sort of adventure and project, regardless of scale, and regardless of financial or official authority. And so, given the many ways in which leadership operates, it is no surprise that leadership is so difficult to define and describe.

Bass (1999) contended that leadership theory began with the great man theories and continued with trait theories, situational theories, personal-situational theories, psychoanalytic theories, political theories, humanistic theories, interaction and social learning theories, interactive process theories, perceptual and cognitive theories, and hybrid theories.

Parry (1999) mentioned that there are many types of leaders each having a specific sets of characteristics, which become evident in performing their functions of leadership. For

example, if you were to ask ten different people what it means to be a leader, you will more likely received ten different answers or opinions on leadership.

Bass (1999) argued that leadership is a multifaceted issue. He asserted that there are business leaders, political leaders, and community leaders. Leadership is defined as a process of social change; a process of persuasion by which an individual or team induces a group to pursue objectives held by the leader or shared by the leader and his or her followers (Gardner, 1990; Higgs, 2003). Howard (2005: 385) defined leadership as the

“process of communication (verbal and non verbal) that involves coaching, motivating/inspiring, directing/guiding, and supporting/counseling others, this result in the timely production of predetermined organization goals”. Daft (2005) defined leadership as an influence relationship among leaders and followers, who intend real changes and outcomes, that reflect their shared purposes. Leadership prevalently exists within people and organizations. Hughes et.al., (1996) sustained that leadership has a range of definitions, but at its simplest it is concerned with the ability to influence others to achieve goals. There is an established literature that describes the personal attributes of leaders, including having a big picture vision, that is effectively shared and decision making is clear and decisive based on assessment of available information. Leaders have a commitment to capacity building and empowering others, are respectful and consultative but willing to make tough decisions when required.

2.2.2Great Man Theory, Trait Theory and Behavioral Theory

Rost (1999) argued that leadership a much more complex phenomenon than either the great man or great event approaches considered. An historical review by Chemers (1997) indicated that the first theories of leadership were introduced, from the mid-19th to early

20th centuries by the authors Thomas Carlyle and Francis Galton (1888). Van Wart

(2003) mentioned that in the 19th century, the basis of the predominant leadership paradigm was the great man theory. These early leadership scholars proposed the Great

Man theory, which stated that great leaders possessed unique traits, personalities, or characteristics that resulted in their special ability to become recognized as super leaders, as indicated in table 1.

Table 1: Development of The Major Theories Of Leadership

Era Primary Theories Basic Description

Up to 1900 Great Man Theory Talent, heroism; one great leader influencing the Carlyle (1860) masses.

1900-1947 Trait Theory/Behavioral Individuals' traits, talents, and skills. Daft (1942), Spotts (1976), and Lippitt (1938) 1948-1980s Contingency Theory Situational variables and moderators, leaders must Fiedler (1969) address.

1978-present Transformational Leadership/ Leaders initiating change through superior charisma, influence, communication and culture transformation.

Transactional Leadership Leaders exchange relationship between a leader and a follower, where each receives something of value in Burns (1978) exchange for a particular action or behavior. (Developed by the researcher)

Denmark (1993) argued that the ‘‘Great Man’’ theory assumed that personal attributes of the great man ‘‘determined the course of history’’ (Denmark, 1993:344). Bass (1990) indicated the great man was believed to have unique and exceptional features and qualities that distinguished him from his followers. Denmark (1993) said only very few people were thought to have such abilities, which were believed to be innate, i.e. leaders were born with these qualities. While the trait theory focus was on the unique and exceptional abilities and traits of certain individuals (Spotts, 1976). Originally large lists

of traits believed to be possessed by leaders were proposed in this theory (Spotts, 1976).

The list was distilled to include self confidence, need for achievement, the ability to have motives to carry out an action, and self monitoring (Ellis, 1988). Once again, these traits were thought to be inborn, and unique to leaders. While behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do.

Behavioral theory is a big leap from trait theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability can be learned, rather than being inherent.

Lewin and Lippitt (1938) argued that there were four main behavioral studies:

1) The University of Iowa researchers isolated three behavioral dimensions; these were the democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire styles. Among these dimensions, the democratic style was believed to be most effective (Bass, 1990).

2) A study by Ohio State University in the 1940s and 1950s advanced this body of thought, by dividing the behavioral theories into two dimensions which they termed

‘‘consideration’’ and ‘‘initiating structure’’ (Kerr et al., 1974). Consideration was explained as being considerate of followers’ ideas and feelings. Initiating structure referred to structuring work relationship to meet job goals.

3) The third study by the University of Michigan described ‘‘employee oriented’’ and

‘‘production oriented’’ dimensions (Kahn and Katz, 1960). The findings of the third study concluded that, employee-oriented employers fostered high group productivity and job satisfaction amongst their employees (Kahn and Katz, 1960).

Blake and Mouton proposed a Managerial Grid, using behavioral dimensions which included ‘‘concern for people’’ and ‘‘concern for production’’ as the two dimensions of assessing leadership behaviors' (Blake and Mouton, 1964). The idea that there is one best

leadership style was explored, and the researchers proposed that by incorporating the two dimensions of concern for people and concern for production, the most effective way of leading could be achieved (Blake and Mouton, 1964),in which concern for both people and productivity is maximized. Just as committed and happy employees are needed to produce high quality goods or services, so concern for production is considered essential to maintain job security and a desired standard of living (Ouchi, 1981).The 'Managerial

Grid' model 1964, identified five kinds of leadership behavior with two axes concern for people and concern for production, and the five leadership behavior as follows (review by

Scouller and Chapman, 2013):

*Country Club Style - High People: Low Task - Here the leader has a high concern for and usually involvement with people, but a low concern for the task.

* Impoverished Style - Low People: Low Task - Here the leader has both a low concern for people and a low concern for the task.

* Middle-of-the-Road Style - Mid People: Mid Task. This is essentially ineffectual compromise. There is some concern for the task and, equally, some concern for people, but we might also say there is not enough of either.

* Produce or Perish Style - Low People: High Task. Here we see a high focus on the task with little or no concern for people. This style is often referred to as autocratic. Leaders using this style seek to control and dominate others.

* Team Style - High People: High Task. This style combines a high concern for and involvement in the group with a strong well-organized and communicated focus on achieving the task.

2.2.3Contingency Theory

Fiedler (1969), developed an influential approach in leadership theory, the contingency theory (Bass, 1990a), indicated that each situation necessitates a different leadership approach, either task oriented or relationship oriented. Daft (2002: 79) indicated that

“The effectiveness of leader behavior is contingent upon organizational situations. Aptly called contingency approaches, these theories explain the relationship between leadership styles and effectiveness in specific situations".

There are several theories that fall under the broad heading contingency approaches including:

1. Fiedler’s contingency model—designed to enable leaders to diagnose both leaderships style and organizational situation with a leader's effectiveness dependent upon how well the leader's style fits the situation.

2. Hersey and Blanchard’s situational theory—premise that subordinates vary in readiness level and thus need different leadership styles, and based upon directive and supportive dimensions.

3. Goal-path theory—premise that the leader’s responsibility is to increase subordinates motivation to attain personal and organizational goals by emphasizing the relationship between the leader’s style, the subordinate’s style, and the work environment.

4. Vroom-Jago model—development-driven model that permits leaders to adopt a participation style by answering diagnostic questions in sequence.

Daft (2008) contended that contingency theories are still embedded in contemporary leadership theories. These look at the ways in which leaders analyze their situations and tailor their behavior to improve effectiveness. Daft (2002) said these contingency

approach models assumed that, there was no one best approach to leadership, but rather that a leader could identify the appropriate leadership style by reflecting upon the subordinates’ capability and willingness.

2.2.4 Modern Approaches of Leadership Transformational and Transactional Leadership The term Transformational Leadership was introduced by Burns (1978) in his analysis of political leaders. His conclusions centered around the differences between management and leadership. Burns communicated the two basic concepts of "transformational" and

"transactional" leadership.

Transformational Leadership: Leaders initiating change through superior charisma, influence, communication and culture transformation.

Transactional Leadership: Leaders exchange relationship between a leader and a follower, where each receives something of value in exchange for a particular action or behavior.

In the 1980s, researchers explored the concept of charismatic leadership (Bass, 1990a) and the transactional and transforming or transformational leadership styles described by

Burns (1978).Bass (1998) later modified Burns’ (1978) theory of leadership and proposed a model with three types, namely: transformational, transactional, and charismatic leadership. Schein (2004) said that two leadership approaches still have merit today and are widely used: situational and contemporary (Transformational leadership/Transactional leadership).While Stephen and Judge (2011) described two contemporary leadership theories charismatic leadership and transformational leadership, charismatic leadership that states followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors, while transformational leaders 22

those who inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests and who are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. Burns (1978) argued that leadership at its most basic level can be categorized as transformational or transactional in nature. Burns (1978) indicated that a transactional leader engages others in the reciprocal activity of exchanging one thing for another (participatory/dynamic), while

Transformational leader examines and searches for the needs and motives of others while seeking a higher agenda of needs (visionary/change agent).

Bass (1990a: 53) and Burns (1978) as cited by Harter (2003) argued that as leadership theories evolved throughout the 20th century, but transformational leadership became

“the dominant paradigm for the study of leadership”. Burns (1978) was the first one who defined transformational leadership as an attempt to stimulate and encourage individuals, groups and organizations to change better. Transformational leadership looked at the ability of leaders to be classed into different theories; researchers believed that qualities could be learned when becoming a transformational leader. Bass (1985) was the first one to work in this theory and incorporated this theory into business settings, which looked at leaders who could project their vision of the future, and could inspire their employees to perform at high levels. Transformational leaders are those who transform their followers into becoming leaders themselves. From Wikipedia, "Transformational leadership is a leadership approach that is defined as leadership that creates valuable and positive change in the followers. A transformational leader focuses on "transforming" others to help each other, to look out for each other, to be encouraging and harmonious, and to look out for the organization as a whole. In this leadership, the leader enhances the motivation, morale and performance of his follower group."From Bass and Riggio (2006:3),

"Transformational leaders are those who stimulate and inspire followers to both achieve extraordinary outcomes and, in the process, develop their own leadership capacity.

Transformational leader's help followers grow and develop into leaders by responding to individual followers' needs, by empowering them and by aligning the objectives and goals of the individual followers, the leader, the group, and the larger organization.

Evidence has accumulated to demonstrate that transformational leadership can move followers to exceed expected performance, as well as lead to high levels of follower satisfaction and commitment to the group and organization" Bass and Riggio (2006:3).

Tichy and Devanna (1990) pointed that transformational leadership associated with change, creativity and leadership, which transformational leadership realized by recognizing the need for a new determination and creation of a new vision for institutional change. The transformational leadership means the way to improve the higher level for task request of employee so that it is available to inspire the potential capability of employee and it shall allow subordinates with larger responsibility to become an employee with self orientation and self enhancement capability. According to

Torpman (2004), transformational leadership is a form of new thinking in leadership theory and practices. It moves away from using the ‘stick and carrot’ to get the job done.

Ling, et. al., (2003) argued that in companies with transformational leaders, there is greater decentralization of responsibility, managers have more propensities to take risks, and compensation plans are geared toward long-term results, all of which facilitate corporate entrepreneurship. Gerome (2008) indicated that the importance of transformational leadership behavior is highlighted here because transactional leaders tend to follow “existing rules, procedures and norms” that may not necessarily be

beneficial for the future of the organization (Bass and Avolio: 112) as cited by Germore

(2008). Bass (1985) "asserted transformational leaders change cultures while transactional leaders tend to operate within them. An illustration of this can be seen where a transactional leader might accept what is talked about in an organization, a transformational leader changes what people talk about. Bass further asserted that transformational leaders invent, introduce, and moves cultural forms forward whereby individuals develop strong identifications with the organization and its goals."Burns

(1978) and Yukl (1998), pointed that a vital concept that differentiates transformational leadership from other leadership definitions is morality a true transformational leader endeavors to meet both the requirements of the mission statement and the needs of followers. This distinction is vital in understanding transformational leadership.

Carless (1998) and Yukl (1999) argued that transformational leadership style also has numerous flaws. Mentioned that transformational leadership style lacks conceptual clarity and that there appears to be some overlapping of factors such as idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. The factors correlate highly with each other, implying that these factors are not separate.

Banerji and Krishnan (2000) indicated that from an ethical perspective, transformational leadership theory holds a great promise for leaders both in the public and private sectors, transformational leadership promotes strong ethics in leaders by motivating and up lifting moral values in human conduct and ethical aspirations for both leaders and followers.

Podsakoff and colleagues (1990), ascertained from the literature, six key behaviors associated with transformational leaders. Those six behaviors included (a) identify and articulate a vision, (b) provide an appropriate model, (c) foster the acceptance of group

goals, (d) set high performance expectations, (e) provide individualized support and recognize accomplishments, and (f) provide intellectual stimulation.(Avolioet al., 2004), in the light of findings throughout the years, mentioned some characteristics of transformational leaders can be stated as follows:

They change the core values of followers for the benefit of the common interest by committing people and seeing them as ends not as means, they inspire followers to go beyond their own self-interests for the good of the organization with their vision.

According to Bass and Yukl (1998), the transformational leader has the ability to:

(1) Transform his followers from the focus on personal interest into the group interest.

(2) Make their followers more aware of the importance of the result of the work.

(3) Activate the followers’ needs into higher needs.

(Aronson, 2004; Bass, 1990b; DeVore, 2006) agreed that transformational leaders have referent and expert power and their followers perceive them as powerful role models who can implement a shared organizational vision. Bass (2008) mentioned that the main orientation of transformational leadership is to develop followers’ full potential into leaders, but transactional leaders focus more on resource exchanges and on monitoring and controlling employees through rational or economic means. Therefore, we expect that transformational leadership would have a more positive impact on followers’ organizational identification and psychological empowerment than transactional leadership. The researcher show that the transformational leader raises staff member’s level of awareness and level of consciousness about the significance and value of designated outcomes, and gets staff members to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the team department and organization.

Transactional leadership theory believed that leaders had to be more flexible to accomplish the goals of the organization. Bass (1995) was one of the major supporters of transactional theory, which allowed more feedback from differing levels of the organization. Bass (1985) theoretically, transactional leadership is purported to be a less effective form of leadership than transformational leadership. Bass and Riggio (2006) indicated that transactional leaders are considered to concentrate on compromise, intrigue, and control; therefore they are more likely to be seen as more inflexible, detached, and manipulative than transformational leaders. Burns (1978) reported that transactional leaders focused more on course work, task-oriented goals and work standards. Additionally, transactional leaders place their energies on ensuring that students complete assignments and comply with the demands of the organization or the actual classroom requirements (Hinkin and Tracey, 1998; Hood, et.al., 2009). Avolio et.al., (1999) indicated transactional leadership is based more on “exchanges” between leaders and followers, in which followers are rewarded for meeting specific goals or performance criteria. Aronson, (2004); Bass, (1990b); and Burns, (1978) agreed on that the basis of transactional leadership is an exchange or quid pro quo relationship between a leader and a follower, where each receives something of value in exchange for a particular action or behavior. Jung (2001) discussed that rewards and positive reinforcement are provided or mediated by the leader. Thus transactional leadership is more practical in nature because of its emphasis on meeting specific targets or objectives.

An effective transactional leader is able to recognize and reward followers’ accomplishments in a timely way. However, subordinates of transactional leaders are not necessarily expected to think innovatively and may be monitored on the basis of

predetermined criteria. Poor transactional leaders may be less likely to anticipate problems and intervene before problems come to the fore, whereas more effective transactional leaders take appropriate action in a timely manner. Burns (1978) also found that in systems that subscribe to the transactional theory of leadership, for example in classes students are rewarded for their performance on tests, assignments and projects with a high letter grade. In a transactional system, rewards are more extrinsic and may come in the form of positive ratings or grades or exemptions from final exams. For example, instructors may exempt students from taking a final exam because of their performance on assignments throughout the semester (Hood, et al., 2009). Burns’ (1978) findings were also supported in later work by Stewart (2006) who concluded that dedicated and successful professors in an organization that embraces transactional leadership are often rewarded with an increase in salary, tenure, and promotion.

House et. al., (1988) argued that while the transactional leader motivates subordinates to perform as expected, the transformational leader typically inspires followers to do more than originally expected. Transformational leadership theories predict followers' emotional attachment to the leader and emotional and motivational arousal of followers as a consequence of the leader's behavior. A better understanding of transformational leadership can follow from contrasting it with transactional leadership. Burns (1978) argued that transactional leadership entails an exchange between leader and follower.

Followers receive certain valued outcomes (example wages, prestige) when they act according to their leader's wishes. Taking the work of Burns as his starting point, Bass

(1985) noted that leadership in research has generally been conceptualized as a transactional or cost-benefit exchange process. Transactional leadership theories are all

found on the idea that leader-follower relations are based on a series of exchanges or implicit bargains between leaders and followers. The general notion is that, when the job and the environment of the follower fail to provide the necessary motivation, direction, and satisfaction, the leader, through his or her behavior, will be effective by compensating for the deficiencies. The leader clarifies the performance criteria, in other words what is expected from subordinates, and what they receive in return (House, et. al.,

1988).

Jung (2001) as cited by Aarons (2006) argued that transactional leadership style is appropriate in many settings, and may support adherence to practice standards but not necessarily openness to innovation. A transformational leadership style creates a vision and inspires subordinates to strive beyond required expectations, whereas transactional leadership focuses more on extrinsic motivation for the performance of job tasks. Thus it is likely that transformational leadership would influence attitudes by inspiring acceptance of innovation through the development of enthusiasm, trust and openness, whereas transactional leadership would lead to acceptance of innovation through reinforcement and reward. (Hater and Bass, 1988: 695) stated that "The dynamics of transformational leadership involve strong personal identification with the leader, joining in a shared vision of the future, or going beyond the self-interest exchange of rewards for compliance". Transformational leaders broaden and elevate the interests of followers, generate awareness and acceptance among the followers of the purposes and mission of the group and motivate followers to go beyond their self-interests for the good of the group (Yammarino and Bass, 1990; Burns, 1978). (Yammarino and Bass, 1990: 151) stated that "The transformational leader articulates a realistic vision of the future that can

be shared, stimulates subordinates intellectually, and pays attention to the differences among the subordinate". Tichy and Devanna (1990) highlighted the transforming impact these leaders can have on organizations as well as on individuals. By defining the need for change, creating new visions, mobilizing commitment to these visions, leaders can ultimately transform the organization. According to Bass (1985) this transformation of followers can be achieved by raising the awareness of the importance and value of designed outcomes, getting followers to transcend their own self-interests and altering or expanding followers' needs.

Bass (1985) disagreed with Burns’ (1978) argument that “transformational and transactional leadership represent opposite ends of a single continuum”. Judge and

Piccolo, (2004:756) posited good transformational leaders can occasionally engage in transactional exchange activities, a position shared by Felfe and Schyns (2004). Hallinger

(2003:338) initially emphasized the dichotomy between transactional and transformational leadership based on top-down and bottom-up participation and on the nature of leader follower relationships, he finally concluded “effective leadership requires both transactional and transformational elements”. Judge and Piccolo added that transformational leadership augments transactional leadership, known as the augmentation effect. The researcher show that the transactional leader recognizes what it is that staff members want to get from work and tries to ensure that they get it, and

exchanges rewards and promises for staff member’s efforts.

Smith et.al., (2004) argued that the transformational leadership model was proven to be an effective form of leadership. Duckett and Macfariane (2003) confirmed that transformational leadership has consistently been shown to be superior to transactional

leadership with respect to criteria such as trust and respect for those who are being led.

Also Aronson, (2004); Bass,(1990b); and Jaskyte, (2004),said that the literature indicated transformational leaders take a step further than transactional leaders to gain the trust of their followers, to engage them in the decision making process, and to create a shared vision.

Bass and Avolio (1993:121) revealed that descriptors for both transactional and transformational culture can be formulated, however most organizational culture demonstrates characteristics from both. It is the belief of Bass and Avolio that organizations should move toward obtaining transformational qualities in their environment but on the other hand should maintain transactional qualities. The researcher finds that the organizations have to mix between the transformational leadership and the transactional leadership according to the situation.

2.2.5Characteristics Of The Transformational And Transactional Leadership styles

Bass and Avolio (1993) mentioned that transformational leaders have been characterized by four separate components, or characteristics denoted as the four factors(four I's) of transformational leadership (Avolio et.al., 1991). These four factors include idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Transformational leaders integrate creative insight, persistence and energy, intuition and sensitivity to the needs of others to "forge the strategy culture alloy" for their organizations. In contrast, transactional leaders are characterized by contingent reward and management-by exception styles of leadership. Essentially, transactional leaders develop exchanges or agreements with their followers, pointing out what the

followers will receive if they do something right as well as wrong. They work within the existing culture, framing their decisions and action based on the operative norms and procedures characterizing their respective organizations.

According to Bass et.al., (2003), the dimensions of transformational leadership are as the following:

1. Idealized influence (attributed).

2. Idealized influence (behavior).

3. Inspirational motivation leaders motivate and inspire those around them.

4. Intellectual stimulation.

5. Individualized consideration.

Bass and Riggio (2006), agreed that transformational leadership includes four components, namely idealized influence (II), inspirational motivation (IM), intellectual stimulation (IS), and individualized consideration (IC). Idealized influence encompasses charisma, and is associated with the leader’s personification of a role model/exemplar.

Inspirational motivation refers to the transformational leader’s articulation of an enticing and meaningful vision to be shared and targeted. Intellectual stimulation involves the encouragement of followers to think inventively and challenge the status quo, and individualized consideration includes concern for the followers’ needs. According to

Harland et.al., (2005), there are five behavioral dimensions of transformational leadership: Attributed Charisma, Idealized Influence, Inspirational Motivation,

Intellectual Stimulation and Individualized Consideration.

1. Attributed Charisma – the leader’s behavior exemplifies confidence, respect and pride among the employees.

2. Idealized Influence – the leader’s behavior demonstrates a higher purpose that draws attention to the common good.

3. Inspiration Motivation – the leader’s behavior typifies enthusiasm and the ability to articulate the vision.

4. Intellectual Stimulation – the leader finds creative ways to solve problems with critical ways of thinking.

5. Individualized Consideration – the leader’s behavior illustrates value for the employee as an individual.

Avolio et.al.,(2004) and Van Wart (2003) discussed the three distinct types of transactional leadership identified in the literature were contingent reward, active management by exception, and passive management by exception. In the contingent reward type of transactional leadership, the leader agrees on rewards followers will receive for completing specific tasks (Aronson, 2004; Avolio and Bass, 2004). In passive management by exception, the leader intervenes to reestablish direction only when followers severely deviate from the plans or standards, whereas in active management by exception the leader closely monitors followers’ progress and intervenes with adjustments to prevent any significant divergence (Aronson, 2004; Avolio et al., 2004).

Transactional leaders derive power by their followers’ desire for rewards or fear of punishment (Aronson, 2004); Bass, 1990b).Also Bass and Avolio (1989) discussed the dimensions of transactional leaders the first dimension of transactional leadership is contingent reinforcement or contingent reward. The leader rewards followers for attaining the specified performance levels. Reward is contingent on effort expended and performance level achieved. There is considerable research and literature on the

association between this kind of leader behavior and subordinate performance and satisfaction (Bass, 1990; and Yukl, 1994). Hater and Bass (1988) indicated the two types of management-by-exception, active and passive. The active form characterizes a leader who actively seeks deviations from standard procedures and takes action when irregularities occur. The passive form characterizes leaders who only take action after deviations and irregularities have occurred. The difference between the two is that in the active form the leader searches for deviations, whereas in the passive form the leader waits for problems to materialize.

Measurement Of Leadership

Leadership style describes the manner and approach leaders use to provide direction, implement plans, and motivate people to deliver. It is determined by a number of factors and considerations over which we have some degree of control. Leaders choose their leadership style either consciously or unconsciously for reasons that allow them to express their values and to reinforce those things in which they believe.

In this research leadership measured utilizing the field-tested questionnaire developed by

(Burke 1983, as cited by Schermerhorn, 2002). The questionnaire contains twenty items measuring transformational and transactional leadership styles ,which ten questions represent the independent variables that have been identified in the light of ten factors describing the transformational leadership (represented by A in each question), and ten other factors describe transactional leadership (represented by B in each question).

2.2.6Organizational Culture

2.2.6.1 Culture

The term culture was first used in this way by the pioneer English Anthropologist Edward

B. Tylor in his book, "Primitive Culture", published in 1871. Tylor indicated that culture is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society" (1:1). Of course, it is not limited to men; women possess and create it as well.

Laurent and Bouard (1997) tried to describe the culture so they indicated that the idea developed recently is that the success of the organization could depend on something intangible, mysterious and inaccurate, and is not a technical or economic, but more prevalent in the minds of individuals, and in the values that are looking for the key to success, this thing is in the culture. O'Neil (2006) indicated that the word culture has many different meanings. For some it refers to an appreciation of good literature, music, art, and food. For a biologist, it is likely to be a colony of bacteria or other microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory Petri dish.

Schein is considered one of the most well-known theorists working with organizational culture. Schein (1992: 12) defined culture as:

"A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well enough to be considered valid, and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems".

(Hofstede, 1980: 87) defined culture as the "collective thinking of minds which create a difference between the members of one group from another". (Schein, 1992: 19)indicated

that a culture is "a set of basic tacit assumptions about how the world is and ought to be that a group of people share and that determines their perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and to some degree their over behavior". Kotter and Heskett (1992) mentioned that culture means fairly established set of beliefs, behaviors and values of society contain generally.

In simple words we can understand that culture is gained knowledge, explanations, values, beliefs, communication and behaviors of large group of people, at the same time and same place. The definition of the Islamic, Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (ISESCO) is the bowl of civilization that preserves the nation and its unity, and ensures consistency, and gives personality intellectual characteristics, it is a symbol identity, and a pillar of its existence, and is intercourse thinking, feed, creativity, and warehouse genius, and is the source of its strength, and the source of excellence between the nations. Robbins and Sanghi (2007) suggested that culture may defines as system of common values which can be estimated that people describe the similar organization culture even with different background at different levels within the organization.

Schein (1994) argued that these definitions suggest it is difficult to assess culture because it is not directly observable. Culture is concerned with values, meanings, and norms.

While some manifestations of culture are observable at times (e.g., symbols and rituals), these are merely symptoms of culture, and should not be confused with the underlying culture itself. Understanding a group's culture requires an extended interval of immersion in order to delve deeper than these surface manifestations of culture. Without such in- depth exposure, outsiders who are not well-versed in a given culture may draw false conclusions about its member's beliefs and behavior.

2.2.6.2 Organizational Culture organizational culture has become a topic of great interest in the areas of organizational behavior and human resource management as it is consider one of the main determinants of the success of organizations or failure, which connected between success theory and focus on values and concepts that drive members to commitment , hard work, innovation, modernization, and to participate in decisions and work to maintain the quality , improve service and achieve competitive advantage and rapid response appropriate to the needs of customers and related parties in the work environment organization.

Nowadays, no organization can go on its mission and last in the world of competition without maintaining a strong advantageous culture. The researches on the impacts of organizational culture was started in 1980s, today is matching itself with new human values and styles of development which have brought new era in enterprises.(Barney,

1986; Bass and Avoilo, 1992) mentioned that organizational culture have become increasingly popular topics over the past 10 years.

The concept of organizational culture was first noted as early as the Hawthorne studies

(Mayo, 1933; Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1939) which described work group culture. It was not until the early 1980s, however, that the topic came into its own. Several books on organizational culture were published, including Deal and Kennedy’s "Corporate

Cultures" (1984), Ouchi’s "Theory Z" (1981), and Peters and Waterman’s "In Search of

Excellence" (1982). These books popularized organizational culture, and researchers began in a serious to study the topic. Kurdi (2010)indicated that there is multiple definitions of the concept of organizational culture to include the basic value system adopted by the organization, and philosophy governing policies toward employees and

customers, and the way in which tasks are completed, and the assumptions and beliefs that are shared to get around the organization's members. Without repeating definitions can be argued that organizational culture refers to system of meanings and symbols and beliefs, rituals, and practices that have evolved and stabilized with the passage of time, and become a special feature of the organization to create a general understanding among members of the organization about what the organization is and the expected behavior of its members. Van Fleet (1991) suggested a definition which most authors would probably agree. That is “organizational culture is the set of values, often taken for granted that helps people in an organization understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are considered unacceptable”. Cameron and Quinn (1999), indicated that the contemporary definition of organizational culture includes what is valued, the dominant leadership style, the language and symbols, the procedures and routines, and the definitions of success that characterizes an organization. Organizational culture represents the values, underlying assumptions, expectations, collective memories and definitions present in an organization. While consensus does not exist on how to defined organizational culture Cooke and Rousseau,(1988); King and Byers,(2007); Zhang et.al.,(2009), mentioned a commonly used definition is “the set of shared, taken-for- granted, implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determine how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments. Schein (2011) argued that the culture of an organization is all the beliefs, feelings, behaviors, and symbols that are characteristic of an organization. More specifically, organizational culture is defined as shared philosophies, ideologies, beliefs, feelings, assumptions, expectations, attitudes, norms, and values.

Schein (1996); Mitchell and Yate (2002), addressed that values, beliefs and feelings shared by the groups in an organization are the basic assumptions of the organizational culture. Organizational culture is the feelings and understandings of members in the group and expresses in the organization. Therefore, organizational culture is regarded as the resource of energy and hope of an organization, and it can make leaders and followers to recognize their role in an organization. Organizational culture is a media for leaders to model members’ commitments and constructs visions (Tunstall, 1985). Also McNamara

(2000) argued that basically organizational culture is the personality of the organization.

Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of organization members and their behaviors. Culture is one of those terms that are difficult to express distinctly, but everyone knows it when they sense it. For example, the culture of a large, for-profit corporation is quite different than that of a hospital which is quite different than that of a university. You can tell the culture of an organization by looking at the arrangement of furniture, what they brag about, what members wear, etc. -- similar to what you can use to get a feeling about someone's personality. Schein (1990) argued that if there are shared experiences within the organization, there can also be a total organizational culture. Nevertheless, there is the tendency for subunits within a complex organizational structure to have cultures that are independent and even in conflict with each other.

Organizational culture connects the employees in the organizations, and creates the frame that the employees work in. Martin (2002) maintained that organizational culture provides its members an understanding to work through the basic problems, of survival in and adaptation to the external environment, as well as to develop and maintain internal

processes. Tichy (1982) suggested that organizational culture is known as “normative glue” means to hold the overall organization together. Drucker (2004) proposed that organizational culture acts as a very important bridge in an organization. It can prompt the identification, the cohesiveness and the consensus of the followers. It can be a mechanism to lead or model the followers’ commitments and organizational visions.

Schein (1999) indicated that organizational culture is the property of a group, and it is a powerful, latent, and often unconscious set of forces, that determine both our individual and collective behavior, ways of perceiving, thought patterns, and values.

Brache (2002) indicated that by understanding organizational culture, employers are able to create an environment where employees want to work and where employees are successful. Barney (1986) argued that positive organizational culture have been linked to increased staff alignment, resulting in enhanced organizational effectiveness, heightened consensus regarding strategic direction, increased employee productivity, and advanced levels of employee commitment. Lee (2006) pointed that many job seekers consider organizational culture as important as financial compensation; employers who focus on just salary and ignore the effects of organizational culture are missing half the battle for talented employees.

2.2.6.3Difference Between Organizational Culture, Corporate Culture and

Organizational Climate

Deal and Kennedy (1982) mentioned that sometimes, organization culture is also known as “corporate culture”. “Corporate Culture” is used to denote the more “commercialized

"meaning of organizational culture. Wallach (1983) referred that corporate culture as the shared understanding of an organization’s employees, as to how things are done in the

organization. In addition, organizational culture is viewed as the rules of the game for getting along in an organization, or as the ropes that newcomers must learn in order to become accepted members (Sriramesh, et.al. 1996).While Abu-Jarad et.al., (2010) proposed that organizational/corporate culture referred to something that is holistic, historically determined (by founders or leaders), related to things anthropologists study

(like rituals and symbols), socially constructed (created and preserved by the group of people who together form the organization), soft, and difficult to change.

Schneider et.al (1994); Zohar and Luria (2010) agreed that organizational climate, in contrast, is defined as employee's shared perceptions regarding an organization’s policies, procedures, and practices, which in turn serve as indicators of the types of behavior that are rewarded and supported in work settings. Organizational culture is a broader concept than organizational climate, and organizational culture can be used to explain why an organization focuses on certain priorities.

2.2.6.4 Creating Organizational Culture

Hatch and Cunliffe (2006) argued that the essence of culture is a core of basic assumptions. Behavioral norms and values are a manifestation of these assumptions, and values and norms, in turn, encourage activities that represent the expression of organizational culture. Also Stewart (2010) indicated that organization’s norms and values have a strong affect on all of those who are attached with the organization. It is considered by him that norms are invisible but if the organizations want to improve the performance of the employees and profitability, norms are places first to look (see figure

2). Schein’s (1985) model of organizational culture it mainly consists of three domains:

(a) basic underlying assumptions, (b) espoused values, and (c) artifacts. Schein

(1985) distinguishes between observable and unobservable elements of culture. From

Figure 3, it becomes clear that there is a certain hierarchy between these domains. Visible behavior influences and is influenced by unobservable assumptions through rules, standards, and prohibitions.

Figure 2: Organizational culture model by Homburg and Pflesser (2000)

Source: Homburg and Pflesser (2000)

Figure 3: Schein organizational culture model (1985)

Source: Schein (1985)

Deal and Kennedy (1984) identified four elements of organizational culture: values, heroes, rites and rituals, and communication networks. These four elements play a key role in creating organizational cultures.

Values

Several recent studies have suggested that values and practices are important elements of culture (Karahanna, et al. 2005), with values being closer to the core how individuals think, and shared practices being more peripheral. Karahanna et al. (2005) indicated that values are acquired early in life through childhood socialization and education, and are often ‘‘stable in nature but can change over time reflecting changes in culture’’. Jones

(2010) said that values are general criteria, standards, or principles that guide the behavior of organization members. There are two kinds of values: terminal and instrumental. Bulach et.al. (2012) said that terminal value is a desired outcome that organization members seek to achieve. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2012) indicated that an instrumental value is a desired mode of behavior. Thus, an organization’s culture consists of outcomes that the organization seeks to achieve (its terminal values) and the modes of behavior the organization encourages (its instrumental values). Ideally, instrumental values help the organization achieve its terminal values.

Dasanayaka and Mahakalanda (2008) indicated that maximizing employee’s values are considered as rational assets that required a culture to support their logical participation both for individual and organizational learning, new knowledge formation and readiness to share with others.

Heroes

Most successful organizations have their heroes. According to Deal and Kennedy (1984),

Heroes are born and created. The born hero is the visionary institution builder like Henry

Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company, Walt Disney, creator of Disney Studios and theme parks. Created heroes, on the other hand, are those the institution has made by

noticing and celebrating memorable moments that occur in the day-to-day life of the organization. Thomas Watson, former head of IBM, is an example of a situation hero.

Heroes perpetuate the organization’s underlying values, provide role models, symbolize the organization to others, and set performance standards that motivate participant achievement. Deal and Kennedy (1982) said these heroes serve as role models and their words and actions signal the ideal to aspire to.

Rites and Rituals

Deal and Kennedy (1984) indicated another key aspect in creating organizational cultures is the everyday activities and celebrations that characterize the organization. Most successful organizations feel that these rituals and symbolic actions should be managed.

Through rites and rituals, recognition of achievement is possible. The Teacher of the

Year Award and National Merit Schools are examples. Similarly, a number of ceremonial rituals may accompany the appointment of a new superintendent of schools, including press and other announcements, banquets, meetings, and speeches. Some organizations have even created their own reward rituals.

Communication Networks

Deal and Kennedy (1984) said that stories or myths of heroes are transmitted by means of the communications network. This network is characterized by various individuals who play a role in the culture of the organization. Each institution has storytellers who interpret what is going on in the organization. Their interpretation of the information influences the perceptions of others. Priests are the worriers of the organization and the guardians of the culture’s values. These individuals always have time to listen and provide alternative solutions to problems. Whisperers are the powers behind the throne

because they have the boss’s ear. Anyone who wants something done will go to the whisperer. Gossips carry the trivial day-to-day activities of the organization through the communications network. Gossips are very important in building and maintaining heroes.

They embellish the heroes’ past feats and exaggerate their latest accomplishments. And, finally, spies are buddies in the woodwork. They keep everyone well informed about what is going on in the organization. Each of these individuals plays a key role in building and maintaining an organization’s culture.

According to Schein (1992) artifacts, espoused values, and basic underlying assumptions are three levels in which cultural phenomenon are visible. Artifacts are those visible attributes of an organization such as the building design; technology; products; dress code; language; manners of addressing issues; emotional displays, myths, and historical stories about the organization; and published values, rituals, and ceremonies.

Operationalizing and measuring organizational culture is a challenging task. If organizational culture is created and established through symbols, ideology, belief, ritual, and myth; then describing and documenting a given culture is methodologically complex

(Akin and Hopelain, 1986; Bate, 1984; Rousseau, 1990; Zamanou and Glaser, 1989).

New organizational culture is created according to Schein (1992) from three perspectives:

(a) the beliefs, values, and assumptions of founder of organizations; (b) the learning experiences of group members as their organization evolves; and (c) new beliefs, values, and assumptions brought in by new members and leaders. Of the three perspectives, the most challenging for followers are new beliefs, values, and assumptions brought in by new leaders. What must be remembered is that cultural change (transformation) is usually slow and difficult (Stringer, 2002).

Another perspective of cultural formation was represented by Fombrun (1983) who argued that organizational culture develops through two major levels: societal, industrial and organizational. First, Fombrun (1983) argued that understanding the interplay between societal and industrial levels of culture with the characteristics of the organization, is vital for an accurate analysis of culture and its implication on organizational performance. However, while the societal level of culture represents the values, attitudes, and meanings that members bring to the organization, the industrial level represents the similarities and differences that exist between industries.

Finally, culture researcher Louis (1985) articulated that an organizational culture not only is strong in nature, but there are subcultures that often develop at different sites within various levels in an organization. Conditions, problems, or personnel at different levels can produce pressure for different cultures within the organization especially for the distribution and allocation of scarce resources (O'Reilly, 1989; Robbins, 2006).

2.2.7 Types of Organizational Culture: Harrison's typology of organizational culture

Harrison (1972) developed a typology for understanding organizational culture. This typology suggested four organizational cultural orientations: (1) power orientation; (2) role orientation; (3) task orientation and (4) person orientation (Harrison 1972, p121).

Harrison’s (1972) cultural orientations were adapted by Harrison and Stokes (1992) to create the (1) power orientation, (2) role orientation, (3) achievement orientation and (4) support orientation. Harrison and Stokes’s (1992) organizational culture typology is used in this research to classify the different types of organizational cultures within the selected companies.

Handy (1999) suggests that we can classify organizations into a broad range of four cultures: power, role, task and person. The formation of ‘culture’ will depend upon a whole host of factors including company history, ownership, organisation structure, technology, critical business incidents and environment, etc.(see figure 4).

Figure 4: Handy cultures types

(Source: Brown 1998)

Harrison and Stokes (1992) believe that every organisation has a combination of the four cultural types; with each type evoking different behaviors and each are based on different human values.

In order to understand Harrison's four types of organizational culture (Power, Role,

Achievement and Support) included below are some features of each term concerning organizational cultures as used by Harrison (1992):

2.2.7.1Power Culture Orientation

The Power oriented organization is based on inequality of access to resources. A

'resource' can be anything one person controls that another person wants. The people in power use resources to control the behavior of others. Control resides in the hands of the leaders and rests on their ability and willingness to administer rewards and punishments.

People in power-oriented organizations are motivated by rewards and punishments, and by the wish to be associated with a strong leader. Generally, this type of culture is appropriate for an entrepreneurial type of business where a leader's skills, knowledge, and dominance is imperative for the success of the business, and therefore, the followers are dependent upon him. In a power culture, certain persons are dominant and others subservient. There is a 'relatively bounded and stable occurrence of social order based on habits of deference to authority'. Harrison (1990) indicated:

"In the Power organizations at its best, leadership is based on strength, justice and paternalistic benevolence. The leaders are expected to be all-knowing as well as all- powerful. Subordinates are expected to be compliant and willing. At its worst, the Power organization tends towards a rule by fear. Large Power oriented organizations are inefficient, full of fear and confusion, unless the Power orientation is supplemented by good structures and systems for getting work done. As the distance between leaders and followers increases, effective control becomes more difficult. Because followers have been conditioned to be dependent. When Power oriented organizations expand, they often run short on leadership talent"(Harrison, 1990).

Martin (2005) mentioned that power culture is usually found in small organizations, where everything revolves around the person in charge, and all the important decisions

are made by that person who has the single source of power, and that person retains absolute authority in all matters. Martin (2001) argued that the main features of a power culture in organizational culture include: single mindedness in approach; dominated by the leader or central person and their personality; with a lack of bureaucracy in operations. Brown (1995) and Martin (2001) mentioned that the greatest strength of the power culture is the ability of the organisation to react quickly, although the success is largely dependent upon the abilities of the leader, or people at the centre of power.

2.2.7.2 Role Culture Orientation

The Role orientation assumes that people work most effectively and efficiently when they have relatively simple, clearly defined, circumscribed and measurable tasks. Clarity and precision of roles and procedures are striven for in order to fit the parts of the organization together like a machine. It also substitutes a system of structures and procedures for the naked power of the leaders. This gives protection to the subordinates and stability to the organization. The struggle for power is moderated by the rule of law.

The duties and rewards of the members' roles are defined in writing. In Role orientation the whole organization forms a pyramid shape. The higher the layer, the fewer people there are. Below the directors are several layers of managers and below them are the staff and workers engaged in clerical and manual operations. The values of the Role culture are order, dependability, rationality and consistency. The role culture substitutes a system of structures and procedures for the naked power of the leaders. Structures and systems give protection to subordinates and stability to the organization. The struggle for power is moderated by the rule of law. The duties and the rewards of member’s roles are carefully defined, usually in writing, and are the subject of an explicit or implicit contract between

the organization and individual. People perform specific functions in order to receive defined rewards. Both the individual and the organization are expected to adhere to their parts of the bargain. Thomas and Lindsay (2003) indicated that it is wholly appropriate to some situations, but it could also impede the development of others. For example, some employees of an airline company need to adhere strictly to agreed procedures to ensure safety, accurate scheduling and efficient use of assets, however others must be empowered to manage within a set of guidelines rather than strict rules so as to be able to satisfy diverse customer needs.

Harmse (2001) said that an advantage of the role orientation culture is that employees of an organisation are able to allocate more energy to do their work than without the rules and structures of the role orientation. However, a weakness of this cultural type is that employees are assumed not to be trusted and individual autonomy and discretion is not given to lower level members (Harrison and Stokes 1992).

2.2.7.3 Achievement Culture Orientation

Unlike both the Power and Role cultures, that use the rewards and punishment system to guide people, along with impersonal systems and structures to control their members, the

Achievement orientation relies on self motivating strategies and is based on competence.

These strategies come from the nature of the employee and/or the nature of the workplace. It also creates a high energy environment and a greater probability of satisfying employee needs, by using the mission to attract and release its members' energy in pursuit of the common goals. An achievement orientated culture is one in which employees are internally motivated. To be internally motivated, employees need to feel valued and appreciated for their personal contribution and potential. They need the freedom

to interpret situations and apply what they believe to be the correct solution. Well-selected, well-trained and empowered employees who operate in an environment of trust and support, therefore, are essential ingredients for the creation and maintenance of such a culture.

In an Achievement culture, people are interested in the work itself, and have a personal stake in seeing that it is done well. Harrison (1992) indicated:

The Achievement-oriented organization makes high demands on its people's energy and time, assuming that people actually enjoy working at tasks which are intrinsically satisfying(Harrison, 1992).Still, structure and systems are necessary in Achievement oriented organization. They augment the mission rather than becoming laws unto themselves. Power, also, has a place in such culture. People, who have power, usually establish the mission and then serve it. They are also judged by the same standards as is applied to everyone else within the organization, involved in the advancement of the mission.

This culture provides deep personal satisfaction and evokes personal commitment. But control in these organizations is difficult. It is retained by top management by means of allocating projects, people and resources. Structures and systems are necessary but allocation of resources is a problem. Reliance is on the common vision to organize the work rather than subjecting themselves to the discipline of systems and procedures.

Therefore, these cultures are frequently under organized, relying on high motivation to overcome its deficiencies in structures, systems and planning.

2.2.7.4 Support Culture Orientation

The support culture is based on a mutual trust between the employee and the organization, employees who work in this culture believe that they are valued as human

beings, not only served to complete the work (Harrison, 1993; Harrison and Stokes,

1992). Like the achievement culture, the Support oriented organization assumes that people want to contribute rather than extracting their contribution through a common purpose, the Support-oriented organization offers its members a satisfaction stemming from relationships, mutuality, connection and belonging. The support culture is based on mutual trust between the individual and the organization. In such an organization, people believe that they are valued as human beings, not just as cogs in a machine or contributors to a task. A support culture fosters warmth and even love, not just driving enthusiasm. An organisation that has a support culture has a warm and caring atmosphere, where the assumption is that a sense of belonging will create a sense of commitment to the organisation and therefore employees will contribute more within the organisation (Harmse, 2001; and Harrison and Stokes, 1992).

While achievement culture fuses the human will of its members in the service of the organization's tasks, The Support culture evokes human love for the nurturing of the organization's members, and stimulates strong motivation in the service of the group. The

Support culture is criticized for being too idealistic and humanistic. In the interest of harmony, this culture tends towards conflict avoidance. Sometimes favoritism affects decisions about people's performance, and injustice results. Differences in skills and abilities may be ignored in the interest of 'equal treatment'. Harrison (1990) asserted that all organizations have some combination of these four cultural orientations. Each evokes different behaviors and rests on different human values. Each has a unique way of decision making; a characteristic way of motivating people to work, a typical management style and a set of underlying values and beliefs about work and about human

nature. However, Harrison concluded that the four cultures are only partially compatible with one another, and the benefits of one can only be achieved at the expense of some of the benefits of the others. As postulated by Handy (1993) these four types of culture all have different implications to the success of a business where the power culture is dependent on a central power source with rays of power and influence spreading out from the central figure. These types of cultures are proud and strong and have the ability to move quickly and can react well to threat and danger.

The role culture, according to Harrison (1993) gives protection to subordinates and stability to the organization. He also claimed that people are protected in their jobs in a role orientation, and need to spend less time looking out for themselves and can devote more energy to their work. The achievement culture organization expects its employees to contribute their personal energy in return for rewards. This type of organization is known as an aligned organization because it, lines people up, behind a common vision or purpose. Harrison and Stokes (1993)confirmed that quality and service often show in support - orientated organizations, since successful approaches to quality improvements are often based on small work teams.

Measurement Of Organizational Culture

In order to understand how groups of people are likely to respond in different environments and to different situations, tools have been developed to measure cultural values. Harrison and Stokes (1992) asserted that the culture of every organization is made up of a combination of four distinct cultural orientations: power, role, achievement, and support. Each of the four culture orientation would have a distinct leadership style that would evoke a characteristic response from employees. Thomas and Lindsay (2003)

argued that none of the four orientations is right or wrong, some would be more appropriate for particular work environments than others.

The researcher used the instrument developed by Harrison and Stokes entitled

'Diagnosing Organizational Culture' which focused on how people treat one another, the value that they live by, how people are motivated to produce and how people use power in the organization, the researcher feels that Harrison and stokes instrument is more appropriate for the current research, and it is easily understood. Also the instrument was used on several studies conducted to measure the culture of organizations in different national cultures. In Europe and the United Kingdom, by the Roffey Park Institute. In the

United States by Harrison(1990) and Anderson(1995), in Australia and New Zealand by

Harrison(1990), in South Africa by Serfontein (1990),and in Saudi Arabia by Al-

Salem(1996), which made it verifiable and comparable in Jordan by Sabri (2004,2013)

The instrument had fifteen questions, each of which was followed by four options (a, b, c and d). The respondents were asked to read each item, and then rank each of the four options as follows: In a column entitled 'Existing Culture', rank which was the most dominant, and the least dominant culture in their organization:

Score 4: For the most dominant (Existing) view.

Score 3: For the next most dominant (Existing) view.

Score 2: For the next most dominant (Existing) view.

Score 1: For the least dominant (Existing) view.

2.2.8 Leadership and Organizational Culture

The 21st century has been obsessed with trying to identify certain characteristic traits that are associated with effective leaders (Higgs, 2003). It has also been argued that leadership theory has been studied more extensively than almost any other area of human behavior (Goffee & Jones, 2000; Higgs, 2003; Higgs & Rowland, 2001).

Wolinski (2010) argued that most theories view leadership as grounded in one or more of the following three perspectives: leadership as a process or relationship, leadership as a combination of traits or personality characteristics, or leadership as certain behaviors or, as they are more commonly referred to, leadership skills. In virtually all of the more dominant theories there exist the notions that, at least to some degree, leadership is a process that involves influence with a group of people toward the realization of goals.

Montana and Charnov (1993) indicated that leadership is the process of inspiration or influence others to make them High work commitment and perseverance in achieving and perform tasks required of them. Leadership is interested in how to build commitment and motivate others, to induce them to use their skills in the implementation of activities and the achievement of the millennium. Robbins (2003) described leadership as a process of influencing the behavior of groups, and directing them toward achieving the desired objectives, and expressed leadership as a process of influencing the behavior of groups and directing them toward and over achieves the desired goals.(Bass, 1990a: 8), contended that “leadership is often regarded as the single most critical factor in the success or failure of institutions” and presented the historical roots of leadership.

Kotter (1990) said that leadership deals with the interpersonal aspects of a manager's job.

Interpersonal aspects include change, inspiration, motivation, and influence. In contrast,

management deals with the administrative aspects planning, organizing, and controlling, for carrying out the organization's goals and maintaining equilibrium. Kotter (1990) indicated that a leader can be a manager, but a manager is not necessarily a leader.

According to managers must know how to lead as well as manage. Organizations may face the threat of extinction if leadership and management are not given top priority. The definition of management is a process of setting and achieving goals of an organization through planning, organizing, directing (or leading), and controlling. Although leading is a major part of a manager’s job, a manager should also plan, organize, and control.

Block (2003) noted that the concept of leadership and culture are extremely central to understanding organizations and making them effective, and that the combined phenomenon cannot be taken for granted. McLaurin and Al Amri (2008) indicated that researchers have determined the relationship between leadership and culture for over 20 years. Complex relationships exist between the two because of the plethora of definitions of each that have been published. Leadership has been described as a mutual influence relationship. The relationship between leadership and organizational culture are presented by (Bass, and Avolio, 1993) who indicated that leadership, particularly transformational leadership can build a higher innovation and a satisfactory organizational culture. Schein

(1992) observed that organizational culture and leadership are intertwined. He illustrated this inter-connection by looking at the relationship between leadership and culture in the context of the organizational life cycle. Thus, during the process of organizational formation, the founder of a company creates an organization which reflects their values and beliefs. In this sense, the founder creates and shapes the cultural traits of their organization. However, as the organization develops and time passes, the created culture

of the organization exerts an in influence on the leader and shapes the actions and style of the leader. Through this dynamic ongoing process, the leader creates and is in turn shaped by the organizational culture. There is a reciprocal relationship between leadership and culture. Also Bass and Avolio (1993) have concurred and suggested that the relationship between leadership and culture is an ongoing interplay in which the leader shapes the culture and is, in turn, shaped by the resulting culture. Thus, leaders must have a good understanding of organizational culture; the influence they have on the organizational culture; and, in turn, the way culture influences them. Leaders should know the key elements of organizational culture which include rite, ritual, ceremony, myth, saga, legend, stories, folktale, symbol, language, gesture, physical setting, and artifact (Bass,

1990).Blackwell (2006) noted the importance of culture and leadership by arguing that organizational culture influences organizational behavior, and helps frame and shape the use of leader behavior.

Bass (1985) examined the impact of different styles of leadership on culture. He has suggested that transactional leaders tend to operate within the confines and limits of the existing culture, while transformational leaders frequently work towards changing the organizational culture in line with their vision. Bass and Avolio (1991) also asserted that a purely transformational culture is conceptualized as having a close net relationship with organizational members. In this relationship, commitments are long-term; individuals share mutual interests; have a sense of shared fates and interdependence across divisions and departments. Barnett and McCormick, (2004); Corrigan et.al.,(2002), indicated that organizational culture may even be one of the mechanisms, through which transformational leadership affects (perceived and objective) firm performance.

Accordingly, some recent studies have shown that transformational leadership is related to organizational culture. Bass (1999) postulated the idea that organizational culture can become more transformational if the leadership of public sector organizations articulates the changes that are required. Such changes can be the conceptualization of a shared vision with emphasis on the particular leadership style that is to be encouraged. Also

Bass (1999) pointed out that changes consistent with the new message should be implemented at the inception of the growth stages of the organization. In this way, “the desired role models of leadership begin at the top and are encouraged at every successive level below” (Bass, 1999:16). Thus, the behavior of the leaders set the tone of the organization’s new culture.(Bass, 1985: 24) wrote the following in his original work on transformational leaders: “The transactional leader works within the organizational culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes the organizational culture”, (Bass,

1985: 154) adds “Transformational leadership is more likely to reflect social values and to emerge in times of distress and rapid change; transactional leadership, in a well- ordered society.”

Sarroset.al., (2002) argued that the relationship between leadership and organizational culture has been consistently demonstrated and most empirical studies, has yielded results that highlighted the significance of the relationship. For example, in a study of 1,918 participants from the Australian Institute of Management, strong and positive relationships between leadership and organizational culture were reported. These findings have been replicated in other studies which reported that leaders have an impact on the organizational culture. Furthermore, the style of leadership produces a certain organizational culture. For example, one study noted that individualized consideration

was the prominent leadership style of executives, and performance orientation was the prominent organizational culture (Sarros et.al., 2002). Organizational cultures with a focus on supportiveness and social responsibility were best predictors of transformational leadership. Therefore, results lend strong support to the theory that leadership is crucial in shaping the culture. Schein (2004) suggested that currently organizational culture is a key factor for knowledge management, creativity, participatory management and leadership.

Schein (2004) also indicated that leadership and culture are synonymous, it is almost impossible to compare between leadership and organizational culture and the dynamics process of the birth of the organizational culture and management is the essence of leadership that making leadership and organizational culture are like two sides of the same coin. There is a direct correlation between leadership and organizational culture

(Atkins, 2006; Bass and Avolio 1993; Block, 2003; Schein, 1985). When an organization is in its infancy stage where the primary purpose and structure are being developed, there is usually no organizational culture. At the point of staffing the organization, the founder establishes the expectations that will govern the business. Armandi et.al., (2003) said that understanding the relationship between leadership style and organizational culture becomes paramount in creating change within the organization. The change will demonstrate the employees’ willingness to do what has been asked rather than doing because they are required to.

The relationship between leadership and organizational culture has been studied in public and private organizations (Block, 2003; Kest, 2007; Walsh, 2004). Lakomski (2001) said that while leadership may influence organizational culture, organizational culture can also influence leadership behavior although the most effective type of leadership can be

debated; creating organizational change requires leadership changing the organizational culture.

2.2.9Leader's Role in Creating Organizational Culture

Nahavandi, and Malekzadeh (1993) indicated that a Leader, especially the founder of the organization, leaves a core value that guide members of the organization from its inception up to the future. The main values that guide members of the organization are called the organizational culture. The characteristics and orientation brought by the leaders in the organization will affect the culture adopted in his or her organization. Yukl

(1994) indicated that researches on leadership were focused on how leaders create and strengthen the organizations during 1980’s.

Scholars found that the average time for a culture to change is 10 to 15 years. This is too long of a time span when organizations need to change quickly to adjust to rapidly changing business and social conditions (Stringer, 2002). Organizational culture is the interaction between individuals within the Context of its artifact, values, basic assumptions, beliefs, traditions, and norms derived from the founders and top management who have taught employees how to perceive, think, and act in definite situations. When the organization faces challenges that foster innovation and change, cultural change is usually indicated. Therefore, leaders must fully understand the organizational culture for change to be effective. Ogbonna and Harris (2000) alleged that the founder of the organization creates and shapes the cultural characteristics of the organization. At the same time, as the organization develops and time passes, the created culture of the organization exerts an influence on the leader and shapes the actions and style of the leader. Schein (1992) argued that does culture determine leadership

behaviors? Or do leadership behaviors determine the culture? Leaders have been credited as the creators, transformers and managers of organizational culture. Schein (1992) found that leaders are largely responsible for creating, developing, maintaining, and destroying culture, and must come to recognize both the importance of organizational culture, and their own ability to shape it in order to foster an organizational culture; that yields high performance and efficiency overall. Leadership and culture are intertwined and are best examined as if they were two sides of one coin.

Howard (1998) mentioned that the organization culture constantly changes as the organization itself changes. Weick and Quinn (1999), described change as either episodic or continuous. Episodic change in organizations is described as infrequent, discontinuous and intentional. It occurs most often when the organization is moving away from equilibrium and is characterized as dramatic and externally driven. The role of the leader in this situation is to create change. On the other hand, the role of the leader in an organization that is in continuous change is to be a sense-maker who directs change.

Continuous change reflects organizational changes that are ongoing, evolving and cumulative. Heathfield (2013) indicated that you cannot change the organizational culture without knowing where your organization wants to be or what elements of the current organizational culture need to change. What cultural elements support the success of your organization, or not? As an example, your team decides that you spend too much time agreeing with each other rather than challenging the forecasts and assumptions of fellow team members, that typically have been incorrect. Heathfield (2013) also mentioned a second example by, your key management team members, who must lead the company, spend most of their time team building with various members of the team on an

individual basis, and to promote individual agendas, to the detriment of the cohesive functioning of the whole group. Third, your company employees appear to make a decision, but, in truth, are waiting for the "blessing" from the company owner or founder to actually move forward with the plan. The two most important elements for creating organizational cultural change are executive support and training. Blackwell (2006) noted the importance of culture and leadership by arguing that organizational culture influences organizational behavior, and helps frame and shape the use of leader behavior.

Bass (1985) indicated that the organization's culture develops in large part from its leadership while the culture of an organization can also affect the development of its leadership. For example, transactional leaders work within their organizational cultures following existing rules, procedures, and norms; transformational leaders change their culture by first understanding it and then realigning the organization's culture with a new vision and a revision of its shared assumptions, values, and norms. Schein (2004) suggested that the leadership behaviors of leaders of organizations on influenced by the culture of the organization, but on the other hand leadership in organization shaping and changing the organizational culture within a company or organization. Sashkin (1988) proposed that the creation of an organization’s culture is the essence of the transformational leader’s task. Ultimately, what is most important is that leaders choose a style of leadership that will create and foster a culture that will permit the leaders’ vision to come to fruition. In addition, leaders must be able to influence followers to connect with the vision so that they will effectively carry forward those strategies that will support the vision. Bromley and Kirschner-Bromlye (2007), argued that transformational leaders seek to transform the organization to an environment; that perpetuates the greater

good over individual interests. Employees are empowered to participate in the decision- making process, as well as serve as champions for the vision. Challenging the status quo becomes a regular occurrence for the transformational leader. A key element in a transformed atmosphere is creativity. The leader takes on a personal commitment to help develop the workforce and “foster a culture of creative change and growth rather than one which maintains the status quo” (Bass and Avolio, 1993:113). Bass (1995) indicated that transformational leaders in established firms tend to change culture by first understanding it, and then realigning it with a new vision and a revision of its shared assumptions, values, norms, and practices. Corrigan et.al., (2002) found a positive relation between a cohesive organization culture and transformational leadership in mental health teams.

While Bryman (1992:161) pointed out that “the emphasis on change should not imply that transforming organizations is the essence of leadership”. Because some writers Tichy and Devanna, (1990) talked about the dramatic change or transformation of organizations, “new leadership” is often associated with instilling a vision for organizational change.

Trice and Beyer (1993), indicated that most of the work that links leadership and culture has focused on how leaders establish or change cultures, with much less written about how to maintain culture, it would appear that the role of transformational leadership should also be considered as important for organizations that are in cultural maintenance, or are characterized by continuous change as the role it would play in an organization in turmoil or crisis. Bass (1985:24,154) wrote the following in his original work on transformational leaders: “The transactional leader works within the organizational culture as it exists; the transformational leader changes the organizational culture”.

“Transformational leadership is more likely to reflect social values and to emerge in times of distress and rapid change; transactional leadership, in a well-ordered society”. It is generally assumed that transformational leadership is related to organizational culture.

Trice and Beyer (1993) concluded that there are two cultural consequences of leadership:

(a) Cultural innovation which is responsible for creating culture (attracting followers and uniting them) and changing culture (weakening and replacing elements of the old culture), and (b) cultural maintenance which embodies culture (keeps existing culture vital) and integrates culture (reconciles diverse interests of subcultures). According to most leadership scholars, leadership and organizational culture do affect each other (Bass and Avolio, 1993; Barnett and McCormick, 2004; Corrigan et al.,2002).Morgan (1986) asserted that leaders can shape and mould the culture in several ways, leaders act as role models, demonstrating to others the best way to behave.

Peters (1987) highlighted that people observe what leaders pay attention to and what they ignore as well as how leaders allocate resources, rewards and promotions. All these signify and indicate to others the correct way to behave and what needs to be done to achieve recognition and success. Leaders also act as symbols of the culture for both their employees and people outside their organization. Bass and Avolio (1993) contend that an organization’s culture develops in large part from its leadership while the culture of an organization can also affect the development of its leadership. Schein’s (1992) indicated that the researches on culture indicated that a new organization’s culture is impacted by the leaders of the organization. On the other hand, leaders entering organizations in which the culture was already established did not typically impact the culture in the same way. In the latter cases, it appears that the established culture began to define the

leadership. Bass and Avolio (1993) argued that not only is an organization’s culture developed by its leaders, leaders are also influenced by organizational culture. Also Bass and Avolio (1993) have suggested that the relationship between leadership and culture is intertwined and is an ongoing process in which the leader impacts the culture; and culture, in turn, affects leader behaviors. Eikenberry (2011) indicated that organizational culture gets talked about a lot by people discussing success in organizations. It is rightly considered an important determining factor in measurements including retention, job satisfaction, trust levels, productivity and much more. Yet there are some common misconceptions about where culture comes from and who is responsible for it. Because of these misconceptions too many leaders ignore or deny their role. Schein (1985: 314) warned that "organizational culture control the leader more than the leader controls the culture. Yet, leaders can have a great impact on organizational culture, especially through role-modeling". (Weichrich and Koontz, 2005) indicated that in many successful companies in the world, leaders create a good organizational environment. Organizational culture that created by the company leaders can result in a good managerial function within the company. Schein (2004) discussed that he results showed a significant positive impact of leadership on organizational culture. It means that effective leadership role on the formation of organizational culture. This finding suggests the enactment of "role model" theory. A leader is establishing or changing the culture through mind, speech and behavior as shown on his or her dealing with problems or paying attention to everything that is considered important. This finding is also consistent with the findings of some previous researchers, namely: one of the functions of the leader is to create and build a culture and climate within the organization.(Bass, 1990; Schein,

1992), indicated that leaders are credited with building cultures, being founders of cultures and subcultures, promoting change in culture and maintaining culture.

2.3 Previous Studies

2.3.1 Arabic Studies

1- Abbas, Munir (2008) Study entitled "leadership Styles effects in organizational loyalty".

The study aimed to identify the leadership styles used in the organizations public and private sectors, and the impact of these styles in the level of organizational loyalty, to organizations workers both public and private sectors as well as to identify the impact of certain types of personal and some external variables, in follow the administrative leaders and leadership style in organizations, public and private sectors.

The most important results:

1. Transformational leadership style applied in the public sector companies.

2. Transformational leadership style applied in the private sector companies are largest than the public sector companies.

3. The transformational leadership style has a greater positive effect than the impact of interactive leadership style in the level of organizational loyalty to workers, public sector organizations and private sector.

4. There is a relationship between some of the external variables such as laws and regulations and in the central decision-making and the scope of supervision and follow administrative leaders to a leadership style in the public and private sectors.

2- Abd ALelah, Sameer (2006) Study entitled "The reality of the organizational culture existing in the Palestinian universities in the Gaza province and its impact on the level of organizational development for universities: a comparative study".

The study aimed to identify the types of organizational culture prevailing at the Islamic

University, Al Azhar University and Al Aqsa University in the Gaza Strip. It also aimed to identify the level of organizational development at the mentioned universities.

Furthermore, the study examined the relationship between the organizational culture and organizational development .The researcher distributed 340 questionnaires. The sample consisted of administrative, academics and top level management at the universities. The number of respondents was 264. (77.6%) The analytical descriptive approach was applied .The findings of study showed that the Islamic University was inclined to the achievement culture. While the organizational culture at Al Azhar University and Al

Aqsa University was inclined to the role culture. In addition, the study revealed that the top level management at the universities formulated the organizational culture. Further, it showed that the level of organizational development at the Islamic University was very high; at Al Azhar University was high, while at Al Aqsa University was moderate. The study also showed that there was statistical significant relationship between the organizational culture and organizational development . In light of the findings the researcher suggested some recommendations including, the need to reduce the authoritative management style at Al Azhar and Al Aqsa Universities. This can be achieved through applying the necessary laws and regulations, increasing the level of delegation and developing human resources.

3- Al-Ahmad, Hussam (2008) Study entitled "The Impact of Organizational Culture in the Development of Creative Behavior for Employees".

The study aimed to analyze the impact of organizational culture in the development of creative behavior of workers in the spinning and weaving companies in the city of

Aleppo. The most important findings:

1. There is interest by the management of the textile companies in Aleppo encouraging organizational culture of creativity.

2. Creative behavior is available in the spinning and weaving companies in Aleppo good standard.

3. There is a clear impact of organizational culture in the development of creative behavior of workers in the spinning and weaving companies.

4- Askar, Abdul-Aziz (2012)"Participatory Leadership And Its Relationship To The

Organizational Culture Of Public School Principals The Provinces Of Gaza From

The Perspective Of Teachers".

The study aimed to identify the participatory leadership and its relationship to organizational culture managers have a public school in Gaza Governorates from the perspective of teachers, and study population consisted of all teachers in government schools in Gaza Governorates for the academic year 2011-2012 and who are (9900), teachers, the study sample (727) teachers were selected randomly, and the researcher used the descriptive method. The research found that:

1- The human relations in the highest echelons of participatory leadership relative weight (77.6%), followed by the post commander of subordinates in the tasks of

leadership got a second relative weight (73.9), followed by the delegation of authority got the third position relative weight (73.4%).

2- There are no statistically significant differences between the mean estimates of teachers to the pattern existing organizational culture among managers of public schools in the Gaza provinces caused by sex (male, female).

3- The study also confirmed a statistically significant relationship at the level of (0.01) between participatory leadership in all fields and its total score and between organizational culture in all fields and its total score.

5- Elsaid, Eyad (2012) Study entitled "Culture and Leadership: Comparing Egypt

To The GLOBE Study Of 62 Societies".

The study aimed to improve the understanding of the western conceptions of leadership in competition with emerging leadership paradigms in non-western societies. The study examined the societal culture in Egypt using GLOBE’s nine cultural attributes and dimensions. Paired sample t-tests were used to test for differences in the Egyptian data that was collected. The data was collected from 142 Egyptian middle managers from 19 organizations from 2008 to 2011. It was compared to the data collected as part of the

GLOBE research project. The results showed that Egyptians are most interested in reducing the power distance and increasing the future orientation aspects of their societal culture.

6- Dmour, Ibtesam, Abu Saleh, M. S., and Al-Ali, A. M. (2010) Study entitled "The

Effects of Transactional and Transformational Leadership on Acquisition of

Critical Thinking of Employees in Jordanian Hospitals".

This study aimed to examine the impact of transactional and transformational leadership styles as independent variables on acquisition of critical thinking skills as dependent variable.

In order to achieve the objectives of the study two highly reliable and valid instruments, the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Leader Form (Bass and Avolio, 1995,

1996), and Professional Judgment Rating Scale (Facione et al., 1998), were used.

Random simple sample selected from manager's Jordanian hospitals, consisted of (55) managers.

The results of regression tests revealed that there is positive impact of transformational leadership style on acquisition of critical thinking skills to employees in Jordanian hospitals, superficial impact was found due to transactional leadership style and negative impact of organizational dimension culture there was not significance.

7- Hajee, Zahra. E. (2012) Study entitled "Leadership Styles: A Study of Managers in Bahraini Organizations".

This article examined the relationship between leadership and ability to establish relationships and bonds, within the context of national and organizational culture in

Bahrain. The research covered five major organizations in Bahrain: petrochemicals, petroleum, telecommunications, shipbuilding and repair, and banking. It examined the relationship between six leadership styles (Coercive, Authoritative, Affiliation,

Democratic, Pacesetting and Coaching), and components of emotional intelligence (self- awareness, self-management, social awareness and social skills) identified by Goleman

(2000). The research adopted a deductive approach using the Emotional Competency

Inventory as well as interviews with 103 executives and managers. The research found

that the six leadership styles were used by the executives. National and corporate culture influenced such leadership styles. The standardized tests used need to be adjusted to suit the culture in Bahrain. The findings of this research therefore add a new dimension

(namely, national and corporate culture in the Gulf Region) to the concept of emotional intelligence.

8- Hamad, Eyad (2011) Study entitled "The Impact of Transformational Leadership

Style in the Management of Organizational Change: Field Study on the Red

Crescent Hospital Damascus".

The study aimed to identify the concept of transformational leadership and its elements, and define the organizational change, and the most important Internal and external causes that affect the process of change, and the study addressed to what extent the impact of transformational leadership in the process of organizational change. The research found that there is influence of transformational leadership in organizational change management process within the studied hospital, and there is no specific dimension of transformational leadership has the greatest impact in the management of organizational change, but convergent effects were the dimensions of transformational leadership in the process of organizational change.

9- Mohammad, Shelash (2011) Study entitled "The Relationship Between

Transformational Leadership and Employees’ Satisfaction At Jordanian Private

Hospitals".

The study has aimed at identifying the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction of registered nurses at Jordanian private hospitals, the population of the study consisted of registered nurses at private hospitals located in Amman (capital of

Jordan). There have been 200 surveys mailed out to registered nurses. One hundred and sixty eight usable surveys have been returned with an 83% response rate. Regarding transformational leadership, the survey was adapted from the Multifactor Leadership

Questionnaire (MLQ). The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) developed by

Weiss (1967) was adopted to measure the two factors of job satisfaction. The study has shown a statistically significant positive relationship existing between the five dimensions of transformational leadership and the two dimensions of job satisfaction, the strongest relationship between internal job satisfaction and transformational leadership has been visible among the intellectual stimulation dimension.

10- Randeree, Kasim (2007) Study entitled "Leadership in project managed environments: employee perceptions of leadership styles within infrastructure development in Dubai".

The study aimed to examine leadership styles in a rapidly growing industry in what is also such a cosmopolitan city. Hence, the research undertaken aimed to study leadership styles in construction project management in Dubai. The findings show that employees feel that Consensus and Team Management leadership styles are predominant in the industry and employees have shown preference for working under these leadership styles.

11- Varadarajan, Damodharan (2013) Study entitled "Relationship between

Leadership Styles and Leadership Virtues–An Investigation of Managers in UAE".

The study aimed to discuss the leadership styles and virtues of the top managerial level executives in the UAE. The sample consisted of 115 managers of whom interviewed 75 females and 40 males. The age groups that we had in the dataset ranged from 21 to 50 years, dominated by the age group 21 to 30 years that comprised 64% of the data. The

respondents were from various companies, departments, and at different managerial levels. The study concluded that the successful managers in the UAE adopted a

Democratic Leadership Style, where education and work experience were the most important factors amongst the managers of the UAE. Finally, the Leadership Virtues that explained the leadership style amongst the top managers were their Judgment Score (at

99% confidence level) and their Enthusiasm Score (at 95% confidence level).

12- Yahchouchi, Georges (2009) Study entitled "Employees’ Perceptions of

Lebanese Managers’ Leadership Styles and Organizational Commitment".

The research investigated the employees’ perceptions of the prevalent leadership style in

Lebanon and its impact on organizational commitment. The Lebanese society with its social complexity has much to offer to the understanding of the culture’s effect on leadership style and organizational commitment. Moreover, the impact of religion and gender on leadership style and organizational commitment is examined. Data were collected in a survey on a sample composed of 158 respondents chosen among employees working and living in two different areas in Lebanon. Results showed that Lebanese leadership tends to be more transformational than transactional. Evidence supporting a positive relation between transformational leadership and organizational commitment has been found. A significant and curious difference in leadership perception and organizational commitment between religious communities has also been noted.

2.3.2 International Studies

1-Al- Sardieh, Eid (2012) Study entitled "Transformational Leadership and

Organizational Culture in Small-Scale Industries in The Governorate of Mafraq".

The study aimed to investigate the effect of transformational leadership on organizational culture in small-scale industries in the governorate of Mafraq.

The study showed that there is a statistically significant effect and at the level of significance (a£ 0.05) to the dimensions of transformational leadership on organizational culture in small-scale industries, the researcher recommends working on the focus and the dissemination and promotion of dynamics culture in the small-scale industries in the governorate of Mafraq in order to enhance creativity and innovation, in order to reach an acceptable level which improves competitiveness.

2- Ardichvili, Alexander (2002) Study entitled "Leadership styles and cultural values among managers and subordinates: a comparative study of four countries of the former Soviet Union, Germany, and the US".

This cross-cultural study utilized the full range leadership framework developed by Bass and Avolio and Hofstede’s model of culture, and compared leadership styles and cultural values of over 4,000 managerial and non-managerial employees in ten business organizations in Russia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Germany, and the US.

Regarding socio-cultural dimensions, the study found that, compared to Germany and the

US, the four former USSR countries differed primarily by much lower levels of Power

Distance, higher levels of Masculinity and much longer planning horizons. The results on leadership indicate that two dimensions – Contingent Reward and Inspirational

Motivation – produced the highest scores in all four countries of the former USSR. Two

less efficient leadership styles, Laissez-faire and Management by Exception, have received significantly higher scores in the four former USSR countries, than in the US and Germany. Finally, the study suggests that cross-cultural human resource development issues cannot be described in terms of simplified dichotomies between the East and West.

For constructs measured in this study, significant differences were found not only between the two groups of countries but also between individual countries within these groups.

3- Berson, and Avolio (2004) Study entitled "Transformational Leadership and The

Dissemination of Organizational Goals: A Case Study of A Telecommunication

Firm".

The study examined how the leadership style of top and middle-level managers in a large telecommunications organization was related to their effectiveness in conveying strategic organizational goals. Using quantitative and qualitative methods, the study found that transformational leaders perceived organizational goals as prospector oriented, and were rated as more effective communicators by their direct reports. An exploratory analysis indicated that managers who reported to transformational leaders tended to have higher agreement on the strategic goals of the organization. Leaders who were effective communicators had direct reports who were more familiar with the goals of the organization.

4- Berson, Y., and Linton, J. D. (2005) Study entitled "An examination of the relationships between leadership style, quality, and employee satisfaction in R and D versus administrative environments".

Sample of this study was conducted in a telecommunication organization

The study examined the relationship between leadership style and the establishment of a quality environment in a Rand D setting based on an empirical study of 511 research engineers and scientists. It is found that both transformational leadership and transactional contingent-reward leadership are related to the establishment of a quality environment in the Rand D part of a telecommunications firm. However, the impact of transactional contingent-reward leadership ceases to be significant once both leadership styles are considered simultaneously using structural equations. A transformational leadership style was also found to be related to employee satisfaction.

5-Casida, J. (2008) Study entitled "Leadership-Organizational Culture Relationship in Nursing Units of Acute Care Hospitals".

The study aimed to explore the relationship between nurse managers’ leadership styles and organizational culture of nursing units, within an acute care hospital that had achieved excellent organizational performance, as demonstrated by a consistent increase in patient satisfaction ratings. The data from this study found that transformational and transactional contingent reward leaderships as nurse manager leadership styles, that are associated with nursing unit organizational culture, that have the ability to balance the dynamics of flexibility and stability within their nursing units, and are essential for maintaining organizational effectiveness. It is essential for first-line nursing leaders to acquire knowledge and skills on organizational cultural competence.

6- Irtaimeh, Hani (2011) Study entitled "Transformational Leadership and

Adhocracy Culture in Zain Cellular Communications Company Operating in

Jordan".

The study aimed to investigate the impact of transformational leadership on adhocracy culture. The target population for this survey comprised of employees working-full time in Zain Cellular Communications Company Operating in Jordan. A total of 240 of the questionnaires were completed and used in the data analysis representing a response rate of 67 percent. Transformational leadership was measured by using Bass and Avolio’s

(1995) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ form 5X). Adhocracy culture was measured by using Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) developed by

Quinn (1998). The research showed that 67.2 percent of the variance in Adhocracy culture could be attributed to the transformational leadership of organizational leaders.

7- Jasim-Uddin (2013) Study entitled "The Impact Of Organizational Culture On

Employee Performance And Productivity: A Case Study Of Telecommunication

Sector In Bangladesh".

The study aimed to examine the impact of organizational culture on employee performance and productivity from the perspectives of multinational companies operating especially under the telecommunication sector of Bangladesh in South Asia. The paper has applied qualitative methodology focusing on a case study of Grameen phone (GP) (a subsidiary of Teleron in Norway), the leading telecommunication based subsidiary in

Bangladesh. The paper argued that organizational culture significantly influences employee performance and productivity in the dynamic emerging context.

8- Kanungo, S. (1998) Study entitled "An Empirical Study of Organizational

Culture and Network-Based Computer Use an Empirical Study of Organizational".

The study investigated the influence of organizational culture on computer-mediated communication and information access (CMCIA). A validated instrument to assess

CMCIA and organizational culture was used. Organizational culture was treated as a shared set of norms and values.

Meaningful CMCIA occurs when computer-network technology is maximally exploited to amplify individual information processing actions to foster organizational excellence.

CMCIA was measured by a weighted user-satisfaction importance rating. Both organizational culture and CMCIA were measured empirically by administering questionnaires to respondents in organizations that use computer networks. A non- experimental field study was employed to test the hypothesis that particular types of organizational cultures foster computer-network effectiveness while other types hinder it.

The usable response rate was 45%. Eight organizations were used for data analysis.

Statistically significant findings showed that organizational culture interacts with the degree of use to affect user satisfaction with CMCIA. In task-oriented organizations, user satisfaction with CMCIA was positively related to degree of use. People-oriented organizations displayed a negative relationship between degree o fuse and user satisfaction with CMCIA. These results can be used when designing implementation strategies for information systems that have the potential to affect whole departments or organizations.

9 - Kavanagh, Marie (2006) Study entitled "The Impact of Leadership and Change

Management Strategy on organizational Culture and Individual Acceptance of

Change during a Merger".

This study examined mergers between three large multi-site public-sector organizations.

Both qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis are used to examine the effect of leadership and change management strategies on acceptance of cultural change by

individuals. Findings indicate that in many cases the change that occurs as a result of a merger is imposed on the leaders themselves, and it is often the pace of change that inhibits the successful re-engineering of the culture. In this respect, the success or otherwise of any merger hinges on individual perceptions about the manner in which the process is handled and the direction in which the culture is moved. Communication and a transparent change process are important, as this will often determine not only how a leader will be regarded, but who will be regarded as a leader. Leaders need to be competent and trained in the process of transforming organizations to ensure that individuals within the organization accept the changes prompted by a merger.

10- Kuchinke (1999) Study entitled "Leadership and Culture: Work‐Related Values and Leadership Styles Among One Company's US and German Telecommunication

Employees".

The study aimed to investigate differences in leadership styles and work-related values among managers, engineers, and production employees of one company's US and

German telecommunication employees, all these are examined based on survey results.

Using Bass and Avolio's (1991) Full-Range Leadership theory and Hofstede's (1980) theory of culture, the results reveal lower levels of transformational leadership styles among German employees, but no differences in leadership styles among different job categories in either country. There were country-level differences in culture that explained a portion of the variance in leadership scores. Job category also had a main effect on cultural values. Patterns of work-related values different from those predicted in earlier research are shown, as is the need for further refinement of research in leadership theory and understanding of culture.

11- Kwantes, Catherine (2007) Study entitled "Perceptions of organizational culture, leadership effectiveness and personal effectiveness across six countries".

Perceptions of which facets of organizational culture are related to leadership and personal effectiveness were examined using archival data from Canada, Hong Kong,

New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Organizational culture was strongly perceived as being related to both leadership effectiveness

(explaining 40% of the variance) and personal effectiveness (24% of the variance).

Aspects of organizational culture that promote employee fulfillment and satisfaction were uniformly viewed as positively related to leadership and personal effectiveness. The perceived relationship across samples was stronger between organizational culture and leadership effectiveness than between organizational culture and personal effectiveness.

12- Lok, Peter (2004) Study entitled "The effect of organizational culture and leadership style on job satisfaction and organizational commitment A cross-national comparison".

This study examined the effects of organizational culture and leadership styles on job satisfaction and organizational commitment in samples of Hong Kong and Australian managers. Statistically significant differences between the two samples were found for measures of innovative and supportive organizational cultures, job satisfaction and organizational commitment, with the Australian sample having higher mean scores on all these variables. However, differences between the two samples for job satisfaction and commitment were removed after statistically controlling for organizational culture, leadership and respondents’ demographic characteristics. For the combined samples, innovative and supportive cultures, and a consideration leadership style, had positive

effects on both job satisfaction and commitment, with the effects of an innovative culture on satisfaction and commitment, and the effect of a consideration leadership style on commitment, being stronger in the Australian sample. Also, an “initiating Structure” leadership style had a negative effect on job satisfaction for the combined sample.

Participants’ level of education was found to have a slight negative effect on satisfaction, and a slight positive effect on commitment. National culture was found to moderate the effect of respondents’ age on satisfaction, with the effect being more positive amongst

Hong Kong managers.

13- Lok, Peter (1999) Study entitled "The relationship between commitment and organizational culture, subculture, leadership style and job satisfaction in organizational change and development".

The concept of organizational commitment has been examined extensively in organizational literature, yet the relationships between organizational culture, subculture, and commitment have received little attention so far. Acknowledging the complexity and the multifaceted nature of antecedents involved in organizational commitment, it is still necessary to understand the dynamics of relationships between these variables. It was found that organizational subculture was more strongly related to commitment than was organizational culture. Satisfaction with the level of control over working environment had the highest correlation with the level of commitment. The leadership style variable, consideration, was also relatively strongly related to commitment when compared with other variables. There was a small positive association between age and commitment.

However, participants' level of education, years in position and years of experience failed to show any relationship with commitment.

14- Lugo, Maria (2013) Study entitled "Cultural and Emotional Intelligences in the

Development of Global Transformational Leadership Skills".

The study examined the strength and direction of relationships between the self and social dimensions of both emotional and cultural intelligences and transformational leadership skills. Data was gathered from 171 students enrolled at Les Roches

International School of Hotel Management in Switzerland. Statistical analyses included factor analysis, Cronbach’s Alpha, Pearson’ r, and regression. Results found a direct correlation between the self and social dimension of transformational leadership and emotional and cultural intelligence skills, supporting the study hypotheses.

15- Sabri, Hala (2008) Study entitled "Jordanian Managers' Leadership Styles in

Comparison with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and

Prospects for Knowledge Management in Jordan".

The research aimed to examine the newer leadership styles and their implication for implementing knowledge management in Jordanian organizations. The research investigated Jordanian managers’ leadership styles and then compared them with managers in other organizations with different cultures, such as the International Air

Transport association (IATA). A survey of 120 managers from Jordan and IATA was undertaken using an established measurement instrument. Results revealed that meanwhile IATA managers preferred transformational than transactional leadership style, in Jordan, there was no clear preference for transactional or transformational style as both were being used. But when compared with IATA managers Jordanian managers showed more inclination towards transactional than transformational behaviors. However, like other comparative research, the study shared the limitation of likely sampling bias.

Moreover, it did not take into account the political realities of conducting social science research in countries with long authoritarian histories, such as Jordan, which present the likelihood of further response bias.

16- Sarros, James (2008) Study entitled "Building a Climate for Innovation

Through Transformational Leadership and Organizational Culture".

Researchers have called for organizations to be more flexible, adaptive, entrepreneurial, and innovative in meeting the changing demands of today’s environment. Appropriate leadership to effect such change is required; however, there has been little empirical analysis of the theoretical relationships among the key components that make up such change strategy, including transformational leadership, organizational culture, and organizational innovation. This study examined these linkages in terms of their relationships with climate for organizational innovation in Australian private sector organizations. Structural equation modeling based on responses to a survey of 1,158 managers explores the relationship between transformational leadership and climate for organizational innovation and the extent to which a competitive, performance-oriented organizational culture mediates this relationship. Strategies for building innovative organizations are discussed. The evidence in the study suggested that transformational leadership is associated with organizational culture, primarily through the processes of articulating a vision, and to a lesser extent through the setting of high performance expectations and providing individual support to workers.

17- Shiva, M. (2012) Study entitled "Transformational Leadership,

Organizational Culture, Organizational Effectiveness, And Programme

Outcomes In Non-Governmental Organizations".

The study examined whether transformational leadership influences organizational culture that furthers NGOs’ effectiveness. It also examines whether transformational leadership at the top directly influences NGOs’ effectiveness. Further, it tests whether

NGO effectiveness improves the program outcomes in terms of health, income, education, and happiness of villagers. Data were collected from 312 NGOs in Jharkhand state (India). Transformational leadership, organizational culture, and NGO effectiveness were assessed from NGO personnel using standard instruments, and program outcomes on health, income, education, and happiness were evaluated from villagers using wooden cubes. Findings reveal that transformational leadership builds organizational culture that furthers NGO effectiveness. Transformational leadership does not influence directly

NGO effectiveness but it enhances NGO effectiveness promoting organizational culture.

Furthermore, NGO effectiveness improves the outcomes of programs undertaken by

NGOs in terms of better health, income, education, and happiness of beneficiaries.

18- Snipes Bennett (2006) Study entitled "The Effectiveness of a Diverse Workforce within Nonprofit Organizations Serving Older Adults: An Analysis of the Impact of

Leadership Styles and Organizational Culture".

The purpose of this study is to determine if there is a relationship between leadership styles, organizational culture (OC), and organizational effectiveness outcomes (OEO).

The relationship study applies data collection and scoring procedures developed by Bass and Avolio. Leader/manager leadership styles were compared with organizational culture and organizational effectiveness outcome. This quantitative study utilized bivariate correlation techniques of Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation. Results determined that some leadership styles were significantly correlated with organizational culture and

organizational effectiveness outcomes and few were not correlated. Therefore, it is hypothesized that leadership styles as perceived by staff have a significant impact on organizational culture and organizational effectiveness outcomes. Additionally, the study shows the self-assessed leader/manager leadership styles and the impact their leadership styles have on organizational culture and organizational effectiveness outcomes. The study also demonstrates that leaders’ self-assessed leadership style, organizational culture, and organizational effectiveness outcomes were opposite from the perception of staff.

19- Su-Chao Chang, Ming-Shing Lee (2007) Study entitled "Relationship Among

Leadership, Organizational Culture, The Operation Of Learning Organization And

Employees' Job Satisfaction".

Sample of this study was conducted in a telecommunication organization

The research results indicated that the various operations extent of learning organization have significant differences under the dimensions of leadership, organizational culture and the operation of learning organization. Both leadership and organizational culture can positively and significantly affect the operation of learning organization. In addition, the operation of learning organizations has a significantly positive effect on employees' job satisfaction.

20- Sumarto and Andi Subroto, (2011). Study entitled "Organizational Culture and

Leadership Role for Improving Organizational Performance: Automotive

Components Industry in Indonesia".

The study built a research model in order to provide a comprehensive understanding not only to know how the contribution of organizational culture and leadership to enhance

organizational performance, and how they are to each other, but also to answer the gaps in previous research on Organizational culture and organizational performance. The study was conducted on automotive component industry in Indonesia. Target population consisted of 165 companies as members of GIAMM (Gabungan Industrial at Mobil dan

Motor/Joint Industrial Tool and Motor Car) throughout Indonesia. The sampling technique used is the census sampling in which the entire target population to be sampled. Results show that Leadership has a strong role in improving organizational performance and in shaping organizational culture. While strong organizational culture cannot be proved to improve organizational performance.

21- Tsui, Anne (2006) Study entitled "Unpacking the relationship between CEO leadership behavior and organizational culture".

The study aimed to understand when and why decoupling between CEO leadership behavior and organizational culture may occur. The study examined this issue in a novel context, the People’s Republic of China, where there is large variance on leader discretion in different types of firms. The study conducted two survey studies and an interview study to unpack the nature of the relationship. The findings offer insights on both leadership and institutional factors that may account for the decoupling between

CEO leadership behavior and organizational cultural values. The researcher offer directions for future research on both leadership and organizational culture phenomena and their potential relationships or lack of.

22- Zahari, Ibrahim et.al. (2012) Study entitled "The Effect of Organizational

Culture and the Relationship between Transformational Leadership and Job

Satisfaction in Petroleum Sector of Libya".

The study aimed to investigate the effect of organizational culture on the relationship between transformational leadership and job satisfaction in petroleum sector with a focus on the National Oil Corporation of Libya (NOC). The findings indicate that the leaders of

National Oil Corporation of Libya follow transformational leadership style to manage their organization, and the dominant culture in NOC of Libya is Hierarchy culture while the relationship between transformational leadership style, job satisfaction and organizational culture is positive significant relationship.

2.4 Contribution of the Research to Knowledge

The previous review of previous studies and researches showed a growing interest among researchers of the important of leadership styles in creating culture. For example

Muhammad (2011), studied the relationship between the leadership styles

(transformational and transactional) on employees’ satisfaction at Jordanian private hospitals and found a positive relationship between transformational leadership and employee's satisfaction in Jordanian hospitals. Casida (2008) also studied leadership- organizational culture relationship in nursing units of acute care, and found that transformational and transactional contingent reward leaderships are the major leadership styles of nurse manager, and they are associated with nursing unit organizational culture, that have the ability to balance the dynamics of flexibility and stability within their nursing units, and are essential for maintaining organizational effectiveness. While AL-

Saradieh, (2012) showed there is an effect of the dimensions of transformational leadership on organizational culture in small-scale industries in the government of

Mafraq. Abbas, (2008) studied the effects of leadership styles on organizational loyalty.

This research adds to management researchers and contributes in this field. It is also a good base for those who are eager to expand the topic and do similar research in Jordan or in other countries of the region. The research is also a good material to understand the relation between leadership styles and organizational culture types, and to determine the leadership styles that should prevail at telecommunication companies, and the type of the organizational culture, to enhance employees’ motivation and organization performance.

In addition the research spotlight on the telecommunication sector in Jordan, to help the decision makers in the Orange and Umniah companies to well understand their leadership styles and the types of organizational culture.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This research sought to explore the relationship between the leadership styles and types of organizational culture in the Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies in

Jordan. This chapter presents a description of these two companies followed by the research design, statistical techniques in data analysis, and the data collecting instruments. In addition, the chapter provides a description of the population and samples as well as the survey instruments. The reliability and validity of the survey instruments are also examined.

The research contains both primary and secondary data. The resources of the primary data were collected using international survey instruments, to measure the leadership styles and the types of organizational culture. The resources of the secondary data are based on previous research, academic journals, dissertations, and the World Wide Web.

To measure if there is a significant statistical impact among respondents’ demographic variables with regard to their perceptions to the leadership styles and organizational culture, further exploration is required to assess how the variables of leadership styles interact with the demographic variables of experience, age, gender, educational level, and job level, and to assess the probable impact on the organizational culture.

Orange and Umniah Telecommunication Companies

1. Jordan Telecom Group (JTG) / Orange Company play a prominent role in the information and communications technology sector (ICT). Its lineup of fixed, mobile, and

internet services constitutes the real base for the Kingdom’s telecommunications backbone and contributes to its integration with regional and world countries.

In the biggest integration of its kind in the market, JTG in 2006 combined its four companies under one umbrella, becoming the sole integrated operator in Jordan

(Mobilecom) (www.orange.jo). In 2007, the Group adopted the Orange brand – the commercial brand of France Telecom Group –for all its fixed, mobile, internet and content services, marking another significant achievement for the ICT sector. This step aimed at providing the Jordanian market with the standardized world class services offered by the Orange brand, which has 190 million customers in 220 countries and territories worldwide. Since then, Orange Jordan has made available the best telecommunications services for its customers by offering various and comprehensive services at affordable prices, – the most recent being the introduction of its 3G+ network, which made Orange Jordan the exclusive mobile operator in Jordan authorized to provide

3G+ services in the local market.

In 2009, Orange launched the Information Security Operation Center – a revolutionary project designed to provide imperative managed security services in accordance with international standards and with the capacity to compete with global security centers.

Orange Jordan Techno Center serve as a principal access for all the France Telecom –

Orange affiliates in EMEA region that wish to acquire the high dedicated innovation streams, which include voice products and services, portal and multimedia in addition to broadband growth. With its ability to call upon the vast expertise of its French partner and main shareholder, France Telecom, JTG continues to provide the market with all that

the world telecom industry has to offer, supported by its state of the art digital network that extends to cover the Kingdom in its entirety.

With an unwavering commitment to its local community, JTG has established business goals that fall in line with sustainable development in the Kingdom, seeking to reconcile growth and competitiveness with its commitment to social development and the improvement of the quality of life for future generations. The Group now serves more than 2.9 million customers with cutting edge technologies and world-class services offered at highly affordable prices (www.orange.jo).

2. Umniah Company. Upon the official launch of its operations on June 26th 2005,

Umniah quickly succeeded in making a strong entrance into one of the region’s most highly competitive markets, positioning itself as the most successful operator to enter the Jordanian telecommunications market to date. A driving factor behind Umniah’s success is its sound and calculated business strategies and its provision of a comprehensive range of telecom solutions that include advanced mobile, Internet and business solutions services at competitive prices, balancing quality with value for money

(http://www.umniah.com). Umniah’s devotion to serving its subscribers, whom are its first priority, has driven it to keep abreast of the latest market developments and changing needs of various consumer segments. Today Umniah, a subsidiary of Batelco Group, has become Jordan's fastest growing mobile telecom operator with over two million mobile subscribers and over 20,000 broadband subscribers , gaining a significant share of the

Jordanian telecom market in record time. Umniah has also been able to expand the

Jordanian mobile and Internet market penetration rate through its comprehensive services, supporting the kingdom’s national agenda (http://www.umniah.com).

3.2 Research Design

This research addresses the relationship between two leadership styles (Transformational and Transactional leadership), and four types of organizational culture (Role, Power,

Support, and Achievement). To collect the data of the leadership styles (transformational and transactional) the research adopts the questionnaire survey of leadership styles developed by(W. Warner Burke 1983, as cited by Schermerhorn, 2002). It also adopts"

Diagnosing Organizational Culture" questionnaire developed by Harrison and Stokes

(1992) to assess the types of organizational culture (Power, Role, Achievement, and

Support). The two questionnaires are international instruments and have been used by many researchers; they are more cost effective, there is a uniform question presentation, no middle-man bias, and the researcher's own opinions do not influence the respondents to answer the questions in a certain manner.

3.3 Statistical Techniques in Data Analysis

To examine the hypotheses which were formulated to examine the types of leadership styles and the types of organizational culture at Orange and Umniah companies, the

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used. The following statistical techniques have been used in data analysis:

1. Descriptive Statistical Techniques: mean, standard deviation, range,

frequencies, percentage.

2. One Sample T-Test: To measure the dominant leadership styles and the types of

organizational culture.

3. Independent Sample t-test: To measure the differences between Umniah and

Orange companies regarding leadership styles and organizational culture.

4. Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson correlation): was used to

examine the relationships between the leadership styles and the four types of

organization culture in Orange and Umniah companies.

5. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA): was used to test if significant differences exist

between groups.

6. Scheffe's multiple comparison procedure: was used to detect exactly where the

mean differences lie between the leadership styles and organizational culture in

Orange and Umniah companies.

7. Reliability Test: for the instruments of measurement (leadership styles and

organizational culture), the reliability of a measure highlights the stability and

consistency of the concepts which the instrument measuring, and helps to assess

the 'goodness' of a measure (Sakaran, 1992).The researcher assessed the reliability

of the leadership styles and organizational culture instruments and for each of the

instruments dimensions through the measure of reliability coefficient. The

reliability coefficient shows how congruent are the items in measuring accurately

which it is intended to measure. This can be achieved by applying either a test-re-

test experiment, or an alternate form using similar versions of the same

instrument. The value of reliability varies from zero to one, to be satisfactory it

should be around 0.70 or higher (Sakaran, 1992).

3.4 Population and Sample

3.4.1 Population

The research population consisted of the employees working at the head office of Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies operating within greater Amman municipality

in Jordan. Orange company employs around 600 employees at its head office and

Umniah Company employs around 250 employees at its head office in Amman-Jordan.

To cover the entire population of telecommunication companies in Jordan, the researcher initially aimed to include Zain Telecommunication Company in this research. However after communicating Zain's administration to include them in the study they apologized, therefore the research population was limited to Orange and Umniah companies only.

3.4.2 Sampling and Sampling Methods

The research used random stratified sample of a size of 265 employees (Sekaran, 2007).

The sample has been derived into two strata as illustrated in Table 2. A total of 265 questionnaires have been distributed (188 for Orange, and 77 for Umniah). The returned and accepted usable questionnaire were 125 (76 from Orange, and 49 from Umniah) at a total response rate of 47%.

Table 2: Questionnaires’ Response Rate at Orange and Umniah companies

Company Population Percentage Sample Response Response Name of Size Percentage Population

Orange 600 71% 188 76 41%

Umniah 250 29% 77 49 63%

Total 850 100% 265 125 47%

3.5 Research Instrument

1. Measurement of Leadership Styles. The instrument developed by (W. Warner Burke

1983, as cited by Schermerhorn, 2002) was used. The instrument contains twenty items measuring transformational and transactional leadership styles and it's available on the

World Wide Web (Schermerhorn, 2002).The questionnaire contains ten questions

represent the independent variables that have been identified in the light of ten factors describing the transformational leadership (represented by A in each question), and ten other factors describe transactional leadership (represented by B in each question). The respondents were asked to read each item and then divide 5 points between A and B statements in any one for the following ways:

5 for a, 0 for b; 4 for a, 1 for b; 3 for a, 2 for b; 2 for a, 3 for b; 1 for a, 4 for b; 0 for a, 5 for b, but not equally (2½) between the two. Weigh the respondent choices between the two according to the one that characterizes them or their beliefs better.

2. Measurement of organizational culture: The instrument developed by Harrison and Stokes (1992) entitled 'Diagnosing Organizational Culture' was used. This instrument had fifteen questions, each of which was followed by four options (a, b, c and d), each option describe one type of the four types of organizational culture developed by Harrison and Stokes (Role, Power, Achievement, and Support).

Table 3: Harrison and Stokes Culture Measure Scale

A B C D

Power Role Achievement Support

The respondents were asked to read each item, and then rank each of the four options as follows:

In a column entitled 'Existing Culture', rank which was the most dominant existing culture and the least dominant culture in their organization

Score 4: For the most dominant (Existing) view.

Score 3: For the next most dominant (Existing) view.

Score 2: For the next most dominant (Existing) view.

Score 1: For the least dominant (Existing) view.

Harrison and Stokes' instrument was used on several studies conducted to measure the culture of organizations in different national cultures. In Europe and the United Kingdom, by the Roffey Park Institute. In the United States by Harrison(1990) and Anderson(1995), in Australia and New Zealand by Harrison(1990), in South Africa by Serfontein (1990) and Van Stuyvesan (2008), in Singapore by Ong (2006), in Jordan by Sabri (2004), and in Saudi Arabia by Al-Salem(1996).

Translation of The Research Instruments

To help respondents understand the terms used in the two instruments, it was necessary to translate them into Arabic language. The researcher with the help of the supervisor did the translation.

3.6Procedure for Data Collection

In order to get in-depth insights into the leadership style and types of organizational culture, data were collected from telecommunication companies Orange and Umniah, from the employees working at the two companies head offices in Amman-Jordan.

The researcher asked the respondents to fill in leadership style questionnaire, which measures the type of leadership style even if it's transformational leadership style or transactional leadership style. Also the researcher asked the respondents to fill organizational culture questionnaire which measures the type of culture in the two companies Orange and Umniah even its power culture, role culture, achievement culture, or support culture.

The researcher faced many difficulties while distributing the questionnaires. At Umniah the management did not allow the researcher to pass through the offices and distribute the questionnaires. The distribution process depended on the number of employees who visited the company's cafeteria during their break, and many of them have apologized for not completing the questionnaire due to shortage of time. To increase the number of the respondents, the researcher convinced some of the respondents, who did not fill the questionnaire to send it by e-mail which was good idea as the researcher has received response from them.

At Orange the employees showed more cooperation than Umniah's employees however, they did not have time to fill the questionnaire, so a number of employees opt to keep the questionnaires to fill them later but did not return them to the researcher.

3.7 Validity and Reliability

3.7.1 Validity

Before conducting research and testing hypotheses, researchers have to ensure the validity of the measurement instrument used. The validity of a measure refers to the extent to which the research findings accurately represent what the measuring instrument claims to measure (Bryman, 1995; Collis and Hussey, 2003; Punch, 2005). An instrument is considered valid if it measures what the researcher claims it does (Collis and Hussey,

2003), which reflect the degree of reliability and the stability of the measurement tool.

The instruments are international instruments, that had been used and tested by different researchers as indicated in the United States by Harrison(1990) and Anderson(1995), in

Australia and New Zealand by Harrison(1990), in South Africa by Serfontein (1990) and

Van Stuyvesan (2008), in Singapore by Ong (2006), Burke (1983), in Jordan by Sabri

(2004), and in Saudi Arabia by Al-Salem(1996), even though the researcher has did the validity and reliability test.

3.7.2 Reliability

The mostly used reliability coefficient Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was determined for the whole instrument, and was applied to each dimension to ensure inter-item consistency reliability (Sekaran, 2003). Reliabilities ranging from 0.5 to 0.60 are sufficient for exploratory studies (Nunnally, 1967 cited in Dimovski, 1994), in the range of 0.70 are acceptable and over 0.80 are good (Sekaran, 2003). The values of Cronbach’s alpha closer to 1 ensure the higher internal consistency reliability. Table 4 describes the reliability of the research instruments.

Table 4: Reliability Test of The Research Instruments Leadership Styles and Types of Organizational culture

Field Field Value of (α) Number

1 Power culture 0.969

2 Role culture 0.968

3 Achievement culture 0.974

4 Support culture 0.977

5 Transformational leadership style 0.933

6 Transactional leadership style 0.889

Total 0.952

After entering phrases component of the questionnaire, the results show that reliability coefficient for both organizational culture and leadership style questionnaires equal to

(0.952). This means that there is stability in the form (approaching 1), and so on for the organizational culture part where the reliability coefficient for the statements of this section (0.972), while the leadership style part (0.911).

The total Cronbach's alpha for the research fields was (0.952).The maximum for

Cronbach's alpha was Support culture field (0.977), and the lower was at Transactional leadership field (0.889). All the values in table 4 are more than (0.70) which is an acceptable value (Sekaran, 2003), which will lead to the stability and reliability of the results for this research.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS, DISSCUSSION AND

INTERPRETAION

4.1 Introduction

The purpose of this research is to investigate the relationship between leadership styles and the organizational culture, at two telecommunication companies operating in Jordan

Orange and Umniah. This chapter presents the empirical findings of this research and discusses these findings.

This research was accomplished through the use of survey instrument, for measuring leadership style in Orange and Umniah. The instrument developed by (W. Warner Burke

1983, as cited by Schermerhorn, 2002) and the instrument developed by Harrison and

Stokes (1992) entitled 'Diagnosing Organizational Culture'. To examine the hypotheses which were formulated to examine the leadership styles and types organizational culture at Orange and Umniah companies the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used.

4.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents

Table 5 and table 6 shows the demographic profile of the research sample.

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Table 5: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample at Orange company

Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage %

1. Experience 76 100%

Less than 5 Years 37 48.7

5-10 years 30 39.5

More than 10 years 8 10.5

Missing 1 1.30 2. Age 76 100%

Lower than 30 years 57 75.0

30-39 years 19 25.0

40-49 years 0 0.0

50 years and more 0 0.0

3. Gender 76 100%

Male 51 67.0

Female 25 33.0

4. Educational level 76 100%

Secondary 0 0.0

Bachelor 63 83.0

Graduate studies 13 17.0

(Master and PhD)

5. Job level 76 100%

Executive Manager 2 3.0

Manager 0 0.0

Head Department 13 17.0

Others (non managerial 61 80.0 employees)

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Table 5 demonstrates that the majority of the employees sample of Orange company are with seniority of less than 5 years with a (48.7%) of the respondents, and the majority of the respondents were less than 30 years old as indicated in table 5, and that's an indication that Orange company hires young people. The dominant age among groups participating in the questionnaire at Orange company is less than 30 years, which represent (75.0 %) of the respondents, and the second age group is between 30-39 years, which represent

(25.0%) that shows the general orientation for Orange telecommunication company is to hire young people.

Table 5 also shows that (67.0%) of the respondents at Orange company were male, and

(33.0%) were female.

For the educational level, table 5 shows that the majority of the respondents were have

Bachelor degree with (83.0%), and the Graduated Studies were (17.0%), those results showed that Orange company employees, have higher education so that they are able to work within the local and global competition, keep abreast of developments in the telecommunication sector, and keep up with the evolution in the world, including reflected on their performance in their company that need this kind of staff that are highly creative and innovative.

The results from table 5 shows that the majority of the sample respondents at Orange company according to Job level were Others (non managerial employees) with (80.0%), followed by Head Department achieved with (17.0%), of the respondents sample, its noted that the managers and executives managers were the minority in the sample, and this is due to the difficulty of access to them during the distribution of the questionnaires.

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Table 6: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample at Umniah company

Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage %

1. Experience 49 100%

Less than 5 Years 21 43.0

5-10 years 26 53.0

More than 10 years 0 0.0

Missing 2 4.0 2. Age 49 100%

Lower than 30 years 26 53.0

30-39 years 17 35.0

40-49 years 1 2.0

50 years and more 5 0.10

3. Gender 49 100%

Male 32 65.0

Female 17 35.0

4. Educational level 49 100% 3

Secondary 3 6.0

Bachelor 37 75.6

Graduate studies 9 18.4

(Master and PhD)

5. Job level 49 100%

Executive Manager 0 0.0

Manager 5 10.0

Head Department 15 30.8

Others (non managers) 29 59.2

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Table 6 demonstrates that the majority of the employees sample of Umniah company are with seniority of less than 5 years with a (43.0%) of the respondents, and the majority of the respondents were less than 30 years old as indicated in table 6, and that's an indication that Umniah company hires young people. The dominant age among groups participating in the questionnaire at Umniah company is less than 30 years, which represent (53.0 %) of the respondents, and the second age group is between 30-39 years, which represent

(35.0%) that shows the general orientation for Umniah telecommunication company is to hire young people.

Table 6 also shows that (65.0%) of the respondents at Orange company were male, and

(35.0%) were female.

For the educational level, table 6 shows that the majority of the respondents were have

Bachelor degree with (75.6%), and the Graduated Studies were (18.4%), those results showed that Umniah company employees have higher education, so that they are able to work within the local and global competition, keep abreast of developments in the telecommunication sector, and keep up with the evolution in the world, including reflected on their performance in their company that need this kind of staff that are highly creative and innovative.

The results from table 6 shows that the majority of the sample respondents at Umniah company according to Job level were Others (non managerial employees) with (59.2%), followed by Head Department achieved with (30.8%), of the respondents sample, its noted that the managers and executives managers were the minority in the sample, and this is due to the difficulty of access to them during the distribution of the questionnaires.

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The following criteria are used to test hypotheses in order to identify the leadership styles, and organizational culture in Orange and Umniah companies (Hatamleh, 2006).

Table 7: criteria of evaluating the leadership styles and types of organizational culture in Orange and Umniah companies

Extent Degree

1-1.99 Weak

2- 2.99 Medium

3 or more High (Depicted from Hatamleh, 2006)

4.3 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 1 and 2

In order to test hypothesis 1.8.1 which states that: "There is no significant difference at (α

≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance between the leadership style in Orange company and the leadership style in Umniah company", and the alternate hypothesis (H1) 1.8.2 which stated that: "there is significant difference at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance between the leadership style in Orange company and the leadership style in Umniah company", means and standard deviation were calculated for each leadership style of both Orange and Umniah companies, then t-test was used to detect the difference. Table 8 shows the results.

Table 8 indicates that although mean score of transactional style is higher than the transformational style at Orange Company, but the difference is not significant because the significant value of 0.489 is higher than the significance level(α=0.05). Results show significant difference between the transformational leadership and the transactional

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leadership of Umniah company, as the significance value is 0.01 which is less than

(α=0.05).

Table 8: T-test to detect the difference between the leadership styles at Orange and the leadership style at Umniah Companies Leadership Std. t-value Sig- Value Company Mean style Deviation

Transformational 2.44 0.10 Orange 1.152 0.489 Transactional 2.60 0.10

Transformational 2.75 0.32 Umniah 4.14 0.01** Transactional 2.38 0.32

4.4 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 3 and 4

In order to test Hypothesis 1.8.3 which states that “There is no significant difference between the existing type of organizational culture at Orange company and the existing type of organizational culture at Umniah company at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance and Hypothesis 1.8.4 which states that “There is significant difference between the existing type of organizational culture at Orange company and the existing type of organizational culture at Umniah company at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance, t-test, means, and standard deviation were calculated for each, the organizational culture of Orange and Umniah companies. Table 8 shows the results.

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Table 9: One Sample t-Test to Examine The Organizational Culture in each of Orange and Umniah Companies Company Organizational Mean S.D t-value Sig-value culture Power 2.46 0.55 -.580 0.56

Orange Role 2.46 0.39 -.735 0.46 Achievement 2.59 0.38 2.17 0.03*

Support 2.47 0.49 -.467 0.64

Power 2.37 0.66 -1.46 0.15

Umnaih Role 2.71 0.36 4.21 0.00*** Achievement 2.74 .53 3.18 0.03**

Support 2.18 0.42 -5.35 0.00

Significance level (**α =0.05, ***α =0.00)

Table 9 illustrates that there is significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) for achievement culture at Orange Company. The achievement culture indicates to a t-value of 2.17 which is significant at 0.03. At Umnaih company results indicates that there is significant evidence for role culture, and achievement culture. The role culture has a t-value of 4.21 which is significant at (α=0.00), and the achievement culture has a t-value of 3.18 which is significant at (α ≤ 0.05). However, even though support culture is significant but with high negative t-value.

Table 10 shows that at a significant level of (α=0.05), there is no significant difference between Orange and Umniah companies in the power culture since the significant level indicates to (0.357). Moreover, results show that there is no significant difference between Orange and Umniah in the Achievement culture as the significant level is

(0.079). But results indicate that there are significant differences between the two companies in the role and support cultures. The difference in Role culture indicates to a

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significant t-value of 3.599 which is significant at (α =0.00) level of significance. Umniah company is higher in role culture with mean of (2.72) than Orange company with mean of (2.47). Moreover, the difference in support culture indicates to a significant t-value of

3.433 which is significant at (α =0.01) level of significance. Orange company is higher in support culture with mean of (2.47) than Umniah company with mean of (2.18).

Therefore, accept the alternate hypothesis, (H1) (1.8.4) which states that "there is a difference between the existing type of organizational culture at Orange company and the existing type of organizational culture at Umniah company".

Table 10: T-test, Means and Standard Deviations to detect differences in the types of Organizational Culture between Orange and Umniah Companies

Organizational Std. t-value Sig-value Company Mean Culture Deviation

Umniah 2.36 0.66 Power 0.925 0.357 Orange 2.46 0.55

Umniah 2.72 0.37 Role 3.599 0.00*** Orange 2.47 0.40

Umniah 2.74 0.53 Achievement 1.770 0.079 Orange 2.60 0.38

Umniah 2.18 0.42 Support 3.433 0.01** Orange 2.47 0.49

Significance level (**α =0.01, ***α =0.00) 4.5 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 5 and 6

To examine the null hypothesis 1.8.5 which stated that: There is no significant relationship between the leadership style and types of organizational culture in each of

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Orange and Umniah companies at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) level of significance and the alternate hypothesis (Ha) 1.8.6 which stated that: There is significant relationship between the leadership style and type of organizational culture in each of Orange and Umniah companies, Pearson Correlation Coefficient was used to detect the relation between the leadership style and organizational culture at orange company and Umnaih company.

Pearson Correlation Test aims to reveal the strength or the degree of relationship between two variables. The degree of relationship between any two variables come between (+1 and -1), the more the degree of correlation close to 1, it means a positive correlation, and the more the degree of correlation close to -1, it means a negative correlation. To determine the relation it's shown in table 11 and 12.

Table 11: Pearson Correlation to Examine the Relationship between Leadership Styles and types of Organizational Culture At Orange Company Organizational leadership style Culture Transformational Transactional

Pearson .418 -.418 Power Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .229 .229 Pearson -.129 .129 Role Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .722 .722 Pearson -.414 .414 Achievement Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .235 .235 Pearson -.136 .136 Support Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .708 .708

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Table 11 shows that at Orange Company the significance values for the relationship between the two types of leaderships and each of the four types of organizational culture are higher than the significance level (α ≤ 0.05), which indicates that no significant relationship between the leadership styles and any type of organizational culture is confirmed at Orange company.

Table 12: Pearson Correlation to Examine the Relationship between Leadership Styles and types of Organizational Culture At Umniah Company Organizational leadership style Culture Transformational Transactional

Pearson -.287 .287 Power Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .165 .165 Pearson -.213 .213 Role Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .307 .307 Pearson .250 -.250 Achievement Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .227 .227 Pearson .301 -.301 Support Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed) .144 .144

Table 12 shows that at Umniah Company the significance values of the relationship between the two styles of leaderships and each of the four types of organizational culture are higher than the significance level (α ≤ 0.05), which confirms that no significant

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relation between the leadership style and any type of organizational culture at Umniah

Company.

4.6 Results Pertaining to Examination of Hypotheses 7 and 8

To examine the null hypothesis 1.8.7 which states that: There is no significant evidence at

(α ≤ 0.05) regarding the differences between leadership styles and types of organizational culture between Orange and Umniah companies and the alternate Hypothesis (Ha) 1.8.8 which states that: There is significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) regarding the differences between leadership styles and organizational culture types between Orange and Umniah companies, Independent sample t-test has been used. Table 13 shows the results.

Table13: Independent T-Test To Examine The Differences Between Leadership Styles And types of Organizational Culture Between Orange And Umniah Companies Std. t-value Sig- Value Variable Company Mean Deviation

Orange 2.54 0.85 Transformational Umniah 2.62 0.87 -0.69 0.46 Orange 2.46 0.27 Transactional Umniah 2.38 0.322

Orange 2.19 0.85 Types of Culture Umniah 2.22 0.87 0.69 0.46

Table 13 indicates that the differences between leadership styles and types of organizational culture indicates to a significant value of 0.46 which is not significant at (α

≤ 0.05), accordingly Null Hypothesis 1.8.7 that there is no significant evidence at (α ≤

0.05) regarding the differences between leadership styles and types of organizational culture between Orange and Umniah companies is accepted.

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4.7Results Pertaining to Examination of Relational Hypotheses (A) and (B)

Relational hypothesis (A) which stated that: There are significant statistical evidence at

(α ≤ 0.05) among respondents with regard to their perception of the leadership style

(transformational and transactional) according to their experience, age, gender, educational level, and job level.

In order to test the hypotheses, the research used ANOVA analysis to know the differences of the research sample among leadership styles and organizational culture types according to the experience of the respondents.

- Experience:

In order to test the hypothesis, the researcher used ANOVA analysis to know the differences of the research sample among leadership styles according to the experience of the respondents.

Table 14 shows that there is no significant impact at the level of significance (α =0.05) of the respondents experience on the leadership styles (transformational, transactional).

Table 14: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Leadership Styles In Terms Of Experience

Dimensions Source of Degree of Significance Sum of Square variance Freedom F value Squares means

Between .125 2 .063 groups .577 .569 Transformational Within 2.493 23 .108 groups Total 2.618 25 Between .125 2 .063 groups Transactional .577 .569 Within 2.493 23 .108 groups Total 2.618 25 112

-Age

To determine the differences ANOVA analysis used to know the differences of the research sample according to the age.

Table 15 shows that there is no significant impact at the level of significance (α =0.05) according to the respondents age on the leadership styles (transformational, transactional).

Table 15: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA Among The Leadership Styles In Terms Of Age

Dimensions Source of Degree of Significance Sum of Square variance Freedom F value Squares means

Between .116 3 .039 groups .362 .781 Transformational Within 2.554 24 .106 groups Total 2.670 27 Between .116 3 .039 groups Transactional Within .362 .781 2.554 24 .106 groups Total 2.670 27

- Gender:

T-test analysis used to know the differences between the research samples according to the gender.

Table 16: Results Of The T-Test Analysis Among The Leadership Styles In Terms Of Gender Gender Means T Sig. Dimensions Male 2.63 .390 Transformational 1.187 Female 2.43 Male 2.38 Transactional -1.187 .390 Female 2.58

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Table 16 shows that according to the means males show more transformational leadership style in Orange and Umniah companies than females with a mean value (2.63), while females show more transactional leadership style in Orange and Umniah companies than males with a mean value (2.58), but there is no significant impact at the level of significance (α =0.05) of the respondents gender on the leadership styles

(transformational, transactional), as the significance value is (0.390) as shown in table18.

- Educational level:

To determine the differences ANOVA analysis used to know the differences of the research sample according to the educational level.

Table 17 shows that there is no significant difference at the level of significance (α

=0.05) of the educational level on the leadership styles (transformational, transactional), as the significance value is (0.141) as shown in table 17.

Table 17: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Leadership Styles In Terms Of Educational level Dimensions Source of Degree of Significance Sum of Square variance Freedom F value Squares means

Between .387 2 .193 groups 2.118 .141 Transformational Within 2.283 25 .091 groups Total 2.670 27 Between .387 2 .193 groups Transactional Within 2.118 .141 2.283 25 .091 groups Total 2.670 27

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- Job level: To determine the differences ANOVA analysis used, to know the differences of the research sample according to the job level.

Table 18 shows that there is a significant difference at the level (α =0.05) between the job level and the leadership styles (transformational, transactional), as the significance value is (0.021) as shown in table 18.

Table 18: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Leadership Styles In Terms Of Job level

Dimensions Source of Sum of Degree of Square Significance F value variance Squares Freedom means Between .710 3 .355 groups 4.526 .021* Transformational Within 1.960 25 .078 groups Total 2.670 28 Between .710 3 .355 groups 4.526 Transactional .021* Within 1.960 25 .078 groups Total 2.670 28 Significance level (*α =0.05)

To determine the resources of the significant, Scheffe' Test was performed to determine for whom the differences belong as shown in table 19.

By using Scheffe' test the researcher found that the differences was for the transformational leadership style tend for (Head Department), and for the transactional leadership style tend for (Others non managerial employees).

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Table 19: Scheffe' Test of The Leader Ship Styles In Terms Of Job level

Fields Streams Mean Manager Head Others

Department

Transformational Manager 2.60 Head 2.70 -.100 Department

Others 2.30 .300 .400* Transactional Manager 2.40 Head 2.30 .100 Department

Others 2.70 -.300 -.400*

Hypothesis 1.8.14: There are significant statistical differences at (0.05) among respondents with regards to their perceptions of the types of the organizational culture (power, role, achievement, and support) according to their experience, age, gender, educational level, and job level. - Experience Table 20 shows that there is a significant difference at the level (α =0.01) between experience and achievement culture, as the significance value is (0.01) as shown in table

20.

To determine the resources of the significant Scheffe' Test was performed to determine for whom the differences belong as shown in the table 21.

By using Scheffe' Test the researcher found that the differences was at the Achievement culture at the group of (5 to Less than 10 years).

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Table 20: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Experience

Dimensions Source of Sum of Degree of Square Significance F value variance Squares Freedom means Between .901 2 .450 groups 1.255 .289 Power Within 42.717 119 .359 groups Total 43.618 121 Between .080 2 .040 groups Role .245 .783 Within 19.308 119 .162 groups Total 19.387 121 Between 2.624 2 1.312 groups 6.992 .001** Achievement Within 22.334 119 .188 groups Total 24.958 121 Between .856 2 .428 groups 1.827 .165 Support Within 27.900 119 .234 groups Total 28.757 121 Significance level(**α =0.01)

Table 21: Scheffe' Test Among The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Experience

More than Less than 5 5 – Less Streams Mean 10 years years than 10 Dimensions years

Less than 5 years 2.51

Achievement 5 to Less than 10 2.81 -.469* years

More than 10 years 2.61 .037 .507

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-Age

To determine the differences ANOVA analysis used to know the differences of the research sample according to the age.

Table 22 shows that there is no impact of the age variable on the types of organizational culture except the power culture, which shows a significance difference at the level of significant (α =0.01).

Table 22: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Age Dimensions Source of Degree of Significance Sum of Square variance Freedom F value Squares means

Between 5.419 3 1.806 groups 5.635 .001** Power Within 38.787 121 .321 groups Total 44.207 124 Between 1.814 3 .605 groups Role 4.018 .009 Within 18.209 121 .150 groups Total 20.023 124 Between 2.312 3 .771 groups 4.102 .008 Achievement Within 22.733 121 .188 groups Total 25.045 124 Between 1.294 3 .431 groups 1.888 .135 Support Within 27.638 121 .228 groups Total 28.932 124 Significance level (**α =0.01)

To determine the resources of the significance, Scheffe' Test was performed to determine for whom the differences belong as shown in table 23.

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Table 23: Scheffe' Test of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Age

Less than 30-39 40-49 More than Dimensions Streams Mean 30 Years Years Years 50 Years

Less than 30 2.54

Power 30-39 Years 2.21 -.455* 40-49 Years 3.27 .038 .507 50 and over 1.80 -0.462 0.007 -0.5

Less than 30 2.49

Role 30-39 Years 2.69 -.469 * 40-49 Years 2.67 .037 .494 50 and over 2.96 -0.683 -0.228 -0.722

Less than 30 2.58

Achievement 30-39 Years 2.75 -.455* 40-49 Years 2.53 .038 .494 50 and over 3.20 -0.683 -0.228 -0.722

By using Scheffe' Test the researcher found that the differences was at the power culture tend to be for the respondents whom (less than 30 years), while role culture the differences tend to be of the respondents whom from (30 -39 years), and achievement culture the differences tend to be for the respondents whom from (30-39 years).

- Gender:

T-test analysis used to know the differences of the research sample according to the gender.

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Table 24 shows that there is no significance impact of the gender on the organizational culture, as the significance values are for power, role, achievement, and support as follows (0.460), (0.840), (0.207), and (0.560) respectively. Although according to the means female shows there were more power culture than male with a mean (2.66), while male shows that there were more role, achievement, and support culture than female with the following means respectively (2.62), (2.69), and (2.40), but there are no significant difference between the organizational culture types and the gender of the respondents in

Orange and Umniah companies.

Table 24: Results Of The T-Test Analysis AMONG Organizational Culture In Terms Of Gender Gender Means T Sig. Dimensions Male 2.30 -3.324 .460 Power Female 2.66 Male 2.62 .840 1.987 Role Female 2.47 Male 2.69 .207 1.379 Achievement Female 2.57 Male 2.40 .560 1.164 Support Female 2.29

- Educational level:

To determine the differences ANOVA analysis used to know the differences of the research sample according to the educational level.

Table 25 shows that there is no significant impact at the level of significance (α =0.05) of the educational level of the respondents on the types of organizational culture types, as the significance value of power culture, role culture, achievement culture, and support culture are (0.082), (0.964), (0.06), and (0.367) respectively as indicated in table 25.

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Table 25: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Educational level

Dimensions Source of Sum of Degree of Square Significance F value variance Squares Freedom means Between 3.070 2 1.535 groups Power 4.552 .082 Within 41.137 122 .337 groups Total 44.207 124 Between .012 2 .006 groups Role .037 .964 Within 20.011 122 .164 groups Total 20.023 124 Between 1.405 2 .703 groups 3.626 .060 Achievement Within 23.640 122 .194 groups Total 25.045 124 Between .471 2 .236 groups Support 1.010 .367 Within 28.461 122 .233 groups Total 28.932 124

- Job level:

To determine the differences ANOVA analysis used, to know the differences of the research sample according to the job level.

Table 26 shows that there is a significant perception of the job level on power culture, role culture, and achievement culture. Power culture at the level of significance (α =0.00), while role culture and achievement culture at the level of significance (α =0.05) as indicated in table 26.

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Table 26: Analysis Of Variance ANOVA of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Job level

Dimensions Source of Sum of Degree of Square Significance F value variance Squares Freedom means Between 8.202 3 2.734 groups 9.189 .000*** Power Within 36.004 121 .298 groups Total 44.207 124 Between 1.370 3 .457 groups Role 2.962 .035* Within 18.653 121 .154 groups Total 20.023 124 Between 2.696 3 .899 groups 4.865 .003* Achievement Within 22.349 121 .185 groups Total 25.045 124 Between .941 3 .314 groups 1.356 .259 Support Within 27.991 121 .231 groups Total 28.932 124 Significance level (*α =0.05, ***α =0.00)

To determine the resources of the significant Scheffe' Test was performed to determine for whom the differences belong as shown in the table 27. By using Scheffe' Test the researcher found that the differences at the power culture for head of department executive manager and others, but the differences tend to be for the executive manager, while role culture the differences tend to be for the manager, and finally in the achievement culture the differences tend to be for the head department.

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Table 27: Scheffe' Test of The Organizational Culture In Terms Of Job Level

Executive Head Dimensions Manager Others Streams Mean manager department

Executive

3.17 manager Power Manager 2.09 1.073 Head 1.164* 2.00 .090 department

Others 2.56 .610 -.462 -.553* Executive 2.27 manager Role Manager 2.92 -.653* Head 2.68 -.411 .241 department

Others 2.52 -.251 .402 .160 Executive 1.80 manager Achievement Manager 2.15 -.346 Head 2.41 -.614* .220 department

Others 2.37 -.566 .352 .104

4.8Conclusion

To examine the leadership style and organizational culture in Orange and Umniah companies and the relation between them, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences

(SPSS) were used.

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The data collection process for this research was done by the researcher, the research utilized surveys to receive data from (125) employees at Orange company and Umniah company, the researcher used leadership style questionnaire to determine the leadership styles in Orange and in Umniah, either if it's transformational leadership style or transactional leadership style, and used diagnosing organizational culture questionnaire to determine the types of organizational culture in Orange and Umniah, either if its power culture, role culture, support culture or achievement culture.

The results provided support that:

 There is no significant evidence of the difference between the transformational

and transactional leadership styles at Orange company, but mean score of

transactional style is higher than transformational style.

 There is significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) that the dominant leadership style at

Umniah company is transformational.

 There is significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) that the dominant

organizational culture at Orange company is achievement culture.

 There is significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05, µ=2.5) that the dominant

organizational cultures at Umniah company are role followed by achievement

culture.

 There is no significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) of the relationship between

leadership styles and types of organizational culture at Orange Company.

 There is no significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) of the relationship between

leadership styles and types of organizational culture at Umniah Company.

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 There is no significant evidence at (α ≤ 0.05) regarding the differences between

leadership styles and types of organizational culture between Orange and Umniah

companies.

 Relational hypothesis A): There is a significant statistical impact among

respondents at the level of significance 5% or less of the demographic variables

(experience, age, gender, educational level, job level) with regard to their

perceptions to the leadership styles (transformational, transactional). The results

found that there is no significant evidence of the demographic variables on the

leadership styles, except the job level variable.

 Relational hypothesis B): There is a significant statistical impact among

respondents at the level of significance of 5% or less of the demographic

variables (experience, age, gender, educational level, and job level) on

employees' perceptions toward the types of organizational culture (power, role,

achievement, support). The results found that experience variable have an

impact on the achievement culture. The age variable results found that, there is

no impact of the age variable on the types of organizational culture except the

power culture. According to gender variable and educational level variable the

result shows that, there is no significant impact of the gender and educational

level on the types of organizational culture. Finally according to the job level

variable, the result shows that there is a significant impact of the job level on

power culture, role culture, and achievement culture.

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This research has focused on two leadership styles, the transformational leadership style, and the transactional leadership style, and on the four types of organizational culture developed by Harrison and stokes 1992 (power culture, role culture, achievement culture, and support culture), in the Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies in Jordan.

The primary objective of this research is to assess the relationship between transformational and transactional styles of leadership and four types of organizational culture: power, role, achievement, and support at Jordan Orange and Umniah Companies.

This research also aimed to investigate the leadership styles in Orange and Umniah companies, and to determine the types of organizational culture in each of the two companies. The first step in achieving the objectives was an in-depth theoretical research; the second step was an empirical survey that was conducted at the selected telecommunication companies.

Telecommunication sector have been used in this research; because of its importance in

Jordan, and the continuous development of the sector in Jordan and in the world. The telecommunication companies in Jordan hire a specialized staff who can line with the technological developments in the world; so that it was important to research the internal environment of the telecommunication companies in terms of leadership and organizational culture, because the leaders describe as the inspirational factor for the

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employees whom put their soul and values in the organization, upon which the business and the employees relation will take place.

A concise chapter by chapter overview of the manner in which the purpose and objectives of this research was met presented below.

Chapter 1 served as an introduction and orientation to the research in terms of the purpose, objectives and hypotheses, also contained a summary of the primary and secondary sources related to the research which were obtained from both national and international sources. Chapter 2 reviewed of related literature and previous studies of leadership styles and organizational culture, transformational leadership has been defined in chapter 2 by Burns (1978), who was the first one defined transformational leadership as an attempt to stimulate and encourage individuals, groups and organizations to change better, also transactional leadership has been defined by Avolio et.al. (1999), said that transactional leadership is based more on “exchanges” between leaders and followers, in which followers are rewarded for meeting specific goals or performance criteria.

Organizational culture definitions were discussed also, as Schein (2011), argued that the culture of an organization is all the beliefs, feelings, behaviors, and symbols that are characteristic of an organization. More specifically, organizational culture is defined as shared philosophies, ideologies, beliefs, feelings, assumptions, expectations, attitudes, norms, and values. The focus of Chapter 3 talked about the research methodology applied in this research. The research population and sample, as well as the research method were explained. The measuring instruments utilized in this research were discussed and the reliability and validity of these research measuring instruments. Chapter 3 also examined the way of data collection, and statistical analysis process. Chapter 4 dealt with the

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empirical findings and results discussion of this research, with regards to the stated hypotheses.

The research measured the impact of demographic variables (experience, age, gender, educational level, job level) on the leadership styles and on the organizational culture types, the research found that the demographic variables have no impact on the leadership styles in Orange and Umniah companies except the job level variable, and the differences was at the transformational leadership style tend to be for head department, and for the transactional leadership style tend to be for others. The research determined that experience, age, and the job level variables have an impact on some types of the organizational culture, for the experience variable the impact was on the achievement culture, at the group from 5-less than 10 years’ experience, the age variable impact was on the power and achievement culture, at the group from 30-39 years’ experience, while job level variable impact was on power culture on the executive manager level, and role culture at the manager level, and achievement culture was at the head department level.

5.2Conclusion

This research determined the leadership styles and the existing organizational culture in

Orange and Umniah telecommunication companies. The results showed that:

1-In terms of leadership Orange company tends to follow a transactional leadership style, while Umniah company tends to follow a transformational leadership style. Results determined the dominant leadership style in each company, at Orange company the leaders tend to follow transactional leadership style rather than transformational leadership style. They are concerned in maintaining stability, and concerned to reward equitably for their work. They also believed that what power they have to influence

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others comes primarily from their status and position. Thus transactional leadership is more practical in nature because of its emphasis on meeting specific targets or objectives.

While at Umniah company the leaders tend to follow transformational leadership style rather than transactional leadership style. They believe that their primary mission is to make changes, and spend considerable energy in arousing hopes, expectations, and aspirations among their followers, their job is inspirational and the power they have to influence others comes primarily from their ability to get people to identify with them and their ideas. However, results showed no significant difference between the leadership styles at Orange company, also no significant difference between the leadership styles and Umniah companies.

2-Results determined that there are no significant relation between the existing type of organizational culture at Orange company and the existing type of organizational culture at Umniah company for both power culture and achievement culture, and the significant relation was for both role culture and support culture. Umniah company is higher in Role culture than Orange company, and Orange company is higher in support culture than

Umniah company.

3- Results determined that Orange company have achievement culture, while Umniah company have role followed by achievement culture.

4- The results shows that there is no relationship between the power, role, achievement, and support cultures and transformational leadership style and transactional style, at Orange company as the significance values higher than the significance level (α =0.05), and that’s determine that no relationship between the leadership styles and the types of organizational culture at Orange company. For Umniah company results show that there

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is no relationship between the role, achievement, and support cultures and transformational leadership style and transactional style, as the significance values higher than the significance level (α =0.05), and that’s determine that no relationship between the leadership styles and the types of organizational culture at Umnaih company.

5- The demographic variables experience, age, gender, and educational level, have no impact on the leadership styles at Orange and Umniah companies. However job level showed an impact on the leadership styles, and the differences was at the transformational leadership style tends to be for Head Department level, so that the head department level have a tendency is toward a transformational leadership style. While for the transactional leadership style tends to be for the others level, so that the others level have a tendency toward a transactional leadership style.

6- The demographic variables experience, age, and the job level have an impact on certain types of the organizational culture. The experience variable the impact was on the achievement culture, at the group from 5 to less than 10 years experience, so this group tendency is toward the achievement culture. The age variable impact was on the power role, and achievement cultures, at the groups less than 30 years, from 30-39, and 30-39 years respectively, so these age groups tendency is toward power, role, and achievement cultures. Job level variable impact was on power, role, and achievement cultures, for power culture the differences at the executive manager level, so the executive manager tendency is toward power culture. While role culture the differences at manager level, so the manager level tendency is toward role culture. For the achievement culture the differences was on head department level, so the head department tendency is toward achievement culture.

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5.3 Recommendations

With regards to the research findings and discussions, several recommendations related to the selected telecommunication companies Orange and Umniah have been identified.

Results of the research have determined that the leadership style at Orange tend to be transactional leadership style than transformational leadership. This style concentrates on compromise, intrigue, and control; therefore the transactional leaders are more likely to be seen as more inflexible, detached, and manipulative than transformational leaders.

Transactional leaders also tend to follow rules, procedures and norms that may not necessarily be beneficial for the future of the organization. At Umniah company it was found that their leadership style tends to be transformational leadership style, were leaders have referent and expert power, and their followers perceive them as powerful role models, who can implement a shared organizational vision, inspire subordinate to strive beyond required expectations, and focus on building a higher innovation and a satisfactory organizational culture.

It is recommended that for Orange company to move toward establishing a transformational leadership style through:

 Focusing on making change in the organization, and not maintaining stability to

move forward toward, innovation and creativity.

 Focusing on the long term objectives and use the available resources to achieve

them.

 Broaden and elevate the interests of followers, generate awareness and acceptance

among the followers of the purposes and mission of the group, and motivate

followers to go beyond their self-interests for the good of the group.

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 Decentralize of responsibility, where employees would have more desire to take

risks, and make their compensation plans geared towards long-term results, to

facilitate work and achieve results.

The organizational culture at Orange company tends to be achievement culture, followed by role culture and support culture with the same means. While the organizational culture at Umniah company tends to be role followed by achievement culture. Achievement culture creates a high energy environment and a greater probability of satisfying employee needs, by using the mission to attract and release its members' energy in pursuit of the common goals. In role culture the whole organization forms a pyramid shape, the higher the layer, the fewer people there are. The values of the role culture are order, dependability, rationality and consistency. The support culture based on a mutual trust between the employee and the organization, employees who work in this culture believe that they are valued as human beings, not only served to complete the work.

The support culture based on a mutual trust between the employee and the organization, employees who work in this culture believe that they are valued as human beings, not only served to complete the work.

Umniah companies didn't show a drive toward support culture which is important because the organisation that has a support culture has a warm and caring atmosphere, where the assumption is that a sense of belonging will create a sense of commitment to the organisation, and therefore employees will contribute more within the organisation.

Therefore, it is recommended for Umniah company to build support culture in order to establish a mutual trust between the employee and the organization, and let employees who work in this culture believe that they are valued as human beings, not only served to

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complete the work. In order for Umnaih company to build support culture, it is recommended that:

 Build within the members a satisfaction stemming from relationships, mutuality,

connection and belonging employees need to feel valued and appreciated for their

personal contribution and potential, so that they will be internally motivated.

 Fosters warmth and even love, not just driving enthusiasm.

 Evokes human love for the nurturing of the organization's members, and

stimulates strong motivation in the service of the group.

5.4 Suggestions for Further Researches

It is recommended that:

To extend the existing research, the researcher recommends that Zain telecommunication company, the third operator in Jordan to conduct a research to understand the leadership style and its organizational culture.

A recommendation for the future would be to conduct a research measuring the dominant leadership style, and the preferred leadership style, and also measure the existing organizational culture, and the preferred organizational culture at other sectors in Jordan.

The researcher believes that this research is a good base for those who are eager to expand the topic, and do similar research in Jordan or in other countries of the region.

The door remains open for other researchers interested in the subject of leadership and organizational culture, to continue the search when choosing another sample of other institutions and countries with a different culture.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1 General Back Ground Of The Respondents

Kindly provide the brief details about the following questions, please tick as appropriate:

1. Years of work in the company (experience):

Less than 5 years 5-10 years More than 10 years

2. Age

Lower than 30 Years 30-39 Years 40-49 Years Over 50 Years

3. Gender Male Female -Male

-Female

4. Educational levels

High School Graduate University Graduate High studies

5. Job level

Executive Manager Head of department Other

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Appendix 2 Leadership Styles Questionnaire

Instructions:

For each of the following 10 pairs of statements, divide 5 points between the two according to your beliefs, perceptions of yourself, or according to which of the two statements characterize you better. Place the values in the appropriate boxes next to each pair. The 5 points may be divided between the A and B statements in any one for the following ways: 5 for A, 0 for B; 4 for A, 1 for B; 3 for A, 2 for B; 2 for A, 3 for B; 1 for A, 4 for B; 0 for A, 5 for B, but not equally (2½) between the two. Weigh your choices between the two according to the one that characterizes you or your beliefs better.

Questions Value

1 A) As leader I have a primary mission of change.

B) As leader I have a primary mission of maintaining stability.

2 A) As a leader I must cause events.

B) As a leader I must facilitate events.

3 A) I am concerned about what my followers want in life.

B) I am concerned that my followers are rewarded equitably for their work.

4 A) My preference is to think long range: what might be.

B) My preference is to think short range: what is realistic.

5 A) As a leader I spend considerable energy in arousing hopes, expectations, and aspirations among my followers.

B) As a leader I spend considerable energy in managing separate but related goals.

6 A) Although not in a formal classroom sense, I believe that a significant part of my leadership is that of a teacher.

B) I believe that a significant part of my leadership is that of a facilitator.

7 A) As a leader I must represent a higher morality.

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B) As a leader I must engage with followers at an equal level of morality.

8 A) I enjoy stimulating others to want to do more.

B) I enjoy rewarding followers for a job well done.

9 A) Leadership should be inspirational.

B) Leadership should be practical.

10 A) What power I have to influence others comes primarily from my ability to get people to identify with me and my ideas.

B) What power I have to influence others comes primarily from my status and position.

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Appendix 3 Diagnosing organizational culture questionnaire

Please check your answers and make sure that you have assigned only one '4', one '3', one '2', and one '1', for each phrase in the Existing column.

Key Ranking

4= The dominant view.

3= The next most dominant view.

2= The next most dominant view.

1= The least dominant view.

Phrases that describe the organizational culture Option number (1,2,3,4) 1. Members of the organization give first priority to: A- Meeting the needs and demands of their supervisors and other high level people in the organization. B- Carrying out the duties of their own job; staying within the policies and procedures related to it. C- Meeting the challenges of the task, finding a better way to do things. D- Cooperating with the people they work with, to solve work and personal problems. 2. People who do well in the organization are those who: A- Know how to please their supervisors, and are willing to use power and politics to get ahead. B- Play by the rules, work within the system and strive to do things correctly. C- Are technically competent and effective, with a strong, commitment to getting the job done. D- Build close working relationships with others by being cooperative, responsive and caring. 3. Organization treats individuals as: A- 'hands' whose time and energy are at the disposal of persons at higher levels in the hierarchy. B- as 'employees' whose time and energy are purchased through a contract with rights and obligations for both sides. C- as' associates ' or peers, who are mutually committed to the achievement of a common purpose. D- as 'family' or' friends' who like being together and who care about and support one another. 4. People are directed and influenced by: A- people in positions of authority exercising their power through the use of rewards and punishment. 163

B- The systems, rules and procedures which prescribe what they should do and the right ways of doing it. C- Their own commitment to achieving the goals of the organization. D- Their own desire to be accepted by others and to be a good member of their work group. Phrases that describe the organizational culture Option number (1,2,3,4) 5. The decision making processes are characterized by: A- a- directives orders and instructions coming from higher levels. B- b- the adherence to formal channels and reliance on policies and procedures for making decisions. C- c- decisions being made close to the point of action, by the people on the spot. D- d- use of consensus decision-making methods to gain acceptance and support for decisions 6. Assignments of tasks to individuals based on: A- The personal judgments, values and wishes of those in position of power. B- The needs and plans of the organization, and the rules of the system(seniority, educational levels, etc.). C- Matching the requirements of the job with the interests and abilities of the individuals. D- The personal preferences of the individuals and their needs for growth and development. 7. Employees are expected to be: A- Hard-working, compliant, obedient and loyal to the interests of those they report to. B- Responsible and reliable, carrying out the duties and responsibilities of their job and avoiding actions that could surprise or embarrass their supervisors. C- Self-motivated and competent, willing to take the initiative to get things done: willing to challenges those they report to if necessary to get good result. D- Good team workers, supportive and cooperative, who get along well with others. 8- Managers and supervisors are expected to be: A- Strong and decisive, and firm but fair. B- Impersonal and proper, avoiding the exercise of authority for their own advantage. C- Democratic, and willing to accept subordinates' ideas about the task. D- Supportive, responsive, and concerned about the personal concerns and needs of those whose work they supervise. 9- It is considered legitimate (in the company law) for one person to tell another what to do when: 164

A- He or she has more power, authority or 'clout' in the organization. B- It is a part of the responsibilities included in his or her job description. C- He or she has greater knowledge and expertise and uses it to guide or teach other person do the work. D- The other person asks for this or her, guidance or advise. 10- Work motivation is primarily the result of: A- Hope for rewards, fear of punishment or personal loyalty to the supervisor. B- Acceptance of the norm providing a 'fair day's work for a faire day's pay. C- Strong desires to achieve, to create, to innovate, and peer pressure to contribute to the success of the organization. D- People wanting to develop and maintain satisfying working and wanting to help others. Phrases that describe the organizational culture Option number (1,2,3,4) 11- Relationships between work groups or departments are generally: A- Competitive, with each other looking out for their own interests and helping each other only when they can see some advantage for themselves by doing so. B- Characterized by indifference towards each other, helping each other only when it is convenient, or they are directed by higher levels to do so. C- Cooperative when they need to achieve common goals. People are normally willing to cut red tape and cross organization boundaries in order to do so. D- Friendly, with a high level of responsiveness to request for help from other groups. 12-Inter -group and inter-personal conflicts are usually: A- Dealt with by the personal intervention of people at higher levels of authority. B- Avoided by reference to rules, procedures and formal definition of authority and responsibility. C- Resolved through discussions aimed at getting the best outcomes. D- Dealt with in a manner that maintains good working relationships and minimize the chances of people being hurt. 13- The larger environment outside the organization respond to as though it were: A- A jungle, where the organization is in competition for survival with others. B- An orderly system in which relationships are determined by structures and procedures and where everyone is expected to abide by the rules. C- A competition for excellence in which productivity, quality, and innovative bring success. D- A community of interdependent parts in which the common interests are the most important.

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14- If rules, systems, or procedures get in the way, people: A- Break them if they have enough clout to get by with it or if they think they can get away with it without getting caught. B- Generally abide by them or go through proper channels to get permission to deviate from them or get them changed. C- Tend to ignore or by-pass them to accomplish their task or perform their job better. D- Support one another in ignoring or bending them if they are felt to be unfair, or create hardship on others. 15- A new person in the organization needs to learn: A- Who really runs things, who can help or hurt them, who to avoid offending; the norms (unwritten rules) that have to be observed if they are to stay out of trouble. B- The formal rules and procedures and abide by them to stay within the formal boundaries of their jobs C- What resources are available to help them do their job; to take the initiative to apply their skills and knowledge to their job. D- How to cooperate; how to be a good team member; how to develop good working relationships with others.

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