Appendix 1. Select multilateral economic and security-related organizations and initiatives in Asia, April 1999

Shannon Kile Asia–Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) Members: Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong (China), Indonesia, Japan, Korea (South), Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, USA, Viet Nam APEC was established in 1989 as an informal dialogue group to promote economic cooperation and to remove obstacles to trade between the countries of the Pacific Rim. APEC serves as the forum for an annual meeting of the foreign and economics ministers of the participating states, which is followed by a summit meeting of the heads of government. Under its auspices 10 inter- national Working Groups have been set up to address a broad range of economic, educational and environmental issues. Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) Members: Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam ASEAN was established by 5 neighbouring countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singa- pore and Thailand) in 1967 as a consultative forum for promoting economic and political cooperation between them. ASEAN enlarged rapidly from 1995 and now incorporates all the states in South-East Asia. ASEAN’s distinctive consensus-based form of regionalism—some- times called ‘the ASEAN way’—has been a model for regional organizations elsewhere. Its principal achievements have been in promoting greater economic integration among the member states and in fostering joint approaches to political and security issues affecting the region. Its emerging role as a manager of regional affairs was weakened by the onset of the severe financial crisis in Asia in 1997. ASEAN Post-Ministerial Conference (ASEAN–PMC) ASEAN Members: Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Viet Nam ASEAN Dialogue Partners: Australia, Canada, China, , India, Japan, Korea (South), New Zealand, Russia, USA The PMC is an annual meeting between ASEAN ministers and representatives from the countries with which ASEAN has established dialogue-partner relationships. Held after the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, it is intended to promote political and economic cooperation and regional stability. ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) Members: Australia, Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Canada, China, European Union, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea (South), Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, USA, Viet Nam The ARF is a forum for official intergovernmental consultations on Asia–Pacific security issues which grew out of the ministerial meetings between ASEAN and its dialogue partners and other countries with interests in the region. The ARF was proposed by ASEAN in 1993, and the inaugural meeting was held in 1994. It meets annually at the ministerial level. It also 498 RUSSIA AND ASIA convenes a number of intersessional Support Groups focusing on regional issues, the most active of which have been the groups on confidence-building measures and peacekeeping operations. Central Asian Union (CAU) Members: , , , . Russia received observer status in 1996. The CAU was established by an agreement signed by the presidents of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan in July 1994; Tajikistan joined the union in 1999. (Georgia and Turkey were granted observer status in 1999.) The union is aimed at strengthening economic cooperation between the member countries and at taking practical steps to form a Central Asian economic space that would include a free trade zone and a common market for goods, services and capital. The development of closer economic ties has been hindered by disputes over unpaid debts and import tariffs as well as by political tensions between member states. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Members: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, , Ukraine, Uzbekistan The CIS is a multilateral framework for promoting economic and security cooperation between the former Soviet republics. Founded in Dec. 1991 at the same time as the USSR was dissolved, it was seen by some as a mechanism for developing political and economic integration on the territory of the former and by others as an instrument for facilitating a ‘velvet divorce’ of the newly independent states. The organization now includes all the former Soviet republics except for the Baltic states. It has achieved only limited success in promoting greater cooperation among member states, and its role in post-Soviet economic and security matters has waned. In 1995, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia signed an agreement creating a CIS Customs Union; the union was joined by Kyrgyzstan in 1996 and by Tajikistan in 1999. CIS Treaty on Collective Security ( Treaty) The Treaty on Collective Security was signed in Tashkent in May 1992 by Armenia, Kazakh- stan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; it was later joined by Azerbaijan, Belarus and Georgia. It provided for mutual military assistance in the event of aggression against any of the signatories. It had been envisioned as the centrepiece of a CIS collective security system that would include the formation of an integrated coalition force, but yielded few concrete results. In 1999 Azerbaijan, Georgia and Uzbekistan ended their participation in the treaty regime upon the expiry of the original accord. Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia–Pacific (CSCAP) Members: Australia, Canada, China, European Union, Indonesia, India*, Japan, Korea (North), Korea (South), Malaysia, Mongolia, New Zealand, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, USA, Viet Nam * Associate member. CSCAP is a regional ‘track two’ initiative involving the participation of academics, business leaders, foreign and defence policy specialists, and current and former government officials. It has become increasingly active in supporting the activities of the ARF. A number of issue- oriented international working groups have been established under the auspices of CSCAP dealing with, inter alia, confidence- and security-building measures, maritime cooperation and transnational crime. Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) Members: Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. The ECO was established in 1985 by Iran, Pakistan and Turkey; the other seven members joined in 1992. Its main objectives are to increase mutual trade and to promote conditions for APPENDICES 499 sustained economic growth in the region. It consists of an executive Ministerial Council (com- prising foreign ministers or equivalent), a Regional Planning Council and a Council of Deputies (the ambassadors of the member countries in Tehran) and is supported by technical committees in the fields of economic and commercial cooperation; transport and communications; agricul- ture; energy; infrastructure and public works; narcotics; and educational, scientific and cultural matters. Georgia–Ukraine–Azerbaijan–Moldova (GUAM) agreement Members: Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova, Ukraine In 1997 the four former Soviet republics signed an accord to promote greater economic and political cooperation among themselves outside the CIS framework; Uzbekistan joined this informal grouping in Apr. 1999. ‘Shanghai Five’ group Members: China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan Informal name given to summit meetings of the five heads of state. The first meeting was held in Shanghai, China, in Apr. 1996 and produced a set of agreements on military confidence- building measures. At subsequent meetings the leaders have pledged, inter alia, to cooperate in fighting terrorism and religious extremism, curbing illegal migration and establishing a Central Asian nuclear weapon-free zone. South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Members: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Maldive Islands, Pakistan, Sri Lanka SAARC was established in 1985 as an intergovernmental forum designed to promote economic and social development in member states through joint programmes in agreed areas of cooperation including agriculture, communications, education, public health, rural development and transport. In 1995 the South Asian Preferential Trading Arrangement (SAPTA) entered into force, which is aimed at gradually reducing, and eventually eliminating, tariffs within the SAARC region.