DOCSLIB.ORG

Ontogeny of Postcranial Morphology and Locomotor Behavior in Propithecus Verreauxi Coquereli and Lemur Catta Stephanie Ann Wolf James Madison University

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Ontogeny of Postcranial Morphology and Locomotor Behavior in Propithecus Verreauxi Coquereli and Lemur Catta Stephanie Ann Wolf James Madison University James Madison University JMU Scholarly Commons Masters Theses The Graduate School Spring 2011 Ontogeny of postcranial morphology and locomotor behavior in Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Lemur catta Stephanie Ann Wolf James Madison University Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/master201019 Part of the Biology Commons Recommended Citation Wolf, Stephanie Ann, "Ontogeny of postcranial morphology and locomotor behavior in Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Lemur catta" (2011). Masters Theses. 371. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/master201019/371 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the The Graduate School at JMU Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of JMU Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Ontogeny of postcranial morphology and locomotor behavior in Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Lemur catta Stephanie Ann Wolf A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Biology May 2011 This thesis is dedicated with sincere gratitude to my mother, Debra Wolf. ii Acknowledgements Numerous people have committed time and energy allowing for the completion of this thesis. Foremost among them is my graduate advisor Dr. Roshna Wunderlich. I would like to thank her for her patience, advice, and dedication to this project, and the valuable hours she spent working with me. I additionally want to thank her for agreeing to take me on as a graduate student, despite already having another graduate student and many undergraduates in her lab to advise. In taking me under her wing she allowed me to do the research that I was genuinely interested in and passionate about. Dr. Rich Lawler, Dr. Chris Rose, and Dr. Kit Murphy contributed significantly to enhancing this thesis with extremely valuable knowledge, comments, and suggestions. I would also like to thank Dr. Lawler for the time he spent helping me with some of the difficult statistical data processing. I would like to thank the Duke Lemur Center staff, specifically Sarah Zehr and David Brewer for their help with animal handling, restraint, and data collection. I thank them for their dedication to this project because without their help and knowledge of the animals, data collection would not have been possible. I would also like to thank the James Madison University Animal Movement Lab, specifically Kristina Silke, Marin Barden, and Sarah Ischinger for their valuable comments and moral support throughout the past two years. I additionally thank Dr. Patrice Ludwig, Carly Muletz, Bryan Saunders, Julia Stutzman, Sarah Heltzel, and Paul Arsenovic for their valuable input and moral support, especially in the beginning of this project. I thank Sigma Xi for their financial support in the form of two Grants-In-Aid of Research to help fund this project (G2009151076 & G20101015154091). iii Finally, I wish to thank my family and friends. My fiancé, Colin Gundling, who has given me endless support and motivation to accomplish my goals. I thank my mother, Debra Wolf, for her emotional and financial support and endless reassurance, as she has always encouraged me to excel academically. Thank you to my father, Kenneth Wolf for his commitment to me and both financial and moral support to obtain this Master’s degree. I would also like to thank my sister, Carrie Wolf, for her support and encouragement. iv Table of Contents Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. iii List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii Abstract ............................................................................................................................ viii Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Adult Locomotor Behavior and Morphology ....................................................5 Life History ........................................................................................................9 Locomotor Development .................................................................................13 Skeletal Growth ...............................................................................................16 Postcranial Muscle Growth ..............................................................................20 Ontogeny of Locomotion in Primates ..............................................................22 Methodological Considerations .......................................................................23 Overall Objectives and Predictions ..................................................................24 Materials and Methods .......................................................................................................28 Location and Subjects ......................................................................................28 Morphological Data Collection........................................................................30 Behavioral Data Collection ..............................................................................34 Statistical Analysis ...........................................................................................40 Results ................................................................................................................................42 Morphology Results ..........................................................................................42 Body Mass vs. Age .......................................................................................42 Limb Proportions ..........................................................................................47 Limb Segment Growth: 0-2 Years ................................................................52 Limb Segment Growth: 6-24 vs. 24-52 weeks .............................................54 Behavior Results ...............................................................................................58 Locomotion Behavior ...................................................................................58 Support Use ...................................................................................................62 Captive vs. Wild Data ...................................................................................67 Discussion ..........................................................................................................................68 Survival Strategies: Influences of Locomotor & Postcranial Ontogeny ...........70 Methodological Considerations ........................................................................79 Conclusions .......................................................................................................82 Appendix A ........................................................................................................................84 References ..........................................................................................................................88 v List of Tables I. Introduction Table 1.1 Life history comparison of P. verreauxi and L. catta 10 Table 1.2 Locomotor developmental in P. v. coquereli and L. catta 14 Table 1.3 Locomotor categories used in this study 16 Table 1.4 Intermembral indices and locomotor behaviors 18 II. Methods Table 2.1 Animals used in each component of this study 29 Table 2.2 Morphological measurements and landmarks 31 Table 2.3 Summary of morphology data distribution 31 Table 2.4 Locomotor definitions from Hunt et al. (1996) 35 Table 2.5 Postural definitions from Hunt et al. (1996) 36 Table 2.6 Ethogram of supports 37 Table 2.7 Sample overview for locomotion 38 Table 2.8 Key to locomotor behaviors and postures 39 III. Results Table 3.1 Allometric coefficients of males and females from 0-2 years 46 Table 3.2 Confidence intervals for regressions 48 Table 3.3 Allometric coefficients from 6-24 and 24-52 weeks 57 Table 3.4 Frequency of locomotor behaviors during locomotion 59 Table 3.5 Frequency of dominant limb(s) used during locomotion 61 Table 3.6 Support use orientation for all locomotion 63 Table 3.7 Support use size for all locomotion 65 Table 3.8 Comparison of wild to captive data 67 IV. Discussion Table 4.1 Comparison of P. v. coquereli to other specialized leapers 72 V. Appendix A Table A.1 Frequency of locomotor bouts during locomotion 85 Table A.2 Frequency of dominant limb(s) used bouts in locomotion 87 vi List of Figures I. Introduction Figure 1.1 Phylogenetic organization of primates 2 Figure 1.2 Division of primates and extant lemur families 3 Figure 1.3 Distribution of extant strepsirrhines and tarsiers 3 Figure 1.4 Longitudinal vs. cross-sectional growth data comparison 23 II. Methods Figure 2.1 Focal animal bout sampling locomotor measurements 34 III. Results Figure 3.1 Growth of 2 DLC species from 0-3 years of age 43 Figure 3.2 Growth of 2 DLC species from 0-30 years of age 43 Figure 3.3 Growth comparison of P. v. coquereli used in this study 44 Figure 3.4 Growth comparison
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Development and the Evolvability of Human Limbs
    Development and the evolvability of human limbs Nathan M. Younga,1, Günter P. Wagnerb, and Benedikt Hallgrímssonc aDepartment of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94110; bDepartment of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06405; and cDepartment of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada T2N4N1 Edited* by David Pilbeam, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved December 29, 2009 (received for review October 14, 2009) The long legs and short arms of humans are distinctive for a fore- and hindlimb modules was reduced, leading to a higher primate, the result of selection acting in opposite directions on degree of variational independence of limb size and shape. Our each limb at different points in our evolutionary history. This model predicts that selection for independent function of the mosaic pattern challenges our understanding of the relationship limbs should lead to alterations to limb covariational structure. of development and evolvability because limbs are serially homol- Specifically, humans and apes would be predicted to exhibit ogous and genetic correlations should act as a significant con- decreased phenotypic correlations between fore- and hindlimb straint on their independent evolution. Here we test a compared to quadrupeds. If decreases in integration between developmental model of limb covariation in anthropoid primates fore- and hindlimb are a product of selection for more inde- and demonstrate that both humans and apes exhibit significantly pendent function of limbs, then the timing of any change in reduced integration between limbs when compared to quadrupe- integration has implications for the reconstruction of ancestral dal monkeys.
    [Show full text]
  • Coexistence of Confamilial, Folivorous Indriids, Propithecus Diadema And
    Washington University in St. Louis Washington University Open Scholarship Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations Arts & Sciences Spring 5-15-2017 Coexistence of Confamilial, Folivorous Indriids, Propithecus diadema and Indri indri, at Betampona Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar Lana Kerker Oliver Washington University in St. Louis Follow this and additional works at: https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds Part of the Biodiversity Commons, Biological and Physical Anthropology Commons, Natural Resources and Conservation Commons, and the Natural Resources Management and Policy Commons Recommended Citation Oliver, Lana Kerker, "Coexistence of Confamilial, Folivorous Indriids, Propithecus diadema and Indri indri, at Betampona Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar" (2017). Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1134. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/art_sci_etds/1134 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Arts & Sciences at Washington University Open Scholarship. It has been accepted for inclusion in Arts & Sciences Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Washington University Open Scholarship. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY IN ST. LOUIS Department of Anthropology Dissertation Examination Committee Crickette Sanz, Chair Kari Allen Benjamin Z. Freed Jane Phillips-Conroy David Strait Mrinalini Watsa Coexistence of Confamilial, Folivorous Indriids, Propithecus diadema and Indri indri, at Betampona Strict
    [Show full text]
  • Orangutan Positional Behavior and the Nature of Arboreal Locomotion in Hominoidea Susannah K.S
    AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 000:000–000 (2006) Orangutan Positional Behavior and the Nature of Arboreal Locomotion in Hominoidea Susannah K.S. Thorpe1* and Robin H. Crompton2 1School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK 2Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK KEY WORDS Pongo pygmaeus; posture; orthograde clamber; forelimb suspend ABSTRACT The Asian apes, more than any other, are and orthograde compressive locomotor modes are ob- restricted to an arboreal habitat. They are consequently an served more frequently. Given the complexity of orangu- important model in the interpretation of the morphological tan positional behavior demonstrated by this study, it is commonalities of the apes, which are locomotor features likely that differences in positional behavior between associated with arboreal living. This paper presents a de- studies reflect differences in the interplay between the tailed analysis of orangutan positional behavior for all age- complex array of variables, which were shown to influence sex categories and during a complete range of behavioral orangutan positional behavior (Thorpe and Crompton [2005] contexts, following standardized positional mode descrip- Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 127:58–78). With the exception tions proposed by Hunt et al. ([1996] Primates 37:363–387). of pronograde suspensory posture and locomotion, orang- This paper shows that orangutan positional behavior is utan positional behavior is similar to that of the African highly complex, representing a diverse spectrum of posi- apes, and in particular, lowland gorillas. This study sug- tional modes. Overall, all orthograde and pronograde sus- gests that it is orthogrady in general, rather than fore- pensory postures are exhibited less frequently in the pres- limb suspend specifically, that characterizes the posi- ent study than previously reported.
    [Show full text]
  • Verhaegen M. the Aquatic Ape Evolves
    HUMAN EVOLUTION Vol. 28 n.3-4 (237-266) - 2013 Verhaegen M. The Aquatic Ape Evolves: Common Miscon- Study Center for Anthropology, ceptions and Unproven Assumptions About Mechelbaan 338, 2580 Putte, the So-Called Aquatic Ape Hypothesis Belgium E-mail: [email protected] While some paleo-anthropologists remain skeptical, data from diverse biological and anthropological disciplines leave little doubt that human ancestors were at some point in our past semi- aquatic: wading, swimming and/or diving in shallow waters in search of waterside or aquatic foods. However, the exact sce- nario — how, where and when these semi-aquatic adaptations happened, how profound they were, and how they fit into the KEY WORDS: human evolution, hominid fossil record — is still disputed, even among anthro- Littoral theory, Aquarboreal pologists who assume some semi-aquatic adaptations. theory, aquatic ape, AAT, Here, I argue that the most intense phase(s) of semi-aquatic Archaic Homo, Homo erectus, adaptation in human ancestry occurred when populations be- Neanderthal, bipedalism, speech longing to the genus Homo adapted to slow and shallow littoral origins, Alister Hardy, Elaine diving for sessile foods such as shellfish during part(s) of the Morgan, comparative biology, Pleistocene epoch (Ice Ages), possibly along African or South- pachyosteosclerosis. Asian coasts. Introduction The term aquatic ape gives an incorrect impression of our semi-aquatic ancestors. Better terms are in my opinion the coastal dispersal model (Munro, 2010) or the littoral theory of human evolution, but although littoral seems to be a more appropriate biologi- cal term here than aquatic, throughout this paper I will use the well-known and common- ly used term AAH as shorthand for all sorts of waterside and semi-aquatic hypotheses.
    [Show full text]
  • A Comparative Analysis of the Wrist and Ankle Morphology of Hominoids and Lorisids, with Implications for the Evolution of Hominoid Locomotion
    Durham E-Theses A comparative analysis of the wrist and ankle morphology of hominoids and lorisids, with implications for the evolution of hominoid locomotion Read, Catriona S. How to cite: Read, Catriona S. (2001) A comparative analysis of the wrist and ankle morphology of hominoids and lorisids, with implications for the evolution of hominoid locomotion, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/3775/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 A Comparative Analysis of the Wrist and Ankle Morphology of Hominoids and Lorisids, with Implications for the Evolution of Hominoid Locomotion A Dissertation presented by Catriona S. Read to The Graduate School For the degree of Master of Science m Biological Anthropology Department of Anthropology University of Durham September 2001 The co11yright of this thesis rests with the author.
    [Show full text]
  • Fleagle and Lieberman 2015F.Pdf
    15 Major Transformations in the Evolution of Primate Locomotion John G. Fleagle* and Daniel E. Lieberman† Introduction Compared to other mammalian orders, Primates use an extraordinary diversity of locomotor behaviors, which are made possible by a complementary diversity of musculoskeletal adaptations. Primate locomotor repertoires include various kinds of suspension, bipedalism, leaping, and quadrupedalism using multiple pronograde and orthograde postures and employing numerous gaits such as walking, trotting, galloping, and brachiation. In addition to using different locomotor modes, pri- mates regularly climb, leap, run, swing, and more in extremely diverse ways. As one might expect, the expansion of the field of primatology in the 1960s stimulated efforts to make sense of this diversity by classifying the locomotor behavior of living primates and identifying major evolutionary trends in primate locomotion. The most notable and enduring of these efforts were by the British physician and comparative anatomist John Napier (e.g., Napier 1963, 1967b; Napier and Napier 1967; Napier and Walker 1967). Napier’s seminal 1967 paper, “Evolutionary Aspects of Primate Locomotion,” drew on the work of earlier comparative anatomists such as LeGros Clark, Wood Jones, Straus, and Washburn. By synthesizing the anatomy and behavior of extant primates with the primate fossil record, Napier argued that * Department of Anatomical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Stony Brook University † Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University 257 You are reading copyrighted material published by University of Chicago Press. Unauthorized posting, copying, or distributing of this work except as permitted under U.S. copyright law is illegal and injures the author and publisher. fig. 15.1 Trends in the evolution of primate locomotion.
    [Show full text]
  • Locomotion and Postural Behaviour Drinking Water
    History of Geo- and Space Open Access Open Sciences EUROPEAN PRIMATE NETWORK – Primate Biology Adv. Sci. Res., 5, 23–39, 2010 www.adv-sci-res.net/5/23/2010/ Advances in doi:10.5194/asr-5-23-2010 Science & Research © Author(s) 2010. CC Attribution 3.0 License. Open Access Proceedings Locomotion and postural behaviour Drinking Water M. Schmidt Engineering Institut fur¨ Spezielle Zoologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Friedrich-Schiller-UniversitAccess Open at¨ and Jena, Science Erbertstr. 1, 07743 Jena, Germany Received: 22 January 2010 – Revised: 10 October 2010 – Accepted: 20 March 2011 – Published: 30 May 2011 Earth System Abstract. The purpose of this article is to provide a survey of the diversity of primate locomotor Science behaviour for people who are involved in research using laboratory primates. The main locomotor modes displayed by primates are introduced with reference to some general morphological adaptations. The relationships between locomotor behaviour and body size, habitat structure and behavioural context will be illustratedAccess Open Data because these factors are important determinants of the evolutionary diversity of primate locomotor activities. They also induce the high individual plasticity of the locomotor behaviour for which primates are well known. The article also provides a short overview of the preferred locomotor activities in the various primate families. A more detailed description of locomotor preferences for some of the most common laboratory primates is included which also contains information about substrate preferences and daily locomotor activities which might useful for laboratory practice. Finally, practical implications for primate husbandry and cage design are provided emphasizing the positive impact of physical activity on health and psychological well-being of primates in captivity.
    [Show full text]
  • WHO IS LUCY? > Lesson Overview
    WHO IS LUCY? > Lesson Overview Overview: In this lesson, you will be introduced to “Lucy”, one of the most famous fossils ever found. You’ll learn details about Lucy including her relationship to humans, her diet, her appearance, and her form of locomotion. Then, you will apply your knowledge in the activities that follow. Objectives: To understand the impact of Lucy’s discovery on the study of human evolution. To understand the significance of identifying bipedalism within the fossil record. To become familiar with aspects of the human fossil record. Outline: A. An Introduction to Lucy B. Lucy in Context C. Lucy and Bipedalism D. Conclusions E. Activity: The Science of Lucy F. Review Questions G. References H. Answer Key Strategy: You will use known elements of Lucy’s morphology to identify primitive and derived characteristics, including bipedalism. You will hypothesize the evolutionary relationship between Lucy’s species and modern humans. You will apply what you learn about Lucy to the activity below. Required Materials: Pen or pencil, colored pencils or pens, a straight edge such as a ruler, and copies of sections A-G of this lesson. Expected Classroom Hours: 1 hr (Assigning the reading outside of class may reduce total classroom hours). Suggested Supplemental Lessons or Resources: eLucy Comparative Anatomy On the Track of Prehistoric Humans Hominin Evolution: Genera Australopithecus and Parathropus eSkeletons eFossils or eLucy Glossary Page 1 of 26 ©eFOSSILS.org Last revised 21 December 2011 WHO IS LUCY? > A. An Introduction to Lucy The discovery of Lucy On November 24, 1974, Donald Johanson and his student Tom Gray were surveying a site named Hadar in the Afar region of Ethiopia, East Africa (shown right) when they noticed a bone jutting out of the ground.
    [Show full text]
  • Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar
    CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE Subfossil Lemurs of Madagascar LAURIE R. GODFREY, WILLIAM L. JUNGERS, AND DAVID A. BURNEY Madagascar’s living lemurs (order Primates) belong to a radia- on steady, gradual diversifi cation would suggest. We believe tion recently ravaged by extirpation and extinction. There that the latter scenario is more consistent with the fossil are three extinct and fi ve extant families (two with extinct record. members) of lemurs on an island of less than 600,000 km2. The question of how lemurs got to Madagascar is still far This level of familial diversity characterizes no other primate from resolved (Godinot, 2006; Masters et al., 2006; Stevens radiation. The remains of up to 17 species of recently extinct and Heesy, 2006; Tattersall, 2006a, 2006b). It is clear that (or subfossil lemurs) have been found alongside those of still Madagascar (with the Indian plate) separated from Africa extant lemurs at numerous Holocene and late Pleistocene long before primates evolved and that it arrived at its present sites in Madagascar (fi gure 21.1, table 21.1). The closest rela- position relative to Africa by 120–130 Ma (Krause et al., 1997; tives of the lemurs are the lorisiform primates of continental Roos et al., 2004; Masters et al., 2006; Rabinowitz and Woods, Africa and Asia; together with the lemurs, these comprise the 2006). Most scholars favor chance rafting of an ancestral suborder Strepsirrhini. lemur from continental Africa to Madagascar (Krause et al., Most researchers have defended an ancient Gondwanan 1997; Kappeler, 2000; Roos et al., 2004; Rabinowitz and (African or Indo-Madagascan) origin for lemurs.
    [Show full text]
  • Locomotion of the Red-Shanked Douc Langur (Pygathrix
    LOCOMOTION OF THE RED-SHANKED DOUC LANGUR (PYGATHRIX NEMAEUS) IN THE SON TRA NATURE RESERVE, VIETNAM A Dissertation by KATHRYN ELIZABETH BAILEY Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Chair of Committee, Sharon Gursky Committee Members, Herbert Covert Jeffrey Winking Paul Dechow Head of Department, Cynthia Werner December 2018 Major Subject: Anthropology Copyright 2018 Kathryn Bailey ABSTRACT This study aims to compile data on the locomotor behavior of the red-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus). This dissertation focused on establishing the historical context for primate locomotion studies and provides a brief introduction to the odd-nosed monkeys, of which Pygathrix is a member. Furthermore, this dissertation contributes locomotor and some anatomical data relating to the arm-swinging capabilities of the red- shanked douc langur. Landmark data was used to identify elements of scapular shape to infer locomotor behaviors. I used shape data on the scapula of the douc langurs to identify if the three species of Pygathrix share a similar scapula shape. There was no statistically significant difference in scapular shape between the three species, thereby lending some support that all are likely moving in similar ways. I also used landmark data to compare Pygathrix (all three species) to quadrupeds and brachiators and found Pygathrix to be significantly different from both. Landmark data was also used to calculate the straight-line distance between the distal most portion of the acromion process and the center most point of the glenoid fossa to see if this distance could predict locomotor behaviors.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Evolution John Hawks
    © Copyright, Princeton University Press. No part of this book may be distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical means without prior written permission of the publisher. II.18 Human Evolution John Hawks OUTLINE diversity of genera, but most are now included within Australopithecus. 1. Origin of the hominins Hominins. Modern humans and extinct species more 2. Early Homo closely related to humans than to chimpanzees or 3. Neanderthals and the origin of modern humans gorillas. 4. Recent human evolution Oldowan. The earliest stone tool industry, which emerged about 2.6 million years ago and persisted until about Living humans are the sole living representatives of a 1.6 million years ago, when it was replaced by the lineage, the hominins, which diverged from other living more sophisticated Acheulean technology. apes 5 to 7 million years ago. Hominins remained limited Orthograde. An upright posture associated with a bi- to Africa for two-thirds of their history. With chimpan- pedal gait, such as occurs in modern humans. zee-sized bodies and brains, early hominins diversified Pronograde. The posture of holding the body parallel to into several lineages with different dietary strategies. the ground, such as is typical of most quadrupedal One of these found a path toward technology, food shar- vertebrates. ing, and hunting and gathering, giving rise to our genus, Homo, approximately 2 million years ago. As popula- While Darwin avoided discussion of the evolution of tions of Homo spread throughout the world, they gave humans in On the Origin of Species, he soon tackled the rise to regional populations with their own anatomical issue in The Descent of Man, which defined the starting and genetic distinctiveness.
    [Show full text]
  • Man's Erect Posture.Pdf
    21 MAN'S ERECT POSTURE J. L. PACE, B.Pharm., M.D., Ph.D. Lond., Departm~nt of Anatomy, Royal University of Malta. This is an abridged version of a Public limbs beoome .the only support of the body. Lecture giv,en under the auspices of the These characteristic stages in the develop~ Royal University of Malta Biological So­ ment of the upright or orthograde posture ciety in November 1969. culminate in the evolution of plantigrade Man when fore-limbs and hind-limbs ao­ This leoture is an attempt to desoribe quire human oharacteristics and the typi­ briefly how, when and where Man oame cal poise of the head is attained. by his ereot attitude. Though the upright posture is one of Man's posture has evolved through 3 the great and most oonspiouous of human stages. In the Hylobatian stage the pro­ oharaoteristios, several animals, as the nograde monkey differentiated into the squirrel, bear, kangaroo and some of the gibbon, a small anthropoid which is ortho­ monkeys and apes, oan maintain their grade in its gait, holding the body upright trunk upright; even some of the extinot in the phase of progression, but which dinosaurs are known to have walked up­ rests and even sleeps in the sitting posi­ right. In this oonneotion it is interesting tion. In the Troglodyte stage the small that surveys have oonstantly shown that anthropoids differentiated into the great the animals most favourite with ohildren anthropoids (e.g. ohimpanzee, gorilla and are those whose postures are in some orangutan), animals which, being heavier, ways or at some times rather vertical, as have a more marked orthograde posture the ohimpanzee, the monkey, as well as and gait, and which rest only when the the penguin, the most vertical of all birds.
    [Show full text]