DOCSLIB.ORG

Man's Erect Posture.Pdf

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Man's Erect Posture.Pdf 21 MAN'S ERECT POSTURE J. L. PACE, B.Pharm., M.D., Ph.D. Lond., Departm~nt of Anatomy, Royal University of Malta. This is an abridged version of a Public limbs beoome .the only support of the body. Lecture giv,en under the auspices of the These characteristic stages in the develop~ Royal University of Malta Biological So­ ment of the upright or orthograde posture ciety in November 1969. culminate in the evolution of plantigrade Man when fore-limbs and hind-limbs ao­ This leoture is an attempt to desoribe quire human oharacteristics and the typi­ briefly how, when and where Man oame cal poise of the head is attained. by his ereot attitude. Though the upright posture is one of Man's posture has evolved through 3 the great and most oonspiouous of human stages. In the Hylobatian stage the pro­ oharaoteristios, several animals, as the nograde monkey differentiated into the squirrel, bear, kangaroo and some of the gibbon, a small anthropoid which is ortho­ monkeys and apes, oan maintain their grade in its gait, holding the body upright trunk upright; even some of the extinot in the phase of progression, but which dinosaurs are known to have walked up­ rests and even sleeps in the sitting posi­ right. In this oonneotion it is interesting tion. In the Troglodyte stage the small that surveys have oonstantly shown that anthropoids differentiated into the great the animals most favourite with ohildren anthropoids (e.g. ohimpanzee, gorilla and are those whose postures are in some orangutan), animals which, being heavier, ways or at some times rather vertical, as have a more marked orthograde posture the ohimpanzee, the monkey, as well as and gait, and which rest only when the the penguin, the most vertical of all birds. body is laid prone. In the final Planti­ In primitive aquatic animals, the limbs grade stage, characterised by Man, struc­ are propelling non-supporting organs being tural changes took place which were al­ mobile but with little stability. With the most entirely confined to the lower limbs. ohange from the aquatic to the terrestrial The evolution of the erect posture habitat, the limbs have to temporarily lift entailed structural as well as physiological and support the body weight during the alterations in all parts and systems of the act of propulsion while at the same time body. Most of these changes occurred in maintaining their propelling function, so the adaptation to arboreal life but some that some more stability is added to their were more recent, resulting from the mobility. In the terrestrial four-footed achievement of Man to walk upright. pronograde animals, all 4 limbs become The basic change in the evolution of permanently supporting though ambula­ posture was the shift in the body's centre tory organs. Some of these animals, how­ of gravity. As we move up the evolu­ ever, move forwards by a hopping type of tionary scale, the centre of gravity tends movement during which the hind limbs to move backwards from the head and take an increasing share of supporting the shoulder to the hind-limb and tail region. body weight; this becomes even more so In leaping animals, the hind-limbs increase with the adoption of arboreal life where in size and the tail en~arges, the centre of the animal advanoes along the branohes gravity coming closer to the organ of pro­ of a tree by reaching ahead for new holds pulsion (the hind-limbs). Higher up in with its front limbs. Finally the fore­ evolution, the centre of gravity tends to limbs lose their function of support and, move well back over the hind-limbs, so while the animal is in motion, the hind allowing the sitting position and freeing 22 the fore-limbs for manipulation and, later of the vertebral column as the result of on, enabling Man to stand. changes in the centre of gravity, there are Four-footed animals use their mouth also changes in its type of movement. In as a food-getting organ so that this is four-footed monkeys which leap from the situated as far as possible from the face, hind-limbs, the lumbar spine acts as a especially from the eyes; these animals, flexible lever which moves the upper part therefore have a long snout. With the of the body on a fixed pelvic base, the development of the erect posture and the centre of gravity being the anticlinal ver­ consequent use of the fore-limbs for grasp­ tebra, i.e. that vertebra with a straight ing, the animal now seizes the food with spine which separates the retroverted its hand and so conveys it to the mouth, thoracic from the anteverted lumbar with a consequent gradual recession of spines. In the bipedal anthropoid and in the snout region. The snout is, however, Man, this springing in the middle of the still quite large in the Great Anthropoids backbone is absent and the vertebral and its final recession is only reached in column, whose spines are uniformly slop­ Man. ing, acts as a whole - as a pillar rather With the recession of the snout, the than a spring. Associated with this change cranial becomes larger than the facial part in the type of movement, structural modi­ fications occur in the spinal muscles, of the skull, the reverse of the situation in the lower primates. The occipital con­ especially those of the lumbar region; dyles, which articulate with the vertebral these gain an ever-increasing attachment column, move forwards on the base of to the pelvis so rendering this a fixed base the skull so leading to an increasing dimi­ from which the erector spinae may act. nution in the angle between the axes of In four-footed animals the pelvic out­ the head and that of the trunk and this let looks backwards and forms the highest ultimately becomes almost a right angle. part of the abdominal cavity, the symphy­ There is a consequent reduction in the sis is at the lowest part of the pelvis, and strength and attachment of the muscles a tail is still present. With the assump­ at the back of the neck and the develop­ tion of the upright posture, the pelvic ment in Man of counterbalancing muscles outlet becomes the lowest part of the on the front, such as the sternomastoid. abdominal cavity, the symphysis moves Ultimately, the characteristic head-poise up in the direction of the umbi'licus, there of Man is attained, the whole skull be­ is a widening of the subpubis arch, and coming practieaIly balanced on the verteb­ early coccygealisation and disappearance ral column; this poise not only permits an of the tail. The increase in the pelvic increased range of movement, but also outlet anteriorly, the added weight of the allows the head to be placed to best ad­ abdominal contents, the increase in the vantage to catch sounds coming from any intra-abdominal pressure bearing on the direction( so that the movements of the pelvic floor, which now lies horizontally, pinna of the ear remain no longer neces­ and the disappearance of the tail (which sary). normally aots as a perineal shutter) all Simultaneously, changes occur in the lead to a weakening of the pelvic outlet vertebral column. With the evolution of in the bipedal posture. This could pos­ the orthograde· from the pronograde pos­ sibly account for conditions like uterine ture there is shortening of the lumbar and rectal prolapse occurring in ortho­ spine by sacralisation in a headward direc­ grade but not in pronograde animals. tion, but with the change later on into the Anthropoids appear t y p i call y plantigrade posture of Man, there is re­ "slouched forward". Struoturally there is lengthening of the lumbar spine by sacra­ no difference between the anthropoid and lisation in a tailward direction as well as the human shoulder and Man only keeps by an increase at the upper end of the his shoulders braced back because the lumbar vertebral series. Apart from al­ supporting reflex postural mechanism has terations which occur in the curvatures in him been perfected. The bones of the 23 arm are longer in the brachiators and roots via the heart, thus increasing the thicker in the heavier anthropoids. The aeration of the lung apices. hands in orthograde animals and in Man The shape of the abdominal cavity assume functions which they do not have seems to vary with posture. Four-footed in the pronogrades. Four-footed animals monkeys have elongated loins and, as rely mostly on their teeth for their offence their chest is situated lower than their and defence reactions but Man uses his flanks, the abdominal organs tend to sag hands for these purposes; Man is in fact against the diaphragm. In bipedal forms, said to be the only fisted creature on earth. the loins shorten .and the abdominal cavity Man also utilises his hands for the tasks widens from side to side becoming flat­ of scratching and cleaning: four-footed tened antero-posteriorly; this affects the animals only scratch with their back-foot, shape of the contained organs so that, for monkeys and apes can use -either front or example, there is partial disappearance of back limbs, whereas Man of c')urse uses the caudate lobe of the liver. In quadru­ only the fore-limb for this purpose. The peds there is no compression of the abdo­ human hand also takes on the function of minal organs because these animals are a tactile organ from the whiskers on the enclosed in a cylinder of spinal postural snout associated with lower animals.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Orangutan Positional Behavior and the Nature of Arboreal Locomotion in Hominoidea Susannah K.S
    AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 000:000–000 (2006) Orangutan Positional Behavior and the Nature of Arboreal Locomotion in Hominoidea Susannah K.S. Thorpe1* and Robin H. Crompton2 1School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK 2Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK KEY WORDS Pongo pygmaeus; posture; orthograde clamber; forelimb suspend ABSTRACT The Asian apes, more than any other, are and orthograde compressive locomotor modes are ob- restricted to an arboreal habitat. They are consequently an served more frequently. Given the complexity of orangu- important model in the interpretation of the morphological tan positional behavior demonstrated by this study, it is commonalities of the apes, which are locomotor features likely that differences in positional behavior between associated with arboreal living. This paper presents a de- studies reflect differences in the interplay between the tailed analysis of orangutan positional behavior for all age- complex array of variables, which were shown to influence sex categories and during a complete range of behavioral orangutan positional behavior (Thorpe and Crompton [2005] contexts, following standardized positional mode descrip- Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 127:58–78). With the exception tions proposed by Hunt et al. ([1996] Primates 37:363–387). of pronograde suspensory posture and locomotion, orang- This paper shows that orangutan positional behavior is utan positional behavior is similar to that of the African highly complex, representing a diverse spectrum of posi- apes, and in particular, lowland gorillas. This study sug- tional modes. Overall, all orthograde and pronograde sus- gests that it is orthogrady in general, rather than fore- pensory postures are exhibited less frequently in the pres- limb suspend specifically, that characterizes the posi- ent study than previously reported.
    [Show full text]
  • Verhaegen M. the Aquatic Ape Evolves
    HUMAN EVOLUTION Vol. 28 n.3-4 (237-266) - 2013 Verhaegen M. The Aquatic Ape Evolves: Common Miscon- Study Center for Anthropology, ceptions and Unproven Assumptions About Mechelbaan 338, 2580 Putte, the So-Called Aquatic Ape Hypothesis Belgium E-mail: [email protected] While some paleo-anthropologists remain skeptical, data from diverse biological and anthropological disciplines leave little doubt that human ancestors were at some point in our past semi- aquatic: wading, swimming and/or diving in shallow waters in search of waterside or aquatic foods. However, the exact sce- nario — how, where and when these semi-aquatic adaptations happened, how profound they were, and how they fit into the KEY WORDS: human evolution, hominid fossil record — is still disputed, even among anthro- Littoral theory, Aquarboreal pologists who assume some semi-aquatic adaptations. theory, aquatic ape, AAT, Here, I argue that the most intense phase(s) of semi-aquatic Archaic Homo, Homo erectus, adaptation in human ancestry occurred when populations be- Neanderthal, bipedalism, speech longing to the genus Homo adapted to slow and shallow littoral origins, Alister Hardy, Elaine diving for sessile foods such as shellfish during part(s) of the Morgan, comparative biology, Pleistocene epoch (Ice Ages), possibly along African or South- pachyosteosclerosis. Asian coasts. Introduction The term aquatic ape gives an incorrect impression of our semi-aquatic ancestors. Better terms are in my opinion the coastal dispersal model (Munro, 2010) or the littoral theory of human evolution, but although littoral seems to be a more appropriate biologi- cal term here than aquatic, throughout this paper I will use the well-known and common- ly used term AAH as shorthand for all sorts of waterside and semi-aquatic hypotheses.
    [Show full text]
  • Fleagle and Lieberman 2015F.Pdf
    15 Major Transformations in the Evolution of Primate Locomotion John G. Fleagle* and Daniel E. Lieberman† Introduction Compared to other mammalian orders, Primates use an extraordinary diversity of locomotor behaviors, which are made possible by a complementary diversity of musculoskeletal adaptations. Primate locomotor repertoires include various kinds of suspension, bipedalism, leaping, and quadrupedalism using multiple pronograde and orthograde postures and employing numerous gaits such as walking, trotting, galloping, and brachiation. In addition to using different locomotor modes, pri- mates regularly climb, leap, run, swing, and more in extremely diverse ways. As one might expect, the expansion of the field of primatology in the 1960s stimulated efforts to make sense of this diversity by classifying the locomotor behavior of living primates and identifying major evolutionary trends in primate locomotion. The most notable and enduring of these efforts were by the British physician and comparative anatomist John Napier (e.g., Napier 1963, 1967b; Napier and Napier 1967; Napier and Walker 1967). Napier’s seminal 1967 paper, “Evolutionary Aspects of Primate Locomotion,” drew on the work of earlier comparative anatomists such as LeGros Clark, Wood Jones, Straus, and Washburn. By synthesizing the anatomy and behavior of extant primates with the primate fossil record, Napier argued that * Department of Anatomical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Stony Brook University † Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University 257 You are reading copyrighted material published by University of Chicago Press. Unauthorized posting, copying, or distributing of this work except as permitted under U.S. copyright law is illegal and injures the author and publisher. fig. 15.1 Trends in the evolution of primate locomotion.
    [Show full text]
  • Ontogeny of Postcranial Morphology and Locomotor Behavior in Propithecus Verreauxi Coquereli and Lemur Catta Stephanie Ann Wolf James Madison University
    James Madison University JMU Scholarly Commons Masters Theses The Graduate School Spring 2011 Ontogeny of postcranial morphology and locomotor behavior in Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Lemur catta Stephanie Ann Wolf James Madison University Follow this and additional works at: https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/master201019 Part of the Biology Commons Recommended Citation Wolf, Stephanie Ann, "Ontogeny of postcranial morphology and locomotor behavior in Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Lemur catta" (2011). Masters Theses. 371. https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/master201019/371 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the The Graduate School at JMU Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Masters Theses by an authorized administrator of JMU Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Ontogeny of postcranial morphology and locomotor behavior in Propithecus verreauxi coquereli and Lemur catta Stephanie Ann Wolf A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Biology May 2011 This thesis is dedicated with sincere gratitude to my mother, Debra Wolf. ii Acknowledgements Numerous people have committed time and energy allowing for the completion of this thesis. Foremost among them is my graduate advisor Dr. Roshna Wunderlich. I would like to thank her for her patience, advice, and dedication to this project, and the valuable hours she spent working with me. I additionally want to thank her for agreeing to take me on as a graduate student, despite already having another graduate student and many undergraduates in her lab to advise.
    [Show full text]
  • Human Evolution John Hawks
    © Copyright, Princeton University Press. No part of this book may be distributed, posted, or reproduced in any form by digital or mechanical means without prior written permission of the publisher. II.18 Human Evolution John Hawks OUTLINE diversity of genera, but most are now included within Australopithecus. 1. Origin of the hominins Hominins. Modern humans and extinct species more 2. Early Homo closely related to humans than to chimpanzees or 3. Neanderthals and the origin of modern humans gorillas. 4. Recent human evolution Oldowan. The earliest stone tool industry, which emerged about 2.6 million years ago and persisted until about Living humans are the sole living representatives of a 1.6 million years ago, when it was replaced by the lineage, the hominins, which diverged from other living more sophisticated Acheulean technology. apes 5 to 7 million years ago. Hominins remained limited Orthograde. An upright posture associated with a bi- to Africa for two-thirds of their history. With chimpan- pedal gait, such as occurs in modern humans. zee-sized bodies and brains, early hominins diversified Pronograde. The posture of holding the body parallel to into several lineages with different dietary strategies. the ground, such as is typical of most quadrupedal One of these found a path toward technology, food shar- vertebrates. ing, and hunting and gathering, giving rise to our genus, Homo, approximately 2 million years ago. As popula- While Darwin avoided discussion of the evolution of tions of Homo spread throughout the world, they gave humans in On the Origin of Species, he soon tackled the rise to regional populations with their own anatomical issue in The Descent of Man, which defined the starting and genetic distinctiveness.
    [Show full text]
  • Locomotion and Posture from the Common Hominoid Ancestor to Fully Modern Hominins, with Special Reference to the Last Common Panin/Hominin Ancestor R
    J. Anat. (2008) 212, pp501–543 doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00870.x REVIEWBlackwell Publishing Ltd Locomotion and posture from the common hominoid ancestor to fully modern hominins, with special reference to the last common panin/hominin ancestor R. H. Crompton,1 E. E. Vereecke1 and S. K. S. Thorpe2 1School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Liverpool, Sherrington Buildings, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK 2School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT Abstract Based on our knowledge of locomotor biomechanics and ecology we predict the locomotion and posture of the last common ancestors of (a) great and lesser apes and their close fossil relatives (hominoids); (b) chimpanzees, bonobos and modern humans (hominines); and (c) modern humans and their fossil relatives (hominins). We evaluate our propositions against the fossil record in the context of a broader review of evolution of the locomotor system from the earliest hominoids of modern aspect (crown hominoids) to early modern Homo sapiens. While some early East African stem hominoids were pronograde, it appears that the adaptations which best characterize the crown hominoids are orthogrady and an ability to abduct the arm above the shoulder – rather than, as is often thought, manual suspension sensu stricto. At 7–9 Ma (not much earlier than the likely 4–8 Ma divergence date for panins and hominins, see Bradley, 2008) there were crown hominoids in southern Europe which were adapted to moving in an orthograde posture, supported primarily on the hindlimb, in an arboreal, and possibly for Oreo- pithecus, a terrestrial context. By 7 Ma, Sahelanthropus provides evidence of a Central African hominin, panin or possibly gorilline adapted to orthogrady, and both orthogrady and habitually highly extended postures of the hip are evident in the arboreal East African protohominin Orrorin at 6 Ma.
    [Show full text]
  • Ideas in Ecology and Evolution 1: 1-10, 2008
    1 11: 47–60, 2018 2 doi: 10.4033/iee.2018.11.6.n 3 © 2018 The Author 4 iee Received 5 June 2018; Accepted 1 October 2018 5 6 7 8 New Idea 9 10 11 The sexual selection of hominin bipedalism 12 13 14 Michael T. Dale 15 16 Michael T. Dale ([email protected]), Department of Philosophy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2210 17 Speedway, C3500, Austin, TX, USA 78712 18 19 20 Abstract Introduction 21 22 In this article, I advance a novel hypothesis on the Why did our hominin ancestors become bipedal? As it 23 evolution of hominin bipedalism. I begin by arguing is likely that bipedalism preceded the expansion of the 24 extensively for how the transition to bipedalism must brain, language, tool-use, loss of body hair, and many 25 have been problematic for hominins during the Neogene. other traits idiosyncratic to Homo sapiens (Tuttle 2014), 26 Due to this and the fact that no other primate has made bipedalism is perhaps the first step (!) in the development 27 the unusual switch to bipedalism, it seems likely that the of modern humanity. While many hypotheses have been 28 selection pressure towards bipedalism was unusually put forward, none have made a thoroughly convincing 29 strong. With this in mind, I briefly lay out some of the case, and thus this pivotal transition in our evolutionary 30 most promising hypotheses on the evolutionary origin of history remains a mystery. 31 hominin bipedalism and show how most, if not all, fail in In this article, I advance a novel hypothesis regarding 32 the face of the need for an unusually strong selection the evolution of hominin bipedalism.
    [Show full text]
  • Factoring the Proto-Biped Infant
    1 FACTORING THE PROTO-BIPED INFANT INTO THE ORIGIN OF BIPEDALISM Grayson Joy Gerrard March 2018 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University © Copyright by Grayson Joy Gerrard 2018 2 Except where otherwise indicated by citation, all parts of this thesis represent my own original work _______________________________ 3 DEDICATION TO THE MEMORY OF COLIN GROVES 1942 - 2017 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I owe an enormous debt to the late Colin Groves, who encouraged this project from the outset and who chose to continue supervising it even when his health was failing. I am deeply grateful to him for everything he taught me about palaeoanthropology and primates, and for years of patience, kindness, support, constructive criticism, and mentoring. No matter how busy he was with his many other commitments, Colin was always there for his postgraduates, always their rock, and always unfailingly generous with his time. My own debt to him is particularly acute because I was one of the last few of these privileged individuals, and he was part-way through reading the final draft of this thesis before his last illness. I am also indebted to Dr. Phyll Dance, Colin’s wife, for many kindnesses during the years I was her husband’s student. Dr. Robert Attenborough acted as my co-supervisor. I thank him warmly for all his encouragement and support, his insistence on careful definitions, and his many constructive criticisms and suggestions for improvement. Most of all, I thank him for taking on the task of steering this thesis through its final, pre-submission stages.
    [Show full text]
  • Locomotion, Posture, and the Foramen Magnum in Primates : Reliability of Indices and Insights Into Hominin Bipedalism
    This is a repository copy of Locomotion, posture, and the foramen magnum in primates : Reliability of indices and insights into hominin bipedalism. White Rose Research Online URL for this paper: https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/168279/ Version: Accepted Version Article: Landi, Federica, Profico, Antonio orcid.org/0000-0003-2884-7118, Veneziano, Alessio et al. (2 more authors) (2020) Locomotion, posture, and the foramen magnum in primates : Reliability of indices and insights into hominin bipedalism. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PRIMATOLOGY. e23170. ISSN 0275-2565 https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23170 Reuse Items deposited in White Rose Research Online are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved unless indicated otherwise. They may be downloaded and/or printed for private study, or other acts as permitted by national copyright laws. The publisher or other rights holders may allow further reproduction and re-use of the full text version. This is indicated by the licence information on the White Rose Research Online record for the item. Takedown If you consider content in White Rose Research Online to be in breach of UK law, please notify us by emailing [email protected] including the URL of the record and the reason for the withdrawal request. [email protected] https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/ 1 Title: 2 Locomotion, posture and the foramen magnum in primates: reliability of indices and 3 insights into hominin bipedalism 4 5 Short title: 6 Foramen magnum, locomotion and posture 7 8 Federica Landi* 1, Antonio Profico 2, Alessio Veneziano
    [Show full text]
  • Joint Provides Insight Into Human Bipedal Locomotion
    COMPARATIVE DIGITAL EXAMINATION OF THE TALOCRURAL (ANKLE) JOINT PROVIDES INSIGHT INTO HUMAN BIPEDAL LOCOMOTION by ALLISON ZIMMERMAN Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Sciences Department of Biology CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY May, 2013 CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES We hereby approve the thesis of Allison Marie Zimmerman candidate for the Master of Sciences degree*. Dr. Jean Burns (Chair of the Committee) Dr. Scott Simpson Dr. Bruce Latimer Dr. Darin Croft 18 March 2013 *We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein 2 Table of Contents LIST OF FIGURES 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5 ABSTRACT 6 I. BACKGROUND INFORMATION 7 TALOCRURAL JOINT 7 SYNOVIAL JOINTS 13 BONE SCALING 14 QUADRUPEDAL LOCOMOTION 15 FOSSIL HISTORY OF BIPEDALISM 17 BIPEDAL LOCOMOTION 20 INTRODUCTION 23 II. APPLICATION OF 3-DIMENSIONAL MORPHOMETRICS 25 INTRODUCTION 25 METHODS 28 DIGITAL ANALYSIS OF THE TIBIA 30 DIGITAL ANALYSIS OF THE TALUS 31 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 32 III. CROSS-SPECIES COMPARISON AND EVOLUTION OF TALOCRURAL JOINT MECHANICS 33 INTRODUCTION 33 PRIMATES 34 FOSSIL SPECIES 38 URSIDS AND FELIDS 38 JOINT MECHANICS 41 METHODS 42 TIBIA 44 TALUS 45 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47 MORPHOLOGICAL COMPARISON 47 IV. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS 55 REFERENCES 60 3 List of Figures Figure 1.1. Basic construction of the talocrural joint ...........................................................7 Figure 1.2. Ligaments of the talocrural joint .....................................................................10 Figure 1.3. Dorsiflexion at the talocrural joint ..................................................................11 Figure 1.4. Plantarflexion at the talocrural joint ................................................................11 Figure 1.5. Three types of muscular contraction ...............................................................12 Figure 1.6.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 CURRICULUM VITAE Liza J. Shapiro Department Of
    CURRICULUM VITAE Liza J. Shapiro Department of Anthropology 2201 Speedway, Stop C3200 University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX 78712 (512) 471-7533 [email protected] Professional Appointments: 2008-present Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin 2011-2014 Associate Chair, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin 1997-2008 Associate Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin 1990-1997 Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin Editorial Appointments: 2005-2010 Associate Editor, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2004-2007 Associate Editor, Journal of Human Evolution Education: Ph.D. 1991 Anthropology, State University of New York at Stony Brook. Dissertation: Functional Morphology of the Primate Spine with Special Reference to Orthograde Posture and Bipedal Locomotion. M.A. 1989 Anthropology, State University of New York at Stony Brook B.A. 1983 Anthropology/Psychology, State University of New York at Albany, Summa Cum Laude. Current Research: Functional morphology and evolution of primate locomotor adaptations Ontogeny of locomotion in primates Comparative anatomy and function of the vertebral musculoskeletal system in primates Kinematics of primate locomotion Reconstruction of locomotor behavior in fossil primates. Professional and Honor Society Memberships: American Association of Physical Anthropologists Texas Association of Biological Anthropologists Member, Clinicially Applied Rehabilitation Engineering (CARE) Initiative, UT Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering Phi Beta Kappa 1 Peer-reviewed publications: (Under review) Shapiro, L.J. and Russo, G.A. Vertebral morphology in hominoids II- The lumbar spine. In: Been E, Gómez-Olivencia A, and Kramer PA.(Eds). Spinal Evolution: Morphology, Function, and Pathology of the Spine in Hominoid Evolution.
    [Show full text]
  • How Did Humans Acquire Erect Bipedal Walking?
    ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE Review Vol. 127(1), 1–12, 2019 How did humans acquire erect bipedal walking? Tasuku KIMURA1* 1The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan Received 25 September 2018; accepted 19 February 2019 Abstract Recent fossil records have suggested that human erect bipedal locomotion started in Africa probably more than 6 million years ago. However, debate continues regarding how locomotion was ac- quired by our prehuman ancestors. Fossils and the genetic traits of recent humans and animals cannot answer this question directly. Therefore, the present paper reviews acquisition models of human biped- alism and explanations regarding how humans acquired bipedalism based on a comparative kinesiology of contemporary mammal species. Nonhuman primates are adequate models of human bipedal acquisi- tion because of not only the phylogenetically close relationship with humans, but also the trend toward hindlimb dominance and orthograde positional behavior in daily life. Although dissimilar to the erect bipedalism seen in humans, nonhuman primates adopt bipedal positional behavior in the wild. All non- human primates use the arboreal environment, but some groups of species utilize the ground predomi- nantly. Compared with relatively terrestrial nonhuman primates, relatively arboreal primates show more similarities with humans in their bipedal locomotion. Comparisons among primate species and between nonhuman primates and nonprimate mammals indicate that human-like bipedal characteristics are strongly related to arboreal life. Our prehuman ancestors likely started and adapted to bipedal locomo- tion while living in trees; this process is referred to as the generalized arboreal activity model. When humans began terrestrial locomotion, they likely performed proficient bipedalism from the first step.
    [Show full text]