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Excretion in the Animal House 8-50% N 20- 70% applied N excreted 8-50% N animal house excretion in the excretion FROM ANIMALS TO CROPS ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF CURRENT AND FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR MANURE MANAGEMENT Jerke W. de Vries Thesis committee Promotors Prof. Dr P.W.G. Groot Koerkamp Professor of Farm Technology Wageningen University Prof. Dr I.J.M. de Boer Professor of Animal Production Systems Wageningen University Co-promotors Dr W.B. Hoogmoed Assistant professor, Farm Technology Group Wageningen University Dr C.M. Groenestein Senior Scientist, Wageningen UR Livestock Research Wageningen University and Research Centre Other members Prof. H. Wenzel, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark Prof. Dr M.K. van Ittersum, Wageningen University Prof. Dr G. Zeeman, Wageningen University Dr G.L. Velthof, Wageningen University and Research Centre This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Production Ecology and Resource Conservation. FROM ANIMALS TO CROPS ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF CURRENT AND FUTURE STRATEGIES FOR MANURE MANAGEMENT Jerke W. de Vries Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. dr. M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Friday 17 January 2014 at 1:30 p.m. in the Aula. Jerke W. de Vries From animals to crops - Environmental consequences of current and future strategies for manure management, 178 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2014) With references, with summaries in Dutch and English ISBN 978-94-6173-832-5 Therefore do not seek to understand in order to believe, but believe that thou mayest understand. Saint Augustine of Hippo Any fool can know; the point is to understand. Albert Einstein / ABSTRACT De Vries, J.W. (2014). From animals to crops - Environmental consequences of current and future strategies for manure management. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Animal manure is a key component that links crop and livestock production as it contains valuable nutrients for the soil and crop. Manure is also a source of environmental pollution through losses of nutrients, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and losses of carbon (C). These losses are largely determined by the way manure is managed. Technologies to reduce nutrient and C losses from manure mainly focused on reducing a single emission while unwillingly increasing another emission at the same time; a phenomenon called pollution swapping. To prevent pollution swapping, we need to gain insight into the integral environmental consequences of technologies and use these insights to (re)design the manure management chain. The aim of this thesis, therefore, was to provide knowledge and insight into the environmental consequences of current and future strategies for manure management. The environmental consequences of the following technologies were assessed: mono- and co-digestion of liquid manure; high-tech separation of liquid manure with further dewatering of the liquid fraction; and segregating fattening pig urine and feces inside the housing system. Following, we designed new strategies for integrated manure management that prevent pollution swapping, and assessed the environmental consequences of these strategies. Life cycle assessment was used to calculate the environmental impacts of current and future strategies. For the design, we adapted and used a structured approach to engineering design to create new strategies for integrated manure management. It was concluded that mono-digestion of liquid manure reduced the environmental impact compared to conventional manure management, but has a low potential to produce bio-energy. Co-digestion with waste and residues, such as roadside grass, increased bio-energy production and further reduced the environmental impact. Co-digestion with substrates that compete with animal feed increased bio-energy production, but also the overall environmental impact from producing a substitute for the used co-substrate. Separating liquid manure into liquid and solid fractions with further de-watering of the liquid fraction increased the environmental impact compared to manure management without processing. A combination of separation and anaerobic mono-digestion of the solid faction reduced climate change and fossil fuel depletion. Segregating fattening pig urine and feces in the housing system reduced climate change, terrestrial acidification, and particulate matter formation and provided a sound basis for environmentally friendly manure management. Applying a structured design approach enabled the design of new strategies for integrated manure management that prevented pollution swapping. The approach proved to be successful because the environmental impact reduced throughout the manure management chain by at least 57% and more than doubled the nitrogen use efficiency compared to current North Western European manure management practices. Table of contents CHAPTER 1 General introduction 1 CHAPTER 2 Comparing environmental consequences of anaerobic mono- and co-digestion of pig manure to produce bio-energy - A life cycle perspective 13 CHAPTER 3 Environmental consequences of processing manure to produce mineral fertilizer and bio-energy 37 CHAPTER 4 Life cycle assessment of segregating fattening pig urine and feces compared to conventional liquid manure management 65 CHAPTER 5 Integrated manure management to reduce environmental impact: I. Structured design of strategies 85 CHAPTER 6 Integrated manure management to reduce environmental impact: II. Environmental impact assessment of strategies 105 Appendix A: Supplementary information for Chapter 6 135 CHAPTER 7 General discussion and conclusions 143 Summary 158 Samenvatting 162 Gearfetting 166 Words of thanks / Dankwoord 170 Curriculum Vitae 172 Publications 173 PE&RC PhD Training Certificate 176 Colophon 178 Chapter 1 // GENERAL INTRODUCTION J.W. De Vries 2 / Chapter one 1.1 BACKGROUND / Animal manure is the key component that links crop and livestock production. It contains valuable nutrients for the soil and crop, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), and carbon (C). Efficient cycling of nutrients and C among soils, crops and animals is essential to sustain soil quality and crop growth, and hence to produce food, feed, fiber, and biofuels. In the past 50 to 60 years, these cycles have been disrupted, mainly because of: development of mixed crop-livestock farms into specialized farms that produce feed or food crops or keep livestock that produce animal-source food; geographical relocation of farms into centralized production regions; and intensification of farming (Steinfeld et al., 2006; Tilman et al., 2002; Wilkins, 2008). Forecasts show that global manure production is expected to increase as a result of increased consumption, and thus production of animal-source food products (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Overall, above described trends lead to areas with high livestock densities and a surplus of manure, such as the Netherlands, and other areas with little manure for crop production, inducing the need to use nutrients from mineral fertilizer (Wilkins, 2008). In areas with high livestock densities, such as the European Union (EU), field application of manure causes losses of nutrients and C into air, water, and soil, which cause environmental pollution. Major pathways of nutrient losses include: leaching and - 3 - run-off of nitrate (NO3 ) and phosphate (PO 4 ) to ground and surface waters, resulting in eutrophication and human health problems; emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), resulting in climate change; and emissions of ammonia (NH3) resulting in acidification, eutrophication, and particulate matter formation (Steinfeld et al., 2006). Gaseous N losses also contribute to the formation of particulate matter, which results in human health problems. Additionally, intensive livestock production causes odor nuisance and fossil fuel depletion. During the processing and transport of surplus manure to other regions, energy is used. N losses indirectly also lead to energy use, as mineral N fertilizer is required for crops requiring energy to produce (Berglund & Börjesson, 2006). Previous environmental pollution related to livestock production lead to international and national regulations, e.g. Kyoto Protocol, Gothenburg Protocol, National Emission Ceilings (NEC), and Nitrates Directive. The Kyoto protocol for the EU-15, for example, aimed at an 8% reduction in GHG emissions in 2008 - 2012 compared to 1990; this was 15% in 2011 and is aimed at 20% reduction for 2020 (EC, 2013). The NEC for NH3 emission was achieved by most countries in 2010 (i.e. 128 kilotons for the Netherlands), but will be lowered further (EC, 2012; EU, 2001). Further sharpening of the directives is necessary, especially in regions that, for example, are sensitive to NH3 deposition, such as Natura2000 zones. This means that such regulations will stimulate the development of new strategies for manure management to comply with the regulations and ultimately the environment (Burton & Turner, 2003). General introduction / 3 1.2 CATTLE AND PIG MANURE MANAGEMENT IN NORTH WEST EUROPE AND THE NETHERLANDS / Main types of manure produced in the EU are: liquid pig (~149 million tons), and liquid and solid cattle manure (~448 and 295 million tons, respectively) (Henning Lyngsø et al., 2011). In 2011,
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