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Renal Handling of Ammonium and Acid Base Regulation

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Renal Handling of Ammonium and Acid Base Regulation Electrolytes & Blood Pressure 7:9-13, 2009 9 Review article 1) Renal Handling of Ammonium and Acid Base Regulation Hye-Young Kim, M.D. Department of Internal Medicine, Chungbuk National University College of Medicine, Cheongju, Korea Renal ammonium metabolism is the primary component of net acid excretion and thereby is critical for acid-base homeostasis. Briefly, ammonium is produced from glutamine in the proximal tubule in a series of biochemical reactions that result in equimolar bicarbonate. Ammonium is predominantly secreted into the luminal fluid via the apical Na +/H + exchanger, NHE3. The thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle + + + － reabsorbs luminal ammonium, predominantly by transport of NH 4 by the apical Na /K /2Cl cotransporter, BSC1/NKCC2. This process results in renal interstitial ammonium accumulation. Finally, the collecting duct secretes ammonium from the renal interstitium into the luminal fluid. Although in past ammonium was believed to move across epithelia entirely by passive diffusion, an increasing number of studies demonstrated that specific proteins contribute to renal ammonium transport. Recent studies have yielded important new insights into the mechanisms of renal ammonium transport. In this review, we will discuss renal handling of ammonium, with particular emphasis on the transporters involved in this process. Key Words : ammonia; kidney; kidney tubules, collecting; acidosis + Introduction ity of the total ammonia is in the form of NH 4 at the physiologic pH, we generally refer to total ammonia trans- The acid-base regulation is chiefly dependent on the port as “ammonium transport” and to total ammonia ex- control of net acid excretion by the kidney and CO 2 excre- cretion as “ammonium excretion” 4) . tion by the lungs. Renal acid-base homeostasis consists of two major processes, the reabsorption of filtered bicarbo- Renal ammonium production nate and the excretion of the hydrogen ion. The kidney The proximal tubule is the chief site of renal ammonium excretes hydrogen ion through the processes of titratable 1, 2) production. Glutamine catabolism in the proximal tubule acid excretion and urinary ammonium excretion . Quan- + generates NH 4 and also bicarbonate after complete catabo- titatively, urinary ammonium excretion is the primary me- lism ofα -ketoglutarate to CO 2 and H 2O. Studies in micro- chanism of net acid excretion both under basal conditions dissected tubules have demonstrated that proximal tubules and in response to acid loads 1-3) . The Understanding renal from the acidotic rats produced substantially more ammo- ammonium production and transport is of fundamental im- nium than did tubules from controls 5) . These results illu- portance for understanding acid-base homeostasis. strate that the production of ammonium is regulated ac- The term “total ammonium” is used to denote the sum + cording to the acid-base state. In addition, hormonal factors of NH 3 and NH 4 . In this review, because the vast major- contribute to the stimulation by metabolic acidosis of am- moniagenesis in the proximal tubule. The circulating levels Received May 18, 2009. Accepted May 27, 2009. 6) Corresponding author : Hye-Young Kim, M.D. of glucocorticoids increase during metabolic acidosis . Department of Internal Medicine, Chungbuk National University College of Medicine, 62 Gaeshin-dong, Heunduk-gu, Cheongju, 361-711, Korea Renal ammonium transport Tel : +82-43-269-6017, Fax : +82-43-273-3252 E-mail : [email protected] Renal ammonium metabolism and transport involves 10 HY Kim : Renal Handling of Ammonium and Acid Base Regulation integrated responses of multiple portions of the kidney, in- interstitial NH 3 concentration which promotes secretion cluding specific transport mechanisms in the proximal tu- into the medullary collecting tubule. bule, thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, and the Ammonium reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of collecting duct. Henle’s loop is reduced by hyperkalemia and is enhanced + by chronic metabolic acidosis due to increased NH 4 pro- 1. Ammonium transport in the proximal tubule duction in and delivery out of the proximal tubule 14, 17) . + The proximal tubule secretes NH 4 into the luminal fluid In the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, me- primarily through the action of the apical sodium/hydrogen tabolic acidosis increases ammonium reabsorption through ion exchanger, NHE3 7, 8) , and to a lesser degree through mechanisms that appear to be involved in increasing an apical barium sensitive potassium ion channel 8-10) . The NKCC2 expression 17, 18) . In vitro incubation of rat medul- activity and abundance of the apical Na +/H + exchanger lary thick ascending limb fragments in suspension in an NHE3 is increased in the proximal brush border membrane acid medium strongly enhanced the BSC1/NKCC2 mRNA during metabolic acidosis, which could be expected to con- and protein abundance and cotransport activity 18) . In addi- + tribute to the enhanced NH 4 secretion by the proximal tion, administration of the glucocorticoid dexamethasone tubule during this condition 11) . It was recently shown that to adrenalectomized rats stimulated BSC1/NKCC2 expres- stimulation of ammonium secretion by the proximal tubule sion at the mRNA and protein levels 19) . The acidity of the + + + during metabolic acidosis largely depends on Na /H (NH 4 ) surrounding environment and glucocorticoids may account exchange activity and on angiotensin II 12) . for the stimulating effect of chronic metabolic acidosis on BSC1/NKCC2 expression. 2. Ammonium transport in thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop 3. Ammonium secretion in the collecting duct After ammonium is produced and secreted by the prox- The majority of urinary ammonium is secreted into lu- imal tubule, it is then delivered into the renal medulla via minal fluid in the region of the nephron distal to the mi- 20) the loop of Henle. These potential losses of luminal NH 3 cropuncturable late distal tubule . This is a heteroge- are minimized because more than 75 percent of the tubu- neous region, and includes portions of the distal convolut- + lar fluid NH 4 is recycled within the medulla, thereby ed tubule (DCT), connecting segment (CNT), initial col- 3, 13, 14) maintaining a high interstitial NH 3 concentration . lecting tubule, cortical collecting duct (CCD), outer me- The primary step in this process is reabsorption in the dullary collecting duct (OMCD) and inner medullary col- + + thick ascending limb by substitution of NH 4 for K both lecting duct (IMCD). Accordingly, understanding the me- on the Na +/K +/2Cl carrier and, to a much lesser degree, chanisms of transepithelial ammonium transport across the through the K + channels in the luminal membrane 3, 15) . cells that comprise these portions of the kidney is im- The luminal NH 3 permeability in the thick ascending limb portant. was lower compared to other nephron segments 16) . The The mechanism of ammonuim secretion in OMCD and low NH 3 permeability limits the backflux of NH 3 into the IMCD is not completely clear at present. Since the first tubule lumen and thereby contributes to the overall effici- description of the concept, the process of transepithelial + ency of the NH 4 absorptive process. Partial dissociation transport of ammonium in the collecting duct is thought + into NH 3 and H then occurs in the less acidic tubular to occur primarily through passive non-ionic NH 3 dif- 21, 22) cell. As a result, the NH 3 formed within the cell will dif- fusion . The fluid entering the collecting tubules has fuse out across the basolateral membrane into the medul- a relatively low NH 3 concentration, because of its removal lary interstitium. The countercurrent multiplication of am- in the loop of Henle. The net effect is that there is a rela- monium generates the maintenance of a high medullary tively large gradient favoring the free diffusion of inter- HY Kim : Renal Handling of Ammonium and Acid Base Regulation 11 Na + NHE-3 H+ + NH NKCC2 NH 4 3 2Cl Na + + + NH NH 4 4 H+ NH 3 NH 3 Rhcg Rhcg NH NH 3 NH 3 3 Medullary NH 3 ? accumulation Rhbg H+ H+ATPase + + K (NH 4 ) Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the ammonium transport mechanisms in the kidney. Ammonium is predominantly secreted into the luminal fluid via the apical Na +/H + exchanger, NHE3. The thick ascending + limb of the loop of Henle reabsorbs luminal ammonium, predominantly by transport of NH 4 by the apical Na +/K +/2Cl －cotransporter, BSC1/NKCC2. The renal countercurrent mechanism results in renal interstitial ammonium accumulation. Finally, the collecting duct secretes ammonium from the renal interstitium into the luminal fluid. NH 3 is transported across the basolateral membrane, predominantly by Rhcg, but also by lipid diffusion (dashed line) and possibly by Rhbg. Intracellular NH 3 is secreted across the apical membrane by + + + apical Rhcg. In inner medullary collecting duct, basolateral Na ,K -ATPase transports NH 4 . There is also + + likely to be a component of diffusive apical NH 3 transport (dashed line). H -ATPase secretes H , which + 42) combines with luminal NH 3 to form NH 4 . Modified from Kim et al. + stitial NH 3 into the tubular lumen, where it forms NH 4 The most recent addition to our understanding of the 1, 13) . The cell membranes in the collecting tubules are molecular mechanisms of ammonium metabolism is the highly permeable to NH 3 but have only a negligible per- identification of the ammonia transporter family of pro- + 23) 25, 29) meability to NH 4 . As a result, interstitial NH 3 can pas- teins . Rh B glycoprotein (Rhbg) and Rh C glyco- sively diffuse into the tubular lumen where it is then trap- protein (Rhcg) are expressed in the renal DCT, CNT and + ped as NH 4 . The net effect is that NH 3 is secreted into collecting duct, the sites where approximately 80% of uri- the lumen throughout the collecting tubules 3) .
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