i

111Investigating the Impact of Participation on Sports Fandom:

A Performative Sport Fandom Perspective

A dissertation proposal submitted to the College of Communication and Information of Kent

State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

by

Zach Humphries

May 2020

ii

Dissertation proposal written by

Zach Humphries

B.A., Youngstown State University, 2012

M.S., Youngstown State University, 2014

Ph.D., Kent State University, 2020

Approved by

______Danielle Sarver Coombs, Ph.D., Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

______Miriam Matteson, Ph.D., Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

______Tang Tang, Ph.D., Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

______Theresa Walton-Fisette, Ph.D., Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee

Accepted by

Miriam Matteson, Ph.D., Chair, Doctoral Studies Committee

______Amy Reynolds, Ph.D., Dean, College of Communication and Information iii

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Background and Problem Statement ...... 3

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 9 Fantasy Sports ...... 9 DFS and TFS ...... 11 Social Identity Theory ...... 13 Performative Sport Fandom Theory ...... 15 Fan Performance Matrix ...... 17 Sports Fandom and Levels of Fandom ...... 19 Impact of Fantasy Sports Participation on Fandom ...... 25 Sport Fandom Motives ...... 28 Fantasy Sports Motives ...... 30 Internet Gambling and DFS Players ...... 32 Research Questions ...... 35

III. METHODOLOGY ...... 36 Theoretical Bracketing and Research Quality ...... 37 DFS Experts and Player Interviews ...... 39 Sample and Data Collection ...... 39 DFS Expert and Player Interviews ...... 40 Data Analysis ...... 42 Ethical Considerations ...... 44

IV. FINDINGS ...... 45 Fan Performance Matrix ...... 46 The Caring Performance Mode ...... 47 Conflicting Loyalties ...... 48 Performance Based Loyalty ...... 50 No Loyalty Toward Favorite Team ...... 52 Conflicting Identities ...... 54 The Knowing Performance Mode ...... 58 Statistical Knowledge ...... 59 Watching and Following Games as a DFS Player ...... 63 Financial Incentive to Know Information ...... 67 DFS Influences Additional Skill-Based Gambling ...... 72 iv

V. DISCUSSION ...... 76 Contextual Factors Lead to Different Performances ...... 77 Negotiating Life Identities and Conflicting Team Loyalties ...... 80 Gambling and Fan Performances ...... 83 Theoretical Implications ...... 87 Limitations ...... 88 Future Research ...... 90 Conclusion ...... 93

APPENDICES

A. DFS Expert and DFS Player Quotes ...... 97 B. Interview Protocol ...... 104

REFERENCES ...... 106

v

Acknowledgements

First, I would like to my family and friends. There is no way that I would have accomplished this task without your support and love. You were always in my corner throughout the ups and the downs of graduate school. A special thank you to mom, dad, Frankie, and Joya.

You were in my corner well before I started this journey. I am very grateful to have such a great group of family and friends who believe in me.

Next, I want to thank my advisor Dr. Danielle Sarver Coombs. She has made me a better scholar and writer throughout this entire process. I made a great decision with selecting you as my dissertation chair and advisor and I will always consider you a mentor and friend. I would have never made it this point without your unwavering support and guidance. I would also like to offer a special thank you to my entire dissertation committee. Thank you for your patience and guidance.

I want to thank the entire Kent State community for making me feel like a member of the institution and the community. I want to offer a special thanks to my many classmates and colleagues. Thank you. Whether we took a class together or worked on a team research project, I will remember the impact you had on me and my journey.

I would also like to thank YouTube and a few YouTubers who got me interested in practicing meditation and living a healthy lifestyle. Graduate school is not easy. It is a grind.

Meditation is now forever a part of my day-to-day life. Thank you, Michael Sealey. Thank you,

Jason Stephenson. I never thought writing a dissertation would lead me to meditation, but it did. vi

Lastly, thank you to everyone I crossed paths with during this journey. I made so many special relationships at conferences, in classes, and on campus. There are too many of you to list here but I will remember you all. Thank you 1

Chapter 1

Introduction

According to the Fantasy Sports Trade Association (FSTA), as of June 20th, 2017, fantasy sports is a $7.22 billion-dollar industry. The same report indicates that there are just under 60 million total players in the United States and Canada, which represents a

3.3% increase from 2016. In other words, roughly one in five people in the U.S. are playing fantasy sports, and 73% of the total fantasy players are playing fantasy football. McDuling

(2015) posits that 30 million Americans spent roughly eleven billion dollars on fantasy sports in

2015. The amount of money tied to fantasy sports continues to increase and daily fantasy sports

(DFS) players are heavily contributing to the rising interest and money spent on fantasy sports

(Billings et al., 2017). DFS is the newest and fastest growing fantasy sports platform, but its players have been understudied (Leishman, 2016). This dissertation focused on DFS players and how they perform their fandom through utilizing the Performative Sport Fandom (PSF) theory.

PSF theory is a theoretical approach that treats each sports fan as an individual and contextualizes fandom so that researchers can study each fans’ unique performances (Osborne &

Coombs, 2013).

Sports fandom research saw a surge in the mid 1990s when Wann and Hamlet (1995) commented on the lack of literature focusing on the sports fan. This has led to great advances in our knowledge and understanding of sports fans and the identity formed as sports fans (e.g., Hirt,

Zillmann, Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992; Schlabach, 1998; Shank & Beasley, 1988). Sports fan identification refers to the degree to which a fan feels psychologically connected to a team or sport (Murrell & Dietz, 1992). However, the emergence of fantasy sports, which allow fans to 2 take on the role of team owner by assembling a virtual line-up of real athletes from professional sports competitions, has blurred the lines of sports fan identification (Carlson, 2013). While fantasy sports players can have a psychological connection to their favorite team, they oftentimes share a similar connection with their fantasy team (Carlson, 2013; Lee et al., 2013; Luker, 2012).

Daily fantasy sports (DFS) is an understudied aspect of fantasy sports and is a format that debuted in 2009 (Billings et al., 2017; Leishman, 2016), was popularized in 2015 (Kludt, 2015), and is quickly becoming the format of choice for fantasy sports consumers (Billings et al., 2017).

DFS contests are conducted over a single game or a series of games in a 24-hour period

(Virtanen, 2015). These contests are played against strangers and the activity itself is usually anonymous (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). Traditional fantasy sports (TFS) are played throughout an entire season, played with close family and friends, and are not anonymous (Larkin, 2015). This dissertation will only produce research questions better aimed at understanding DFS players.

DFS is rapidly growing in popularity. In fact, DFS has grown at a rate of 967% since 2013

(Klinski, 2017). Therefore, it was important that we begin to understand more about this fan group through how their unique fan performances.

DFS players are the most active and engaged fantasy players when it comes to consuming sports media (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). These players heavily prioritize playing DFS over attending live sporting events due to the potential economic gain that can be achieved through playing DFS (Larkin, 2015; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). Therefore, DFS players are actively engaging with sports media, but are not performing their fandom in traditional ways as seen from non-DFS playing sports fans who attend more live contests, and buy more merchandise opposed to their DFS counterparts (Larkin, 2015). 3

Social identity theory (SIT) has been utilized in many previous studies covering fandom and fantasy sports (e.g., Brandscombe, & Wann, 1991; Lee et al., 2013; Wann & Grieve, 2005).

The need for group affiliation and social interaction are important predictors for why people play

TFS (Farquhar & Meeds, 2007; Larkin, 2015; Spinda & Haridakis, 2008). SIT theory relies heavily on the need for group affiliation when better understanding fandom (Osborne and

Coombs, 2013). However, the need for group affiliation and social interaction motives are not important predictors for why people play DFS (Larkin, 2015; Billings et al., 2017; Weiner &

Dwyer, 2018), therefore, SIT was not be used to produce research questions for this investigation. We were only concerned about the performances of DFS players. Therefore, PSF theory was, PSF theory was utilized for this dissertation.

PSF theory bridges the gap between traditional sports fans and non-traditional sports fans

(e.g., DFS players), and provides a nuanced perspective that allows researchers to better understand how sports fans balance multiple competing identities simultaneously (Osborne &

Coombs, 2013). PSF theory was used to explore how DFS players perform their fandom because; (1) it goes beyond the need for group affiliation when understanding how fans perform their fandom, (2) it is better suited to explore how fans balance multiple competing identities simultaneously (e.g., race, gender, & socioeconomic class), and (3) it provides better insight on how fan performance roles are contextual and individual (Osborne & Coombs, 2013).

Background and Problem Statement

Technological advancements, including the Internet, access to real-time sports information (e.g., player statistics), and sophisticated algorithms to help project results, have propelled the growth and popularity of fantasy sports leagues over the last decade. Fantasy sports allow fans to take on the role of team owner by assembling a virtual line-up of real athletes from 4 professional sports competitions. Fantasy sports competitors aim to acquire the most fantasy points, which are computed based on live in-game performance statistics of athletes according to an already defined scoring system (FSTA, 2016).

The Fantasy Sports Trade Association reported that there were just shy of 60 million people who participated in fantasy sports in the U.S. and Canada, representing roughly 16% of the populations of both countries combined (US Census Bureau, 2016). Furthermore, the overall number of participants rose by 15.3 million from the year 2014 to 2015 (FSTA, 2016). DFS was marketed heavily in 2015 with industry leaders DraftKings and FanDuel spending over $200 million in television advertisements, which helped boost interest in fantasy sports in general

(Kludt, 2015). As previously mentioned, DFS has grown at rate of 967% since 2013 and a lot of that growth is a result of the aggressive ad campaign (Klinski, 2017).

DFS contests are conducted over a single game or a series of games in a 24-hour time- period, and its players are playing for money (Billings et al., 2017). DraftKings collected around

$4 billion in 2015 (Virtanen, 2015). FanDuel, the main competitor to DraftKings, went from 40 thousand users to over a million in a 2-year span (Fisher, 2015), resulting in large profits for the company. Unlike DFS players, TFS players can play for free, and nearly half of TFS leagues do not require any entry fee at all (Billings & Ruihley, 2014), whereas DFS users are required to pay entry fees that can range from $0.25 to $5000, depending on the contest (DraftKings, 2016).

As a result, DFS users are spending 449% more on average per year than their TFS counterparts

(Billings et al., 2017). Therefore, it is pivotal to start learning more about DFS players as the activity continues to grow in popularity and fans continue spending money on the activity.

The DFS industry continues to rise in player population, and profit margins continue to soar. However, we have a dearth of research on DFS players, who are heavily contributing to this 5 continued growth of the industry (Billings et al., 2017; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). We also have limited research showing how playing DFS influences fandom. Understanding fandom in a sporting context is important because “sport fandom is one of the preeminent leisure activities in our society today” (Dwyer & Drayer, 2010, p. 207). SIT theory has long been utilized to showcase how fans can boost and maintain their self-esteem (Cialdini & Richardson, 1980; Hirt et al., 1992), and how playing fantasy sports can increase team identification and team loyalty

(Mahan, Drayer, & Sparvero, 2012; Karg & McDonald, 2011; Lee et al., 2013), but the activities that can potentially disrupt fans from evolving their fandom are less understood (Hyatt & Foster,

2015).

Playing fantasy sports has been historically related to higher levels of team identification and team loyalty (Mahan, Drayer, & Sparvero, 2012; Karg & McDonald, 2011; Lee et al., 2013), and higher levels of identification with the sports league and its players (Karg & McDonald,

2011). SIT was the explanatory mechanism used before DFS emerged. Does playing DFS also lead to higher levels of team identification and team loyalty? DFS players can be attracted to their fantasy team over their favorite team (Billings et al., 2017; Carlson, 2013; Larkin, 2015).

DFS players have a vested interest in a team that is not their favorite team due to the money they are wagering (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018) and being motivated by competition and financial gain.

(Billings et al., 2017). Non-DFS fantasy sport players are motivated by social interaction and entertainment (Larkin, 2015). DFS players are also spending more time and money than other fantasy players (Billings et al., 2017). Assessing the impact of playing DFS on fandom is necessary as it continues to evolve and influence fan performances in ways that are unique to previously researched fantasy formats. 6

PSF theory is better suited to explore individual fan performances opposed to looking at various types of fans (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). PSF theory encourages further exploration into how a person performs his/her fandom and what these performances tell us about current societal structures (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). Every DFS user is not performing his/her fandom in the same way because performative acts by all types of fans are relational, negotiable, and contextual (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). Unlike SIT theory, PSF theory does not just explain how fans need group affiliation (i.e., show allegiance to a favorite team). Moreover, PSF theory moves beyond fan typologies. PSF theory provides a more nuanced exploratory approach that considers other contextual factors when understanding fan performances (Osborne & Coombs,

2013).

PSF theory is used to also better understand how DFS users balance multiple identities simultaneously (e.g., DFS player and Cleveland Browns fan). Multiple identities co-exist, but there may be competing identities at work here as one simultaneously identifies with his/her fantasy team and favorite team while negotiating which role to take on as a fan. This helps a fan decide how he/she will perform his/her fandom. Sports researchers need to explore “what meanings are constructed and reinforced by the performances of sport fans” (in this case DFS users) (Osborne & Coombs, 2013, p. 677), and “what can those performances tell us about how societal structures such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and socio-economic status either reinforce or deny fan performances” (p. 677). DFS players are predominantly Caucasian males in their mid 30’s who are well-educated, with just over half reporting to be in a relationship (Drayer et al., 2013; FSTA, 2016; Mills et al., 2014). PSF theory can further inform us on how such societal structures influence fan performances among DFS players. Again, PSF theory allows us 7 to better understand these complexities that surround fandom because it focuses on individual fan performances that are relational, contextual and negotiable (Osborne & Coombs, 2013).

Fantasy sports players are prioritizing spending on sports through fantasy play and gambling as a supplement to spending on live event tickets, merchandise, and concessions

(Mahan, Drayer, & Spavero, 2012), but there has not been a lot of further research produced in this area, especially in the DFS context where gambling is occurring (Billings et al., 2017;

Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). Therefore, an important question here is how does playing DFS, which has been identified as a form of Internet gambling (Billings et al., 2017, Dwyer, Shapiro, &

Drayer, 2018; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018), impact fan performances of DFS players? The DFS player is balancing multiple identities (e.g., Cleveland Browns fan, dad, husband, fantasy sports player, gambler, etc.), and understanding how a fan decides which role(s) to take on was achieved by utilizing PSF as a theoretical framework. Playing DFS can either add or detract from fandom reserved for one team or player (Carlson, 2013; Larkin, 2015; Lee et al., 2013). PSF theory says that how a person balances these multiple identities varies from person to person

(Osborne & Coombs, 2013).

This dissertation helps us better understand how DFS players are performing their fandom through the individual roles they take on as fans. Moreover, this dissertation will aim to explore what these fan performances among DFS players tell us about current societal structures that are in place. This dissertation will also explore how DFS players are balancing multiple identities, and how these identities compete among one another. Lastly, this dissertation helps us better understand the nature of the relationship between DFS and gambling and the impact this relationship has on performing one’s fandom. 8

Next, the literature review will walk through the related literature necessary to include in this investigation. First the literature on fantasy sports will be presented. This section will include a historical analysis on fantasy sports and discuss the two different fantasy formats in more detail. Next, the theoretical frameworks used in this dissertation will be addressed. It is important to note that SIT will be outlined because it is the theory that most closely relates to previous literature surrounding the phenomenon of interest. PSF theory will be addressed after SIT and will be the theory used to produce research questions for this dissertation. Third, the literature on sports fandom and levels of fandom will be reviewed. The literature on team identification and team loyalty will be covered in this section as well. Next, the impact of fantasy sports participation on fandom will be reviewed. This section will be followed by the related literature to sports fandom motives and fantasy sports motives. Lastly, the literature on Internet gambling and DFS will be reviewed.

9

Chapter 2

Review of Related Literature

Fantasy Sports

According to the Fantasy Sports Trade Association (FSTA), the history of fantasy sports can be traced back to the 1950s. was developed first by Wilfred Winkenbach.

Winkenbach became part-owner of the Oakland Raiders in 1962, which is currently a member of the . He decided to implement a similar fantasy sports format for those interested in playing fantasy football. On a flight to Buffalo, George Ross, who at that time was a sports editor for the Oakland Tribune, remembered having a conversation with Winkenbach

(Hruby, 2013). From that conversation, the Greater Oakland Professional Pigskin

Prognosticators League (GOPPPL) was developed (Hruby, 2013). The fantasy player who won the entire season won $60 (Hruby, 2013).

William Gamson, a sociologist, developed “ Seminar” in the

1960s and invited his colleagues to join the league. This sophisticated development led to the emergence of the Rotisserie baseball league in 1980 (FSTA, 2016). The league was given its name because the founder of the league, , a magazine writer and editor in at the time, invited his friends to meet at La Rotisserie Francaise (a restaurant in the city) to play in the league. The league itself became known to the public when the New York Times ran an article about how the league was developed (Edelman, 2012). Okrent, and the Rotisserie league often receive credit for developing the first fantasy sports league, perhaps because their league received so much attention from the press. The vision that Daniel

Okrent had in 1980 paved the way for a billion-dollar industry that continues to grow in popularity today. 10

The emergence of the Internet impacted how fantasy sports were played, monitored, and promoted. As fantasy sports started moving online in the 1990s, new fantasy sports were introduced which resulted in more interest from fans of certain sports. The Fantasy Sports Trade

Association (FSTA) was officially formed in 1999 when the group held their first conference.

The association has continued to hold annual conferences for the last 20 years. This organization was developed to help promote fantasy sports, and to be labeled as the official organization of fantasy sports.

There were legal issues faced due to fantasy sports moving online versus offline. A major legal case in 1996 featured the NBA v. Motorala Inc., “in which the court vacated an injunction against Motorola’s transmission to pagers and Internet sites of real-time NBA scores and statistics” (Freeman & Scher, 2006, p. 1). Another milestone in the fantasy sports legal venture occurred in 2006 with the Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act. The Act was issued by the Department of the Treasury and the Federal Reserve Board and was designed to “eliminate unlawful Internet gambling by preventing financial institutions, which are typically gamblers’ banks, from completing transactions with businesses involved in unlawful Internet gambling”

(Rainey, 2009, p. 149).

There have been many hurdles for fantasy sports, including other legal cases that emerged due to the complicated relationship between the Internet and gambling opportunities.

However, fantasy sports found their space online in the gambling market. Next, a distinction is made between the two types of fantasy sports (i.e., TFS and DFS). It is important to note here that this dissertation will aim to better understand how DFS players only perform their fandom in to fill the current gap in the literature. 11

DFS and TFS. The major distinction between DFS and TFS lies within the timeframe in which fantasy players participate in the activity. DFS participants can decide to play one day, and not play the next, whereas TFS users take part, or at least agree to take part in the activity throughout the entire season (FSTA, 2016; DraftKings, 2016). For example, a TFS league covering the National Football League (NFL) will last 16 consecutive weeks. DFS players can play as much as they want, when they want.

DFS contests are conducted in a time frame that lasts less than a day, a full day, or in some cases, a few days (FanDuel, 2014). The DFS user drafts a team for that day that they believe will perform above expectations. Each player listed in the pool of players on a DFS site has a salary attached to their draft rights. Each DFS player needs to stay at or under a fixed salary cap when drafting his or her team. For example, on DraftKings, the salary cap for a National

Basketball Association contest is $50,000 (DraftKings, 2016). Each DFS player rosters eight

NBA players while staying under or at the $50,000 salary cap. Players who are expected to play at high levels in the upcoming contest will be valued at a higher price, whereas less talented players can be drafted for a cheaper price. These prices are set by the DFS website before DFS players begin drafting players for these contests. For example, when LeBron James is playing, he is almost always one of the most expensive options.

There are different types of tournaments and cash games from which DFS users can select. Guaranteed prize pool (GPP) tournaments often feature top-heavy payouts with thousands, and sometimes hundreds of thousands of participants (Billings et al., 2017). In this format, those finishing in the top 20% of the field are paid out based on what place they finished.

This also means that 80% of players will lose the entry fee they risked in the GPP tournament.

Other contests include double-up or head-to-head formats. Double-up formats will pay out the 12 top 50% of the field twice the amount of the entry fee (DraftKings, 2016). For example, if a contest using this structure has 100 total players who each paid $10 to enter the contest, the top

50 players will double the money they spent to enter the contest. In head-to-head formats, DFS users will create a lineup and go head-to-head with one other DFS user participating that day in a winner-take-all format. The website host (e.g., DraftKings) will take a small amount of money from the prize pool, but the winner of the head-to-head contest will nearly double his/her money.

TFS contests are played throughout an entire season. For example, the NFL has a 16- week regular season, so a user will draft his or her players before the NFL season begins and have only that pool of players to pick from throughout the entire 16-week season. Each week the

TFS user competes head-to-head with another league member. There are situations (e.g., player trades, adding players from the waiver wire, & releasing players) where a TFS roster can change and evolve, but users cannot re-draft another team the next day or week, which can be accomplished by a DFS user. TFS users could be required to pay a flat fee to enter the league, while roughly half of the leagues created do not require any entry fee at all (Billings & Ruihley,

2014). This fee (if required) is set by the league commissioner. Most TFS players play with or against people they know so they can play for fun, pride, or the price set by the commissioner of the league. In contrast, DFS users are required to pay an entry fee every time they enter a contest.

Whether one is playing TFS, DFS, or both (i.e., hybrid players), the fantasy sports player is a fan

(Dwyer & Drayer, 2010). In fact, fantasy sports players are more than just fans. They are highly avid fans who engage with more sports related media content than those who do not play fantasy sports (Bindrim, 2009; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018).

Next, the theoretical underpinning for this study will be discussed. First, a review of SIT theory is necessary because much of the previous research on fandom in the context of fantasy 13 sports has utilized it to design studies. However, this study is qualitatively designed to explore questions that PSF theory is better suited to answer. Moreover, PSF theory goes beyond the need for group affiliation when it comes to fandom motives, and it strives to understand the meanings behind why fans perform their fandom the way they do and how societal structure reinforce or deny these performances. Again, the theory moves beyond traditional measures of fandom and is uniquely qualified to explore distinct fan groups (Osborne & Coombs, 2013).

Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory was developed by Tajfel and Turner in 1979. Social identity was defined by Tajfel (1978) as a person’s self-concept that is derived from his or her knowledge of membership in a social group along with the value and emotional attachment with that membership. People form a different social identity for each group in which they belong to

(Jacobson, 2003). People look to maintain relationships with groups who share similar beliefs and attitudes to build positive self-identities as well as social identities (Hogg & Abrams, 1990).

Therefore, people are said to behave in ways to maintain or boost self-esteem (Ervin & Stryker,

2001; Schlabach, 1998). In sports, people tend to develop a type of in-group favoritism toward a team that eventually helps develop a social identity (Schlabach, 1998).

Social identity in sports is manifested through team identification (Heere & James, 2007;

Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2005) and team loyalty (James, 2001; Kolbe & James, 2003).

Therefore, discussing the central tenants of social identity theory helps us better understand two important variables that will be examined in this dissertation. Sports fans tend to manage their self-esteem in two ways depending on if their team wins or loses. Fans either bask in reflected glory (BIRGing) when their team wins or cut off reflected failure (CORFing) when their favorite team loses (Hirt et al., 1992). Fans BIRG even when they did nothing to bring the team success 14

(Hirt et al., 1992). Fans CORF after a loss to distance themselves from the team that they support to ensure that the loss does not negatively impact their self-esteem (Cialdini & Richardson,

1980). Therefore, when a person’s team wins, they will often use the phrase “we won,” and when their team loses, they’re more likely to use the phrase “they lost.”

Social identity in sports can be seen through team identification (Heere & James, 2007;

Trail, Anderson, & Fink, 2005) by having knowledge of players, statistics, and history of the team, wearing team colors and or merchandise related to the team, and by attending or watching games through media. Moreover, fans develop external group identities through demographic categories (e.g., geographic, racial, gender, & social class) and membership organizations (e.g., corporate, university, political, & religious) (Heere & James, 2007). Team identity will develop if there are connections between these external group identities and one’s favorite team. This simultaneously enhances team loyalty making it harder for a fan to detach themselves from that team due to having multiple points of attachment for that specific team (Heere & James, 2007). It is important that we reviewed SIT theory because of its historical significance.

Next, the PSF theory will be presented. PSF theory is built from SIT theory but aims to be a more comprehensive theory better suited to understand the nuances of fan performances.

PSF theory is also better suited for qualitative research designs aimed at exploring and describing fan performances and questions related to sports fandom in general (Osborne & Coombs, 2013).

Lastly, PSF theory was recently developed, so it is better suited to explore a newer phenomenon like DFS. PSF theory was the only theory utilized in this dissertation to produce research questions because this qualitative research design is aimed at understanding DFS players on an individual level. I was not working to categorize types of DFS players but instead I was working 15 to better understand DFS players’ individual behaviors and perceptions while participating in the activity.

Performative Sport Fandom Theory

The Performative Sport Fandom theory bridges the gap between the traditional sports fan and the non-traditional sports fan (e.g., DFS player). PSF theory provides a nuanced perspective that is more inclusive of both female and male sports fans and allows researchers to better understand how people balance multiple competing identities simultaneously (Osborne and

Coombs, 2013). PSF theory draws upon identity theory and gender theories to conceptualize sports fandom as performative, opposed to solely relying on the need for group-affiliation, as the case when utilizing social identity theory (Osborne and Coombs, 2013).

Unlike SIT, identity theory, which has contributed to the production of PSF theory, takes a slightly different approach when looking at how the self is formed. “According to identity theory, the self is formed through the roles one plays” (Osborne and Coombs, 2013, p. 675), whereas SIT states that the self is formed through associating with specific groups. In other words, SIT looks at identity as ‘who one is’ while Identity theory views identity as ‘what one does.’ Both SIT and Identity theory describe how one’s self is made up of a plethora of identities

(e.g., dad, husband, Cleveland Browns fan, & DFS player). Both theories also state that our identities are constructed through our interactions with others, and this is how we come to understand who we are on an individual level. However, Identity theory differs from SIT because it “stresses that this construction occurs through a process by which we take on roles that we then perform for an audience of others” (Osborne and Coombs, 2013, p. 675). Through this process,

“we learn which role performances—and by extension which identities—are socially acceptable”

(p. 675). PSF theorists also utilized feminist theory as a guide when constructing PSF theory. 16

Feminist theory focuses on roles and performances enabling researchers to investigate gender performances to better understand and critique current societal structures that place a ceiling on acceptable roles. PSF theory is built similarly and can be utilized to understand similar phenomena (Osborne & Coombs, 2013).

Past research focusing on sports fandom has put a large emphasis on defining who is a fan so that degrees of fandom can be assessed with variables such as aggression, motives, or well-being (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). While these variables are important to explore, PSF theory creators call for more information on “what meanings are constructed and reinforced by the performances of sport fans” (Osborne & Coombs, 2013, p. 677)? Moreover, “what can those performances tell us about how societal structures such as race, gender, sexual orientation, and socio-economic status either reinforce or deny fan performances” (p. 677)? These questions have been left unanswered by social identity theory, so PSF theory was used to address a gap in the literature. Therefore, this dissertation aimed to explore how the societal structures mentioned above influenced how DFS players perform their fandom.

Sports fans are understood through the performance of fandom (Osborne & Coombs,

2013). These performances are socially constructed and depend on the context and the audience

(Osborne & Coombs, 2013). Fan identity coincides with many other identities (e.g., race, sexual orientation, socioeconomic class, gender, and nationality) simultaneously. It is important to understand how these identities interact with one another, so the authors mention that we must examine similarities and differences in performances among a variety of fan groups (Osborne and Coombs, 2013). This dissertation closely investigated DFS players as a unique fan group.

We need to consider performative acts through three main characteristics (Osborne &

Coombs, 2013). First, these roles are relational, meaning they exist in relation to other people, 17 situations and events. Second, these roles are contextual, meaning that context plays an integral part in which they occur. This point moves away from measuring roles in terms of behaviors, like what is done when utilizing social identity theory (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). Lastly, role performances are negotiable. The authors mention that because these roles are contextual, we are engaging in negotiation with others and ourselves to compartmentalize how we will perform such roles, and which role will be prioritized over the other in a certain situation. The PSF theory is also utilized to better understand how sports fans balance multiple identities including their sports fan identity (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). This dissertation was aimed at identifying how

DFS players negotiate their role performances, in addition to how DFS players balance competing identities (e.g., sports fan, fantasy sports player, dad, husband, etc.).

Overall, PSF theory helped answer questions about sports fandom that were previously unaddressed. Previous research focuses on who is or who is not a fan to associate degrees of fandom with popular variables (e.g., motives, consumption & fan aggression). In line with PSF theory, this dissertation explored further the meanings created and strengthened by the performances of individual sports fans. In this case, we looked at a specific type of sports fan, and a specific type of fantasy sports player (e.g., DFS player).

PSF theory was utilized in the producing of research questions for this dissertation because it focuses on individuals and provided details on each individual DFS player.

Specifically, the results of this study were understood through the Fan Performance Matrix

(FPM). The FPM is an integral component of PSF and helped me analyze fans through two distinct performance modes

Fan Performance Matrix. The FPM is made up of two performance modes: Knowing, one’s understanding of football statistics, history and football plays; and Caring, one’s emotional 18 attachment to a team and one’s overall loyalty toward a team (Osborne & Coombs, 2016).

Knowing and Caring do not make up two distinct fans. Fans incorporate both the Caring and

Knowing performance modes at various points and to certain degrees depending on the situation and circumstances surrounding that fan (Osborne & Coombs, 2016). For example, DFS players are constantly negotiating between each performance mode because they are balancing their fan loyalties and other life identities. DFS players oftentimes have a rooting interest for a favorite

NFL team but also remain loyal to their DFS team/lineups at the same time. Moreover, every

DFS player is also delicately balancing competing life identities that influence which performance mode (e.g., Knowing and Caring) takes precedence at particular times. Therefore, this is a very fluid situation for DFS players and PSF theory and the FPM allowed me to look at fandom as being fluid.

Caring, one of the two performance modes that make up the FPM describes and explains how a fan is emotionally attached to the game or a favorite team. The ultimate fans are almost always described as fans who are highly invested in team success. In this study, the Caring performance mode encompasses the emotional attachment DFS experts and players have with their favorite team(s) and their DFS team(s). Unlike non-DFS players, these fans who take part in DFS have to balance their emotional attachments to a number of players opposed to reserving that fan loyalty for just a favorite team.

Knowing, the other performance mode that makes up the FPM describes how understanding the game is central to fandom (Osborne & Coombs, 2016). Knowing the game of football adds to the entire fan experience for a fan of the NFL. In this study, having specialized knowledge is critical for DFS players. DFS players have a financial incentive to know more than their counterparts and the more information and knowledge they have the better suited they are 19 to select players who perform well on the playing field. Therefore, the gambling component of this study which is addressed in RQ3 at the end of this chapter is understood through the

Knowing performance mode. The FPM is highlighted and discussed again in Chapter 4 when the findings are presented. The findings are understood through the performance modes (Caring and

Knowing) that make up the FPM.

Next, a review of the work done on sports fandom and levels of fandom will be presented. Studying sports fandom has long been an important endeavor for sports communication scholars. This historical overview will help us better understand how fans have been studied in the past and will allow for more precise inquiries moving forward.

Sports Fandom and Levels of Fandom

Sports fandom is a multidimensional concept. It involves what motivates a person to engage (e.g., escapism), the social nature of fandom (e.g., social acceptance), in addition to the outcomes of engaging in such activities (e.g., the desire for self-fulfillment) (Wann, Waddill,

Brasher, & Ladd, 2015; Wann, Tucker, & Schrader, 1996; Wann & Weaver, 2009). An important distinction between sports fandom and sports spectatorship is that being a fan carries with it greater degrees of enthusiasm, emotion, intensity, and knowledge (Crisp, Heuston, Farr,

& Turner, 2007; Dimmock, Grove, & Eklund, 2005; Hirt, et al.,1992). Sports fandom was once considered to be a fixed condition, but it has been identified more recently as a part of someone’s identity that can continue to increase or decrease over time (Hyatt & Foster, 2015; Mullin,

Hardy, & Sutton, 2007). Therefore, the commitment of a sports fan is constantly in flux and fandom is fluid.

Sports fans have been identified by researchers to have varying levels of engagement, which are oftentimes related to their perceived commitment (Bernthal, Koesters, Ballouli, & 20

Brown, 2015; Tapp, 2004). The events and activities that can potentially disrupt fans from changing their fandom are less understood (Hyatt & Foster, 2015), but that gap in the literature is addressed in this dissertation through exploring the potential negative and positive effects that playing DFS can have on users’ fan performances. Better understanding fandom in a sporting context is important because sport fandom continues to be one of the most popular leisure activities in our society today (Hyatt & Foster, 2015). Sports continues to be a staple of

American society and continues to evolve as fans are afforded more opportunities to perform their fandom (e.g., through playing DFS, participating in sports gambling, following live stats online, etc.). Prominent areas of research within literature on sports fandom deals with being labeled a fan or not, in addition to levels of fandom.

There is an important distinction made between spectators and fans. Previous research has used the two words (spectator and fan) interchangeably at times which has caused controversy because sports spectators may not be sports fans (Shank & Beasley, 1998; Silva &

Casas, 2017). Therefore, “a spectator of sport will observe a spectacle and forget about it, whereas the fan continues his/her interest so that parts of every day are devoted to either his/her team or the favored sport itself” (Pooley, 1978, p.14). This quote is important as it related to the

DFS industry because fans devote their attention to both a favorite NFL team and their DFS team(s). A fan can also be a person who has emotional and value significance towards a specific sport or team and is committed to consuming sporting events (Delmar, Sanchez-Martin, &

Velazquez, 2018; Guttman, 1986; Hunt, Bristol, & Barshaw, 1999; Madrigal, 1995).

Furthermore, the Latin origin of the term “fan” means “fanatic,” and defined as having excessive enthusiasm for sports (Anderson, 1979). 21

Sports fans have an interest in and follow a sport, team, or athlete (Wann, 1995). Sports viewers can range from non-fans, to spectators, to highly avid fans (Sloan, 1979). There are three distinct levels of fandom: (a) fans, or those who are deeply involved with their favorite team; (b) spectators, or those who have minimal interest, and (c) non-fans, or those not interested in sports, but watch to be with others (Gantz & Wenner, 1995). Other researchers say the three fandom levels are: (a) strong loyalty, (b) loyal fan, and (c) not a fan (James & Ridinger, 2003).

Therefore, if fandom were situated on a continuum, one end would be a “non-fan” and the other end would be “fan” (Earnheardt, 2007).

Being a fan is an identity and cannot be just looked at as a label or category (Crawford,

2004). Moreover, the identity of a fan is typically derived from two related concepts: sports fan identification and team identification (Wann, 2002). Sports fan identification is a person’s self- perception as a sports fan (Billings, Devlin, & Brown, 2016; Wann, 2002), and team identification is defined as the psychological connection one has for a team, sport, or individual athlete (Dietz-Uhler & Lanter, 2008; Lee et al., 2013; Murrell & Dietz, 1992; Shemla & Wegge,

2019; Wann, 1997, 2002, 2006). While sports fan identification and team identification are correlated, “it is also likely that there are many individuals possessing a high level of fan identification (i.e., they perceive themselves as sports fans) who do not strongly identify with a team or player” (Wann, 2002, p. 104).

Another key concept in sports fandom is consumption. A sports consumer is someone who watches and listens to a game in person or through another medium (e.g., TV) (Wann,

1995). Sports consumers are often conceptualized as sports spectators, and the two terms have been used interchangeably in the literature. Moreover, there are both direct and indirect sports consumers. Direct sports consumption is when a person attends a live match or game. 22

Conversely, indirect sports consumption is when a person watches, listens, or follows a sporting event through a mass media (e.g., Internet). Sports consumption (direct or indirect) is an important measure for marketing professionals because it can influence how much money an organization or league makes. Team identification is a key factor related to sports consumption.

Team Identification. Team identification can be defined as “the extent to which a fan feels a psychological connection to a team and the team’s performances are viewed as self- reliant” (Wann, 2006, p. 332). Team identification can also refer to a similar psychological connection to a player (Johnson & Avolio, 2018; Rinehart, 1998; Wann, 1997), but it is mostly considered to be the attachment one has with a team. In this study, team identification only refers to the psychological connection a fan has with his/her favorite team in relation to the connection the person has with their fantasy team. This dissertation aimed to better understand how a DFS player balances their identification with their favorite team and their identification with their fantasy team(s). Team identification is caused by psychological, environmental, and team-related factors. These three factors will be outlined below.

Psychological Factors. Literature indicates there are three psychological factors that can impact team identification. First, a person’s need for group affiliation and sense of belonging is a psychological factor (Wann, 2006). In other words, being affiliated with a community influences team identification. Second, a person’s desire to feel a part of a certain group (Wann, 2006;

Wann, Hackathorn, & Sherman, 2017) is another psychological factor. The last psychological factor describes how a person views death as “applied to sports fandom, terror management theory would predict that identification with a sports team can assist in the maintenance of a positive image, and, consequently, assist in one’s attempt to deal with one’s mortality” (Wann,

2006, p. 335). This idea goes back to SIT theory. Humans strive to belong and be a part of social 23 circles and groups. When fan identify with a sports team it provides a positive image of one’s life and helps one better handle the idea of death.

Environmental Factors. A person’s environmental surrounding is another influence on team identification. The process of socialization is the major cause that allows someone to develop team identification (Theodorakis, Wann, Al-Emadi, Lianopoulos, & Foudouki, 2017;

Wann 2006). Being socialized as a fan involves becoming a fan of a team or player because friends and family also claim to be a fan of that team or player (Lee et al., 2013; Wann, 2006).

The socialization process can also occur due to repeated exposure to a team or player through mass media (Wann, 2006). Before the Internet, socialization was used to describe a person who was geographically bound, and therefore rooted for the team or player who shared the same

‘home’ as he or she did. However, the Internet has brought fans closer to the action allowing for people to follow teams and players from other parts of the country or world.

Team-related Factors. Team-related factors is the last cause of team identification, which can be compartmentalized into three separate categories: (1) organizational characteristics,

(2) team performances, and (3) player attributes. Organizational characteristics deals with ownership of the team, team decisions including trades and acquisitions, and the overall tradition of the team (Wann, 2002, 2006). The second category is team performances, and team success is positively related to team identification (Sutton, McDonald, Milne, & Cimperman, 1997; Wann

2006). The last category is player attributes, which can also enhance team identification (Wann,

Tucker, & Schrader, 1996, Wann, 2006). The specific player attributes that have been shown to significantly contribute to team identification include player attractiveness and player similarity.

Overall, player attributes are more relevant and significant to fans rooting for teams with a history of poor performances (Wann, 2006). 24

Team loyalty is a closely related variable to team identification (Wann, 2002). If external identities (e.g., geographic, ethnic/racial, gender, & social class) match identification with a team, team identity will be the result (Heere & James, 2007). As team identification enhances so should team loyalty (James, 2001). By identifying with a team through multiple external identities it is more difficult for fans to break their commitment to that team (Trail, Robinson,

Dick, & Gillentine, 2003).

Team Loyalty. Research in sports defines team loyalty as the emotional and psychological connection to a specific team (Funk and James, 2004; Funk and Pastore, 2000;

Hirt, Zillman, Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992; James, 2001; Mahoney, Madrigal, & Dennis, 2000;

Smith, Patterson, Williams, & Hogg, 1981; Wakefield and Sloan, 1995). Moreover, team loyalty is a developed attitude that showcases persistence in a fan’s favorite team, as well as a resistance to change their team loyalty (Funk & James, 2001). Showcasing persistence in a fan’s favorite team is described as the degree to which a person’s attitude towards a team remains unchanged over time (Funk & James, 2004; Petty, Haugtvedt & Smith, 1995). Resistance is described as the ability of a person to remain loyal to a specific team even during times when persuasive arguments are made against that team. Moreover, team loyalty acts as a guide for consumerism

(e.g., buying team merchandise, attending live events, sponsorship consumption, and concessions) (Funk & James, 2004; Kwon, Trail, & James, 2007).

Team loyalty is developed first by an attraction and interest in a specific sports team. A person must first decide if he or she likes that team more than others before a psychological connection can begin to take place (James, 2001). Having a sports identity must first be achieved before team loyalty can be formed (Kolbe & James, 2003). This process occurs through internalization, which occurs when a person integrates a sports team into his or her self-identity 25

(Kolbe & James, 2003). Lastly, team loyalty can be developed through the influence of close family members and/or close friends over time. This is called the socialization process and can occur early on in a person’s life (James, 2001; Wann, 2006).

There are three ways in which sports organizations can increase team loyalty among their fan base (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995). The first way to increase team loyalty is to enhance the number of promotions to help raise more interest and awareness in the team. The second way to increase team loyalty is to boost the number of times players and coaches appear in the community. This allows fans the potential to foster personal bonds with players and coaches off the playing field. Lastly, a team can target families and young fans through discount offers. This allows for people from lower socioeconomic status to be able to attend games and become more loyal fans through experiencing live events.

Impact of Fantasy Sports Participation on Fandom

The research covering the impact of participating in fantasy sports on fandom has been mixed. PSF theory had yet to be utilized to explore the impact playing DFS has on fan performances and was used here to build more comprehensive knowledge around this question.

The following section will review the literature on fantasy sports players as fans, how playing fantasy sports has traditionally impacted team identification and team loyalty, and how fantasy sports have given sports fans another avenue to perform their fandom that could potentially limit or add to the number of traditional fan performances one partakes in.

General interest in a sport can lead to interest in the digital version of that sport, while the opposite is also true (Crawford, 2004). That is, playing the digital version of a sport (e.g., fantasy sports) can also lead to more interest in the real sport (Crawford, 2004). Fantasy sports participation “has cultivated a new, highly involved sports consumer who demands interactivity 26 and real-time information combined with the more traditional, old-fashioned consumption behaviors” (Larkin, 2015, p. 120). Research has been consistent that fantasy sports participation leads to higher amounts of sports consumption through media (Cox, 2002; Drayer et al., 2010;

Drayer, 2011; Lee et al., 2011; Nesbit & King, 2010; Weiner and Dwyer, 2018). DFS players specifically reported significantly higher consumption of sports media and Internet consumption compared to TFS players (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). DFS is a fast-growing format within the fantasy sports industry and the overall motives for playing fantasy sports have shifted because of the growing DFS industry (Billings et al., 2017). Therefore, playing any fantasy sports format leads to more media consumption about sports, but DFS players are even more engaged and active in consuming media than their TFS counterparts.

A growing number of sports consumers are replacing attendance at live events with consuming more sports media content (Pritchard & Funk, 2006). Industry practitioners working for sports teams and/or leagues are concerned with this phenomenon (Luker, 2012). Fantasy sports players prioritize spending on sports through fantasy play and gambling as a supplement to more traditional spending on live event tickets, merchandise, and concessions (Mahan et al.,

2012). This finding is more profound in the DFS context. DFS players heavily prioritize playing

DFS over attending live sporting events due to the potential economic gain that can be achieved through playing DFS (Larkin, 2015). This leads to a discussion on how playing fantasy sports impact team identification and team loyalty levels of fans. The literature surrounding this phenomenon has been mixed, and previous literature has predominantly focused on TFS players opposed to DFS players until recently. Billings et al., (2017) says that DFS is quickly overtaking

TFS in terms of popularity, and the motives for playing DFS are influencing the reasons why people are participating in fantasy sports today. 27

While all fantasy sports players balance multiple identities, “when given a choice, heavy consumers will still choose to associate most strongly with their favorite team instead of their fantasy team” (Dwyer & Drayer, 2010, p. 215). Conflicting research says that although fantasy sports players are usually more engaged spectators, they focus on aspects of the sport that correlates with their fantasy ownership, therefore, taking away from other aspects of the sport that they would enjoy otherwise (Carlson, 20213). Moreover, “fantasy football participation extends traditional team-focused loyalties to individual player attraction and awareness in an unprecedented fashion” (Dwyer, 2011, p. 453). While fan loyalty has traditionally been reserved for one specific team through geographical ties and/or social relationships (Kolbe & James,

2000), there seems to be more shared loyalties for other players and teams among fantasy sports players. DFS players have more of a vested interest to gain knowledge about the entire league over their TFS counterparts (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018).

DFS players are changing the fantasy sports industry as more people continue to participate in the activity, and more research on DFS is needed to better understand its players

(Billings et al., 2017). DFS players are inhabiting multiple identities as sports fans (Osborne &

Coombs, 2013), but how they perform their fandom as a result was explored through using the central tenants of PSF theory. Next, a section on the motives behind becoming a sports fan, and motives for fantasy sports participation will be presented. The motives for becoming a sports fan and for partaking in fantasy sports will be presented in chronological order. There are a lot of motives that were identified early on that have remained part of new motive typologies for fantasy sports.

28

Sport Fandom Motives

The Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) scale was developed by Wann (1995), which included eight constructs of fan motivation (Wann, Schrader, & Wilson, 1999). The eight motives are: eustress, self-esteem, escape, entertainment, economic gains, aesthetic, group affiliation, and family (Wann, 1995). This reliable and valid scale helps researchers understand why people consume sports media, including the implications of sports wagering and economic motivation (Wann, Zapalac, Grieve, Patridge, & Lanter, 2015), and the need to escape from stress (Wann, Allen, & Rochelle, 2004). The motives of fans of specific sports have also been assessed using the SFMS (Wann, Grieve, Zapalac, & Pease, 2008). These eight motives have remained consistent constructs when exploring fan motives and have helped pave the way for fantasy sport motives once the activity became popular. Before fantasy sports motives were developed, the motives behind becoming a sports fan were addressed.

The SFMS was utilized to further categorize the motives of fans into more comprehensive categories (Raney, 2006). Three categories for the motives behind identifying as a sports fan were developed (Raney, 2006). Motives can fall under emotional, cognitive, and behavioral categories (Raney, 2006). Raney argues that the emotional appeal of following sports includes the (a) desire to be entertained, (b) eustress, or a form of stress that is healthy as it provides a sense of achievement, (c) increasing self-esteem, and (d) the need to escape from daily life. The cognitive motivations for fandom are divided into learning and the aesthetic

(Raney, 2006). Learning is said to occur through navigating the social world through sports. For example, one can learn about politics, government influence, identity issues, and various cultures through consuming sports. Aesthetic needs are often obtained through going to a beautiful stadium and or arena to take in sports. Moreover, this cognitive stimulation experienced through 29 the sights and sounds of a physical setting motivates fans. Lastly, behavioral motives include (a) release, (b) companionship, (c) group affiliation, (d) family, and (e) economics.

Recently, scholars have acknowledged personality factors could play some role in the development of sports fandom (Devlin, 2017; Donavan, Carlson, & Zimmerman, 2005).

Personality influences team identification along and the amount of sports consumed through media (Devlin & Brown-Devlin, 2017), in addition to the likelihood for fans to BIRG/CORF

(Brown-Devlin, Devlin, & Vaughn, 2018). Moreover, the motives of sports fans and team identities of fans both exist because of underlying personality traits. Personality characteristics help explain the motives behind coming a fan but understanding why people actively select one form of media over the other is also important to consider in the current media environment where there continues to be more media choices for fans. Another way sport fandom motives has been assessed is through examining peoples media habits.

There are five reasons why people select a certain form of media over the other, including

(1) knowledge enhancement, (2) relaxation, (3) social interactions, (4) diversion, and (5) escape

(Serving & Tankard, 2000). New media (e.g., Snapchat) do not change these primary motivations (Sundar & Limperos, 2013), but instead new media (e.g., DFS platforms) offers interactivity within these different forms of media that leads to dual-screening or engaging with sports through multiple media channels simultaneously (Giglietto & Selva, 2014). Therefore, a fan can be watching a football game at home while on his/her phone playing DFS, and this behavior is increasingly becoming more prevalent (Billings, Qiao, Conlin, & Tie Nie, 2017).

This leads to a more specific discussion of why fans are motivated to play fantasy sports, and specifically why fans are motivated to play DFS.

30

Fantasy Sports Motives.

The motives for playing fantasy sports have been constructed by scholars in sports communication, but they have often utilized other motive typologies that are closely related to the fantasy sports activity. Many studies identifying sports viewing motives (Gantz, 1981; Trail

& James, 2001; Wann, Allen, & Rochelle, 2004) have been produced and then utilized to form motives for participating in fantasy sports. For example, spectator motives, online sports consumption motives, sports gaming motives, and gambling motives have all been utilized in the development of motive typologies for fantasy sports participation (Lee et al., 2013). For example, playing for escape, entertainment, self-esteem, eustress, economic gain, esthetic, and group affiliation were the most common spectator motives (Wann et al., 2008), but are found to be motives for fantasy participation as well (e.g., Farquhar & Meeds, 2007; Spinda & Haridakis,

2008; Larkin, 2015).

Early research in the 2000s found that playing for fun and playing with friends and family were primary motives for playing fantasy sports (Lee et al., 2013; Larkin, 2015). In the mid 2000s researchers found five different motives found for playing fantasy sports which include: (1) surveillance, (2) arousal, (3) entertainment, (4) escape, and (5) social interaction

(Farquhar & Meeds, 2007). Arousal and surveillance were the primary motives for playing fantasy sports (Farquhar and Meeds, 2007). Surveillance can be described as information which will help one do or accomplish something (Blumler, McQuail, & Brown, 1972). The motives for playing fantasy sports shifted from people primarily playing for friendship and fun to playing for arousal and the information necessary to be a successful fantasy sports player. Other researchers found the two strongest motives for playing fantasy sports to be socialization and achievement/self-esteem (Spinda & Haridakis, 2008). The ownership motive was also found by 31

Spinda and Haridakis (2008). Later the motivating factor of ownership for fantasy sport players was again identified by Billings and Ruihley (2014).

A later shift in fantasy sports motive typologies occurred when Larkin (2015) found that fantasy players motivated by implicit motives (e.g., social interaction, bonding with friends, & love for the sport) were more likely to attend live events, whereas those motivated by explicit motives (e.g., prize money, knowledge application, & competition) were more likely to watch sports at home. By the time of this study, DFS sites had been widely publicized, which suggests that DFS players could be more motivated by the explicit motives categorized by Larkin (2015).

Moreover, team identification and team loyalty are both correlated with the social interaction motive which explains the need to interact and socialize with others of like interests to obtain feelings that one is part of a social circle (Fink, Trail, & Anderson, 2002). This would suggest that motives identified early in the TFS context could lead to increased team identification and team loyalty levels because the activity fosters social interaction and group affiliation (Farquhar

& Meeds, 2007; Lee et al., 2013; Larkin, 2015).

Conversely, DFS players compete against strangers, and playing DFS is considered an anonymous activity where less social interaction is seen between close others (Weiner and

Dwyer, 2018) in comparison to TFS participation. The economic gain motive has been shown to be a strong motive for why DFS players play DFS (Weiner and Dwyer, 2018). There are potential negative outcomes worthy of investigation due to DFS players being motivated by economic gains because “DFS players likely share etiological characteristics with a subgroup of problem gamblers who are motivated by a desire to escape aversive mood states or who utilize gambling as an additional form of sensation-seeking and an outlet for impulsivity” (Nower et al.,

2018, p. 735). Furthermore, the escape motive remains an important antecedent for people opting 32 to play both TFS and DFS formats (Billings et al., 2017). Utilizing PSF theory to explore the motives for DFS participation will allow for qualitative data on individual DFS players, adding another perspective and methodology to the current literature on the subject.

DFS users are predominantly Caucasian males in their mid 30s who are well-educated, with just over half reporting to be in a relationship (Drayer et al., 2013; FSTA, 2016; Mills et al.,

2014). DFS users report a higher number of gambling activities and high frequency gambling

(Martin, Nelson, Galluci, and Lee, 2018; Nower et al., 2018) compared to their TFS counterparts. This leads to the final portion of the literature review that will cover the relationship between Internet gambling and DFS.

Internet Gambling and DFS Players

The Supreme Court ruled to overturn the Professional and Amateur Sports Protection Act

(PAPSA) in 2018, which previously outlawed in the United States. Now that sports betting is legal in the Unites States, various states are deciding how they will govern the activity.

DFS sites such as DraftKings and FanDuel are working to include their own online sports books on their websites (Billings et al., 2017). Are fantasy sports a game of skill or a game of chance?

The ongoing debate has only ramped up since PAPSA has been overturned. DFS participants feel more strongly overall that fantasy participation is a game of skill versus a game of chance

(Billings et al., 2017). Additionally, individuals who possess internal locus of control (those who believe they have control of their own life and behavior) or internals are likely to participate in skill-based gambling (e.g., poker) versus externals (those who believe it is fate or luck in control of their destiny) are more likely to participate in luck-based gambling (e.g., slot machines)

(Lester, 1980). DFS players and online poker players share similarities in that both types of 33 players feel they have some agency over the outcome (i.e., the activity is skill-based). However, the skill versus chance debate continues to be an ongoing debate among government officials.

DFS participation is a form of Internet gambling (Billings et al., 2017, Dwyer, Shapiro, &

Drayer, 2017; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). DFS participation and terrestrial gambling (e.g., betting in a land-based casino) both produce similar gain and loss potential (Martin, Nelson, & Gallucci,

2015). Internet gambling refers to all forms of wagering and gambling through the computer, mobile phone, or other wireless Internet connected devices, and is explained by technological advancements offering convenient and global access to types of sophisticated and interactive gambling formats (Gainsbury & Wood, 2011). Internet gamblers could be an at-risk population of gamblers who need to be studied further (Gainsbury, Wood, Russell, Hing, & Blaszczynski,

2012).

Gamblers expressed their interest to gamble on the Internet because of convenience factors (e.g., time), and tax-free betting (Parke & Griffiths, 2001). Internet gambling primarily takes place in private settings, mostly at home (Gainsbury & Wood, 2011; Gainsbury, et al.,

2012), making the activity itself easier to conceal from others (Gainsbury, et al., 2012;

Gainsbury, et al., 2015). Internet gamblers (e.g., DFS users) use an electronic payment system which has a lower psychological value than cash (Corney & Davis; 2010; Griffiths, 2003).

Furthermore, the immersive nature of the Internet can result in online gamblers losing track of time and money spent (Corney & Davis, 2010; Griffiths, 2003; Griffiths & Parke, 2002;

Monaghan, 2009). Therefore, Internet gamblers are more likely to become addicted and develop gambling disorders at a faster rate compared to gamblers only using land-based gambling forms

(Gainsbury et al., 2012). 34

Major predictors of Internet gambling addiction and other related gambling problems include; multiple bets per day, many active betting days per month, many bets per day, and high overall stakes (Brosowski, Meyer, & Hayer, 2012; Currie, Hodgins, Wang, El-Guebaly, Wynne,

& Chen, 2006; Gainsbury, 2015). This suggests that heavy exposure to DFS can lead to the potential negative consequences like gambling problems and addiction. While all DFS players are not experiencing issues with gambling problems and/or addiction, there still is a need to consider the potential negative outcomes that playing DFS can have on fan performances.

This concludes Chapter 2. Before we move onto the next chapter, the research questions that will be used to guide this dissertation are addressed.

35

Research Questions

The purpose of this study is to better understand how DFS players perform their fandom and the potential impact of these performances through the experiences, perceptions, and viewpoints of

DFS players and how they negotiate between performance roles while balancing multiple identities. The research questions guiding this study are guided by an interpretivist approach.

Interpretive research can be explained by a “central research interest in human meaning in social life” (Erickson, 1986, p. 119). The following research questions are proposed. From an epistemological standpoint, this study will utilize a qualitative approach by conducting semi- structured interviews with DFS players.

RQ1: How are DFS experts and players performing their fandom in different contexts?

a) What individual roles do DFS players take on as a result of these fan performances?

b) What meanings are constructed and reinforced by the fan performances of DFS players?

c) What can these performances tell us about how societal structures (e.g., race, gender,

sexual orientation, & socioeconomic status) either reinforce or deny fan performances?

RQ2: How are DFS experts and players balancing multiple identities (e.g., Cleveland Browns fan, DFS player, dad, husband, employee, etc.)

a) How do DFS players balance their fandom for their favorite team and their DFS teams?

b) How do DFS players describe their levels of team identification and team loyalty towards

their favorite team since they started playing DFS?

RQ3: How does gambling (e.g., playing DFS) effect fan performances?

a) How do DFS players describe their own gambling behavior?

b) How does gambling on fantasy sports impact the traditional fandom a person has for

his/her favorite team? 36

Chapter 3

Methodology

The goal of this study was to further investigate how DFS players perform their fandom.

DFS users are vastly understudied, and the number of DFS players continues to increase (FSTA,

2016; Billings et al., 2017). It is important that we begin to better understand how this specific fan group performs their fandom because they are a unique set of fans who could be performing their fandom in ways that have yet to be seen (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018), and they are contributing to a multi-billion dollar fantasy sports industry within the NFL. The traditional ways that researchers explored fandom (e.g., through relying on social identity theory) in the past can no longer be relied upon when aiming to understand how unique individuals like DFS players perform their fandom (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). For example, DFS players spend their time and money performing their fandom online playing DFS instead of attending live events and buying merchandise (Billings et al., 2017; Carlson, 2013; Luker, 2012). The media choices that fans can select from continues to increase, and DFS is one of those media choices that has recently shown to be popular among fans.

To examine this phenomenon, I employed in-depth interviews with both DFS players and

DFS experts. DFS experts are still DFS players but they have different roles within the industry than those who are only players. The in-depth interviews were conducted over an eight-week period. One advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provided detailed information from a small number of participants (Boyce & Neal, 2006). Conducting in-depth interviews allowed me to understand how each individual interviewee negotiated between their fandom, identities, and team loyalties. Moreover, this method allowed me to further examine DFS and its relationship 37 with sports gambling. I asked DFS players what their perceptions of the activity are and how it compares to other forms of gambling.

In-depth interviews helped me focus on individual DFS players while learning how their individual life circumstances influenced their performances. These conversations helped explain in detail how each DFS player balanced his/her identities and loyalties when rooting for a favorite NFL team and DFS team(s). These interviews also focused on how DFS influences and compares to gambling. These interviews were planned out accordingly and designed to answer the research questions but still allowed for follow up questions that weren’t apart of the original script. In-depth interviews are planned, but they are not always set in stone. The researcher has the ability to adjust and deviate from the script where necessary (Adams and Cox, 2008). In other words, I used semi-structured interviews (Schram, 2003), which are oftentimes used by qualitative researchers because this type of research is iterative (Silverman, 2016). I let the interviewee lead me to the appropriate follow up questions.

This research study utilizes PSF theory as a theoretical underpinning to explore DFS players and how they perform their fandom. Moreover, FPM was found to be a quality explanatory framework after data was collected. Early on in the research process I did not include FPM is a way to explain the themes that were derived from the data in this study.

However, by adding FPM and utilizing both modes of performance to explain the results of this study, the study results became clearer and better organized through utilizing the central tenants

(i.e., FPM) of PSF theory.

Theoretical Bracketing and Research Quality

For this dissertation, I was in control of the data collection. As a qualitative researcher, I must be experienced and agree to work toward complexity as opposed to working toward 38 knowledge that can be replicated and reconfirmed (Schram, 2003). My personal training within the College of Communication and Information doctoral program at Kent State University prepared me to write this dissertation. Specifically, the Qualitative Research Design (EVAL

85516) course and the Graduate Study in London (CCI 80095) course both prepared me to be a more informed and experienced qualitative researcher. These two courses taught me how to develop and ask appropriate interview questions, become a better listener, and be more adaptive throughout the research process. However, I am still a relatively new qualitative researcher, so I must rely on experts throughout this process to ensure that I am prepared to conduct this research. My expertise on PSF theory is seen in published work (Humphries and Kucek, 2019), and my expertise on DFS can be seen through being a former DFS player for over four years and having a deep understanding of the DFS industry and its innerworkings. However, because I am the primary research instrument there are possible biases that can influence the study.

Rather than eliminating these biases, “it is important to identify them and monitor them as to how they may be shaping the collection and interpretation of data” (Merriam, 2002, p. 5).

These biases “can be seen as virtuous, for it is the basis of researchers making a distinctive contribution, one that results from the unique configuration of their personal qualities joined to the data they have collected” (Peshkin, 1988, p. 18). Theoretical bracketing is a technique used to mitigate the effects of preconceptions owned by the researcher in relation to the phenomenon being studied (Tufford & Newman, 2010). Theoretical bracketing was utilized as a form of reflexivity aimed at better reflecting upon the data collection and analysis processes as well as the interpretation process. To enhance this study’s rigor, my personal assumptions, biases, and connections to the phenomenon being studied were accounted for by being interviewed by an outside source (Rolls & Relf, 2006; Schram, 2003), which is one method for bracketing. I was 39 interviewed by a colleague before I started collecting data. This was an important process because it reduced the amount of bias that accompanied my personal experience with playing

DFS. Moreover, I documented my entire research process carefully and descriptively. This allows for replication of my dissertation, provided me with documentation in case anyone questions the credibility of this study, and is best practice in qualitative research. Next, I discuss how I conducted interviews with DFS experts and players, the sample and data collection processes, data analysis, and any ethical considerations related to this study.

DFS Expert and Player Interviews

Conducting in-depth interviews allowed me to better understand the perspectives and experiences of the research participant (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree, 2006; Turner, 2010). The interviews used in this dissertation were semi-structured (Merriam, 2002; Schram, 2003). Semi- structured interviews were a good fit for this study because conducting qualitative research is an iterative process (Schram, 2003; Silverman, 2016). Each interview included a variety of questions ranging from questions aimed at participant behavior, knowledge application questions, background and/or demographic questions, feeling questions, sensory questions, and questions related to the opinions of each participant (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). The interview protocol can be viewed in its entirety on page 104. Specifically, I conducted semi-structured in- depth interviews with DFS players that were organized around open-ended questions regarding their DFS activity, their perceptions of their fan behaviors, their overall feelings towards playing

DFS and the potential impact it has on their fandom, and how DFS relates to gambling. The semi-structured interview is most often utilized by qualitative scholars working under the interpretivist paradigm (Schram, 2003). 40

Sample and Data Collection. I included a diverse set of DFS players in my sample, but also a sample that was representative of the current DFS player demographic. DFS players are predominantly white men in their mid-30s who are educated and employed fulltime (FSTA,

2016, Billings et al., 2017; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). Therefore, most of my interviewees fit this demographic. However, I still included some diverse DFS players (e.g., women and ethnic minorities). Hispanic and Asian ethnic groups are the DFS players most at risk for developing gambling problems (Nower et al., 2018), therefore, I wanted to include both Hispanic and Asian

DFS players in my sample if possible. I ended up interviewing one woman and two DFS players of Hispanic descent. The rest of the sample was made up of white males who were in their in their 30s or 40s. For the in-depth interviews, I set out to include at least a sample of 20 total DFS players and at least an additional 5 DFS experts. I ended up with a total of 25 interviews with

DFS players and 5 interviews with DFS experts (N=30). I will discuss how the data for this study was collected as it related to both DFS experts and DFS players beginning with the interviews conducted with DFS experts.

DFS Experts and Player Interviews. I interviewed 5 DFS experts in September of

2019. DFS experts are made up of DFS players who work to project results and who sell their services to other DFS players wishing to obtain expert advice. These five individuals interviewed in this study have extensive knowledge about the entire DFS industry and were able to put me in contact with a diverse group of DFS users (e.g., women & ethnic minorities). I worked to select

DFS experts from various communities within the industry. These DFS communities run and operated by experts form their own following (i.e., groups of DFS players) who become a subgroup of DFS players who help each other be successful. I utilized Twitter, a social media platform where a lot of DFS users congregate, to reach out to various experts I wanted to 41 interview. Utilizing Twitter aligns with this ethnographic approach and sports fans use Twitter to augment their consumption of sports (Smith, Pegorano & Cruikshank, 2019). All of my expert interviews were conducted through face-to-face communication or through the Internet (via

Twitter) in the form of written responses to the questions on page 104. I conducted three face-to- face interviews with DFS experts and the other two interviews with DFS experts were conducted on Twitter in the form of a survey. I asked interviewees who were interviewed via Twitter additional questions as needed. Additionally, DFS experts were asked a few additional questions because they take on a different role than DFS players.

I interviewed 25 DFS players in November of 2019. Of the 25 interviews, I conducted 18 interviews in face-to-face settings while the other 7 interviews were conducted on Twitter in the form of an online survey. DFS players make up the majority of the DFS industry, therefore, I wanted to acquire more information and interview more players than experts. The 25 DFS players had varying levels of fandom, but all were avid DFS players. Including a variety of DFS players allowed us to see how societal structures reinforce or deny fan performances of DFS players, which is a crucial component of the PSF theory (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). I only included players who reported wagering at least $100 per month. Additionally, I only included

DFS participants who have played for a minimum of two years on any DFS platform (e.g.,

DraftKings, FanDuel, Yahoo, etc.). This ensured that participants have experience and can recall their experiences, perceptions and feelings toward playing DFS and its impact on their fandom.

Moreover, setting this parameter ensured that I included DFS players who engage with the activity regularly and were not passive users who rarely participate.

Each in-depth interview with experts and players lasted roughly 60 minutes each. These interviews were conducted in face-to-face settings or via Twitter if research participants were not 42 geographically close to me at the time of collecting data. I then kept a record of each interview session and later transcribed each interview. This process allowed me to better understand the data collected and provided documentation for my work. I stopped interviewing participants once the point of saturation was reached. I transcribed and analyzed my data as I was conducting interviews. The point of saturation was reached once an interviewee added minimal information to what had already been learned through previous interviews (Rubin and Rubin, 2011). The point of saturation was not reached in this study until 30 total interviews (25 with DFS players and 5 with DFS experts) were conducted.

I used Twitter to recruit participants for my study. I already had DFS players who were social connections on Twitter. I reached out to those people first. I called on these connections

(i.e., experts in the industry) to help gain access to diverse DFS players. These experts were well- known DFS players who helped put me in contact with one popular female DFS player, DFS players who were not white, and other diverse players going through various life changes (e.g., transitioning from a previous job, having a baby, and getting married). This strategy ensured that

I had a diverse sample that differed based on societal factors (gender, age, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, etc.), but was still representative of the demographic of most DFS players.

My participants were recruited through a combination of purposive sampling and snowball sampling. Purposive sampling is when the researcher uses his or her best judgment in selecting participants to meet the goals of the research (Barratt, Ferris, & Lenton, 2015; Patton,

1990). Snowball sampling is where “one subject gives the researcher the name of another subject, who in turn provides the name of a third and so on” (Atkinson & Flint, 2001, p. 1). Due to the widespread adoption of the Internet, snowball sampling was achieved through recruitment on Twitter. I made contact with a few people and those participants put me in contact with new 43 participants. Additionally, DFS contests take place solely online. These platforms are available through the Internet or through mobile applications. Therefore, recruiting participants through the Internet (i.e., Twitter) fit the target population for this research study.

Data Analysis. I worked to better understand the information gathered from the in-depth interviews while also reporting and presenting the findings accurately to others (Rubin & Rubin,

2011). To accomplish this, I looked for and identified themes and patterns that came out of the interview transcripts. The nature of this process resulted in collecting data and analyzing data simultaneously (Meriam, 2002; Rubin & Rubin, 2011; Schram, 2003). This left room for follow- up questions during the interview process that confirmed themes in relation to the research questions being asked. I transcribed all the interviews that I conducted. I also included field notes throughout these in-depth interview sessions. The iterative process of taking field notes served as a helpful strategy for this analysis. Due to this type of research being iterative and fluid I was able to refine interview questions while collecting my data.

I adapted the interviews based on how previous interviews were conducted and what was found. I used similar interview questions for each interview session, but some interviewees answered multiple questions in some of their responses. I adapted accordingly in these situations.

Then, I analyzed the data by beginning to identify themes and patterns within the data. I used

Microsoft Excel to analyze and organize my data by creating labels for each piece of data. This is a form of coding in qualitative research (Rubin & Rubin, 2011). Coding categories were established in relation to the research questions by clustering codes around a larger theme or pattern. Specifically, I made use of open coding which allowed me to go back and analyze an earlier interview to verify any themes or patterns that emerged later while analyzing data

(Meriam, 2002; Straus, 1987). Lastly, each interview was given frames using Microsoft Excel, 44 and there were a limitless number of frames set for each interview. Then frames were scaled down as more interviews were scaled down. This helped me identify the themes in the findings section of this study.

I introduced the method of reflexivity (i.e., critical reflection) during this analysis which helped me remain self-aware and self-critical of the data collected and made me more aware of my own biases (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007). After each interview I critically analyzed what

I heard from my interview participant and simultaneously made myself consciously aware of my own biases in the process. This helped me fully process what I had just heard in the interview.

Ethical Considerations

The major ethical obligation for qualitative researchers is to describe the experiences of others in the most faithful way possible (Munhall, 1988). Before starting my research, I submitted an IRB application for approval. This is the standard way to make sure any research involving human subjects is conducted in an ethical manor (Yin, 2015). I made sure that each participant signed an informed consent form which provided them with information about the purpose of the study, who the research team was, how the data would be used, what participation would require of them, and how much time they would spend being a part of this study (Ritchie

& Lewis, 2003). I also preserved confidentiality of all participants by changing their names. This alleviated any concern that private information would become public record (Hammersley &

Atkinson, 1983). Lastly, I kept an audit trail and documented anything I did throughout the duration of this study so that colleagues can check my research procedures and see that this research was conducted ethically (Munhall, 1988; Yin, 2015).

45

Chapter 4

Findings

This study aimed to better understand how DFS experts and DFS players perform their fandom in unique ways. The findings in this study showcase how DFS experts and players perform their fandom in different contexts. These findings further explain how DFS experts and players balance conflicting loyalties to favorite NFL teams and identities outside of being a sports fan. Lastly, the findings in this study help us understand how gambling (in the form of

DFS) influences fan performances. Here is a review of the research questions that make up this study.

RQ1: How are DFS experts and players performing their fandom in different contexts?

d) What individual roles do DFS players take on as a result of these fan performances?

e) What meanings are constructed and reinforced by the fan performances of DFS players?

f) What can these performances tell us about how societal structures (e.g., race, gender,

sexual orientation, & socioeconomic status) either reinforce or deny fan performances?

RQ2: How are DFS experts and players balancing multiple identities (e.g., Cleveland Browns fan, DFS player, dad, husband, employee, etc.)

c) How do DFS players balance their fandom for their favorite team and their DFS teams?

d) How do DFS players describe their levels of team identification and team loyalty towards

their favorite team since they started playing DFS?

RQ3: How does gambling (e.g., playing DFS) effect fan performances?

c) How do DFS players describe their own gambling behavior?

d) How does gambling on fantasy sports impact the traditional fandom a person has for

his/her favorite team? 46

These findings focused solely on DFS experts and DFS players who play in NFL contests on popular DFS sites such as DraftKings and FanDuel. Fandom is a social construct; therefore, it is fluid. Oftentimes, fans construct fandom through the interplay between how much they know about their team and how much they care about its success (Osborne & Coombs, 2016). DFS players are constructing fandom in ways that can be better explained through the Fan

Performance Matrix (FPM), a major component of PSF theory (Osborne & Coombs, 2016).

DFS experts and DFS players are constantly negotiating between when and how to perform their fandom due to individual circumstances related to their fandom and life identities

(e.g., dad, mother, husband, co-worker, friend, etc.). While some DFS experts and players are similar in how they perform fandom, there are differences worth noting. This analysis starts with a section on the gender and race of DFS players in this study and the gender and race of DFS players as whole. Then, a section on the FPM will be addressed. Then, utilizing the two performance modes (knowing and caring) that make up the FPM as a theoretical underpinning, the identified themes in this study will be presented. Please note that all quotes presented in this section are verbatim (as heard from interviewees) and have not been edited to correct for grammar, spelling errors, or punctuation.

Fan Performance Matrix

The FPM is made up of two performance modes: Knowing, one’s understanding of football statistics, history and football plays; and Caring, one’s emotional attachment to a team and one’s overall loyalty toward a team (Osborne & Coombs, 2016). Knowing and Caring do not make up two distinct types of fans. We often categorize fans, but the FPM allows us to analyze fans based on how they perform their fandom. In fact, most fans incorporate both the Caring and 47

Knowing performance modes at various points and to certain degrees depending on individual circumstances (Osborne & Coombs, 2016).

PSF theory explains how fandom is constituted through fan performances. As discussed by Osborne and Coombs (2016), “a fan is not something one is; it is something one does, such that through performing fandom, the identity of fan is created and maintained” (p. 51). The FPM categorizes these performances into two modes: Caring and Knowing. Caring and knowing performances change over time and in relation to the specific context. Therefore, the FPM is used as an interpretive tool for understanding the complexity of fan identity and performance for an individual DFS expert or player. Each mode of fan performance is discussed in more detail, along with the themes related to each mode of fan performance.

The Caring Performance Mode

Caring is one of two modes of fan performances outlined by PSF theorists (Osborne &

Coombs, 2016). The caring category describes “one’s emotional attachment to and investment in a team” (p. 24). DFS players described rooting for a favorite team while simultaneously rooting for a fantasy team as emotionally draining. DFS players oftentimes find themselves rooting for a favorite team and their DFS team(s) simultaneously. There were some DFS players who actually sided with their fantasy team after reflecting on their emotional attachments toward both their favorite team and DFS team(s), but most DFS players try to balance both loyalties without giving precedence to a favorite team or DFS team. Nonetheless, aligning with PSF theory, these fans are negotiating between other identities as well (e.g., husband, father, Cleveland Browns fans, etc.).

Their fandom is very fluid as they have to balance so many competing loyalties and identities

(Osborne & Coombs, 2014). The central themes related to the caring performance mode are: (a) 48 conflicting loyalties, (b) performance-based loyalty, (c) no loyalty toward favorite team, and (d) conflicting identities.

Conflicting Loyalties. What happens when a DFS players’ favorite team succeeds, but it simultaneously has a negative impact on the outcome of their fantasy team? This is a situation

DFS players find themselves in quite often. Most DFS players strive to maintain their loyalty toward their favorite team while still remaining loyal to their DFS team(s) as well. A DFS player and diehard Cleveland Browns fan explained how he handles balancing conflicting identities toward his favorite NFL team and his DFS team(s). There are times when DFS players roster

NFL players from their favorite team but there are also times where a DFS player doesn’t roster a player from his/her favorite team and the player must balance these conflicting identities.

In the event I have players from a favorite team in my DFS lineup I go to another level of

rooting. I get intense but keep my composure. God forbid I have a matchup against an

opponent who has a player on their DFS team that day/week- it really puts you in a

precarious position of rooting for your team to win, but a certain individual to do poorly

(DFS player 1).

DFS players sometimes elect to avoid rostering players from their favorite team because it helps them balance conflicting identities toward their favorite team and DFS team(s). This

DFS player is an avid Washington Redskins fan but understands how fandom toward a favorite team can clash with one’s loyalty to his/her DFS lineups. He now understands why he and other

DFS players avoid rostering certain players who conflict with a fans’ loyalty toward his/her favorite team.

I always wondered why people would yell at TV’s when a dude dropped a pass on a non-

favorite team prior to being a DFS player. Now I see why! I also see why some DFS 49

players try to avoid rostering players who may be a member of his favorite team or one

who is playing against his favorite team. It makes for a weird situation. You don’t know

who to root for (DFS player 3).

Being an avid DFS player adds a different layer to one’s fan loyalty. Non-DFS players can still simply watch a game with one desired outcome (i.e., for his/her favorite team to win). DFS players are oftentimes rooting for their favorite team to win but are simultaneously rooting for individual players to do well from the other team, and sometimes rooting for a player on their favorite team to do poorly. This can be emotionally draining for DFS players. That’s not to say that DFS players don’t enjoy the emotional ups and downs that a fan experiences while watching a game that involves a favorite NFL team and still rooting on individual players because of DFS.

One DFS player and avid Carolina Panthers fan discussed the emotions that come with being a fan of a specific NFL team while still playing DFS by saying, “I enjoy the emotional rollercoaster throughout the entire process” (DFS player 2). He described how playing DFS has influenced his fandom for his favorite NFL team. He said, “I hate rooting against my favorite teams, which is why I avoid betting on them at all costs” (DFS player 2). This DFS player continues to participate in DFS and bet on NFL spreads, but will deliberately not play any players from the Carolina Panthers in DFS. He went on to say, “I know it is kind of silly, but I want to be able to watch the Panthers game and not have to worry about DFS or betting, but I still want to play DFS and bet too” (DFS player 2). This fan is negotiating between his loyalty to the Carolina Panthers and to his DFS teams. PSF theory explains how this helps us understand his fan performances through the various roles he takes on as a Panthers fan who also plays DFS

(Osborne & Coombs, 2014). DFS players sometimes take on a specific role as a fan based on how their favorite NFL team is performing. 50

Performance Based Loyalty. There were DFS players in this study who said that they now play more DFS because their favorite team is in a rebuilding phase or simply not talented enough to entertain them. DFS provides an outlet for fans who are not able to perform their fandom in ways they desire because of their team underachieving. The only female DFS player interviewed in this study shared her process in deciding who to root for, when to root for her favorite team, and when to root for her DFS team(s). Her allegiance relies on performance, and she’s able to adapt accordingly showcasing how another fan is unique in performing her/his fandom while being an avid DFS player.

I will always root for the Pittsburgh Steelers because they are my team and that is where I

grew up. I was born into being a fan of the team, and I feel like a lot of people are. I

started playing traditional fantasy sports a few years ago before trying my luck at DFS.

The commercials convinced me to give it a shot. Now, I go back and forth on who I

prefer to perform best (among her fantasy team and the Steelers). I feel like when Big

Ben got hurt this year, I started focusing more on my fantasy teams. I knew we were

going to have a down year, but I’m still interested in the NFL through DFS (DFS player

4).

This fan made the decision to shift her loyalty and attention to her DFS team(s) because her favorite team was having a poor season. DFS provides another way for fans to perform their fandom when their favorite team (e.g., Pittsburgh Steelers) is not performing well. This is certainly good for the NFL and its brand. When a fan’s team is underperforming, the NFL provides an opportunity to perform their fandom through DFS. Naturally, the NFL and

DraftKings (the most popular DFS platform) already have a corporate sponsorship. The NFL understands there are a lot of fans like the Steelers fan referenced in the above quote and they are 51 provided that fan group another experience and another way in which they can showcase their fandom.

A Cleveland Browns fan described how his loyalty toward his favorite team and his DFS team(s) is always something he tries to balance. This fan discusseds how the decades of despair he’s had to deal with as a Browns fan has made it easy to transition into becoming a DFS player.

When a fan of an NFL team gets frustrated and/or fed up with a favorite team’s performance, he/she always can turn to DFS as a way to perform their fandom.

I always go back and forth on rooting for my favorite team and my DFS teams. It’s tough

because I’m a Browns (Cleveland) fan and they are so frustrating. I keep tabs on them,

but they make you go crazy sometimes. DFS is always new and fresh and each week

provides another chance at the pot. You are trying to crack the code each week. I would

say I slightly prefer my fantasy teams to do well, but that may change when the Browns

get good (DFS player 5).

This shows us that an NFL team’s performance can drastically influence how a fan performs his/her individual fandom. DFS provides another avenue for this fan and a way to remain engaged with the NFL and the sport of football.

Another DFS player, and Washington Redskins fan, described his fandom as fluid and explained how he goes about rooting for his favorite team while still rooting for his DFS team(s).

Similar to the Browns fan referenced above, this Redskins fan has dealt with many years of frustration while rooting for his favorite team. In line with how the Browns fan dealt with having an unsuccessful team to root for a lengthy period of time, this Redskins fan has found an outlet in the DFS industry but can see his loyalty toward the Redskins increase once they put a better product on the field. 52

I have started playing a lot of DFS lately because it’s entertaining and there is so much

potential money to be had. All it takes is to hit big one time and it can change my life. I

am playing for that one big hit. I mean I still root for my team and that, but I don’t follow

the Redskins as much anymore. They’re playing terrible right now, so it makes me even

more interested in my DFS lineups. I feel like I may take a step back from DFS once the

Redskins are more competitive and have a chance to make the playoffs. (DFS player 6)

This is another fan who shows loyalty toward both his/her favorite team and fantasy team(s), but the amount of loyalty is a result of how his/her favorite team is performing. This theme demonstrates that DFS players can still be loyal to their favorite NFL team, but how a favorite team performs can play a role in how loyal DFS players continue to be toward that team.

Moreover, DFS players who balance their fandom toward a favorite team based on performance are a unique group. The next theme demonstrates how some DFS players have completely eliminated their team loyalty toward a once favorite team. These avid DFS players now are invested and engaged in the NFL solely because they play DFS. They no longer consider to be a fan of one team in the NFL.

No Loyalty Toward Favorite Team. The DFS players interviewed in this study either worked to balance conflicting loyalties toward their favorite NFL team and their DFS teams, were less loyal to underperforming teams (which points to team loyalty being influenced by the performance of a fans favorite team), or no longer have loyalty toward a favorite team. The latter of the three groups favored their DFS team over their favorite team when prompted to side with one or the other and no longer show loyalty toward a favorite NFL team.

A Baltimore Ravens fan (DFS player 7) described how his DFS teams are beginning to take precedence over rooting for the Ravens to win. This DFS player has been an avid Ravens 53 fan for a long time but at this point would rather win money and play DFS. Due to the amount of time that he now puts into DFS his loyalty has shifted from being an avid Ravens fan to showing loyalty toward his DFS teams.

DFS has really changed the entire experience for me. It has become a hobby that I also

treat as a side job. I’m putting a lot of time into it, so I would have to choose my DFS

teams over a Ravens win (DFS player 7).

This quote is really important because this Baltimore Ravens fan has a successful team to root for, but still prefers his DFS teams be successful over his favorite team. This is different than the

DFS players who told me that their loyalty toward a favorite team relies on team performance which was covered in the previous section. This Ravens fan points out that he would rather win money than see his (former) favorite team the Baltimore Ravens. win. This finding aligns with previous research that showcased how DFS players are motivated by economic gain (Larkin,

2015; Weiner and Dwyer, 2018). This shows how powerful DFS is. DFS and fantasy sports as a whole make up a multibillion-dollar industry within the NFL, another multibillion-dollar industry. The potential for avid DFS players to completely lose their previous fan loyalty toward an NFL team exists. This Ravens fan is not alone. There are other DFS players and experts who favor their DFS lineups be successful over an NFL team that they have a rooting interest in.

DFS experts have an even more vested interest in DFS because they work in the industry in addition to competing in DFS contests like their DFS player counterparts. The DFS experts in this study were less loyal toward an NFL team than DFS players. For DFS experts, DFS makes up their work identity in addition to being broadcasters and content creators for DFS websites and online channels. Therefore, DFS experts tend to be more loyal toward their DFS teams than 54 a DFS player. A DFS expert and fan of the Denver Broncos explained how playing DFS has influenced his fandom toward his favorite team.

DFS has destroyed traditional fandom for me. I grew up a Denver Broncos fan but could

care less about them now. I don’t think I would watch much of the NFL if it weren’t for

DFS. I also don’t play much DFS other than NFL. So, I’ve realized I just really like the

combination of NFL and DFS and not much beyond that. I would have never thought that

I would be watching the NFL while not rooting for a particular team to win each week

and other teams in the same division to lose. But that is exactly what I do now on

Sundays during the NFL season. (DFS expert 8).

This fan has completely removed his fandom for the Broncos and does not show any loyalty toward his former favorite team. He points to DFS as being the reason he is no longer loyal toward the Broncos. This again showcases the possibility of a fan completely shifting his/her loyalty toward DFS teams while completely eliminating loyalty toward a particular team in the

NFL.

The last theme under the Caring Performance Mode has to do with DFS players and experts having to balance conflicting identities. DFS players and experts are unique in that they all balance different life identities outside of being a sports fan and DFS player. In the process, life identities conflict with one another and DFS experts and players have to decide which role to take on as a fan and a DFS player.

Conflicting Identities. While conflicting fan loyalties occur, other identities related to life outside of sports have to be considered and negotiated by DFS players. DFS players are balancing already existing identities (e.g., father, co-worker, husband, friend, etc.) while oftentimes still rooting for an NFL team and his/her DFS team(s). Balancing these life identities 55 can be difficult. One finding within this theme was how DFS players conceal their identity as a

DFS player. DFS players prefer to remain anonymous if possible, which aligns with previous research (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). DFS players rarely provide their full name when prompted to select a username for popular sites such as DraftKings and FanDuel. They like to keep their DFS lives outside of their personal lives as much as possible. DFS players communicate with other

DFS players about playing, but do not like to speak to people outside of the DFS community about it.

From a PSF perspective, DFS experts still balance multiple life identities but they do not have to worry about their DFS identity competing with their identity at work. Unlike DFS experts, DFS players have to consider how their co-workers will interpret them being DFS players. A lot of DFS players do not want their co-workers to know that they play DFS because of the associations the activity has with gambling. A successful salesperson who plays DFS for fun and a way to make extra income said this regarding balancing conflicting life identities.

I try not to let people I work with know how involved I am in the industry. I believe in

keeping work life and personal life separate. I’m also going to be a dad this January so I

will need to adjust my time accordingly. I won’t stop playing DFS all together, but I may

have to cut back because it can be very time consuming (DFS player 9).

This DFS player is speaking to balancing multiple identities as a co-worker, a future dad, and a husband or boyfriend. This directly links to PSF theory where an emphasis is placed on a fan’s role within a social structure opposed to defining the boundaries of certain structures/groups

(Osborne & Coombs, 2016). Moreover, a DFS player with children is under different circumstances than a single DFS player. For example, a DFS player with children could have less time to prepare provided they help take care of the kids versus a single DFS player who does 56 not have these obligations throughout the week and on the weekend. Furthermore, DFS players know and understand how much time goes into DFS. DFS players realize that they must cut back on the amount of time they currently spend on DFS when it comes time to prioritize other identities over their identity as a DFS player.

Balancing multiple identities at once sometimes becomes too much and DFS players have to make difficult decisions about how and if they want to continue playing DFS. This leads to cutting other competing identities out of their life completely. For example, a DFS expert in the field played DFS and created DFS content as a side job for a long time until his influence and success enabled him to quit his full-time job and solely focus on playing DFS and creating content for other DFS users. He is now a DFS expert who many DFS players look to for information and knowledge.

I was a successful investment and portfolio manager at a bank, but I always played DFS

on the side because it was fun, and I enjoyed it. I created my own content on YouTube

giving other DFS players advice based on my projection models. After having some

success as a DFS player I made the decision to quit my job as a bank manager and work

as a DFS expert and play DFS full-time. It was one of the best decisions I ever made. I

have never been happier working in a field that allows me to watch and study the NFL

and other professional leagues (DFS expert 1).

Balancing various identities and loyalties can be difficult and tiresome for a lot of DFS experts and players. DFS experts and players have to make decisions about how they wish to balance identities related to work and life. DFS players are also balancing their fandom toward a favorite team while still wishing to have success playing DFS. This constant negotiation between various loyalties and identities makes DFS players unique in how they each perform their 57 fandom. For this fan, he was balancing being a portfolio manager, an avid DFS player, and a content creator in addition to his other life identities. Once he decided to stop being a portfolio manager, his work identity became being a DFS expert. It was then much easier to balance all of his identities because he no longer had to worry about eight hours a day being dedicated to his job as a portfolio manager. Instead, this time was filled creating content for DFS players and becoming a DFS expert. Moreover, he understood that obtaining more knowledge about players would be crucial if he wanted to become a DFS expert and he needed more time in his schedule.

There were other DFS experts and players who discussed how they have to constantly negotiate between various life identities so that they can make time for DFS. Moreover, the amount of money has to spend on DFS is yet another crucial component that leads to how much

DFS one participates in on a regular basis. The negotiating of life identities that occurs by DFS players and experts is unique to that individual. In addition to DFS players having children and quitting their day job to make more time for DFS, other DFS players discussed balancing conflicting life identities related to ageing parents and having to juggle multiple jobs. Every DFS player is negotiating between their own life identities and finding a way to make DFS part of that life identity is different for each person.

This concludes the themes under the Caring Performance Mode. The central themes in this section were: (a) conflicting loyalties, (b) performance-based loyalty, (c) no loyalty toward favorite team, and (d) conflicting identities. As a DFS player moves into a more DFS-based fandom they care less about their favorite NFL team. The implications of this finding will be further addressed in the discussion section. This leads us to the Knowing Performance Mode, the second mode of performance described by the FPM within PSF theory (Osborne & Coombs,

2016). 58

The Knowing Performance Mode

This performance mode helps us better understand DFS fandom as it relates to the statistical knowledge required to be successful and the fan experience when watching NFL games as a DFS player. DFS players watch and follow sports in unique ways that are explained in this section. There is also a financial incentive for DFS players to acquire information and knowledge. This is explained through the relationship DFS has with gambling and how the potential for economic gain influences DFS players and their fandom. There is also evidence that playing DFS can lead to additional skill-based gambling activities. That is also addressed. The central themes within the knowing performance mode are: (a) statistical knowledge, (b) watching and following NFL games as a DFS player, and (c) financial incentive to know information. An additional theme related to how DFS can lead to additional skill-based gambling will also be addressed.

As mentioned by the authors of PSF theory, knowledge and having an understanding of the game are central to fan performances (Osborne and Coombs, 2016). The knowing performance mode encompasses “one’s understanding of football plays, statistics, and team”

(Osborne & Coombs, 2016, p. 24). For DFS players, knowing and understanding statistics is an integral part of becoming a quality DFS player (e.g., being profitable). As a DFS player’s fandom becomes more DFS-based, he/she knows more about the entire NFL and its individual players. This section discusses how acquiring statistical knowledge is pivotal to having success in the DFS industry. Moreover, this section covers how DFS players perform their fandom after they’ve acquired statistical knowledge of individual players in the NFL. The various forms of media used to acquire statistical knowledge is addressed in addition to explaining how DFS players watch and follow their DFS teams. 59

Having statistical knowledge of the NFL and its players is essential to having success

(e.g., making money) as a DFS player. Statistical knowledge is the first of four themes in this section. DFS players also obtain knowledge through consuming more sports media content. DFS players each incorporate media in a number of ways to help them perform their fandom. Media outlets have started to adapt and create content designed for DFS players wishing to obtain specialized knowledge that helps them be better prepared to compete among top DFS players.

Therefore, understanding the fan experience that DFS players enjoy while watching their players perform is addressed in this section. DFS players have a different viewing experience than non-

DFS players because of the additional knowledge they have on individual players.

The financial incentive to know information is also addressed under the Knowing

Performance Mode section. DFS players and experts alike are not in the business of knowing sports information just to be informed. Instead, there is a financial incentive for knowing information for these DFS players and experts. This is an important distinction. The last theme covers how gambling in the form of DFS can lead to additional skill-based gambling. The central themes within the knowing performance mode are: (a) statistical knowledge, (b) watching and following NFL games as a DFS player, and a (c) financial incentive to know information,

Additional skill-based gambling is another finding discussed outside the Knowing Performance

Mode axes.

Statistical Knowledge. My interviewees discussed how playing DFS has enhanced their knowledge of the NFL and individual players in the NFL. The amount of information and knowledge a DFS player obtains directly influences his/her DFS performance. DFS experts and

DFS players need to acquire statistical knowledge to be successful financially, however, DFS experts have more of an incentive to know and understand statistics because their jobs depend on 60 it. Moreover, DFS has steadily become more competitive since 2015 making DFS experts’ jobs even more demanding. A DFS expert had this to say about his experience playing DFS over the last few years.

Playing and competing at DFS has certainly changed over the years. When I first started

playing in 2015 there were a lot of casual players, and it was a lot easier to win money

because there weren’t a large number of people taking it seriously or acquiring the

necessary knowledge needed to perform well consistently. There are far fewer casual

players now. Players today understand the time and knowledge you need to have to be

successful (DFS expert 2).

As more DFS players take the activity seriously and competitively, DFS experts need to continue to acquire new information and knowledge to help the DFS players who decide to utilize a DFS expert’s services. DFS is helping produce fans who have knowledge on individual players that non-DFS players don’t have. Therefore, DFS players are taking on specific roles within the larger NFL fanbase due to their increased knowledge of the league and individual players in it. For example, one DFS player in his mid 30s said, “playing DFS during the NFL season has made me a way bigger fan of the NFL because you have to be willing to learn about players you previously knew nothing about” (DFS player 10). Playing DFS has made this fan much more knowledgeable of the entire NFL and individual players he once cared little about.

Being a successful DFS expert and/or player requires specialized knowledge on individual players within the NFL. Therefore, playing DFS is more sophisticated than betting on game spreads within the NFL. The amount of statistical knowledge one needs to be successful in DFS outweighs the amount of statistical knowledge one needs when gambling on sports in a sportsbook. 61

While sportsbook betting (i.e., betting on NFL game spreads) still encourages fans to be more informed than a casual fan, competing in DFS produces an even more knowledgeable fan because they are gathering, studying, and analyzing statistical information on individual players and are not just concerned with team projections which are of importance when gambling on traditional point spreads in sports. DFS is much more nuanced opposed to traditional sports gambling. DFS players have more of a vested interest to gain knowledge about the entire NFL

(Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). DFS players analyze each individual player on each team playing that day or week. One DFS player from Virginia explains how statistically informed one has to be in order to have success in DFS and how it is more important to be statically informed while playing DFS opposed to betting on game spreads.

You need to be so focused and informed on individual players to be successful at DFS.

You need to have information on the star players and the players people barely know

about. You’re always looking for that diamond in the rough when picking low priced

players who you feel will play above expectations. Picking the right players who are low-

priced gives you the edge you’re looking for over your competition. Playing DFS and

being successful at it requires a lot more time and energy than winning money betting on

game spreads (DFS player 11).

It pays to have knowledge that other DFS players do not have to help make correct decisions when rostering players for DFS lineups. Every DFS player has some form of strategy that they use as they prepare for that day or week of competition. Many DFS players told me how the experts in the industry have made DFS their day job in order to have more time than others to prepare for games. Those who do not have time to study DFS throughout the day due to having a full-time job outside of DFS then rely on DFS experts who have time to study games, 62 teams, and players all day long. It is possible to be a DFS player without consulting experts but those players are most likely new to the activity and have yet to understand the benefits of utilizing an expert to acquire information and advice.

Anyone playing DFS is doing some form of research on players from every team playing that day/week. Players may be relying on DFS experts for knowledge, but they understand the importance of acquiring knowledge on their own as well. If they wish to win money and be successful on a consistent basis, they must dedicate more time acquiring specialized knowledge.

A DFS player, and a fan of the Washington Redskins said, “I find myself knowing about other players a lot more now than before I played DFS because you have to do your research in order to win money” (DFS player 13). The research that DFS experts and players conduct oftentimes relies on adjusting player projection models that provide DFS users with lineups constructed based on player projections for that particular upcoming game.

DFS experts and players utilize optimizing software to create lineups with high projections. The best DFS experts and players have sophisticated optimizers based on statistics that they’ve deemed most important for success. Each and every day these optimizers are tweaked based on player performance, matchup, injuries, etc. In order to gain slight advantages over the field, DFS experts adjust player projections throughout the day after they learn new information. While adjustments can be small and not drastic, subtle alterations to player projections can provide users with different DFS lineups which results in different outcomes.

Understanding statistics and acquiring statistical knowledge on players within the NFL is imperative for DFS players and experts to have success for themselves and for others who may pay for their services. 63

Fantasy football players are consuming more sports than other sports fans (Cox, 2002;

Drayer et al., 2010; Drayer, 2011; Lee et al., 2011; Nesbit & King, 2010), and DFS players and experts are consuming more sports than any other fantasy sport players (Weiner & Dwyer,

2018). DFS players and experts work to gain knowledge and information about individual players in real time throughout the day. Additionally, DFS players watch sports from a different perspective than non-DFS players. This is the next theme (e.g., Watching and Following NFL games as a DFS player) addressed. This theme is a heading under the knowing performance mode because it emerged as a result of the current theme (i.e., the importance of gaining statistical knowledge). DFS players utilize media in order to obtain more specialized knowledge related to DFS.

Watching and Following NFL games as a DFS player. DFS players watch and follow sports in a way that is different than non-DFS players. Instead of focusing on a favorite team and perhaps having slight interest in other games, DFS players are interested and invested in all NFL games. A DFS expert working for the popular sports website rotoworld.com said, “playing DFS just makes every game I’m watching that much more interesting” (DFS expert 3). Another DFS player and Washington Redskins fan shared a similar experience as he described how DFS has influenced how he watches the NFL saying, “DFS has changed me as a sports fan. I’m much more likely to watch a game now that I would’ve never watched a few years ago. I just didn’t care about games other than the Washington games” (DFS player 6). DFS has made both this expert more aware of individual NFL players because he wants to be competitive in the DFS contests that he enters.

Before fantasy sports and DFS, fans sought out a lot more news covering their favorite team and/or player. Many DFS players interviewed in this study said they look at much more 64 league news now opposed to news covering their favorite team now that they play DFS regularly. DFS players are interested in news across the entire NFL. As one DFS player put it, “I am always checking injury updates across the league and following what reporters on Twitter who break news about players throughout the day and week are saying” (DFS player 15). DFS has produced fans who are reading injury reports, fans who follow reporters covering teams they don’t have a rooting interest in, and fans who follow league news opposed to news on a favorite team. An avid DFS player from Washington D.C. discussed how his media habits have changed since playing DFS. He watches and follows the NFL from a completely different perspective now that he plays DFS.

I started playing DFS four years ago. I spend a lot of time playing NFL. I can easily say

that I know more today about the NFL now since before playing DFS. When there wasn’t

DFS I didn’t have any interest in other teams except the (Washington) Redskins. Now,

I’d like to see my teams do well, but I have to pay attention to the entire league in order

to profit on my DFS investments. I constantly check league news on Twitter and recently

installed a fantasy football app that alerts me about players throughout the week (DFS

player 16).

Other DFS experts and players interviewed in this study also discussed how playing DFS has influenced how they watch and follow NFL games that they previously would not have watched. A New Orleans Saints fan described how playing DFS has influenced him to watch games that he once never cared about. Moreover, he discussed how DFS keeps him interested and wanting to watch and follow teams who aren’t successful.

DFS has made watching games more interesting to me. I used to only care about the

Saints games and now I can sweat out Dolphins vs. Browns if I roster players in that 65

game. It’s crazy to think that I actually care about the Dolphins and Browns now, but I

do. All of the games in the NFL matter now when you play DFS. It’s crazy (DFS player

17).

DFS players are watching NFL games that they would not be interested in if it were not for DFS. This has influenced the broadcast industry to make changes. Specifically, media covering the NFL has changed due to an increase in interest from DFS players and other fantasy sport players. One TV channel that has gained a lot of popularity among the DFS community is

RedZone. RedZone, a show presented by the NFL Network, focuses on all scoring plays across the NFL in real time. Instead of watching one game in its entirety, viewers get to see all big plays from each game going on at that time. DFS players can easily keep track of all the NFL players they’ve rostered that day. In some cases, playing DFS has influenced fans to pay for additional sport channels (e.g., RedZone) so they can follow players they rostered on their DFS team.

I actually went ahead and bought the NFL RedZone package this fall so that I can follow

my players that I roster more closely. The RedZone is nice because you can follow any

game and they show you all the scoring plays around the league which helps you see how

all your players are performing without having to watch individual games. You also no

longer have to rely on sports apps to update you on player progress anymore (DFS player

11).

DFS is changing the way fans watch and follow the NFL, how much NFL content a fan consumes, and the medium one decides to use to acquire knowledge about the NFL and its players. Along with cable channels such as RedZone, more online streaming content continues to gain popularity among the DFS community. YouTube offers several channels dedicated to the

NFL and DFS. Many DFS players stream content on YouTube, Twitch, Periscope, and other 66 streaming platforms that are solely dedicated to providing up-to-date information about players and teams as it relates to DFS. Many DFS companies broadcast live on streaming platforms.

These platforms offer DFS players with opinions and insight from DFS experts in a synchronous and asynchronous way. DFS players can still view content that is not watched live, but many players try to receive the information in real time.

Two of the most popular companies that produce DFS content via YouTube are

RotoGrinders and Awesemo.com. Both companies have a combination of the top-ranked DFS players in the world offering advice (both in the form of free and paid content). These DFS experts on staff go live online at various points throughout the day/week to provide listeners with advice based on extensive research. Many DFS players have made the decision to watch content provided by experts at awesome.com daily to stay informed on the latest information and knowledge.

I watch the shows over at awesemo.com each and every day. I wake up in the morning

and listen to the early bird podcast before heading into work. This allows me to get some

initial research in before a long day at work. When I come home, I listen to another group

of guys before the game goes live (DFS player 12).

Sports media consumption habits are fluid and constantly in flux for sports fans, and especially for DFS players. DFS players are seeking out different media options opposed to their non-DFS counterparts. DFS players are motivated to acquire statistical knowledge each and every day, so they seek out the channels and media outlets that help them acquire this knowledge. It is clear that “knowing and caring clearly work together in concert to shape one’s fandom” (Osborne & Coombs, 2016, p. 46). It’s hard to tell if media outlets are developing channels based on fans interest in DFS or if media outlets are developing new channels and 67 content specific to DFS in an effort to get more members of the public participating. Fans are constantly negotiating how to perform his/her fandom and these performances can evolve over time. A main factor that influences how DFS players negotiate these performances is the potential for economic gain. There is a financial incentive to acquire and know information regarding the NFL and its players. That theme is contextualized next in relation to the United

States reimagining how sports gambling is regulated.

Financial Incentive to Know Information. Sports gambling is certainly a timely conversation to have due to the Supreme Court’s ruling to recently overturn the Professional and

Amateur Sports Protection Act (PAPSA), which previously outlawed sports betting in the United

States. Gambling in the form of DFS has been growing in popularity since the activity became popular in 2015. There are only seven states (i.e., Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Louisiana, Montana,

Nevada, and Washington) as of January 2020 that do not allow its citizens to take part in DFS

(Legal Sports Report, 2020).

DFS players all gamble when they play DFS. All DFS players share this identity and it is important to consider as we seek to better understand how DFS players perform their fandom.

DFS players feel as if there is certainly skill involved throughout the process of building lineups.

Therefore, these findings indicate that DFS is a form of skill-based gambling because DFS players have a financial incentive to know information. The more information a DFS player has, the more prepared he/she is to build winning lineups.

Ever since the emergence of DFS, the debate on whether it is a game of a chance or a game of skill has been lingering. A DFS player interviewed in this study summed it up by saying, “I would say it is a bit of both skill and chance, but more skill” (DFS player 21). DFS players and experts alike are all taking a chance when they play DFS because there are certain 68 circumstances that are out of their control. For example, players can get injured, coaches can make decisions to not play certain players, and unforeseen game situations can limit the amount of time an NFL player is on the field, which in return could hurt DFS lineups that feature this player. However, DFS players and experts interviewed in this study still believe DFS is more of a game of skill than a game of chance. The reason DFS players and experts feel that DFS is more of a game of skill is due to the financial incentive to know information but also who DFS players participate against. DFS players compete against one another so the financial incentive to know information that others don’t have is pivotal because the activity requires skill. Many casino games do not require statistical knowledge because they are games of luck and not games of skill.

The majority of casino games (e.g., roulette, slot machines, craps, money wheels, etc.) are played against the house, whereas DFS contests are played against other individuals. When betting on game spreads, the sports gambler is still going up against odds makers in Las Vegas.

This is much different than a DFS player competing against other DFS players. A DFS player I interviewed discussed how DFS is a form of skill-based gambling and how the financial incentive to know information is key to success.

DFS is definitely skill-based gambling. Chance is inherent to gambling, but unlike

something like Roulette where the odds will always be tilted in the house’s favor, savvy

players can find an edge over other competitors (DFS player 13).

This is a really important quote because it shows how and why there is financial incentive to know more information than other competitors. If players can find that “edge” (e.g., knowing more information about a particular player who is playing that day), they can be more profitable in the end. DFS players and experts are always looking for pieces of information and or data that 69 other players may not have. For example, a DFS expert could suggest to his/her following to play a player that is not on many other DFS players’ radar. This is another way to gain a financial

“edge.” If a wide receiver from the Cleveland Browns is only owned by 8% of DFS players playing in any given DFS contest, that means when that Browns WR does something positive the

DFS players who rostered him is be gaining an advantage on 92% of the field who did not roster that player. Obtaining insider information could be the reason why a DFS player makes money or the reason why he or she loses money.

DFS websites such as DraftKings and FanDuel collect “rake” from each player who enter a contest, but after the site gets their small cut, players are competing against other players and not the site itself (or the house as it would be called in a casino). As one DFS player put it, “DFS is like poker—its gambling, but there is skill involved because you’re playing against other players, not the house. It allows you to have some type of control over your money” (DFS player

21). Another interviewee echoed similar statements saying, “gambling, more often than not, is against the house and the house is sharp so there are rarely edges to be had” (DFS expert 5). He then went on about how DFS is a game of skill and how it is logistically similar to poker.

It really takes skill to become a professional DFS player. DFS is more like poker than

anything else because you are playing against other people and it’s not just getting lucky

like with slot machines or other casino games. The best DFS players in the world

consistently make a profit year to year. You can’t say that about good roulette players.

Playing and winning at roulette is just luck. You can have a strategy, but it doesn’t

guarantee that you’re going to win (DFS player 23).

Decision-making and data gathering leading up to drafting DFS lineups is essential for success for all DFS players. The information and knowledge acquired by DFS players showcases 70 how playing DFS is a game of skill. DFS players rely on DFS experts in many cases for insider information about specific players. Moreover, DFS players try to incorporate their own knowledge when drafting players. One DFS player interviewed discussed how he goes about acquiring information ahead of playing DFS and how the activity is certainly a game of skill because there are edges to be had by acquiring information.

Betting on DFS sites is much more in-depth with experts giving their take. It makes you

feel like you make better informed decisions or at least reinforces what you initially

thought prior. I go into it with my own thoughts and then I gather as much information as

I can from experts. These people are able to put a lot more time into looking at statistics,

matchups, and analytics than I can. If DFS wasn’t a game of skill then the best players,

the pros, wouldn’t have so much success. That proves that it isn’t just luck (DFS player

22).

Other DFS players discussed how the best players in the world are more skilled in how they operate their projection models. These models are based on a number of projections related to how many fantasy points each player is projected to score for an upcoming game. DFS players take into account player statistics, matchup, location of the game, weather forecast, and a multitude of other factors related to a series of NFL games. The best DFS experts are highly competent in statistics and understand how to accurately project how NFL players will perform.

DFS definitely requires some advanced skill though in how you run your projection

models. I think there is certainly some luck involved. That’s with all types of gambling.

I’ve watched some videos on how the best players set their algorithms and it is down to a

science! The pros not only have knowledge and good intuition, but they have projection 71

models that are constantly updating. These players are all very skilled in math and

projecting future results (DFS player 24).

Many of the DFS experts stress the importance of keeping track of one’s return on investment (ROI) when playing DFS. This is just another factor to consider when playing DFS.

Another DFS player explained how he wouldn’t be able to have success on a consistent basis without the skill and hard work of DFS experts and learning from the best DFS players in the world.

There is a reason why these people are professional players. The top player has had a

positive ROI for the last five years. I mean, it’s gambling, but for him, he’s not losing

over the long haul. It’s more of an investment. I like to just study his process. I know he

and other pros have the skills that I need to learn. I just try to incorporate as many

strategies that the pros use as I can when I’m creating my lineups (DFS player 20).

Overall, there is a financial incentive to know information in DFS and the activity itself is a form of skill-based gambling. There is both skill and chance involved, but much more skill is involved in DFS opposed to other games found in the casino (e.g., roulette, slot machines, craps, etc.). DFS has drawn comparisons to poker where users play against each other instead of the house in a casino. Poker and DFS are similar in that there is a financial incentive to know information. Many DFS players also take part in other forms of skill-based gambling (e.g., online poker). If not responsible, DFS can lead to too much additional gambling outside of DFS. DFS players are usually drawn to other forms of skill-based gambling activities in the casino and online. Gambling online is convenient which can lead to DFS players risking too much (whether it be on DFS or other skill-based gambling). The next section and last finding is outside of the

Knowing Performance Mode axes but explains how DFS can lead to additional skill-based 72 gambling activities. This theme emerged within learning about DFS players’ financial incentive to know information.

DFS Influences Additional Skill-Based Gambling

Gambling, whether it be on sports, in the casino, or playing DFS is easier than ever today due to the capabilities of playing online and not having to physically travel to a land-based casino to gamble on sports in some form. Online gambling, as mentioned in the literature review, is particularly dangerous because people can lose track of money and time easier (Corney &

Davis, 2010; Griffiths, 2003; Griffiths & Parke, 2002; Monaghan, 2009). Moreover, online casinos are oftentimes located offshore and offer all types of skill-based gambling games and games of chance.

I used to go to the casino a couple times a week. I stopped going to the casino, but instead

I gamble online. It’s just really easy and convenient. I can put in my DFS lineups, play

blackjack, and place my sports bets all online without leaving home. It takes a while to

get your money when you win, but I have never had an issue with not getting paid from

the site I use (DFS player 20).

This DFS player set up an account on Bovada, a website where you can gamble in a multitude of ways. Bovada does not offer DFS, but they do offer all types of sports betting in the form of lines, over/under bets, props, etc. An informed DFS player can utilize the information he or she has acquired preparing for DFS to help them make better decisions when betting on sports in other ways. Players can also turn to Bovada and similar online websites when they lose at

DFS. Poker seems like a skill-based gambling game that a lot of DFS players also have interest in. Another DFS player describes his tendency to turn to other forms of skill-based gambling

(i.e., online poker) when he loses money playing DFS. 73

I feel like when I am doing well at DFS I gamble less often at the casino and online.

However, when I lose money on DFS, I want to make that money back, so I do usually

end up going to the casino or playing poker online. I usually play a little bit of poker no

matter what, but I play for higher stakes when I am struggling with DFS (DFS player 3).

This is an interesting finding because it indicates that this player is “chasing” when he is not successful at DFS. In other words, when this player loses money on his DFS lineups, he gambles elsewhere to try and make up the money he lost playing DFS. While this can work in some instances, the likely scenario is that a gambler will dig a deeper hole than he or she was previously in before deciding to continue gambling.

Many DFS players are also betting on game spreads in addition to playing DFS. When asked if playing DFS has led to other forms of gambling, a Denver, Colorado native and DFS player said, “Yep it has! I started with DFS because it was pretty easy to grasp. Then I moved into traditional sports betting” (DFS player 15). This college student who started playing DFS is now participating in other forms of skill-based gambling. Another DFS player talked about how building DFS lineups has made him more likely to bet on traditional sports betting lines because he is now more informed due to the knowledge he acquired preparing for DFS.

Yes, after doing my DFS research I am much more inclined to bet lines, spreads, and

props because I have a better feel for the slate. I have already done the research for my

DFS lineups, so why not bet on a few spreads that I feel confident in as well. Playing

DFS regularly has helped me win money in traditional betting too. (DFS player 25).

Another DFS player who says that he is able to restrain from taking part in other forms of skill-based gambling activities outside of DFS still understands and sees how playing DFS can 74 lead to gambling in other formats. He feels that inexperienced gamblers are more at risk than experienced gamblers when it comes to developing bad gambling habits.

I can totally see how this could open up a gateway to gambling more but I have had good

willpower to not place a lot of bets. Sports betting is just interesting to me, so I do tend to

dabble in it. Someone who is not an experienced gambler could definitely be at more risk

for developing bad gambling habits. Whenever you are gambling you have to have a

budget and be very disciplined when you lose money not to go chasing those losses (DFS

player 22).

This idea that DFS can lead to additional skill-based gambling activities is an important finding and will need to be monitored moving forward as sports gambling in every form becomes more popular and even legal in some states. As more states loosen their regulations on sports gambling, we have to pay attention to at-risk populations who play DFS to ensure that they do not develop gambling problems. Online sports betting and DFS (which is exclusively played online) make it more of a concern because of how easy it is to gamble from home.

This concludes Chapter 4. The findings were organized under the two performance modes (i.e., Caring Performance Mode and the Knowing Performance Mode) that make up the

FPM within PSF theory. The themes identified within the Caring Performance Mode were: (a) conflicting loyalties, (b) performance-based loyalty, (c) no loyalty toward favorite team and (d) conflicting identities. The themes identified within the Knowing Performance Mode were: (a) statistical knowledge, (b) watching and following NFL games as a DFS player, and (c) financial incentive to know information, while additional skill-based gambling was another finding outside of the Knowing Performance Mode axes. The discussion section is presented in the next and final chapter; Chapter 5. The discussion section answers the critical questions that were 75 central to this dissertation, shows how the answers to these questions are supported by the results in this study, and explains how the answers fit within the existing body of knowledge that we already have on the subject.

76

Chapter 5

Discussion

This study aimed to better understand DFS players and how they perform their fandom.

Moreover, understanding DFS players’ experiences, perceptions and viewpoints was at the forefront of this study. DFS is a nuanced fantasy football format, but we did not know a lot about the players and experts (who are also players) who participate going into this study. Specifically, the research explored how DFS experts and players perform their fandom in different contexts, how DFS experts and players balance multiple conflicting life identities and team loyalties, and how gambling influences how DFS players perform their fandom. In order to answer these questions DFS players and experts were interviewed in the fall of 2019 about playing in NFL

DFS contests. The NFL was the professional sports league selected for this study because NFL contests are clearly the most popular among DFS players.

The findings indicated that DFS experts and players perform their fandom in unique ways determined by contextual factors. Moreover, DFS players balance different life identities and fan loyalties. DFS experts and players were shown to have conflicting loyalties toward favorite NFL teams and DFS teams, performance-based loyalty (where loyalty toward favorite NFL teams and

DFS teams is fluid), no loyalty toward a favorite team, and all players work to balance conflicting life identities while playing DFS. The findings also indicate that DFS experts and players acquire statistical knowledge through various forms of media that cater to DFS participants. DFS experts and players watch and follow the NFL much differently than those who do not play DFS. There is a financial incentive for DFS experts and players to know information and acquire new knowledge, so they seek out specific content to help them achieve success in the industry. DFS experts and players perceive DFS as gambling. Specifically, they 77 feel it is a form of skill-based gambling which can be dangerous if people are not responsible with how much they gamble on DFS and similar skill-based gambling activities.

The following sections answer the research questions that were posed in this study by supporting these answers with the findings from this study. An explanation of how these results relate to research expectations and previous research on the subject is discussed throughout each section. After the research questions are addressed and the implications of the results are discussed the chapter concludes with sections on theoretical implications, research limitations, future research, and a conclusion. The next section answers RQ1 and discusses the implications of the results pertaining to RQ1.

Contextual Factors Lead to Different Fan Performances

In response to RQ1, DFS players and experts all perform their fandom differently depending on contextual factors. DFS players and experts each take on different roles within the

DFS industry. This study finds that DFS experts are leaders in the industry and thus dedicate more time to preparing for DFS contests. Many DFS players follow advice and guidance from

DFS experts. DFS players oftentimes rely on experts who acquire knowledge and information each and every day as part of their job. There are some DFS players who rely on experts less and these are the players who have more time to acquire knowledge and information for themselves or they are new to playing DFS and they haven’t learned how important acquiring knowledge and information from experts is to having success in the industry.

Together, DFS experts and players take on a particular role as fans of the NFL. Those who play DFS are among the most knowledgeable NFL fans due to the amount of information they need to quire in order to have success. This aligns with previous research that found fantasy sports players (especially DFS players) are highly avid fans who engage with more sports related 78 media content than those who do not play fantasy sports (Bindrim, 2009; Weiner & Dwyer,

2018). DFS players watch and follow the NFL from a much more nuanced perspective than their non-DFS player counterparts. DFS players and experts are likely to watch cable television channels that are dedicated toward covering fantasy football (e.g., RedZone). This allows DFS players and experts to watch individual NFL players closely and track their performance in real time without having to watch entire NFL games. DFS players are also more likely to follow and watch streaming platforms (e.g., YouTube, Periscope, and Twitch) covering DFS as a way to stay informed. These findings align with previous research that hypothesized DFS players could be watching and following more sports media content than others who play traditional fantasy sports (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). The streaming channels outlined above consist of a group of

DFS experts and players sharing knowledge and information. These shows are designed to prepare people for upcoming DFS contests and have general discussion about the potential NFL players have in upcoming contests. DFS players and experts utilize these streaming platforms to foster and build the DFS community. As the findings indicate, DFS players build a community but mostly prefer to remain anonymous in fear that their identity as a DFS player could conflict with other life identities.

PSF theory calls for researchers to go beyond what the fan performances of particular groups are so that we can also better understand the meanings that are constructed and reinforced by the fan performances of DFS players (Osborne & Coombs, 2016). Hierarchically speaking,

DFS experts sit at the top of the industry. Experts have the most knowledge and in order to acquire that knowledge DFS players must pay subscription fees set by the experts or become an expert themselves. There are many different communities run by DFS experts within the entire

DFS industry. DFS players can oftentimes view free content from a number of expert providers 79 before making a decision on which exclusive content provided by experts they want to pay for.

Without DFS experts, the entire industry would be different. It would be similar to when DFS first garnered attention and popularity in 2015. There would be an easier path to success. Now, the industry is ultra-competitive with DFS experts and avid DFS players nearly eliminating the group of casual players who once played for strictly fun and entertainment. Today, mostly all

DFS players are motivated by financial gain and competitiveness which aligns with previous research on DFS players (Weiner and Dwyer, 2018).

In addition to understanding individual roles DFS players take on and what meanings are constructed and reinforced by fan performances of DFS players, RQ1 also aimed to answer what these fan performances tell us about how societal structures (e.g., race, gender, sexual orientation, & socioeconomic status) either reinforce or deny fan performances. The DFS industry is predominantly made up of white males in their mid-30s who are educated and employed fulltime (FSTA, 2016, Billings et al., 2017; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). This indirectly shows us that women and non-white ethnicities are still denied fan performances within the DFS industry, but there are a growing number of both women and non-white ethnicities starting to play DFS. While the number of DFS players who are either women and/or non-white continues to grow alongside the industry itself, DFS experts remain white males in their mid-30s. DFS experts hold a position of power within the industry. Therefore, the more women and non-white

DFS experts there are, the more diverse the DFS industry becomes. There is one African

American woman who is a DFS expert and is currently ranked as one of the top players in the world. This trailblazing woman provides the DFS industry with some cultural and gender diversity and could help pave the way for other minority players to hold positions of power 80 within the industry in the future. Next, RQ2 is addressed and the implications from the findings related to RQ2.

Negotiating Life Identities and Conflicting Team Loyalties

In response to RQ2, DFS experts work to balance multiple life identities outside of DFS and fandom toward a favorite team. Life identities of DFS players are fluid and the amount of time and money one spends on DFS is influenced by these life identities. Additionally, DFS players work to balance their fandom for their favorite team and their DFS team(s). DFS players are unique in how they decide to balance this fandom toward a favorite team and DFS team(s).

For example, this study found that sometimes loyalty toward a favorite team is influenced by team performance, whereas some DFS players remain loyal toward both his/her favorite team and DFS team(s). However, other DFS players have completely eliminated their loyalty toward their favorite team and strictly show loyalty toward their DFS team(s). This section answers the questions posed in RQ2 through the relevant results in this study and shows how these findings relate to previously published work in this area. We start with a discussion on how DFS players balance multiple life identities.

Life Identities. Previous research (FSTA, 2016, Billings et al., 2017; Weiner & Dwyer,

2018) found that most DFS players are white males in their mid 30s who are educated and employed fulltime. This means that a lot of DFS players are becoming parents for the first time and are actively working fulltime. This causes DFS players to balance multiple life identities that oftentimes conflict with one another. For example, there were DFS players interviewed in this study who discussed how they plan on playing less DFS once their son or daughter is born. Other

DFS players are husbands and wives and they have to balance time spent with their families and 81 time spent playing DFS. Outside of DFS players’ identity related to family dynamics, they also balance identities at their place of employment and being a DFS player.

Many DFS players work to conceal their identity from their coworkers and the company/organization that they work for. A major finding in this study showcased how DFS players like to remain anonymous and like to conceal their identity as a DFS player from others.

This finding aligns with previous research that indicated DFS players are different than traditional fantasy sports players in the sense that they want to remain anonymous and are not motivated by social interaction (Weiner and Dwyer, 2018) like other types of fantasy sport players. DFS is a form of Internet gambling and it aligns with previous research stating that it takes place in private settings, mostly at home (Gainsbury & Wood, 2011; Gainsbury, et al.,

2012), making the activity itself easier to conceal from others (Gainsbury, et al., 2012;

Gainsbury, et al., 2015).

PSF theory tells us that fan performances are relational, negotiable, and contextual

(Osborne & Coombs, 2013). DFS players prefer to conceal their identity because they feel their identity as a DFS player could negatively influence their identity as an employee at a company or organization. On the other hand, DFS experts do not have to worry about concealing their identity as much as DFS players because they do not have to negotiate between their identity as a

DFS player and as an employee elsewhere. They already work in the industry in which they also participate in. A DFS expert’s work identity and identity as a DFS expert and player do not conflict with one another, so they don’t have to worry about their reputation like DFS players do.

In addition to negotiating between life identities, work identities, and playing DFS, players also negotiate between conflicting loyalties. 82

Team Loyalties. DFS players are unique in how they decide to balance and negotiate their loyalties toward their DFS team(s) and favorite NFL team. This study found three distinct ways that DFS players and experts handle this situation. DFS players either actively root for both their favorite NFL team and DFS team(s) which creates conflicting loyalties, root for an NFL team when they are successful and performing well, or no longer show any loyalty toward an

NFL team.

First, this study found that DFS players can have conflicting loyalties when watching and following the NFL. DFS players oftentimes work hard to remain loyal toward a favorite team all while playing DFS and rooting for individual players not on their favorite team. Playing fantasy sports has been historically related to higher levels of team identification and team loyalty

(Mahan, Drayer, & Sparvero, 2012; Karg & McDonald, 2011; Lee et al., 2013), and higher levels of identification with the sports league and its players (Karg & McDonald, 2011). This study finds that playing DFS does not necessarily lead to higher levels of team identification and team loyalty but playing DFS does lead to higher levels of identification with the NFL due to the importance of researching individual player statistics and acquiring new information on individual players. This is an important finding that does not align with previous research on the subject. However, it’s important to note that playing DFS is not like playing other fantasy sports, so it is not surprising to see how the findings in this study conflict with what has been done previously on the subject. Previous research (e.g., Farquhar & Meeds, 2007; Spinda & Haridakis,

2008; Larkin, 2015) focused on traditional fantasy sport players who are motivated by different factors like escape, entertainment, and group affiliation

There were a group of DFS players in this study who said that their loyalty toward their favorite NFL team depends on team performance. For example, when a DFS player’s favorite 83

NFL team is underperforming they could decide to show less loyalty toward that NFL team and become more loyal toward their DFS team(s). This finding is important because it shows how playing DFS can lead to having less loyalty toward one team. Again, this finding does not align with previous research (e.g., Mahan, Drayer, & Sparvero, 2012; Karg & McDonald, 2011; Lee et al., 2013), that stated playing fantasy sports leads to higher team loyalty. However, while a DFS player could decide to show less loyalty toward a favorite NFL team they are simultaneously becoming more loyal toward the NFL. Another group of DFS players interviewed in this study said they no longer show any loyalty toward an individual NFL team. The group of DFS players who no longer show any loyalty toward an NFL team are oftentimes DFS experts who spend so much of their time researching and obtaining statistical knowledge that they are no longer able to remain loyal toward a favorite team because it conflicts with their loyalty toward their DFS teams and the entire DFS industry that they work in. There are some DFS players who no longer show any loyalty toward a favorite NFL team, but most players try to work on balancing their loyalty toward their favorite NFL team and DFS team(s).

Another important factor that influences how a DFS player performs his/her fandom is the gambling component of DFS. RQ3 set out to understand how gambling effects a DFS players’ fan performances and how they themselves describe DFS in relation to gambling.

Moreover, understanding how gambling influences the questions addressed in RQ2 regarding balancing life identities and team loyalties was an important question posed within RQ3. The findings and implications from the results pertaining to RQ3 are addressed next.

Gambling and Fan Performances

DFS players overwhelmingly proclaimed that DFS is a form of skill-based gambling.

Moreover, DFS players said the best players in the world have more information and knowledge 84 than others and those more skilled at the activity end up winning more money than other competitors. The findings in this study also indicate that the potential for economic gain when playing DFS can influence how a fan balances ones’ loyalty toward a favorite team. In line with previous research that indicted DFS players have a vested interest in a team that is not their favorite team due to the money they are wagering (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018), this study found that some DFS players and experts have less or no longer any team loyalty toward a team in the NFL.

Gambling in the form of DFS influences fan performances and the implications that are addressed here are important for researchers and practitioners moving forward.

The opportunity for financial gain is the main reason why DFS players participate in the activity. This is much different than the reasons why people play traditional fantasy sports. Early research in the 2000s found that playing for fun and playing with friends and family were primary motives for playing fantasy sports (Lee et al., 2013; Larkin, 2015). However, DFS involves gambling, so motives such as financial incentive and competitiveness top the list within this fantasy sport context (Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). The potential for financial gain in DFS can make it easier for DFS players to decrease team loyalty toward a favorite NFL team. This is why playing DFS has the potential to completely dissolve someone’s team loyalty toward an NFL team (especially if that team is playing poorly). To better understand the perceptions DFS players have about the activity and its influences on their fandom I asked participants to describe their own gambling behavior in the form of DFS and other similar skill-based gambling activities.

DFS players all described the activity as a form of skill-based gambling. This is important because going into this study we did not know a lot about the perceptions DFS players had of the activity itself. Moreover, there has been an ongoing legal debate throughout the states 85 on if and how they should legalize DFS. There are only seven states (i.e., Arizona, Hawaii,

Idaho, Louisiana, Montana, Nevada, and Washington) as of January 2020 that do not allow its citizens to take part in DFS in any way (Legal Sports Report, 2020). There are other states that only offer some DFS sites but not all DFS sites to its citizens. This study helps situate DFS as a form of skill-based gambling because participants discussed the similarities between playing

DFS and online poker. These two activities are similar in that they both involve playing against others instead of playing against the house (e.g., the casino). DFS players oftentimes take part in other skill-based gambling activities in addition to playing DFS and this could become dangerous for at-risk populations and those who are not aware they have a gambling problem. It seems that there is a certain level of convenience for DFS players because they can play online in the comfort of their own home (Gainsbury & Wood, 2011; & Gainsbury, et al., 2012).

As DFS becomes more popular, and gambling restrictions become less strict, the industry should be aware of fans who are gambling too much. Younger fans of the NFL in particular need to be aware of the risks of gambling and playing DFS. While a DFS player may be enjoying success right now, it is evident that good fortune rarely lasts forever when gambling (even if it is more skill-based opposed to luck-based). The fact that playing DFS had influenced fans in this study to gamble in other ways is an issue, regardless if the player is winning or losing. Scholars and practitioners should be made aware of the dangers of developing a gambling problem and the risks associated with taking part in DFS as a whole.

The entire culture of gambling is changing, not to mention how people gamble today is changing. People are gambling online where it is super convenient. The gambler doesn’t have to leave the comfort of his or her own home. Previous research has already shown that Internet gamblers could be an at-risk population of gamblers who need to be studied further (Gainsbury, 86

Wood, Russell, Hing, & Blaszczynski, 2012). This study shows how DFS players can seek out other ways to gamble online like online poker and also have a tendency to bet more on traditional game spreads (Gainsbury et al., 2012). As sports gambling becomes more engrained into our society in the United States, younger citizens should be made aware of the risks and how they can take part in the activity responsibly.

The entire sports landscape in the United States is rapidly changing due to an increase in

DFS play and sports gambling becoming legal in various states. As sports gambling evolves and becomes more popular throughout the country, researchers and practitioners should monitor how participating in such activities influence sport fandom, media outlets, media consumption, and the various leagues involved. DFS is already having an impact on traditional fandom and will continue to have a major impact as more states legalize sports gambling and DFS. Many of the

DFS websites have opened live sportsbooks where people can place traditional sports bets along with participating in DFS all while not having to leave the site. The emergence of legalized sports gambling is surely to have lasting effects on fandom. Those playing DFS could be further attracted to traditional sports betting because they already are interested in DFS and gambling online and in skill-based formats. One aspect that will continue to have an influence on DFS and its legal standing is the debate between the activity being more skill or chance. DFS players in this study clearly indicated that they feel it is skill-based.

This concludes the interpretation of the results. Next, a section on the theoretical implications discusses how this study utilized PSF theory to better understand DFS players instead of SIT theory and how this study strengthens PSF theory and showcases how the theory can be applicable to any fan group. This section is followed by a section that outlines the limitations of the study and areas for future research on the subject. 87

Theoretical Implications

PSF theory was utilized in this study to further examine individual fan performances of

DFS players. The goal in this study was not to acquire a comprehensive body of knowledge on how fans strive to be part of particular social groups. Instead, this study addresses how each DFS player performs his/her fandom differently depending on a variety of circumstances related to balancing multiple identities, loyalties, and life obligations. Moreover, DFS players are a unique group, but they are also unique individuals. PSF theory allowed for further understanding the nuances of being a DFS player or expert in a variety of contexts.

This study extends PSF theory by examining another group of fans who have been understudied to this point. By utilizing PSF theory, we now better understand how DFS players perform their fandom in unique ways in which are dependent upon relational, negotiable, and contextual factors (Osborne & Coombs, 2013). Moreover, PSF theory allowed us to get a nuanced perspective of DFS players and to better understand the constant negotiations they have to balance as it relates to life identities and team loyalties. PSF theory is shown to be a useful theory when examining any type of fan subgroup, especially those fan groups who are understudied. This study demonstrates how beneficial PSF theory can be when conducting exploratory research on particular fan groups. For example, PSF theory can be used to examine unique groups like DFS players that are not performing their fandom in traditional ways.

This study reiterates and further demonstrates the applicability of PSF theory. This study helps showcase how expansive PSF theory can be. This is the first study that used PSF theory as a theoretical underpinning to examine fans who are no longer fans of any team. This study examined some DFS players who no longer show any loyalty toward a favorite team, however,

PSF theory can still be utilized to learn about how they perform their fandom. This shows that 88

PSF theory can still be utilized when examining a fan group that does not perform their fandom in traditional ways. This opens the door for future researchers to also utilize the theory to study fan populations who are not understood or are unique in some way due to how they perform their fandom and how they balance both caring and knowing modes of performance that are discussed in the FPM concept.

This study also extends the FPM within PSF theory. The FPM was utilized in this study to better understand how DFS players perform their fandom through various modes of performance. The FPM concept is one that can certainly be used moving forward when examining fans who play fantasy sports and other fans who gamble on sports. The FPM helps us see how individual fans balance both caring and knowing modes of performance and provides us with insight that otherwise could not be achieved through utilizing other theoretical models.

Moreover, this study demonstrates how the FPM concept can still be utilized when examining non-traditional fans (e.g., DFS players). This again expands the theory as a whole and shows that its applicable even when studying unique fan groups.

This study showcases how utilizing PSF theory as a theoretical underpinning to explore fandom can help researchers move beyond large classifications of fans and instead focus on individual fan performances based on a multitude of factors related to the area of study. PSF theory was strengthened and expanded in this study through the utilization of the theory’s core principles and the FPM concept in particular. While this study produced a lot of fruitful results related to DFS players and PSF theory, this study was not without limitations, and those are addressed in the next section.

Limitations 89

This study provides more information about DFS players and the impact the activity has on their fandom. Notwithstanding, there were limitations in this study that need to be addressed.

First, there was a lack of female DFS players interviewed. This lack of available data is addressed. Second, this study only addressed DFS players who play in NFL contests. Lastly, this study focused on DFS players who play on top websites such as DraftKings and FanDuel.

Moreover, there have been a number of other DFS websites added since the start of this research project.

The lack of female representation in DFS is an issue, but I believe more women are beginning to take part in the activity. It was hard to find female players though various sampling techniques. I reached out to a number of female players but was only able to have one agree to be interviewed. This study did include the majority of players that fit the demographic of most DFS players but understanding female players will provide us a more thorough understanding of how

DFS players are unique in their performances. The gender of DFS players is certainly an area that could be looked at more closely moving forward as more females join the DFS community. I was able to acquire a fairly diverse sample in terms of the ethnic background of DFS players, but this is another area that could be explored further.

Another limitation in this study is that it only examined DFS players who play in NFL contests. It excluded players who take part in other sports and/or take part in all of the sports offered in DFS. There could be differences here among various players based on the sports that they take part in. Players who play many sports who are DFS experts could be performing their fandom in very different ways than a DFS player who only plays in NBA or NFL contests. This could also be seen as limiting the focus for this study and not seen as a limitation. In any event, 90 this study focused solely on those who play DFS in the NFL context (which is the sport the majority of DFS players participate in).

The last limitation addressed in this section is that this study focused on players from large DFS websites such as DraftKings and FanDuel. While I was collecting data for this study a number of other DFS websites (e.g., SuperDraft, Drafters, and Daily Number, FantasyDraft,

PrizePicks, and Monkey Knife Fight) have grown in popularity or been created. While

DraftKings and FanDuel firmly remain as the most popular DFS websites, it’s important to track the industry through the various sites that emerge and become available to DFS players. This study only asked questions about playing on DraftKings and FanDuel because these are the top two websites and DraftKings has a business partnership with the NFL.

Future Research

This study provides a foundation for the future of studies done on DFS and how playing

DFS influences fandom. There are a number of directions future researchers can go in because

DFS and its users are still an understudied area of fandom. However, this section provides six distinct areas for future research that builds off of this current study and its findings. The six areas include: (1) observational research in addition to self-report data, (2) How the sport played influences fan performances, (3) How different types of DFS contests influence fan performances, (4) Differences in fan performances based on background characteristics, (5)

Differences in fan performances based on the DFS site used, and (6) How previous gambling problems influences DFS play.

Future studies examining DFS players should consider utilizing self-report data combined with observational data to gain a better understanding of how DFS players use DFS websites.

This will provide us with more insight into how DFS players perform their fandom in unique 91 ways. Through observational data, researchers can gain a better understanding of how various players play in different contests, different amount of money, and how often they play among other important outcomes. This information can help strengthen the self-report data.

This study only examined those who play in NFL contests because it is the most popular sport played and the timeline for this dissertation aligned with when the NFL plays its games.

The second area for future research is examining how the DFS sport played influences fan performances. For example, are there differences among DFS players who play only NFL contests and others who only play in NBA contests? Moreover, what differences exist among players who play only one sport and others who play a variety of sports? Another difference that would be interesting to explore would be how fans perform their fandom when they play DFS focused on professional leagues versus DFS contests focused on NCAA football and NCAA basketball. There are even DFS contests that cover eSports. Are there differences in fan performances of DFS players who play eSports compared to a player who only plays in NFL contests?

The third area for future research is better understanding fan performances through the types of contests DFS players compete in. This study started to understand some of the differences that exist among players who play in cash games that are less risky and other players who play in high-risk GPP tournaments, but it was not a focal point of this study. As the DFS industry continues to grow and evolve there are signs that two dominant philosophies exist among DFS players. On one side, DFS players feel that they can steadily increase their bankroll through playing cash games. Other DFS players have the philosophy that GPP tournaments do not provide the consistent wins that playing cash games offers but delivers high payouts. A 92 comparative analysis between the two philosophies or strategies and how each influences fan performance would be a fruitful area for research.

The fourth area for future research is examining differences in fan performances based on background characteristics or demographics. This research endeavor could use PSF theory to explore performances based on the background characteristics of each DFS player. Grounding a future study in this fashion would allow PSF theorists to understand unique fan performances while also understanding how background characteristics influence fan performances of DFS players. This would help us better understand DFS players as a whole and be able to identify differences in fan performances based on different background characteristics of each player.

This study was exploratory so understanding a wide variety of DFS players was important. This study collected demographic information from participants but did not compare demographic data. This would be a logical next step in understanding how DFS players uniquely perform their fandom and how demographic variables influence these performances.

The fifth area for future research looks closer at the impact that the DFS site has on fan performances. Moreover, there continue to be an influx of DFS sites added and modified. While

DraftKings and FanDuel still rule the DFS industry, there could be other websites that have different influences on fan performances of DFS players. This will be an important consideration as more people continue to play DFS and the overall number of DFS players continues to increase. Many new DFS websites offer slightly different formats than that of DraftKings and

FanDuel. Furthermore, many sites are also adding sportsbooks. There could be differences among sites that include sportsbooks compared to sites who do not offer this feature.

Understanding how players perform their fandom differently based on these design and feature differences is an important consideration. 93

Future researchers can also look closer at how a DFS player with previous gambling problems is influenced differently than a fan who does not have a history of having gambling problems. This current study showcases that DFS is a form of skill-based gambling. Future researchers need to build on this finding by identifying DFS players who have gambling problems and learning more about how these fans perform their fandom in unique ways.

Researchers should also be concerned for DFS players with gambling problems and offer the industry and policy makers with more information and recommendations for keeping at risk gamblers in the DFS industry safe.

Conclusion

This study examined how DFS players are performing their fandom in different contexts, how DFS players balance multiple loyalties and identities, and further explored how gambling

(e.g., playing DFS) influences fan performances. I performed in-depth interviews with DFS players and DFS experts during the NFL season. I chose to look at DFS players who play in NFL contests because it is the sport that is the most popular among DFS players. The findings indicate that DFS players are unique in how they perform their fandom as DFS players. The data revealed eight themes that fell under the caring or knowing performance mode that makes up the FPM in

PSF. A brief discussion on gender and race of DFS players as it relates to unique fan performances is presented before an overview of the eight themes found in this study.

There are a growing number of women and players from diverse backgrounds taking part in DFS. However, the industry is still mostly white males of higher socioeconomic status. These findings in this current study align with preexisting literature on the subject that found DFS players are white men in their mid-30s who are educated and employed fulltime (FSTA, 2016,

Billings et al., 2017; Weiner & Dwyer, 2018). Most leaders in the industry left behind good 94 paying jobs (e.g., lawyer, portfolio manager, national sportswriter) to pursue the DFS industry back in 2015 when this form of fantasy sports took off. DFS experts are primarily middle-aged white males who have been participating in DFS for longer than most and are college educated.

Many of these experts have degrees related to business and economics. For example, if you take a close look at a few of the hosts on awesemo.com, a website started by the number one ranked

DFS player in the world (i.e., Alex Baker), many of the people working as show hosts fit the demographic of experts interviewed in this study. This is troublesome.

Female DFS players are surely being denied many of the performances that are offered to the dominant demographic within the industry. For example, there are a lack of female show hosts and recognizable female experts and they rarely communicate in the streaming chat (e.g.,

YouTube Chat). Females were a hard to reach population among DFS players. However, I did start to see more female players after following many players on social media to gain a better understanding of how DFS players communicated among themselves within their social circles.

Another positive sign is that one of the current top players in the world is an African American female. Hopefully this player inspires others from racially diverse backgrounds and females to continue to pursue a position in the DFS industry. The findings from the study are addressed one final time.

The caring performance mode revealed four themes (e.g., conflicting loyalties, performance-based loyalty, no loyalty toward favorite team, and conflicting identities). The findings revealed that DFS players can work to balance their conflicting loyalties toward a favorite NFL team and their DFS team(s), balance their fandom based on how their favorite team is performing, no longer show loyalty toward a NFL team, and work to balance conflicting identities outside of being a sports fan. DFS players are not deciding on one of these 95 performances one time and then eliminating the other performances as possible behaviors. Sport fandom is fluid and DFS players may experience all of these performances throughout their time being a DFS player.

The knowing performance mode also revealed four themes (e.g., statistical knowledge, watching and following NFL games as a DFS player, financial incentive to know information, and skill-based gambling). The findings revealed that DFS players must acquire statistical knowledge (either on their own or with the help of DFS experts) in order to be successful.

Therefore, DFS players watch and follow the NFL (through specific cable channels and streaming content) much differently than other fans of the NFL as a way to acquire this statistical knowledge. Moreover, DFS players acquire statistical knowledge and spend time and money on media content in an effort to stay informed because there is financial incentive to know information. The more information a DFS player has the better suited he/she is to be successful

(i.e., win money). Lastly, the knowing performance mode allowed us to understand how DFS is a form of skill-based gambling and connected other gambling activities (e.g., online poker) that are similar.

DFS is still becoming more widespread in the United States as states decide on legalizing it or not. To date, there are still seven states (Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Louisiana, Montana,

Nevada, and Washington) that do not allow their citizens to play on any DFS site and there are other states (Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Iowa, Missouri) who just allow their citizens to play on some DFS sites but not all (Legal Sports Report, 2020). This study was the first to focus solely on DFS players and their fan performances. DFS players contribute heavily to a multibillion-dollar industry, but there is still a lot to learn about them and how they perform their fandom. This study has provided researchers with a starting point. We can build upon what we 96 learned in this study to further investigate this unique fan population that continue to grow. DFS players make up a group of sports gamblers who are going to be an important group to study moving forward. The United States has legalized sports betting and the culture around gambling on sports is rapidly changing. As sports gambling continues to be a popular discussion among policy makers in various states and the public at large, sports communication scholars studying fandom and fantasy sports should be concerned with how DFS and its users continues to evolve.

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DFS Expert and DFS Player Quotes

DFS Expert 1

“I was a successful investment and portfolio manager at a bank, but I always played DFS on the side because it was fun, and I enjoyed it. I created my own content on YouTube giving other DFS players advice based on my projection models. After having some success as a DFS player I made the decision to quit my job as a bank manager and work as a DFS expert and play DFS full-time. It was one of the best decisions I ever made. I have never been happier working in a field that allows me to watch and study the NFL and other professional leagues.”

DFS Expert 2

“Playing and competing at DFS has certainly changed over the years. When I first started playing in 2015 there were a lot of casual players, and it was a lot easier to win money because there weren’t a large number of people taking it seriously or acquiring the necessary knowledge needed to perform well consistently. There are far fewer casual players now. Players today understand the time and knowledge you need to have to be successful.”

DFS Expert 3

“Playing DFS just makes every game I’m watching that much more interesting”

“I have played DFS for a long time and I have a much better feel for the NFL now. It allows me to feel more confident betting on game spreads now. I still have weeks where I do better than others, but I feel more confident going into it. I am just more prepared to place a bet that I actually feel confident in.”

DFS Expert 4

“I watch so many NFL games now I feel like a coach who is scouting an opposing team. I mean really, I feel like I have a similar amount of knowledge on various players and teams throughout the league”

DFS Expert 5

“DFS is definitely a different animal. Other fantasy sports players who only play in season long formats don’t have to pay attention as closely to have success. It’s really different because you don’t have the same team every week. It changes drastically from week to week, so you have to be locked in all week to stay on top of all the news that comes in.”

DFS Player 1

“In the event I have players from a favorite team in my DFS lineup I go to another level of rooting. I get intense but keep my composure. God forbid I have a matchup against an opponent 98 who has a player on their DFS team that day/week- it really puts you in a precarious position of rooting for your team to win, but a certain individual to do poorly”

“I think you can be emotionally invested in both. I don’t think my DFS play impacts it too much.”

“I’m not much of a fan of any teams anymore—though I’m not sure if DFS has anything to do with it.”

DFS Player 2

“I enjoy the emotional rollercoaster throughout the entire process.”

“It’s always hard when your favorite team is on the same day you are playing DFS. Your bias toward your favorite team can get in the way and impact your decisions. There have been a few times where I was watching my favorite team play but was still rooting for a player from the other team. It’s nuts! It’s definitely an experience that I didn’t have before playing DFS.”

“I hate rooting against my favorite teams, which is why I avoid betting on them at all costs.”

“I know it is kind of silly, but I want to be able to watch the Panthers game and not have to worry about DFS or betting, but I still want to play DFS and bet too.”

DFS Player 3

“I always wondered why people would yell at TV’s when a dude dropped a pass on a non- favorite team prior to being a DFS player. Now I see why! I also see why some DFS players try to avoid rostering players who may be a member of his favorite team or one who is playing against his favorite team. It makes for a weird situation. You don’t know who to root for.”

“I feel like when I am doing well at DFS I gamble less often at the casino and online. However, when I lose money on DFS, I want to make that money back, so I do usually end up going to the casino or playing poker online. I usually play a little bit of poker no matter what, but I play for higher stakes when I am struggling with DFS.”

DFS Player 4

“I will always root for the Pittsburgh Steelers because they are my team and that is where I grew up. I was born into being a fan of the team, and I feel like a lot of people are. I started playing traditional fantasy sports a few years ago before trying my luck at DFS. The commercials convinced me to give it a shot. Now, I go back and forth on who I prefer to perform best (among her fantasy team and the Steelers). I feel like when Big Ben got hurt this year, I started focusing more on my fantasy team. I knew we were going to have a down year, but I’m still interested in the NFL through DFS.”

DFS Player 5 99

“I always go back and forth on rooting for my favorite team and my DFS teams. It’s tough because I’m a Browns (Cleveland) fan and they are so frustrating. I keep tabs on them, but they make you go crazy sometimes. DFS is always new and fresh and each week provides another chance at the pot. You are trying to crack the code each week. I would say I slightly prefer my fantasy teams to do well, but that may change when the Browns get good.”

“Gambling, more often than not, is against the house and the house is sharp so there are rarely edges to be had”

DFS Player 6

“I have started playing a lot of DFS lately because it’s entertaining and there is so much potential money to be had. All it takes is to hit big one time and it can change my life. I am playing for that one big hit. I mean I still root for my team and that, but I don’t follow the Redskins as much anymore. They’re playing terrible right now, so it makes me even more interested in my DFS lineups. I feel like I may take a step back from DFS once the Redskins are more competitive and have a chance to make the playoffs.”

“DFS has changed me as a sports fan. I’m much more likely to watch a game now that I would’ve never watched a few years ago. I just didn’t care about games other than the Washington games”

DFS Player 7

“I would describe my fandom as I love my Ravens and I hope they win, but with that being said, at this point I would rather win money. It certainly is within range for both of these things to happen. I still root for Baltimore teams and bleed those colors, but I would rather win money. It’s crazy for me to say that. DFS has really changed the entire experience for me. It has become a hobby that I also treat as a side job. I’m putting a lot of time into it, so I would have to choose my DFS teams over a Ravens win, but I would love to have both succeed.”

DFS Player 8

“DFS has destroyed traditional fandom for me. I grew up a Denver Broncos fan but could care less about them now. I don’t think I would watch much of the NFL if it weren’t for DFS. I also don’t play much DFS other than NFL. So, I’ve realized I just really like the combination of NFL and DFS and not much beyond that. I would have never thought that I would be watching the NFL while not rooting for a particular team to win each week and other teams in the same division to lose. But that is exactly what I do on Sundays during the NFL season.”

“I play DFS and that’s pretty much it. I have seen a lot of people I play DFS with start betting more on traditional sports and also playing a lot of poker online. As various states move forward with legalizing sports betting and online poker becomes more popular there are just more opportunities to partake in skill-based gambling. It’s big business, so I see it continuing to 100 become more prevalent, but I hope people are aware of how dangerous it can be. You’ve got to be very careful.”

DFS Player 9

“I try not to let people I work with know how involved I am in the industry. I believe in keeping work life and personal life separate. I’m also going to be a dad this January so I will need to adjust my time accordingly. I won’t stop playing DFS all together, but I may have to cut back because it can be very time consuming.”

DFS Player 10

“Playing DFS during the NFL season has made me a way bigger fan of the NFL because you have to be willing to learn about players you previously knew nothing about.”

“Playing DFS and gambling is one in the same because the process is very similar”

DFS is the same as any other gambling format in the casino where you play against others. It’s nice that you need some skill and some chance and that it doesn’t all rely on luck. You can actually have some impact on whether you win or lose. It’s definitely gambling, but it has an entertainment value to it too.”

DFS Player 11

“You need to be so focused and informed on individual players to be successful at DFS. You need to have information on the star players and the players people barely know about. You’re always looking for that diamond in the rough when picking low priced players who you feel will play above expectations. Picking the right players who are low-priced gives you the edge you’re looking for over your competition. Playing DFS and being successful at it requires a lot more time and energy than winning money betting on game spreads.”

“I actually went ahead and bought the NFL RedZone package this fall so that I can follow my players that I roster more closely. The RedZone is nice because you can follow any game and they show you all the scoring plays around the league which helps you see how all your players are performing without having to watch individual games. You also no longer have to rely on sports apps to update you on player progress anymore.”

DFS Player 12

“If you want to win money you better do your homework.”

“I mean you better know a lot about the players and study it often. The best DFS players are keeping up with every single piece of news throughout the day.”

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“I watch the shows over at awesemo.com each and every day. I wake up in the morning and listen to the early bird podcast before heading into work. This allows me to get some initial research in before a long day at work. When I come home, I listen to another group of guys before the game goes live.”

DFS Player 13

“I find myself knowing about other players a lot more now than before I played DFS because you have to do your research in order to win money.”

“DFS is definitely skill-based gambling. Chance is inherent to gambling, but unlike something like Roulette where the odds will always be tilted in the house’s favor, savvy players can find an edge over other competitors.”

DFS Player 14

“Overall, it has gotten me more into sports. I find myself looking at scores and stats a lot more than I used to, and I also watch games that I may have never watched. I have always been a big sports fan, but this (DFS) has only increased it.”

“I try to watch and listen to more fantasy sports content on the Internet. I have a few DFS people I follow on YouTube who have a livestream the morning before the NFL games start, and they go through each and every player that they like that week. This helps a lot because they have more time to prepare during the week than I do, so I tend to listen to them and acquire more knowledge and mix their advice with my own intuition.”

DFS Player 15

“I am always checking injury updates across the league and following what reporters on Twitter who break news about players throughout the day and week are saying.”

DFS Player 16

“I started playing DFS four years ago. I spend a lot of time playing NFL. I can easily say that I know more today about the NFL now since before playing DFS. When there wasn’t DFS I didn’t have any interest in other teams except the (Washington) Redskins. Now, I’d like to see my teams do well, but I have to pay attention to the entire league in order to profit on my DFS investments. I constantly check league news on Twitter and recently installed a fantasy football app that alerts me about players throughout the week.”

DFS Player 17

“DFS has made watching games more interesting to me. I used to only care about the Saints games and now I can sweat out Dolphins vs. Browns if I roster players in that game. It’s crazy to 102 think that I actually care about the Dolphins and Browns now, but I do. All of the games in the NFL matter now when you play DFS. It’s crazy.”

DFS Player 18

“It’s huge from a fandom perspective. I’m not more or less of a fan of my team, but let’s say the two worst teams in the NFL are playing Cincinnati vs. Washington or something and I won’t miss a single play if I have players in my lineup from that game. If I didn’t, I would never watch a game like that.”

DFS Player 19

“I don’t think I would watch the NFL much if it weren’t for DFS. I also don’t play DFS other than the NFL, so I have realized I just really like the combination of NFL and DFS and not much beyond that.”

“You have to put money up to win money for the most part. The more you risk, the greater your chances of winning. The difference is you are playing against others, and not efficient lines set by Vegas or against the house inside casinos. It’s easier to make a profit and still have major upside.”

DFS Player 20

“I thought I watched a lot of NFL when I was playing season-long fantasy football, but then I started playing DFS and realized that this is way more intense. The amount of NFL I watch now does not even compare to the amount of sports I watched before playing DFS. I would say before DFS I was a casual fan who would flip through the channels and sometimes watch an entire game. I consistently watch two to three full games on a Sunday now because there is always a reason to watch.”

“There is a reason why these people are professional players. The top player has had a positive ROI for the last five years. I mean, it’s gambling, but for him, he’s not losing over the long haul. It’s more of an investment. I like to just study his process. I know he and other pros have the skills that I need to learn. I just try to incorporate as many strategies that the pros use as I can when I’m creating my lineups.”

I used to go to the casino a couple times a week. I stopped going to the casino, but instead I gamble online. It’s just really easy and convenient. I can put in my DFS lineups, play blackjack, and place my sports bets all online without leaving home. It takes a while to get your money when you win, but I have never had an issue with not getting paid from the site I use

DFS Player 21

“I would say it is a bit of both skill and chance, but more skill. Over the long-term, I’m convinced legit DFS players will win more than 50% of their H2Hs.”

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“DFS is like poker—its gambling, but there is skill involved because you’re playing against other players, not the house. It allows you to have some type of control over your money”

DFS Player 22

“Betting on DFS sites is much more in depth with experts giving their take. It makes you feel like you make better informed decisions or at least reinforces what you initially thought prior. I go into it with my own thoughts and then I gather as much information as I can from experts. These people are able to put a lot more time into looking at statistics, matchups, and analytics than I can. If DFS wasn’t a game of skill then the best players, the pros, wouldn’t have so much success. That proves that it isn’t just luck.”

“I can totally see how this could open up a gateway to gambling more but I have had good willpower to not place a lot of bets. Sports betting is just interesting to me, so I do tend to dabble in it. Someone who is not an experienced gambler could definitely be at more risk for developing bad gambling habits. Whenever you are gambling you have to have a budget and be very disciplined when you lose money not to go chasing those losses.”

DFS Player 23

It really takes skill to become a professional DFS player. DFS is more like poker than anything else because you are playing against other people and it’s not just getting lucky like with slot machines or other casino games. The best DFS players in the world consistently make a profit year to year. You can’t say that about good roulette players. Playing and winning at roulette is just luck. You can have a strategy, but it doesn’t guarantee that you’re going to win

DFS Player 24

DFS definitely requires some advanced skill though in how you run your projection models. I think there is certainly some luck involved. That’s with all types of gambling. I’ve watched some videos on how the best players set their algorithms and it is down to a science! The pros not only have knowledge and good intuition, but they have projection models that are constantly updating. These players are all very skilled in math and projecting future results

DFS Player 25

“Yes, after doing my DFS research I am much more inclined to bet lines, spreads, and props because I have a better feel for the slate. I have already done the research for my DFS lineups, so why not bet on a few spreads that I feel confident in as well. Playing DFS regularly has helped me win money in traditional betting too.”

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Interview Protocol

Specific Questions for DFS Player In-Depth Interview Sessions

1. How would you describe your fandom for your favorite team and your fandom for your daily fantasy teams? a. What individual roles do you take on as a DFS player? b. How does playing DFS impact how you perform fandom for a favorite team(s)? i. What meanings are constructed and reinforced by these performances? ii. What can these performances tell us about societal structures? 2. How do you balance multiple identities (e.g., being a fan of an NFL team, being a father, being a husband, being a co-worker, being a DFS player, etc.)? a. What impact does playing DFS have on your overall identity as a sport fan? b. What impact does playing DFS have on how closely you identify with your favorite team(s)? c. How does playing DFS impact your loyalty toward your favorite team(s)? 3. How does gambling on DFS contests influence how you perform your fandom? a. How do you describe the relationship between DFS and gambling? b. How does gambling on DFS impact fandom for your favorite team? c. Are there differences in gambling on DFS sites and traditional gambling platforms? i. If so, what makes gambling on DFS sites different than gambling in the traditional land-based casino?

Background and Demographic Questions 1. What is your age? a. How does your age play a role on your fandom and DFS activity? 2. What is your sex? a. How does your sex play a role on your fandom and DFS activity? 3. What is your race and/or ethnicity? a. How does your race and/or ethnicity play a role on your fandom and DFS activity? 4. What is your current occupation? a. How does your job play a role on your fandom and DFS activity?

Is there anything else that you would like to tell me about your fandom and/or your DFS activity?

Additional Questions for DFS Experts

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1. How does being a DFS expert influence how you perform your sport fandom? 2. How would you describe the amount of time and effort that DFS experts have to put into their work versus DFS players? 3. What makes being a DFS expert different than a regular DFS player? 4. How do you balance being a DFS expert and a DFS player with other sport fan identities (e.g., Cleveland Browns fan, baseball fan, LeBron James fan, etc.)? 5. How does gambling on DFS contests as an expert differ from gambling on DFS as just a DFS player? a. When did you decide to become a DFS expert? b. How has becoming a DFS expert impacted your traditional fan performances?

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