Convergence Benefactors 1

Running Head: CONVERGENCE BENEFACTORS

Convergence For Whom? Identifying Benefactors Along a Convergence Continuum

Convergence Benefactors 2

Abstract

While many researchers have pondered the advantages and issues characteristic of convergence strategies at American newspapers, none have identified its benefactors. The purpose of this study is to advance a typology outlining the categories of the convergence

continuum and identifying the primary benefactor of each. Four categories of

convergence are identified. Four categories of convergence benefactors are also introduced and analyzed. A typology is proposed to determine which group benefits most

from each convergence strategy.

Convergence Benefactors 3

Convergence For Whom? Identifying Benefactors Along a Convergence Continuum

Convergence – the merging of media technologies, methods and resources – has become a salient strategy for American newspapers struggling against the tide of declining circulation since the turn of the century. While many researchers have pondered the advantages and issues characteristic of convergence strategies at American newspapers (e.g. Ketterer, Weir, Smethers, & Back, 2004; Quinn, 2005; Singer, 2006;

Smolkin & Leone, 2006), none have identified its benefactors.

The purpose of this study is to advance a typology outlining the categories of the convergence continuum and identifying those groups that benefit most from each strategy. The benefits of each convergence segment will be determined by an assessment of what is gained and what is lost through the implementation of each strategy. Four categories of convergence and four categories of potential benefactors will be identified based on existing definitions and typologies. A typology will be proposed relating both categories to determine whom benefits most from what type of convergence strategy.

Finally, suggestions for future empirical research will be proposed.

This paper will attempt to fill a gap in academia regarding the benefactors of convergence strategies. By identifying these benefactors, researchers will be able to better concentrate their focus by targeting appropriate groups when studying the success of different convergence. With greater concentration comes better understanding of this emerging phenomenon and its potential for the newspaper industry.

Convergence Benefactors 4

Convergence defined

The term “convergence” wasn’t invented in the late-1990s. Its origins date back to the 1700s when it was used in the fields of natural science, political science, and economics. Researchers applied the term to relations between countries or scientific reactions. It wasn’t until computers gained mainstream use in the 1980s that the term found legs in the field of mass communication (Gordon, 2004).

Advancements in technology during the past decade have thrust convergence into the regular jargon of media professionals who use the buzzword daily. While the word has garnered much attention from media professionals, there has been little inspection of its true meaning (Huang, 2007). Anecdotal evidence suggests many newspaper organizations treat the strategy more like a buffet than a sit-down meal, haphazardly guessing which elements of a convergence strategy will work for their organizations and whom will benefit from each. Newspapers are seeking to maximize their profits and strengthen audiences by moving onto the Web and teaming up with rivaling mediums.

They call convergence “common sense,” yet many are unable to identify what it is or what makes the strategy beneficial for their organizations (Lowrey, 2005).

The definition of convergence is evolving as media professionals scurry to practice it haphazardly (Dailey, Demo, and Spillman, 2005). They believed a

“standardized definition remains elusive” (p. 150), and media professionals volley between defining convergence as the availability of audience-centered digital tools and journalist-centered storytelling methods. Dailey et al. argued convergence must be defined and must have an instrument of measurement in order to fully succeed. They wrote: “Without that definition and instrument, scholars cannot build a research stream Convergence Benefactors 5 that allows comparison of results, and professionals cannot make informed decisions on how to do their jobs better” (p. 151).

Many researchers have sought an exhaustive definition encompassing all segments of the continuum. Jenkins (2001) wrote: “Media convergence is an ongoing process, occurring at various intersections of media technologies, industries, content and audiences; it’s not an end state” (p. 93). Jenkins organized the definition of convergence into five processes: technological, economic, social or organic, cultural, and global.

Jenkins’ model is aimed at owners and media managers, warning them away from focusing on a solitary definition. He wrote, “No one medium is going to ‘win’ the battle for our ears and eyeballs” (p. 93). Jenkins believed the media industry is on the verge of a

“digital renaissance” that “is sparking a range of social, political, economic and legal disputes because of the conflicting goals of consumers, producers and gatekeepers” (p.

93). Jenkins clearly saw the value of assigning a multidimensional definition to the new buzzword in an attempt to show its many layers.

Dupagne and Garrison (2006) approached their definition of convergence from a managerial viewpoint. They assert “no single definition for convergence” is possible, and proposed a model outlining three business approaches to convergence and the variables they produce. They outlined three convergence strategies: technical, economic, and regulatory. Technical convergence refers to “the influence of digital electronics” (p. 239).

Economic convergence can refer to the media user, but is more often used to describe

“cross-media mergers” (p. 239). They explained regulatory convergence as the laws that govern media ownership. Convergence Benefactors 6

Gordon (2004) approached his convergence categories from a tutorial perspective.

His work has been cited in textbooks (Kawamoto, 2004; Quinn & Filak, 2005) used to prepare future journalists for media careers that may overlap. Gordon conjured five categories of convergence characteristic of media organizations: ownership, tactics, structure, information gathering, and presentation (storytelling). Gordon presented these categories as a continuum – each dependent on the rest – that is slowly emerging among all forms of media. Gordon was optimistic about the implications of convergence, believing the trend will create new jobs and opportunities for young journalists. It’s important, he wrote, that emerging journalists display knowledge of all segments of convergence in order to succeed in any media profession.

Convergence continuum

Based on the literature, it is clear categorization is necessary for convergence to be properly defined and studied. Four categories working along a continuum are proposed to encapsulate each function of convergence as it relates to American newspapers: ownership, news-gathering, technology/packaging, and cross- promotion/news-sharing. Based on the convergence continuum proposed by Dailey,

Demo, and Spillman (2005), this model depicts the symbiotic relationship of each component, thus leading to an exhaustive definition. The researcher used their continuum model to create categories through which benefactors of each strategy can be assessed.

This model will be used in the following sections to examine the benefits and detriments of each strategy as it relates to potential benefactors.

Convergence Benefactors 7

Technology/ Ownership News- Cross- packaging gathering promotion/ news-sharing

Technology/packaging

Technological convergence has drastically changed the way Americans get their news during the past century. Kolodzy (2006) pointed to the two U.S. invasions of Iraq – first in 1990, then again in 2003 – to demonstrate the role technology played in

Americans’ access to news. During the first invasion, Americans were able to tune-in to a continuous stream of information through 24-hour cable news networks like CNN. This was a stark contrast from the means Americans used to get war information throughout the twentieth century, which included waiting for newspaper stories or scheduled radio and broadcasts. During the second invasion of Iraq, consumers were able to access information instantly on the or via portable electronic devices, such as cellular phones and PDAs (Kolodzy, 2006).

Jenkins called technological convergence “the digitization of all media content”

(p. 93). Kolodzy (2006) outlined two types of technological convergence: sender and receiver. She identified convergence for the sender as a new means of telling stories Convergence Benefactors 8 through packaging using formerly isolated technologies, such as audio, video, print, and online. Convergence for the receiver may one day equate to the availability of all media on one device. For now, it means the condensing of media on various devices, such as cellular phones that allow Web access (Kolodzy, 2006). This instant access has prompted a trend toward the globalization of news as many organizations cut back on their staffs and spending (Ricchiardi, 2007).

Technological convergence has taken hold, with 1,279 newspapers producing online editions by mid-2003 (Greer & Mensing, 2006). McAdams (2006) identified six types of online media often utilized by news organizations implementing a technological convergence strategy: text, photos, graphics, audio, video, and user interaction. Many newspaper Web sites offer consumers a variety of stories told through different strands of technology, including online stories, podcasts, vodcasts, and

Weblogs.

Ownership

When the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) began to allow more media cross-ownership in 2003, researchers were quick to include the merger of mediums in their definitions of convergence (Edwardson, 2007). Quinn and Filak (2005) defined ownership convergence as relating “to arrangements within one large media company that encourage cross-promotion and content sharing among print, online, and television platforms owned by the same company” (p. 4). Ownership convergence offers two possibilities for horizontal structuring: the regurgitation of news across multiple platforms possessing the same owner, or the diversification of and increase in news coverage created by the sharing of content, personnel, and/or equipment. Kirby and Convergence Benefactors 9

Gibson (2007) found most media organizations favor the latter.

Still, ownership convergence remains a conundrum among U.S. regulatory officials. Although the FCC determined media cross-ownership does not harm the public’s best interests, regulators struggle to decide how far media ownership convergence should be allowed to go. Kirby and Gibson argued that the convergence of newspapers, television, radio, and online media is not the threat it used to be because of the presence of bloggers and other Internet contributors who fulfill most media watchdog functions. Still, some regulations remain in effect to quell the threat of market monopolies (Kirby & Gibson, 2007).

News-gathering

When newspaper organizations traded typewriters for computers in the 1980s and

90s, it wasn’t just a change in machinery; it was a complete overhaul of the way reporters do their jobs. News-gathering convergence refers to two occurrences: journalists utilizing computers, automated phone systems, and other advancing technologies to gather information, and the expectation placed on journalists to gather information for storytelling across multiple media platforms. News-gathering online has opened up a treasure chest of information previously unavailable to reporters.

Today, journalists use online discussion boards, Weblogs, and chat rooms to track down sources for their stories. Reporters also use Web pages for preliminary reporting about a group or company to help them assemble a list of questions for a story (Kolodzy,

2006). Dube (2002) warned that journalists must approach Web reporting carefully, seeking out information about who is generating information on the site, what their objectives are, when the information was posted, and the credibility of the source. Convergence Benefactors 10

Reporters using online news-gathering methods should also check other sites and sources to verify the information is accurate.

Many media professionals use the phrase “backpack ” to refer to the expectation that reporters carry with them the tools to conduct written, audio, and/or video interviews simultaneously (Stevens, 2002). Some are also asked to take their own photographs. This gathered information is often used to create features for newspaper

Web sites, such as podcasts. Picardi and Regina (2008) wrote:

A podcast basically allows users to retrieve multimedia contents (audio or video…) – through an automatic link to the websites they are interested in – to download updates to their PC and then to transfer them to mp3 players, mobile phones, palmtop computers, etc. (p. 1).

Reporters may also gather information suitable for reporter Weblogs, which are sometimes used to convey to readers information not included in the print story

(Domingo & Heinonen, 2008).

Cross-promotion/news-sharing

Many studies link the functions of cross-promotion among mediums and news- sharing regarding newspaper convergence. Deuze (2008) wrote: “The institutional characteristics of convergence can be summarized as: companies developing partnerships with other (journalistic and non-journalistic) media organizations to provide, promote, repurpose, or exchange news, and the introduction of cross-media (integrated) marketing and management projects” (p. 7). Dailey, Demo, and Spillman (2005) identified characteristics of cross-promotion at news outlets, including the broadcasting of another news organization’s logo, verbal promotion of stories, encouragement of audience members to seek information from the another news organization, and the appearance of Convergence Benefactors 11 reporters from one medium appearing on another. Cross-promotion often leads to news- sharing, which Dailey et al. referred to as “cloning” – publishing or posting a partner’s content – and “coopetition” – the sharing of information and resources (p. 153).

Most news organizations now practice some form of cross-promotion or synergy among previously separate staffs within the organization. Still, many managers appear to be leaping blindly into partnerships or staff mergers without fully considering the opportunities or costs of each venture (Deuze, 2008). One such example was the St. Louis

Post-Dispatch, where editor Cole Campbell experimented with news teams in an effort to produce better community journalism (Gade & Perry, 2003). Journalists became distrustful of the strategy and failed to see the link between teamwork and better journalism. Despite its failure at the Post-Dispatch, Schierhorn, Endres, and Schierhorn,

2001) reported 37 percent of newspapers with a circulation of more than 25,000 used a team system in 1999 (p. 12). They found many editors are satisfied with the team system and see potential for its success as a strategy.

A 2005 study revealed 114 television stations reported partnerships with newspapers in 2004 (Demo, Spillman & Dailey, 2005). Singer (2004) identified this type of convergence as “some combination of technologies, products, staffs and geography among the previously distinct provinces of print, television and online media” (p. 3).

Singer identified some common characteristics of “information sharing,” including television, newspaper, and Web reporters working in tandem on a story or as one reporter supplying story information to a variety of news outlets. Erdal (2007) found that crossmedia news production requires a great deal of cooperation. He outlined the practices of news-sharing convergence, writing, “This may range from information Convergence Benefactors 12 sharing between journalists and desks in different platforms, via reporters producing for more than one platform, to various forms of reproduction of content for different platforms” (p. 53).

A typology of benefactors

The intent of this paper is to examine the benefactors of each of these convergence categories. Naturally, when convergence is practiced, there are positive and negative aspects for almost everyone involved. The success of convergence hinges on the news organization’s ability to understand, plan for, and implement an all-encompassing strategy (Quinn, 2004). The proposed table identifies the groups that benefit most from each convergence variable. These pairings were established by weighing the gains versus the losses that are characteristic of each. The gains and losses will be accessed in the discussion portion of this paper. Each benefactor will then be discussed in detail.

Convergence Benefactors 13

Convergence Unit What is gained? What is lost? Primary Benefactor

Money Diversity of information Cross- promotion/ Time Accuracy News News- Publicity Manpower Source Sharing Availability

Time Source interaction

Story opportunities Fragmented audience Newspaper News- Accessibility Spontaneity in responses Journalist gathering Money

More to consume Time Technology/ Variety in presentation Money Newspaper Packaging Interactivity Fragmented audience Audience Ease of access

Publicity Competition

Diverse viewership Accountability Ownership Corporate Money Manpower Interest Efficiency

News sources

A news source could be anybody: an official, a leader, a business owner, or even a neighbor walking down the street. A source isn’t always a person; it can also be a document, Web site, or even an entire organization (Valenzuela, 2007). Gans (1979) defined sources as “the actors whom journalists observe or interview, including interviewees who appear on the air or who are quoted in magazine articles, and those who only supply background information or story suggestions… [T]hey provide information as members or representatives of organized and unorganized interest groups” (p. 80).

Valenzuela (2007) found that journalists and political sources rely on each other.

Journalists need stories and information, and politicians need a platform for publicity. Convergence Benefactors 14

Journalists have little to offer sources in exchange for their information except for the prize of publicity. Although not all publicity is good, sources need it to convey their messages, making it a quality of the utmost importance for sources (Awad, 2006). Media publicity is so important for organizations and businesses that public relations practitioners are encouraged to understand reporters’ responsibilities and are urged to work with them as closely as possible (Brooks, 1999).

Anecdotal evidence also suggests that many news sources not affiliated with organizations like the self-promotion of seeing their names in the newspaper and online and mentioned on the radio and television. As cross-promotion and news-sharing are characterized by the distribution of similar information across many platforms, this form of convergence promotes publicity for news sources. When news organizations promote and share each other’s products or features, news sources are able to circulate their information to a more diverse audience – not solely newspaper readers. Presumably, if newspapers are sharing their content with and receiving content from other news organizations, readers are likely to be inundated with similar stories no matter where they look or live. This lack of diversification of information may be harmful to potential news audiences, as they will have to dig deeper to find alternative stories and viewpoints, but it is beneficial for the news source whose name and/or comments are broadcast across media platforms.

Little research exists regarding the effects of convergence on news sources, although anecdotal evidence suggests news sources save time and money when newspapers share information or partner with other organizations to cross-promote their products and stories. When newspapers share content or information, news sources can Convergence Benefactors 15 maximize their efficiency – speaking to one reporter as opposed to several – and their output – getting their message out to a larger audience. Organizations also save money on publicity materials (i.e., news releases, information packets, events) and payroll (with employees focusing their energy on areas other than media attention) by having one reporter share his or her information with others.

Newspaper journalist

The category of newspaper journalist can consist of print reporters, Web reporters, and photographers. Each of these journalists prides him or herself on quality news reporting. Newspaper reporters regard themselves as the “gatekeepers” of information, disseminating vital information to a hungry public (Singer, 1997). Emmett (2007) found that offering multiple ways for journalism students to tell stories – through print, photos, and Web pages – motivated them to succeed. Calame (2006) noted several factors that motivate journalists to do quality work, including “being first with new facts or fresh insights” and “telling stories in a compelling way.” The news-gathering function of convergence allows newspaper reporters increased visibility, gives them more marketable skills, and grants them access to new storytelling tools (Quinn, 2005). “Seen from the journalist’s perspective, convergence offers a chance to do better journalism by giving reporters the tools to tell stories in the most appropriate medium” (Quinn, 2005, p. 29).

The expectation that journalists carry multiple reporting tools, such as notebooks, video cameras, laptop computers, and audio devices, is often referred to as “backpack journalism.” While some media members worry that “backpack journalism” will lead to low-quality stories (Stone, 2002), there is little scientific evidence to suggest that has occurred (Smith, Tanner, Duhe, 2007). Quinn (2005) found convergence strategies often Convergence Benefactors 16 result in the production of good journalism, and Tompkins (2001) argued convergence could increase the quality of reporting if journalists are properly trained. Sylvester (2008) found news-gathering convergence to be a refreshing new way to tell stories.

Using online tools to report stories saves newspaper journalists time, money and effort, freeing them to report and tell more stories. Reporters use online social- networking sites, such as Facebook and MySpace, to track down sources for stories.

Finding sources online allows reporters to diversify their sources in an effort to avoid using “the usual suspects” (Kolodzy, 2006, p. 96). Reporters can also use the Internet to track down reports, saving them time and news organizations costs associated with printing. Reporters will often use e-mail to contact sources who don’t have time for multiple phone or face-to-face conversations, creating larger windows of availability for the reporter. Interviews conducted via e-mail, however, may suffer, as sources will write careful, meditated answers in lieu of spontaneous responses often given by mouth.

Newspaper audience

Newspaper audiences consist of two groups: readers and potential readers. In the

1980s, newspaper audiences were comprised of people with high incomes and some years of higher education. Studies showed as audience members aged, their readership increased (Burgoon & Burgoon, 1980). In a Columbia Journalism Review article (Klein,

2007) The Atlanta Journal-Constitution editor Julia Wallace noted her daily newspaper audience consisted of “baby boomers and older.” The Journal Constitution embarked on an ambitious technological convergence strategy to appeal to a younger generation of potential newspaper readers (Klein, 2007). The strategy to pull young newspaper consumers online may work as the trend of increased readership coming with increased Convergence Benefactors 17 age persists. Young consumers will grow up with computers and will likely turn to online newspapers as their appetites for news grow (Kim, 2008). Technological convergence that increases the availability of news through digital devices will appeal to readers who expect the best news from different sources (Kolodzy, 2006). Strauss (2008) equated ignoring multimedia opportunities with ignoring audience preferences.

Newspaper audiences, both future and present, stand to gain from the increased availability of news across multiple platforms. Jenkins (2006) wrote: “In the world of media convergence, every important story gets told, every brand gets sold, and every consumer gets courted across multiple media platforms” (p. 3). News organizations now package stories with multimedia features, such as podcasts, so newspaper readers on the go will still have access to the day’s stories (Picardi & Regina, 2008).

Technological convergence also offers newspaper audiences the opportunity to be interactive participants through blogs, chat rooms, surveys, and comment boards, all of which are available on many newspaper Web sites (Domingo & Heinonen, 2008).

Johnston (2008) wrote that interactive features on newspaper Web sites engage readers and provide “tools to reach new audiences and to quickly spread important information”

(p. 41). Thus, technological convergence and packaging benefit both current newspaper audiences and potential consumers.

Corporate interests

Researchers have argued that newspaper convergence is driven by "a set of economic, regulatory and cultural forces driven by technological change" (Pavlick, 2001) and works only to further corporate interests (Corrigan, 2004). This is certainly true of the ownership category of convergence. Those with corporate interests in newspapers Convergence Benefactors 18 include owners/shareholders, advertisers, and media managers. Each of these groups benefits uniquely from ownership convergence. Owners and shareholders profit financially from the merger of news organizations. “Corporate mass media owners see consolidation and convergence as an economic imperative” (Corrigan, 2004, p. 14).

Kirby and Gibson (2007) argued media cross-ownership is essential for the survival of print, television, and radio mediums due to rapidly decreasing circulations and the fragmentation of news audiences. Owners can secure their financial footing by investing in multiple media platforms that can work together to convey the news. Killebrew (2005) argued advertising revenues could increase dramatically if media organizations were able to diversify their content for different mediums.

Although some worried ownership convergence would negatively impact advertisers, with organizations raising prices and boxing out competitors, the FCC found that advertisers did not place the same monetary value on print, radio, and television ads

(Edwardson, 2007). Quinn (2006) wrote:

The main reasons for implementing a multi-media advertising approach included the chance to serve advertisers more effectively and efficiently, to create incremental revenue, to leverage the power of multiple media assets, and to gain a competitive edge over competitors (p. 77).

News organizations also profit from being able to advertise their media offerings across multiple platforms. Meier (2008) argued that it makes good fiscal sense for news organizations to use their ownership ties to promote their products.

Newspaper managers strive for both quality and productivity in the newsroom.

Media conglomerates, such as Tribune, Gannett, and Cox Enterprises, take advantage of their multiple news outlets to cast a wider news net, telling more stories in more ways to diverse audiences (Kirby & Gibson, 2007). The FCC accepted “efficiency” as a reason Convergence Benefactors 19 for approving ownership convergence. Media managers argued their staffs would be able to devote more energy to more stories if they could share their information with other mediums under the same owner (Edwardson, 2007).

Discussion

Although the primary benefactors of each convergence category enjoy multiple benefits, there are still gains and losses to take into consideration when conducting research.

a) News sources

While news sources benefit most from cross-promotion and news-sharing convergence, they can also benefit from technology and packaging and ownership convergence. When journalists offer stories across multiple mediums that are available on different digital technologies, the audience reached by the source’s message expands with the readership/viewership. Ownership convergence is also an advantage for news sources as it often involves news-sharing and cross-promotion, which increases publicity for news sources.

News-gathering convergence can have negative impacts on news sources.

Interviews with reporters who gather news across multiple platforms could consume more of the source’s time. Also, sources who only interact with reporters via e-mail could lose the power of persuasion often gained through interaction (Valenzuela, 2007).

b) Newspaper journalists

While the ability to report using different tools appeals to many journalists

(Sylvester, 2008; Strauss, 2008; Quinn, 2004), the pressures to present news in a variety of ways for a variety of users can be daunting. Newspapers are often expected to produce Convergence Benefactors 20 more stories in different ways with less staff and no increase in pay (Corrigan, 2002).

Singer (2004) found reporters generally favored the news-sharing aspect of convergence, but some reporters felt the strategy was “a way for management to take advantage of employees by demanding more work without more pay” (p. 17). Reporters found producing content for other news organizations to be time consuming, and although they were often given information in return, the stress outweighed the benefits (Singer, 2004).

A news-sharing strategy could also result in a reduction of staff (manpower), as owners may expect more work from fewer reporters as newspapers partner with other news outlets (Smith, Tanner, & Duhe, 2007).

c) Newspaper audience

While audiences benefit from new story presentations and the ease of access to news through digital devices, journalists are concerned about the quality of the stories being presented to their audiences in a news-sharing environment. Singer (2006) found reporters believe shared stories tend to be less accurate and suffer from less accountability, because news coming from partners likely won’t be as thoroughly checked for factual errors. Newspaper audiences also lose the heightened quality of news often bred out of competition among reporters. With the increasing frequency of reporters from competing news organizations sharing information or being controlled by a common owner, audiences may not be privy to the same diversification of stories they once were (Gilligan, 2005). Cross-ownership does not appear to have adverse effects on the public, however, as Pritchard, Terry, and Brewer (2008) found no evidence to suggest media organizations that own multiple outlets will slant stories for their own financial or political gain. Convergence Benefactors 21

d) Corporate interest

Corporate interest groups stand to gain not only from ownership, but also from cross-promotion and news-sharing. Dailey, Demo, and Spillman (2005) called cross- promotion and news-sharing efforts among news organizations “alliances.” These alliances began to grow with the emergence of new technology at the start of the 21st century. “The relationships became more attractive as declining or flat circulation numbers forced newspapers to look for new ways to market their product to the younger audiences television news sometimes attracts…” (Dailey, Demo, & Spillman, 2005, p.

151). However, research has yet to show whether this strategy has been successful.

Technological and packaging and news-gathering convergence can hurt the bottom line for newspaper owners and managers. Quinn (2005) wrote: “Improved digital technology makes convergence possible. But these tools cost money and take time to learn” (p. 29). Reporters need to be properly trained and equipped to maximize the benefits of news-gathering convergence (Tompkins, 2001). The increase of technological offerings has also contributed to the fragmentation of newspaper audiences. With so much information easily accessible, newspaper Web sites may lose readers to niche publications (Kolodzy, 2006).

Limitations

The proposed typology is limited in that it generalizes benefactors. The typology does not take into account socio-economic, race, or gender factors into account when referring to the newspaper audience. Each of the benefactors can be explicated into multiple groups, and each should be examined in future research.

This typology only accounts for what is lost and gained for each benefactor along Convergence Benefactors 22 the convergence continuum. It does not represent the overlap of benefits and detriments among the benefactors and categories, and, therefore, it should not be assumed that no group other than the assigned benefactor would benefit from each convergence category.

Conclusion

Although much work has been done to attempt to define convergence as a newspaper strategy, no research has been conducted to determine the benefactors of each strategy. This typology was proposed to fill a gap in academia regarding those benefactors of convergence. Armed with this knowledge, researchers may be better equipped to study each convergence category by examining the production and attitudes of its benefactors.

While there is some research regarding the effects of the proposed convergence categories on news sources, newspaper journalists, newspaper audiences, and corporate interests, most of this knowledge is anecdotal. More research is needed to determine the extent of the effects of convergence on the segmented benefactors. Future research may include survey or qualitative research testing the effects of each convergence type on each benefactor.

Convergence Benefactors 23

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