Hadlow Research 2016 The Group encompasses and West and . We proudly deliver excellent Higher Education provision and dedication to the promotion of Higher Education in Kent.

Hadlow College is a specialist situated in Kent. The College offers a range of Higher Education courses across the land based provision through the University of . These include Equine Management, Equine Therapy and Rehabilitation, Equine Training and Management, Applied Equine Welfare and Management, International Agriculture, Garden Design, Horticulture, Fisheries Management, Countryside and Landscape Management, Animal Management, Animal Conservation & Biodiversity and Animal Behaviour. The College also offers a suite of education qualifications including the Award, Certificate and Diploma in Education offered through Canterbury Christ Church University.

West Kent and Ashford College compliments the suite of courses offered by Hadlow College by providing Higher Education courses in partnership with the , University of Greenwich, Canterbury Christ Church University and Edexcel. These courses include Fine Art, Graphic Design, Photography, Textiles and Fashion, Early Years, Supported Teaching and Learning, Computing, Construction and Engineering as well as Education.

The College is committed to supporting all its staff to undertake Staff Development activities and Continuous Professional Development (CPD) including Scholarly Activity. It recognises that an essential aspect of delivering higher education courses is keeping up to date with the subject area, understanding the regulations related to delivering HE in FE and also understanding pedagogy related to the delivery of higher education in the FE context.

The papers included in this publication are based on scholarly activity that was undertaken by academic staff from The Hadlow Group.

3 Urban entrepreneurship as a contributor to food security At a more personal level, entrepreneurs have been considered as: “…those who engage in entrepreneurial activity [and are] interested in creating something, in gaining Howard Lee independence, as well as being in control of the process of business, rather than being Hadlow College, UK servants of it.” (Mumby-Croft and Brown, 2006) p. 207.

Abstract (Henderson, 2002) considers that: “Entrepreneurs are a unique group of people. They are owner-managers who assume risk, manage the business’s operations, reap the European farming is presently vulnerable to numerous external pressures which are rewards of their success, and bear the consequences of their failure.” (p. 48). liable to adversely affect food security. Entrepreneurialism has been put forward as one means of enhancing long term food security and was investigated for this paper. Many surveys and studies conclude that opportunity-driven entrepreneurs enhance Six student entrepreneurs were interviewed whilst studying or soon after graduation innovation and are positive for economies and communities – e.g. (Draghici and from Hadlow College, Kent, UK. A SWOT analysis of the six projects was used to Albulescu, 2014). There have also been several attempts to develop typologies for help identify the key factors likely to ensure success, and highlighted the importance entrepreneurs – see Table 1. of supportive networks, free or low cost training and attractive finance schemes.This was applied to an urban agriculture (UA) context to suggest the need to work with Table 1. Some literature perceptions of entrepreneur typology existing programmes and provide a wide support network of mentoring, training and finance to encourage new entrepreneurs. Categories of entrepreneurs

Introduction Source 1 2 3 4 (Lans et al., High Performing Low Performing The importance of entrepreneurship has already been discussed as an important 2014) contributor to urban food security (see (Lee, 2012) in the Proceedings of an earlier (Henderson, High growth Lifestyle AESOP Food Planning Conference). Therefore it was decided here to investigate 2002) entrepreneurial attitudes as a factor for food production and especially in an urban setting by examining the following objectives: (Yenerall, 2008) High growth Lifestyle Survival Intrapreneurs

(Woods and 1. To examine the most important factors for College students and graduates as Business Public Social Cultural Woods, 2009 entrepreneurs. Six case studies were developed with current students and recent graduates from Hadlow College (where the author teaches); 2. How this spirit of entrepreneurialism can be applied to and encouraged in urban How does this relate to food security in Europe? In a review of urban food and peri urban areas. Recent relevant research and projects are reviewed, to production by this author (Lee, 2012) a synthesis of on-going research suggested help clarify how entrepreneurialism can help contribute to urban food security. that entrepreneurship was vital for the progression of agrarian-based ecological modernisation and improved sustainability of food supply. It is suggested here that Defining terms the various categories of entrepreneurship need to be further investigated if we are to better understand how food security might be enhanced. Entrepreneurialism has been defined as: Objective 1: To examine the most important factors for College students and • “the process of uncovering or developing an opportunity to create value through graduates as entrepreneurs. innovation…” by (Henderson, 2002) p. 47 and: • “People who design, produce and generate value through the creation or This research attempted to investigate: expansion of economic activity by identifying new products, processes, or a. the positive and negative factors that College student entrepreneurs had experienced; markets” by (Yenerall, 2008) p. 3. b. what these entrepreneurs considered to be the key points that would facilitate future development of their businesses; c. how these results could be related to existing literature and integrated into an urban context as policy recommendations for enhanced future food security.

4 5 Materials and methods Results

Entrepreneurs for interview were chosen as a purposeful sub-sample: for a relevant These are presented as a summarised, composite SWOT analysis (Appendix 1): example see (Lans et al., 2014). For this research the sub-sample was selected to contain students involved in micro businesses that were currently running at A thematic analysis was undertaken of all interview transcripts (Table 2), which Hadlow College1 , Kent, UK, or as external projects operating within three years of recorded the frequency with which each key word group was mentioned by each graduation. Each interview was semi-structured (described as “…a structured, open- interviewee. For similar research using thematic analysis, see (Jones, Coviello and ended interview guide…” by (Jarratt, 1996), p. 9). Additionally, all interviews included Tang, 2011). a SWOT examination of each micro-business (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats). SWOT analyses in a business context have been in use since the Table 2. Thematic Analysis of interviewees 1960s and are described as “…an important decision-making support tool…[which]… helps organizations, projects or even individuals…[with]…systematic thinking and Word group A B C D E F comprehensive diagnosis of factors,” (Salar and Salar, 2014) (p. 516). Experience/knowledge 2 3 1 0 4 2 Six Hadlow College micro-business projects were chosen as follows: Income/profit 0 1 1 1 1 6 Future/planning 1 1 0 1 0 0 A: An undergraduate BSc (hons.) Commercial Horticulture 1st year student group enterprise: growing lettuce in a polythene tunnel for sale in the College Farm Shop. From the SWOT summaries (Appendix 1), the thematic record in Table 1 and in One representative interviewed. general discussion with interviewees, several powerful factors were identified:

B: An undergraduate BSc (hons.) Commercial Horticulture 3rd year student group • the vital need for the necessary skills, knowledge and experience to pursue the enterprise: growing fruit, herbs and vegetables in open plot as a group allotment, with chosen micro business. Many interviewees reported following a steep learning produce for sale in the College Farm Shop. One representative interviewed. curve but observed the development of greater confidence with time; • the requirement for access to local markets, active network groups and C: A National Diploma Horticulture student group project enterprise: harvesting ultimately the development of profitable enterprises. This was especially strong apples (Malus domestica) from College orchard, arranging batch juicing and bottling for F; with local company, designing and affixing labels on bottles, helping market via • for future planning, the barriers to expansion of each business, such as lack of College Farm Shop. One representative was interviewed. physical space, limited credit rating and potentially restrictive legislation from local councils. D: A BSc (hons.) Horticulture graduate. Grows and sells seasonal Peonies (Paeonia) and runs year-long art teaching studio – pottery, painting, silver, glass, ceramics (kiln Discussion based), sewing and knitting. The typologies presented in Table 1 can be re-visited here in relation to the results E: A BSc (hons.) Horticulture graduate. Smallholding managed organically as a of interviews presented in this research. The concept of high growth/performing family enterprise, with two polythene tunnels for raspberries (Rubus idaeus), sweet entrepreneurs v. low is reported by (Lans et al., 2014) (Henderson, 2002) and peas (Lathyrus odoratus) and hanging baskets of assorted flowering species. (Yenerall, 2008) they also refer to an additional category of ‘lifestyle’. The prospect Open plot fruit production – raspberries and blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum). The wife of categorising entrepreneur projects A-F in this way seemed rather judgemental makes jams and chutneys, and daughters bake cakes. Produce sold at Greenwich and also difficult since the projects are so diverse. Additionally the label of ‘lifestyle’ and Sevenoaks markets and from a stall in lay-by on a busy road near to the seemed inappropriate for entrepreneurs who are working hard to develop profitable smallholding. livelihoods. An additional concept of ‘ecopreneurs’ (Yenerall, 2008), (Dixon and Clifford, 2007) is worth noting – entrepreneurs who develop green products, to F: A BSc (hons) Animal Management graduate. Running a new company selling capitalise upon the sympathy of the public, and this certainly seemed appropriate as edible (dried) insects as lollies, chocolate bars etc., containing insects. Products were part of the activities of projects A, B, C and E. sold on line and via distributors internationally.

1 Hadlow College – see http://hadlow.ac.uk/

6 7 The student projects A-C reported that there had been positive and sympathetic increase confidence over time. Much existing published research confirms the support from the public visiting the College farm shop where their products were vital importance of training – e.g. (Lans et al., 2014), (Organisation Economic sold and project E also stated that their local and organic smallholding ‘image’ was Co-operation & Development and European Commission, 2012), (Runciman, attractive to the public. Overall though, the typology of (Woods and Woods, 2009) 2012); and especially within Colleges and Universities – e.g. (Pihie and Bagheri, was preferred and is listed in more detail below: 2011), (Yokoyama, 2006). (Sondari, 2014) emphasises this: “Entrepreneurial education is the process of providing individuals with the ability to recognise • Business entrepreneurialism (BE): achieving competitive advantage and commercial opportunities and the insight, self-esteem, knowledge and skills to success as defined in business culture – innovation with a competitive mission. act on them.” (p. 49). This ability may be inherent (interviewee D had a track • Social entrepreneurialism (SE): reducing disadvantage, deprivation and social record as an entrepreneur) or acquired (interviewee F was inspired to consider exclusion – innovation with a social mission, undertaken by individuals, third- entrepreneurialism whilst in the early stages of education). The key point is that sector organisations. students can be powerfully motivated as entrepreneurs within their education - • Public entrepreneurialism (PE): sustaining and advancing the presence, values (Cardon et al., 2013) emphasise the passion which motivates entrepreneurialism: and aims of a public ethos, including community welfare, social justice and “Passion is at the heart of entrepreneurship, because it can foster creativity democratic participation and accountability – innovation with a democratic and and the recognition of new information patterns critical to the discovery and community-orientated mission. exploitation of promising opportunities…” (p. 373). The power of education and • Cultural entrepreneurialism (CE): advancing ideas and values that give purpose other forms of training to ignite this passion should not be underestimated. to individual and social action – innovation with a mission to bring meaning. Source: (Woods and Woods, 2009) p. 126 • The need for strong supportive networks. Projects D-F were especially reliant on personal and e-mediated contacts for business development. This is highlighted It is suggested that for this research entrepreneurs A, B and C (within College) as a key factor for agriculture (Nieuwenhuis, 2002) and more generally (Woods are examples of combined public and social entrepreneurialism, whilst D, E and F and Woods, 2009), (Organisation Economic Co-operation & Development (graduates outside College) are examples of business entrepreneurialism, as per the and European Commission, 2012) and (Nost, 2014). As already noted above, categories suggested by (Woods and Woods, 2009). Thus, A, B and C are linked to many graduate entrepreneurs survive and prosper (or do not) in the absence of the public (College publicity, farm shop sales and publication of projects at scientific mentoring or support by their parent University. Whilst some entrepreneurs might conferences), whilst D, E and F are much more in a business setting, with innovation not wish to be ‘coached’ in that way, others might find it makes the difference and competition with others in order to succeed financially. Projects A, B and C are between success and failure as a business. It is easy to recommend that intended to develop and accrue financial profits but are equally if not more focussed Universities offer more support to their graduate entrepreneurs but this approach on the education and welfare of participating students. Projects D, E and F are much could easily (and cheaply) be offered via low-priced workshops as reported by more clearly in the business domain: graduates who succeed (or not) without support (Cardon et al., 2013). from Hadlow College. These two groups, projects A-C and D-F, are clearly different in terms of the presence and absence, respectively of College infrastructural support. • Perceived barriers to expansion. Projects D-F were especially vulnerable to The vital importance of student support as they develop an entrepreneurial approach this: e.g. the reluctance of banks to lend to micro businesses with a limited track is evidenced by studies at Universities in the Netherlands (Lans et al., 2014), record, potentially complex and restrictive bureaucracy and strong competition Japan and the UK (Yokoyama, 2006), and Australia (Poole, 2001). By contrast the due to local saturation (Organisation Economic Co-operation & Development and support for graduate projects is much less, with some barriers discussed by (Khayri, European Commission, 2012), (Henderson, 2002), (Rosen and Razin, 2007). Yaghoubi and Yazdanpanah, 2011), though a few worthwhile graduate workshops Project F specifically cited the problems of convincing banks to offer loans: and information networks have been reported in the USA (Cardon et al., 2013). thus, whilst entrepreneurial enterprises are based on risk taking there is limited sympathy from the financial sector to support this. Clearly there should be serious The overall points resulting from the SWOT summaries (Appendix 1), the thematic consideration of financial support for graduate entrepreneurs by their University record in Table 2 and general discussions with interviewees have highlighted several and there a few examples – such as the Comenius University in Bratislava, clear points, which cover projects A-F: Slovakia, which is financially supporting entrepreneurial graduates from its Consulting and Development Centre (Mrva and Stachová, 2014). • The need for skills and knowledge. Whilst A-C incorporated training (as part of curriculum) D-F entrepreneurs continually sought to develop these characteristics outside College and interviewees reported how this helped

8 9 Objective 2: How this spirit of entrepreneurialism can be applied to and encouraged Conclusions in urban and peri urban areas. • A study of Hadlow College student entrepreneurs who were developing mostly The need for food grown locally in and close to urban centres has already been argued food-focussed projects identified training, supportive networks and financial and with additional benefits to local communities and economies - e.g. (Campbell, 2004), assistance as the most critical factors for success; (Lee, 2012). This inevitably implies a localised food agenda for urban and peri-urban • The application of this to UA suggests that existing projects need to be assisted zones, and the urban-rural interface (Starr, 2010)2 and is supported by a wide range of for further expansion, to enable the development of supportive networks, free or research – e.g. (Organisation Economic Co-operation & Development and European low cost training and attractive finance schemes. Commission, 2012), (Candel et al., 2014), (Rosen and Razin, 2007), (Lal, 2013), (Lockett, Jack and Larty, 2012), (Bedore, 2014). Other important developments have been: Appendix 1.

• Local and urban food hubs - (Cleveland et al., 2014) Summaries of SWOT analyses of entrepreneur interviewees • Direct marketing via farmers’ markets especially in UK urban areas - (Spiller, 2012). • Food sovereignty: “…which has grown from being largely focused on food A-F below denote the six projects referred to in the Materials and methods. production to include urban considerations (both urban agriculture food production and consumers).” (Blay-Palmer, Knezevic and Spring, 2014), p. 187. Strengths

There is clear potential for existing farmers to explore entrepreneurial possibilities A: Provides wide practical experience for students; in urban areas, as shown research on farmer entrepreneurs (Nieuwenhuis, 2002) Real life experience – managing the whole crop through start to harvest and sale; (Stenholm and Hytti, 2014) and their potential move from rural to urban enterprises Project has a low C footprint – popular product with local consumers feel good (Mawois, Aubry and Le Bail, 2011). Incoming UK migrant workers have also been factor; shown to help improve food services in urban areas (Jones et al., 2014). Making some money for benefits to enterprise but labour costs not factored-in.

Stimuli for urban and peri urban food entrepreneurialism can be adapted from a B: Green exercise; review of urban food security by (Lee, 2012), the need for: Feel good factor – satisfaction of growing crops from seed to sale; sense of achievement; pride and sense of wellbeing; 1. Accessing and working with existing and locally adapted knowledge, communities, Sociable – more enjoyable as a group. products, cultures and practices: i.e. accessing existing projects and generating new Individuals learn from experience of others; initiatives only if necessary. A good example is for London, with some very successful Making some money for benefits to enterprise but labour costs not factored in. on-going schemes such as Sustain3 and Growing Communities4, which already support excellent local food provision projects and which could be encouraged further C: Students enjoying running this enterprise – ownership, feel-good factor, good across London and other cities, by negotiation. This is seen as the most effective way advertisement of College, satisfaction of knowing product popular with customers; of further developing supportive networks for new entrepreneurs; Making some money for benefits to enterprise but labour costs not factored-in.

2. Training and financial developments: the research reported here has already D: Live and work on site – no commute; highlighted the need for both knowledge/skills training and financial support for Loves to grow and do art; embryonic entrepreneurial projects and this is equally true in an urban setting. People employed are local – including daughter; Free (or low cost) workshops and short courses with a strong distance-learning Financially viable – livelihood for 3 full time equivalent staff; (e-mediated) component will be vital, whilst favourable and accessible micro finance Social aspect – very sociable – people come here – see lots of people – have initiatives will be also be an essential component of the development of new urban good social community – good quality of life; entrepreneurialism. At least some but perhaps most of these initiatives could best be Attractive rural working environment; delivered via existing organisations such as for 1. above though mutual agreement, Peonias short season deliberately so not clash with art studio; overall co-ordination and accountability would be essential. Web site up to date – can book online and also use social media.

2 “Much of the literature on local food systems examines urban–rural innovations and policies…” (Starr, 2010), p. 479. 3 Sustain: the alliance for better food and farming – see http://www.sustainweb.org/ 4 Growing communities: transforming food and farming through community-led trade – see http://www.growingcommunities.org/

10 11 E: Quality of life – family team sharing load and working together. Used to be in paid F: Some prejudice - the concept of edible insects can be unattractive. employment (teacher) but prefers independent life and business; Uneven work load – unable to forecast demand Nearby road provides convenient source of customers; Internal politics – commercial links can lead to attempted political control, Customers keen - like image of smallholding – have www site and Facebook bureaucracy. with pretty pictures – people like that – good selling point especially for people in Hard to make a profit when a small company – currently most profits back into the London (Greenwich); company Experience has helped gain confidence in growing and marketing. Company new, so loans difficult to obtain – banks generally unsupportive Forecasting sales difficult – no reliable indicators of future markets – F: Unique, niche market Sudden very large new orders can be a weakness (but also an opportunity) Considerable knowledge and experience of products gained before current Bureaucracy such as customs regulations for overseas distribution business started A good team is important – father and son enterprise, Other work sub contracted to local distribution company, designer, chocolate bar Opportunities manufacturer, accountant All geographically local – reduces travel costs and makes arrangements easier A: Could grow other species. Business sited close to London – many important business meetings happen there B: Could expand locally to other Farm Shops. Also provide food for students in College via restaurant.

Weaknesses C: Looking at other fresh produce for juicing – e.g. novel crops such as acidic juicing tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum). A: Seasonality restricted; Limited number which can sell into Farm Shop – cannot expand unless across D: Studio diversifying – into kits that can be sold in shops; looking for corporate and region. schools links; Japanese connection – developing – as part of British cultural education; B: Finding sufficient time in busy schedule; Therapy – do art therapy – for children and Downes type groups; Sometimes too much socialising and not enough progress; Peonias – expanding into more farmers’ markets and florists – profits have paid for Shop requires consistently high quality – can be difficult at times. cold store to extend season; Would prefer local sales and use but many are being transported long distances; C: Lack of time for students; Participation in Horticulture shows to extend publicity – ‘Flowers from the Farm’ Lack of access to modern resources such as cold store, bulk bins, transport so business, which is promoting local flower production. expansion limited. E: At developmental stage – gaining from experience so hope to improve and expand D: 24/7 job – so little time off – always on call; if capital generated; Customers can be awkward – ‘trolls;’ Sweet peas for weddings increasingly popular – can provide fresh and optimal Peonias short season – so have to re-publicise and market every year. quality; London – lots of potential. Been contacted to join larger marketing groups; E: Lacking entrepreneurial background/training to develop marketing – partnership Could explore other ways of processing soft fruit – drying, making into healthy might be possible; snacks – but lack expertise and capital; Investment – need new drive tarmac – proper signage, shop needs to be Community involvement – potential for growing as a therapy. renovated – currently only just making a living so no capital for investment Insecure & unreliable customer base – not always prepared to buy even though F: Almost limitless – the world is open as a market attracted by rural image. Look at baskets and copy ideas without purchasing. Potential for good media coverage potential New markets currently being explored

12 13 Threats Candel, J.J., Breeman, E., Stiller, S.J. and Termeer, C.J. (2014) Disentangling the A: Weeds, Pest & Diseases; consensus frame of food security: The case of the EU Common Agricultural Policy Extreme Weather Events due to climate change, although easier under polythene; reform debate. Food Policy 44: 47-58 Commercial competition nearby. Cardon, M.S., Gregiore, D.A., Stevens, C.E. and Patel, P.C. (2013) Measuring B: Weeds, Pest & Diseases; entrepreneurial passion: Conceptual foundations and scale validation. Journal of Extreme Weather Events due to climate change, although easier under polythene; Business Venturing. 28: 373-396 Commercial competition nearby. Cleveland, D.A., Muller, N.M., Tranovich, A.C., Mazaroli, D.N. and Hinson, K. (2014) C: Few, unless College decides to stop project. Local food hubs for alternative food systems: A case study from Santa Barabara County, California. Journal of Rural Studies 35: 26-36 D: Local Government might cause problems – access roads are narrow and they may try and prevent further expansion; Curtis, F. (2003) Eco-localism and sustainability. Ecological Economics 46: 83-102 Communications – rural communities tend to be ignored (rural internet access) – so limited internet access; Dalgaard, T., Hutchings, N.J. and Porter, J.R. (2003) Agroecology, scaling and Rural crime - Police appear not interested in rural crime; interdisciplinarity. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 100: 39-51 Depend upon people travelling to site for art classes: if transport more expensive then that becomes a threat. Dixon, S.E. and Clifford, A. (2007) Ecopreneurship – a new approach to managing the triple bottom line. Journal of Organizational Change Management 20 (3): 326-345 E: Pest & Disease issues for organic growing – already had mega pest and disease outbreaks; Draghici, A. and Albulescu, C.T. (2014) Does the entrepreneurial activity enhance the Lack of financial viability a current threat; national innovative capacity? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 124: 388- Lifestyle, running such a struggling business, can be stressful for family threats to 396 future wellbeing. Geddes, L. (2012) Lift weights, avoid debt, drink the water. New Scientist 17 F: Competitors November: 30-31 Cash flow due to slow payments by customers Potential bad publicity due to prejudice, even though full laboratory analysis data to Glavic , P. and Lukman, R. (2007) Review of sustainability terms and their definitions. show products are safe to eat Journal of Cleaner Production 15: 1875-1885

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16 17 Tweeting: Worth the investment?

Elizabeth Webb Hadlow College, UK

Abstract

Twitter is one of the most visited websites in the world, in terms of active users there are 302 million monthly active users sending 500 million tweets per day with most users, 80%, accessing the site by mobiles. The aim of the project was to monitor marketing activities and to connect with vocational relevant organisations. Followers were slow to accrue but tweet impressions linked to organisations exceeded 2,000. Networking was the strength, with organisations such as British Trust for Ornithology, Zoological Society of London and African Conservation Experience (ACE) all engaging with the department with the aim to develop these partnerships in forthcoming academic year.

Introduction

Twitter sits as one of the most visited websites in the world, in terms of active users there are 302 million monthly active users sending 500 million tweets per day with most users, 80%, accessing the site by mobiles. Terms such as “digital natives”, “the net generation”, “the Google generation” or “the millennials” are now being used to describe students who have grown up with internet access as a norm and those coming later to the technology being known as “digital immigrants”. As early as 2001 Prensky suggests that the new norm of internet access with have a profound impact on education globally (Prensky, 2001). This report also suggested that students now favour speed of images over reading text and Prensky argues that ultimately this may see a change at a cognitive level in younger students. Ultimately Prensky (2001) argues that “digital Immigrant instructors, who speak an outdated language (that of the pre-digital age), are struggling to teach a population that speaks an entirely new language.”

Digital literacy is a term now being used to encompass the ability of our engagement with technology, Martin and Grudziecki (2007) define this as “the awareness, attitude and ability of individuals to use digital tools for communication, expression and social action in specific life situations”. However, digital literacy is a large generic term for abilities within complex array of platforms, programmes, software and hardware, therefore Goodfellow (2011) suggests that of greater importance is “media literacy”. Beetham et al (2010) conducted a higher education review of 44 HE institutions and their use of media and social media platforms. The study suggested that whilst academic literacy in terms of subject specific ICT equipment was high, media literacy skills in HE were considered poor - with applied subjects such as Health and Social Care, and Teacher Education departments showing better use than theoretical subjects. Furthermore, this study suggested that at a strategic level there is too little

18 19 focus on the competencies of students and the focus too much on staff ability. download relevant information in regard to the following points: Goodfellow (2011) highlights that in Higher Education little research exists which Twitter analytics divide up data based on 6 key classifications (as defined in Table 1) focuses on the importance of developing digital literacy skills, with few books or with the first 3 being the most basic: reports solely written to target this area. The study suggests that HE institutions have been slow to engage with the cultural impact of new communication forms on literacy • Profile visits practices and are still teaching academic literacy without an aspect of digital literacy. • Mentions • Followers There are limited studies which focus on the role of twitter in regards to engagement in the animal industry, Papworth et al (2015) “Quantifying the role of online The second range of classifications collect data based on individual tweets: news in linking conservation research to Facebook and Twitter” was based on the engagement with social media when articles are tweeted from conservation • Impressions accounts. Current findings suggest a high need to develop the use ofTwitter in the • Engagements conservation industry to promote work with the public, however information regarding • Engagement rate flagship species is more likely to engage with audiences and therefore tweets need to be chosen carefully. Table 1: Twitter Definitions Engaging as a department with a growing area of technology is imperative to remain relevant to the students being recruited. Focus groups were held by the Hadlow Classification Definition Group marketing team in January 2016 and students stated that social media was Profile visits The number of visits to the main profile page. where their initial research took place in regards to selecting a course. Studies (Bicen The number of Twitter users directly using the @Hadlow_Animal and Cavus, 2012) based on undergraduate students suggest that 40% of students Mentions handle. spend 4 hours on Twitter a day with usage of Twitter up from 5% to 87% between 2008 and 2010 (Webster, 2010). With the argument being that if so much consistent Followers The number of Twitter users following the account. and concentrated time is being spent with one area of technology that education The number of users that have seen a specific tweet. This can should also be engaging with this media or be missing out on a key area in which to Impressions also be subdivided into organic impressions and ad related engage with new and existing students. impressions. The number of interactions with a tweet. This may have been Engagements Aims: clicking on a hyperlink, using a hashtag or liking the tweet. This calculates a percentage based on dividing the number of • To monitor how marketing activities are functioning in regards to engagement Engagement rate and impact of the posts being made by the department. impressions with engagements. • To connect and network with a variety of animal related organisations for the benefit of staff and students. Data was collected from the Twitter Analytics site monthly with the aim of tweeting a minimum of 10 times during the month. Data on each month was collected on Method Tweets, Profile visits, Tweet Impressions, Mentions and New Followers. With data on country location, regional location and interests collected on the conclusion of the Prior to developing the account a meeting with marketing was held to decide on the study. Twitter handle and username to allow this to compliment the main Hadlow_College account. The Hadlow_Animal handle was decided based on the ability for other Results: departments to use a similar naming scheme in the future if the account proved to be successful. Twitter followers predominantly (67%) came from the UK, however the second largest group were from the US (14%), figure 1 showing the range of countries engaging with A department specific twitter account was started and developed in December 2015 the Twitter account. Within the UK the main audience was derived from the England with the marketing team developing the cover banner and profile picture artwork to be with audiences of 21% from the South East and 20% from Greater London. used. Twitter has its own data analysis support and account owners are able to export and

20 21 Figure 2 - Twitter Analytics - new followers (Twitter, 2016)

The most successful tweets in regards to impressions and engagement rates were those that linked to specific organisations and hash tagged key trending terms. For example a tweet featuring Durrell Wildlife Trust gained 2,232 impressions, and #darwin day 2,103. When tweets were linked to specific events at the College these also gained a higher level of impression – with Lambing Weekend tweets over January and February gaining 8,390 and 8,108 impressions.

Discussion

Whilst initially the project was aimed at HE students the Twitter project gained engagement from a variety of sources. At an HE specific level the Twitter account has been successfully utilised in classes in regards to networking with large organisations such as the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) who have supported Conservation Technology lessons with cuckoo migration information, Zoological Society of London Figure 1 - Twitter global audience from the account (ZSL) who have offered talks on their Monserrat mountain chicken project to next year’s students (from the Monserrat field team) and African Conservation Experience (ACE) where a student has successfully applied to work as a horse back patrol The growth was steady over the 5 months with regular followers being added to the ranger with. total, Figure 1 is an example of the Twitter Analytics available to the account owner. The graphs are interactive and can be interrogated to a daily level. The audiences Highest number of tweet impressions came from tweets in relation to our Durrell most likely to follow the Twitter account were those having science based interests Wildlife study tour and the partnership between Hadlow and the “Cans for Corridors” (56%). scheme, which the HE students engage with in the AMU and also on their linked study tour. Therefore ensuring that our community projects are marketed and reach a global audience.

Initially the aim of the project was also to enhance visibility amongst potential students and assist with recruitment. However, based on this study this has not occurred, delving deeper in Twitter analytics actually shows that only 8% of Twitter

22 23 users are students, whilst 35% are professionals/organisations (Twitter, 2016). Conclusion: Therefore if departments wish to invest time in Twitter some consideration needs to be given in regards to what their Twitter accounts’ focus needs to be. The project has been slowly gaining pace during the 5 months of data collection. The recruitment of followers has been slow and therefore mixed in relation to its use for As this Twitter account progresses in to the next academic year the focus now needs marketing for the department. Departments need to consider the staff time needed to to move onto student usage and developing their own social media practice. Dunlap manage the social media account as collecting quality photos and information needs and Lowenthal (2009) suggest that educational faculties which promote student use to be considered against normal workloads. of Twitter increase the interaction with other professionals, and gain professional exposure for the courses and students. The study also suggested that the use of The most successful aspect of the project has been in relation to developing social media, particularly Twitter developed the students’ soft skills in areas such as contacts, future guest speakers and accessing data from large organisations. concise writing, writing for specific audiences, developing professional relationships This has been invaluable at a departmental level and ensured that the faculty and connecting with wider communities. (Dunlap and Lowenthal, 2009). remains current and engages with a variety of industrial partners.

However, staff consider the use of twitter need to acknowledge potential issues The inability to moderate and maintain a level of overall management as suggested surrounding the encouragement of poor grammar and spelling, the need for by Grosseck and Holotescu (2008) is an area to consider as a risk, however staff immediate response and feedback and the inability to moderate on the platform need to reflect on the benefits of students being able to engage at a global level and Grosseck and Holotescu (2008). the professional relationships, which could be created.

Staff need to be engaging with social media platforms, as Goodfellow (2011) suggests, failure to develop these skills and utilise these collaborative platforms will see staff failing to remain at the forefront of innovation. This is particularly important in land based industries where Papworth et al (2015) suggest more information is now only being shared on social media platforms.

24 25 References:

Beetham, H., Littlejohn, A. and McGill, L. (2010) ‘Beyond competence: digital literacies as knowledge practices, and implications for learner development’, ESRC Seminar Series Literacies for the Digital University, Seminar Two. Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow 1 March. Glasgow: Glasgow Caledonian University: Literacy in the Digital University.

Bicen, H Cavus, N, Twitter Usage Habits of Undergraduate Students, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Volume 46, 2012, Pages 335-339

Dunlap, J. C. & Lowenthal, P. R. (2009). Tweeting the night away: Using Twitter to enhance social presence. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(2).

Goodfellow, Robin (2011). Literacy, literacies, and the digital in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 16(1) pp. 131–144.

Grosseck, G., and Holotescu, C. (2008, April) “Can we use Twitter for Educational Activities?” Paper presented at the 4th International Scientific Conference, eLearning and Software for Education, Bucharest, Romania.

Martin, A. & Grudziecki, J. (2007). DigEuLit: concepts and tools for digital literacy development, Italics, 5(4), 249– 267

Papworth, S. K., Nghiem, T. P. L., Chimalakonda, D., Posa, M. R. C., Wijedasa, L. S., Bickford, D., et al. (2015). Quantifying the role of online news in linking conservation research to Facebook and Twitter. Conserv. Biol. 29, 825–833

Prensky,M (2001) Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants On the Horizon (MCB University Press, Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2001)

Twitter (2016) www.twitter.com Accessed 10/5/16

Webster T (2010) Twitter usage in America: 2010. Edison Research. http://www. edisonresearch.com/twitter_usage_2010.php Accessed 7/4/16

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