The Technologies That Could Prevent More Mysteries Like That of Missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Page 20

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July-August 2014

The technologies that could prevent more mysteries like that of missing Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Page 20

Hypersonics after WaveRider p.10 40 tons on a dime at Mars p. 36

A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS AIAA Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics AIAA’s popular book series Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics features books that present a particular, well- defi ned subject refl ecting advances in the fi elds of aerospace science, engineering, and/or technology. POPULAR TITLES Tactical and Strategic Missile Guidance, Sixth Edition Paul Zarchan 1026 pages This best-selling title provides an in-depth look at tactical and strategic missile guidance using common language, notation, and perspective. The sixth edition includes six new chapters on topics related to improving missile guidance system performance and understanding key design concepts and tradeoffs.

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Morphing Aerospace Vehicles and Structures John Valasek 286 pages Morphing Aerospace Vehicles and Structures is a synthesis of the relevant disciplines and applications involved in the morphing of ﬁ xed wing ﬂ ight vehicles. The book is organized into three major sections: Bio-Inspiration; Control and Dynamics; and Smart Materials and Structures. Most chapters are both tutorial and research-oriented in nature, covering elementary concepts through advanced – and in many cases novel – methodologies.

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Find these books and many more at arc.aiaa.org Page 4 July-August 2014 DEPARTMENTS EDITOR’S NOTEBOOK 2 The value of being specific LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 3 C-17s for firefighting INTERNATIONAL BEAT 4 Mideast states nurture their aerospace WASHINGTON WATCH 8 NASA hones its crowdsourcing ENGINEERING NOTEBOOK 10 Going hypersonic Page 32 CASE STUDY 14 Shaping the things to come OUT OF THE PAST 42 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES 46 FEATURES Page 14 LEARNING FAST FROM MH370 20 The international aviation community wants to accelerate efforts to put an airliner tracking system in place to prevent more mysteries like that of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370. by Natalia Mironova and Philip Butterworth-Hayes

RD180: LEARNING TO LET GO 28 There is mounting pressure for the U.S. to end its dependence on the Russian-built RD-180 for launching Atlas 5 rockets. by Marc Selinger Page 28 ATMOSPHERIC SATELLITES 32 Atmospheric satellites — aerostats and planes that would fly for months at a time — are getting a new lease on life as Google and Facebook eye their use for making broadband accessible throughout the world. by Debra Werner

WANTED: MARS BRAKING TECH 36 NASA has entered the test phase of an ambitious program to develop inflatable drag devices and mammoth parachutes for landing heavier things on Mars. by Leonard David BULLETIN AIAA Meeting Schedule B2

AIAA News B5 Page 36 SciTech 2015 Event Preview B11 AIAA Call for Papers B13 AIAA Courses and Training B14 Program Committee Nominations B15

Aerospace America (ISSN 0740-722X) is published monthly by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. at 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Va. 20191-4344 [703/264-7577]. Subscription rate is 50% of dues for AIAA members (and is not deductible therefrom). Nonmember subscription price: U.S. and Canada, $163, foreign, $200. Single copies $20 each. Postmaster: Send address changes and subscription orders to address above, attention AIAA Customer Service, 703/264-7500. Periodical postage paid at Herndon, Va., and at additional mailing offices. Copyright 2014 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., all rights reserved. The name Aerospace America is registered by the AIAA in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. 40,000 copies of this issue printed. This is Volume 52, No. 7 ® is a publication of the American Institute of Editor’s Notebook Aeronautics and Astronautics

Ben Iannotta Editor-in-Chief Patricia Jefferson Associate Editor Greg Wilson The value of being speciﬁc Production Editor Jerry Grey Editor-at-Large In this edition of Aerospace America, we’re inaugurating a new section we call Christine Williams Case Study. This is where aerospace engineers are invited to describe their Editor AIAA Bulletin work in their own words with advice and help from our editors. My sense is there will be lots of demand to be featured as a Case Study, so I Contributing Writers wanted to share some thoughts about the purpose and vision for these articles. Philip Butterworth-Hayes, Leonard Our goal is to let readers hear directly from subject matter experts about the David, Edward Goldstein, Natalia technologies and problem-solving techniques underlying specific projects. These ar- Mironova, Erik Schechter, Marc Selinger, Robert van der Linden, Debra Werner, ticles will be valuable not just for the details they provide, but because they will be Frank Winter windows into entirely new or fast-changing markets and trends. Our inaugural Case Study, “Shaping the things to come,” [page 14] describes one Jane Fitzgerald company’s additive manufacturing technique for parts on the U.S. Navy’s X-47B un- Art Direction and Design manned planes. The article says a lot about the company’s work, to be sure, but James F. Albaugh, President readers also get a sense of the cultural and technical challenges that advocates of Sandra H. Magnus, Publisher additive manufacturing are facing. The aerospace industry is understandably cau- Craig Byl, Manufacturing and Distribution tious about new components and techniques, because innovation can’t come at the STEERING COMMITTEE expense of reliability or safety. Steven E. Gorrell, Brigham Young University; We also see another value in this Case Study section, and it’s one that should not David R. Riley, Boeing; Mary L. Snitch, be underestimated. We make sure that the articles are written in a style that makes Lockheed Martin; Vigor Yang, Georgia them understandable across aerospace domains and even outside the industry. This Institute of Technology; Annalisa Weigel, way, they can help inspire more innovation and contribute in some way to wise in- Fairmont Consulting Group; Susan X. Ying vestment decisions by companies and agencies. They’ll also help students and EDITORIAL BOARD young professionals refine their career choices by giving them visibility into work Ned Allen, Jean-Michel Contant, outside their immediate areas of focus. Eugene Covert, L.S. “Skip” Fletcher, This is just one of many more improvements to come for Aerospace America Michael Francis, Cam Martin, and its readership. Don Richardson, Douglas Yazell ADVERTISING Ben Iannotta Joan Daly, 703-938-5907 Editor-in-Chief [email protected] Pat Walker, 415-387-7593 [email protected]

LETTERS AND CORRESPONDENCE Ben Iannotta, [email protected] QUESTIONS AND ADDRESS CHANGES [email protected] ADVERTISING MATERIALS Craig Byl, [email protected]

July-August 2014, Vol. 52, No. 7 Letter to the Editor

C-17s for ﬁreﬁghting

The article “Putting Out the Fires” [June, page 28] rekindled memories of design Ready or not: In the interview in the discussions from 2000. When C-17s are June 2014 Aerospace America, Gen- available as surplus, they can handle eral Mark A. Welsh III says “we’re not two [Modular Airborne Fire Fighting ready for unmanned aircraft carrying System 2] units side-by-side. That would nuclear weapons.” be 6,000-8,000 gallons on target with The term for an unmanned aircraft DON’T true low-level maneuverability and carrying a nuclear weapon is “cruise short runway capability. That should be missile.” We’ve had them since 194, MISS THIS an operational match for any lumbering when the (unmanned) B-61 Matador DC-10 and the venerable C-130. At the missiles were first deployed at Bitburg OPPORTUNITY very least, it should be worth an up- Air Base (Germany). dated design study and discussion. Geoﬀrey Landis Ed Zadorozny Berea, OH OF A Garden Grove, CA LIFETIME… All letters addressed to the editor are considered to be submitted for possible publication, unless Become an AIAA it is expressly stated otherwise. All letters are subject to editing for length and to author response. Lifetime Member! Letters should be sent to: Correspondence, Aerospace America, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Suite 500, Reston, VA 20191-4344, or by email to: [email protected]. AIAA is your vital lifelong link to the aerospace profession and a champion for its achievements. Lifetime Membership is: Events Calendar July 13-17 tt Open to any individual International Conference on Environmental Systems, Tucson, Ariz. from the recently graduated to the retired. Contact: Andrew Jackson, 806/742-2801 x 230; [email protected]; http://www.depts.ttu.edu/ceweb/ices/ tt Uninterrupted AIAA membership beneﬁts, July 15-18 protecting you against ICNPAA 2014 – Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Aerospace future dues increases. and Sciences, Narvik, Norway. tt An ongoing commitment to Contact: Seenith Sivasundaram, 386/761-9829; [email protected]; AIAA and the Aerospace www.icnpaa.com profession. July 28-30 With AIAA Lifetime Membership AIAA Propulsion and Energy 2014, featuring: 50th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE the opportunities are Endless! Joint Propulsion Conference and 12th International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference. Cleveland, Ohio. Prices effect ive th rougho Contact: 703/264-7500 31 October 2014 For more inforinformation,mation, contact July 31-Aug. 1 Customer SerServicevice at Second AIAA Propulsion Aerodynamics Workshop; Hybrid Rocket custserv@av iaa.org, Propulsion; Missile Propulsion Design, Technologies, and System 800.639.2422 (US Only), Engineering, Application of Green Propulsion for Future Space. or 703.264.7500 Cleveland, Ohio. Contact: 703/264-7500 Aug. 3-4 Decision Analysis, San Diego, Calif. Contact: 703/264-7500 Aug. 4-7 AIAA SPACE 2014, featuring: AIAA/AAS Astrodynamics Specialist aiaa.orga g Conference; AIAA Complex Aerospace Systems Exchange; 32nd AIAA International Communications Satellite Systems Conference; #aiaa AIAA SPACE Conference. San Diego, Calif. Contact: 703/264-7500

AEROSPACE AMERICA/MAY 2014 3 Abu Dhabi Airports

Work in progress: The Abu Dhabi airport Mideast states nurture complex will include manufacturing plants, maintenance facilities, and a pilot training school. their aerospace Similar expansion projects are underway at several airports in the Middle East.

The next two years will see the con- turing contracts worth over $11.8 bil- with Austria’s Future Advanced Com- struction of major aerospace manufac- lion with U.S. and European suppliers posite Components to build a joint turing and support centers in Abu including Airbus, Boeing, General manufacturing facility in Al Ain. At the Dhabi, Dubai and Saudi Arabia, moves Electric and Rolls-Royce. Also at the start of January 2014, Abu Dhabi’s Eti- that appear to reflect strategic govern- show, AMMROC — the Advanced Mili- had Airways, the Takreer oil refining ment plans to rival the aerospace hubs tary Maintenance, Repair and Over- company and the Masdar Institute of of Seattle and Toulouse. hauling Centre, a joint venture among Science and Technology announced a In the emirate of Abu Dhabi, the Lockheed Martin, Sikorsky Corporation strategic agreement with Boeing to de- first phase of the 25-square-kilometer and Mubadala Aerospace — secured a velop an aviation biofuel industry in Nibras Al Ain Aerospace Park is $5.8-billion logistics support contract the region. In the same month the scheduled to be completed in 2015. for the United Arab Emirates Armed consortium carried out a 45-minute The cluster of aerospace manufactur- Forces. AMMROC plans to open its demonstration flight in a Boeing 777 ing plants, maintenance centers and new logistics center at Nibras Al Ain powered in part by locally produced pilot training schools is under devel- Aerospace Park in January 2016. sustainable aviation biofuel. opment by Abu Dhabi’s Mubadala Huge maintenance, repair and The Arabian Peninsula region is Aerospace company and the Abu overhaul centers are emerging from leading the way, but not all of the de- Dhabi Airport. the desert sands. Saudia Aerospace velopment work in the Middle East is The work reflects a subtle shift of Engineering Industries is building a entirely homegrown or centered there. emphasis. The Arabian Peninsula’s maintenance center covering more By the end of this year, Canada’s Bom- aerospace engineering interests have than 100 square kilometers at Jed- bardier Aerospace plans to complete a traditionally centered on supporting dah/King Abdulaziz International Air- $200-million manufacturing plant in the vast numbers of civil and military port — including 12 aircraft hangars Nouaceur, Morocco, making aircraft aircraft ordered by the region’s gov- and employing more than 7,500 staff structural parts, as part of a long-term ernments, rather than designing and — planned for completion by the end partnership with the Moroccan gov- producing aerospace structures. But a of 2015. Dubai World Central/Al Mak- ernment. Bombardier figures to have a transition to include manufacturing is toum International Airport is develop- workforce of 850 recruited by the end underway, driven in part by a demand ing a 6.7-square-kilometer mainte- of 2018. for new commercial aircraft. nance facility at Aviation City, a cluster It is still too early to forecast ex- The region “represents a strong of aviation maintenance, academic actly how many new aerospace man- market for future aerospace and avia- and helicopter support organizations. ufacturing companies based in the tion growth, with passenger numbers It is the operational base for Dubai Middle East will emerge over the next at Middle Eastern airports increasing Aerospace Enterprise, a Dubai-owned few years and whether they will be- by nearly 8 percent last year alone. maintenance company set up in 2006, come serious competitors or partners Significant investment in new airport which has since acquired Zurich- to legacy suppliers in the West. But infrastructure continues across the re- based SR Technics and Standard Aero- the recent growth of Gulf-based air- gion, and it is expected that around space, the Tempe, Ariz., civil and mil- lines, airports and aircraft maintenance 1,800 aircraft will be required within itary support supplier. companies have had a huge impact on the next 20 years,” says Paul Everitt, These aviation support organiza- the aviation industry worldwide, and it chief executive of U.K. aerospace tions are now being joined by manu- is likely that the region’s manufactur- trade organization ADS, short for aero- facturers with niche capabilities. ing businesses, through either acquisi- space, defense and security. Mubadala has developed a specialist tion or growth, will seek a much At the November 2013 Dubai Air capability in carbon fiber structures as- larger share of the global aerospace Show, Mubadala announced manufac- sembly, following its 2009 agreement marketplace.

4 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Flying round the world on solar power

The designers of Solar Impulse 2 are many. The material costs more than Borschberg says the project will beginning to publicize details about polycrystalline silicon but is more effi- help advance several technology re- the innovations they hope will propel cient. According to information on the search programs that the industry the craft around the globe without Solar Impulse website, the plane’s partners will develop, in aerospace stopping next year. propulsion system is 94% efficient — and other areas. Advances could in- The plane’s improved performance based on the percentage of electric clude lighter materials, energy sav- over its predecessor Solar Impulse 1, energy converted into thrust. ings, better reliability and perform- which flew across the U.S. in several During the day, the solar cells ance for electric motors, more hops in 2010, results from combining recharge lithium polymer batteries so efficient solar cells, and batteries that many efficiency-increasing technolo- that Solar Impulse 2’s propellers can store more energy, he says. Some of gies, says André Borschberg, a founder continue to turn at night. The batteries the technologies on the aircraft could of the company. He will be one of the account for a quarter of the aircraft’s have promising applications in mar- two pilots who will be aboard the weight. kets such as solar panel protection plane when it takes off in March 2015. The plane has a wingspan larger materials, computer and cellphone One of these is the aircraft’s car- than a 747’s but weighs just 2,300 batteries, and materials for baggage bon fiber skin, which at 25 grams per kilograms. By comparison, the Rutan compartments and other aircraft square meter weighs only a third as Voyager, which flew around the structures. much as printer paper. The plane has world in 1986 powered by two piston The Federation Aeronautique In- brushless motors — another improve- engines, had a gross weight of 4,397 ternationale ratified eight world ment, because brushes add weight, kilograms, with the fuel weighing records set by the Solar Impulse 1 wear out, cause sparking and are hard 3,000 kilograms. team, which includes recognition for to cool. Solar Impulse 2’s motors also Many of the plane’s systems have the highest and longest flight by a so- are sensorless, making them simpler, been flown on unmanned high-alti- lar-powered aircraft. But the biggest more reliable, and less vulnerable to tude long-endurance aircraft. Solar Im- test of the team’s ambition to fly dirt and humidity. pulse 2’s designers wanted to see around the world will be the five-day, Built into the wings are 17,248 so- whether some of these concepts could five-night crossing of the Pacific lar cells that supply the plane’s four be transferred to a plane with a pilot Ocean. If that can be achieved, then electric motors with energy. Each cell on board. Demonstrating clean tech- Solar Impulse 2 could well be the trail- is monocrystalline silicon — made from nologies is one of the project’s primary blazer of a new era of solar-power a single silicon crystal rather than goals, says the company’s website. global aviation. Solar Impulse

Solar Impulse 2 on its June 2 inaugural flight from Switzerland. The aircraft's carbon fiber skin weighs less than printer paper.

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 5 Europe prepares for Clean Sky 2 research Clean Sky

At the start of July, the European Organizers hope Union plans to make its first call for the additional funds companies and research agencies to will propel the in- compete for funding under the Clean dustry to meet a set Sky 2 Joint Technology Initiative, the of ambitious goals next phase of Europe’s multibillion- laid out in 2001 by euro effort to reduce aviation pollu- the Advisory Council tion and noise. for Aviation Re- Clean Sky 2’s total budget of €3.95 search in Europe. By billion ($5.3 billion) was approved in 2020, the council May by the European Union Council wants a 50 percent and is more than twice the budget of reduction in aircraft the first Clean Sky program. Some of fuel consumption the new funds are already pegged for and carbon emis- Snecma, part of the Safran group, has designed a new open-rotor jet engine specific companies and agencies, but sions; an 80 percent for greater fuel efficiency. The first ground test is planned for 2015. companies and agencies will be ap- reduction in nitrogen plying for about €1 billion ($1.35 bil- oxide emissions; a 50 percent reduc- scheduled for 2015, Dautriat said. lion) in research funds. tion in perceived aircraft noise; and Clean Sky 1 involved a host of re- substantial progress toward reducing search projects by 600 industrial and the environmental impact of the man- academic European bodies. An ATR- ufacture, maintenance and disposal of 72 turboprop was equipped with a aircraft and related products. composite fuselage panel; new envi- In Clean Sky 2, the near-term “star ronmental control and icing protection of the show,“ as Clean Sky Executive systems were devised and flown on Director Eric Dautriat told an audi- an A320 test plane; a new rotorcraft ence, will be Snecma’s testing of an propeller design was developed for open-rotor jet engine, a design that high-speed cruise. ENGINEERING SERVICE engineers expect will be more fuel Philip Butterworth-Hayes AND TRAINING efficient. The first ground test is [email protected]

Division of labor There are six main technology research planes and helicopters will be flown on areas within the Clean Sky research program. test aircraft Integrated Technology In Clean Sky 2, just as in Clean Sky 1, each Demonstrators. Entirely new airframes sector will be managed by a European and engines will be flight tested. aerospace company. • Analysis work on how different new • Fast rotorcraft — Agusta Westland and technologies can be combined together. PRODUCTS Eurocopter • Large passenger aircraft — Airbus Parallel research is being undertaken to • Regional aircraft — Alenia Aermacchi examine: • Airframes — Dassault, Airbus Defence • ECO-Design. This term refers to and Space, Saab assessing environmental impacts by • Engines — Safran, Rolls-Royce and MTU taking into account the entire aircraft • Systems — Thales and Liebherr life cycle, from design to operations and maintenance to withdrawal from These sectors are clustered into two main the fleet.

areas — or “core building blocks” • Small air transports. The goal is to reduce www.astos.de • Innovative Aircraft Demonstrator the environmental impacts of small Platforms. Technologies to improve large general aviation and commuter aircraft. passenger planes, regional

6 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 28–30 JULY 2014 CLEVELAND, OHIO

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14-195 NASA hones its crowdsourcing

NASA is on a mission to make it even By going online, people with good ferent ways of approaching a problem easier for John and Jane Q. Public to ideas “don’t actually have to bring a that can really result in a breakthrough.” suggest solutions to some of the physical prototype or a technology to a In another example of crowdsourc- agency’s most vexing technical prob- demonstration event,” says Jenn ing, citizen-scientists have volunteered lems, from figuring out how to fly un- Gustetic, challenges and prizes pro- to help astronomers discover embry- manned aircraft safely in the national gram executive in the Office of the onic planetary systems hidden in in- airspace to keeping astronauts healthy Chief Technologist at NASA headquar- frared data from NASA’s Wide-field In- in space. ters. “They can submit their code or frared Survey Explorer, a 40-centimeter The agency is turning to private their idea or their testing method space telescope launched in 2009. Par- sector web experts to ensure it’s being through the web using on-line plat- ticipants in the Disk Detective project user friendly to those who want to forms like InnoCentive and TopCoder.” view images from WISE and other sky participate in the series of technology NASA is not new to crowdsourc- surveys and classify objects based on challenges it has established to award ing. It formed a partnership with Plan- whether they are round or include cash prizes to problem solvers. The etary Resources Inc. of Bellevue, multiple objects. Astronomers can then company InnoCentive, Inc., which de- Wash., to apply crowdsourcing to the use human photo interpretation to scribes itself as an “online platform for development of algorithms for detect- zero in on sources that may contain crowd sourcing your innovation prob- ing near-Earth objects. The agency planetary environments. One hundred lems,” has run pilot projects with also crowdsourced solutions for opti- thousand volunteers have identified NASA to test the use of web portals in mizing the placement of the Interna- 600,000 possible signs of planetary for- the challenge initiative. The agency tional Space Station’s solar arrays. mation, Gustetic says. has also tested a service called Top- Gustetic says “bringing a diverse Managers of the Fred Lawrence Coder, which runs challenges specifi- group of perspectives to a problem” Whipple Observatory in Amado, Ariz., cally geared toward solving computer opens the door to considering “out-of- were “so impressed by the results they coding problems. discipline perspectives — or you get dif- were getting that they awarded four nights of viewing time on their Tilling- hast Telescope to do follow-up obser- vations” on some of the high-interest

NASA planetary discs identified by the citizen-volunteers. “My sense is that the role of the individual in helping solve tough problems — and co-delivering services and…products, and a whole host of co-creation activities — is only going to increase in the future,” says Gustetic. “NASA has really embraced the idea that it’s important to engage individuals in their space program, and also recognizes that there are unique skills, expertise and time that those individuals can potentially contribute.” She says it’s NASA’s responsibility “to figure out how to best leverage that. We like to talk about the government and industry and academia being important partners of the innovative ecosys- tem in the U.S. We should also include individual members of the public in Citizen scientists: Volunteers in the Disk Detective project view space telescope images to help NASA that equation.” Edward Goldstein classify celestial objects. [email protected]

8 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 NRC Boeing examines autonomy

In the future, many of the tasks currently performed by pilots, unmanned aircraft operators and air traffic controllers could be turned over to so- phisticated systems designed to operate for extended periods of time without human supervision. Before that occurs, however, U.S. government agencies with the support of industry and academic groups will need to conduct a targeted, coordinated research campaign to address a series of technical, regulatory, social and legal issues related to the use of increas- ingly autonomous systems, according to a National Research Council report issued in June, “Autonomy Research for Civil Aviation: Toward a New Era of Flight.” The report describes barriers, in- The ScanEagle is one of only two unmanned planes to have received FAA certification to fly commercially cluding a lack of available bandwidth without going through a long approval process. for wireless communications and the FAA’s lengthy certification process for research done to characterize how those challenges, however, the report unmanned aircraft. It highlights priori- these systems make judgment calls emphasizes the promise of increas- ties for research designed to pave the and how they make decisions,” says ingly autonomous systems to make way for the gradual transition to a time John-Paul B. Clarke, NRC committee civil aviation more economical and ef- when U.S. civil aviation is character- co-chair and associate professor of ficient without compromising safety. ized by “the seamless operation of di- aerospace engineering at the Georgia In general aviation, for example, au- verse categories of aircraft and sys- Institute of Technology. “We will not tonomous systems could support pi- tems, some crewed, some not crewed, be able to test every possible thing lots who are alone in the cockpit. and a little bit of everything in be- that the system could see, because “That’s a case where we believe you tween,” says John Lauber, a former that’s too time consuming.” could definitely increase safety,” Airbus chief product safety officer and Researchers also will need to study Clarke says. “In commercial aviation, co-chair of the Committee on Auton- how people interact with autonomous you could reduce costs while main- omy Research for Civil Aviation, the systems. “How do I make sure that taining or even improving safety.” NRC panel that drafted the report. The when a human comes back into the Lauber agrees that safety is para- ad-hoc committee was formed at loop after a long period, he or she is mount. “It is quite clear that anything NASA’s request. able to understand very quickly what that comes along in terms of new One of the primary challenges for is happening and decide whether to technology must at the very least the research community will be to find follow the recommendations of the maintain the high levels of safety that a way to characterize the behavior of autonomous system or override it?” we experience now, particularly in systems that adapt and learn as they Clarke asks. “That’s one of the big civil transport operations,” Lauber respond to environmental changes. questions.” says. Debra Werner “There will have to be some creative Instead of simply focusing on [email protected]

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 9 Going hypersonic The British company Reaction Engines Ltd. hopes to achieve what the U.S. couldn’t under the National Aerospace Plane program: Build an engine capable of propelling a spaceplane to orbit in a single stage, albeit without people. The U.S. canceled NASP in 1993 in favor of a more tightly focused research agenda, a decision that eventually gave rise to the X-51A WaveRider program. With the WaveRider program now over, Erik Schechter compares its technologies to those The X-51A mounted below the B-52 in the engine that would power Skylon, the spaceplane that wing at Edwards Air Force Base. This was the second of the four Reaction Engines hopes to convince major manufacturers expendable, unmanned WaveRiders. to build and operate.

Somewhere at the bottom of the Pacific airbreathing hypersonic propulsion. small satellites to orbit and fly home. Ocean lies the last in a series of X-51A Without the need to lug and shed dis- The Skylon spaceplane is currently WaveRider hypersonic test vehicles that posable oxidizer tanks, such a craft in the proof-of-concept phase. If even- the Air Force launched between 2010 would be completely reusable and tually built by a team of contractors, it and 2013. The vehicles were carried could launch payloads again and again. would be about the size of big airliner aloft on B-52s, dropped from their left The 60-person company Reaction – 85 meters long, 6.75 meters wide, wings, boosted to hypersonic speeds by Engines Ltd. of Abingdon, in the U.K., with a wingspan of 25.4 meters — and conventional rockets, and then, after is among those looking to take up could carry 12 tons of cargo into orbit. separation, accelerated to speeds up to the hypersonic mantle. With funds Powering Skylon’s flight from run- Mach 5.1. They were propelled by ex- from the U.K. Space Agency, the way to space would be two hydrogen- perimental airbreathing engines that company has ambitious plans to fueled SABRE, or Synergistic Airbreath- burned fuel with oxygen gleaned from leapfrog beyond WaveRider’s goal of ing Rocket Engines — synergistic the atmosphere. proving the feasibility of accelerating because they’re designed to operate in With the conclusion of the Wave- a hypersonic vehicle. The company two modes. In the airbreathing mode, Rider program, companies and coun- has designed a proposed spaceplane they would take in oxygen from the at- tries are vying to continue progress to- called Skylon that would take off mosphere to begin the first leg of the ward the long-promised benefits of from a runway, deliver cargo such as journey. At an altitude of 26-30 kilometers and a speed of Mach 5, the SABREs would switch over to rocket mode and use a tank of liquid oxygen to blast into orbit at a speed of Mach 25. The U.K. Space Agency gave Reac- tion Engines £60 million ($100 million) in June 2013 to work on SABRE as the linchpin for a future spaceplane. “Sky- lon will be fully reusable, cheaper to operate” – about one-fiftieth the cost of conventional spacecraft – “more ef- The Skylon spaceplane showing one ficient to operate, with the intention of of its two SABRE engines. The SABREs having more launches per year with a are airbreathing in the atmosphere and then switch to rocket mode. far lower failure rate,” predicts Eliza- beth Seaman of the U.K. Space European Space Agency 10 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 U.S. Air Force

Agency, the agency’s lead for the SABRE project. Final test: The fourth and last X-51A Promises like these have been WaveRider, carried under the wing heard for decades, and the challenges of a B-52H. The WaveRider attained are daunting. Air would blow by a hy- a speed of Mach 5.1 on this flight. personic vehicle at many times the speed of sound, and the craft’s engine or engines would need to glean enough oxygen from it to maintain combustion. Propulsion engineer An- thony Haynes, the senior development engineer at Reaction Engines, says the company has figured out how to slow and cool the air enough for subsonic combustion without making the vehicle so heavy that it would undercut the value of airbreating propulsion. U.S. Air Force This approach is very different from that of the WaveRider. The Air Force- gines from Inconel, a heat-tolerant air launch space access at Boeing Boeing team let air race at supersonic nickel-chromium alloy. In addition, JP- Phantom works. speeds through the engine, called a 7 fuel was pumped through channels Reaction Engines also employs In- supersonic combustion ramjet engine, in WaveRider engine walls to provide conel but in a very different cooling or scramjet for short. conduction cooling. system and for a very different reason. Using JP-7 as a conduction coolant Slowing the air to subsonic speed cre- Keeping their cool had an additional benefit. “As that fuel ates even more friction and heat. The Because of friction, the air flowing travels through the walls of the en- air is simply too hot to compress and over a hypersonic vehicle gets exceed- gine, it becomes a supercritical gas. feed into the combustion chamber, ingly hot, posing a thermal challenge And therefore, when you take that and so it must be cooled. This will be for engine designers. Temperatures in- fuel and collect it, [and] then you put done inside a heat exchanger, or pre- side the WaveRider vehicles rose to as it into the combustor and burn that cooler, comprised of 1-millimeter-wide high as 1,870 degrees Celsius. To deal fuel, the fuel is prepared better to tubes – thousands of them – coiled in with this heat, the team built the en- burn,” says Joseph Vogel, director of layers. These tubes won’t contain fuel,

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 11 Reaction Engines Ltd as was the case with WaveRider channels. Instead, they will use helium that has been cooled by the craft’s liquid hydrogen fuel. “The helium passes through the heat exchanger and is cooled down directly by the hydrogen at a single point in the system,” Haynes explains, “and then after the helium emerges from the pre-cooler, it’s heated up by the incoming airflow. So you end up with very hot helium” — and very cold air. Cutaway: The SABRE engine mounted on one of Skylon's two nacelles. The engine’s revolutionary elements The process is quick and efficient, involve the cooling system, says the company. Haynes adds. At Mach 5, air sucked into the engine goes from 1,000 Cel- 4.5 and above, air would hit the front says Haynes. So for Skylon, the team sius to -150 Celsius in one-hundredth of the vehicle, get compressed and en- moved the two SABRE engines for- of a second, and a frost control system ter the engine. Inside the scramjet, the ward to establish a center of gravity, keeps the moisture from turning into oxygen mixed with propellant, was ig- and placed them at the tips of the ice and clogging the heat exchanger. nited and then expelled out the back wings so the spaceplane would stay Then, as the chilled air moves onto of the engine with the exhaust. There clear of its own exhaust. As for the na- the turbo-compressor, the now-hot he- were no moving parts. celles, they droop a bit so the intake lium helps drive that compressor be- One of the challenges was starting cone can better take advantage of air- fore cycling back through the pre- the engine. The WaveRider needed to flow during airbreathing mode. cooler. And the process begins all be boosted to a speed of Mach 4.5 to “Essentially, the rocket engines are over again. start the engine, which is why booster angled one way, to keep the direction The pre-cooler and frost control rockets were needed. At that speed, of thrust pointed towards the center of system are the revolutionary elements ethylene was sprayed to heat the en- gravity, and the airbreathing engines of SABRE, Haynes says. “Reaction En- gine and initiate combustion. For fuel, are pointed the opposite direction in gines has been working on this tech- the WaveRider’s scramjet engine used order to capture as much air as possible nology for the last 10 to 20 years, ba- JP-7 — the kind used by the SR-71 during the ascent,” Haynes explains. sically figuring out a way of making a Blackbird — in both vapor and liquid In airbreathing mode, the cone in- heat exchanger compact and light form. “We transition to the JP-7 once take is open, allowing air to rush in. enough…to fly it on this sort of vehi- it’s hot enough, and we’re off to the Some of that flow passes through the cle,” he says. races.” By contrast, SABRE is designed center of the engine, where it is In March 2012, engineers at Reac- to operate from a standing start on the cooled, compressed and passed along tion tested a demonstration pre-cooler runway without special preparation or to the injectors and, finally, expelled at the company’s B9 test facility, near additives. out the rocket nozzles as exhaust. Abingdon. The test system used a Rolls- Meanwhile, the rest of the air passes Royce Viper Mk 535 turbojet, helium Sleek and balanced uncooled around the engine, going loop system, and, to save money, liquid Unlike the WaveRider, which looks through a ring of bypass burners be- nitrogen instead of hydrogen. The next sleek and straightforward, the Skylon fore exiting SABRE. step will be to test the thermodynamic mockup resembles a plane with no A single-stage-to-obit plane is a cycle of the system. Finalization of the cockpit, with droopy nacalles, one on lofty goal, and that might not be the engine design is scheduled to begin in the tip of each wing. There is one first application for airbreathing hy- November, and test flights are tenta- SABRE per nacelle — though in rocket personics. Strike weapons will proba- tively scheduled for 2019. mode each SABRE effectively com- bly come first, predicts aerospace en- In terms of design, the WaveRider prises two engines. The shape of Sky- gineer Charlie Brink, deputy director and Skylon blueprints are nothing lon reflects the lessons learned from a of the U.S. Air Force Research Labora- alike. WaveRiders resembled cruise previous spaceplane program called tory’s High Speed Systems Division. missiles with air inlets under their flat, HOTOL for Horizontal Take-Off and “That suite of propulsion technologies tungsten-covered noses. The inlet fed Landing. The U.K. cancelled that pro- [as exemplified by the WaveRider] is, an Aerojet Rocketdyne SJY61 scramjet gram in 1988. I would say, ready today or in the engine – meaning a supersonic com- The HOTOL engines were placed very near term to provide the capabil- busting ramjet in which the air flowed at the rear of the vehicle, a rocket- ity, if our decision-makers so desire.” supersonically throughout the engine. style arrangement that made the craft Erik Schechter As the vehicle traveled along at Mach fairly unstable in ascent and re-entry, [email protected]

12 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 4–7 AUGUST 2014 SAN DIEGO, CALIFORNIA

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14-194 Case Study

Shaping the things to come

Near the forward avionics bays of the U.S. Navy’s two X-47B experimental planes are titanium alloy components that were made by melting metal powder into a complex shape a layer at a time. The components were built by CalRAM, short for California Rapid Manufacturing, a 10-person company that got its start in 2005 partly through a congressional earmark. CalRAM co-founder Dave Ciscel gives a glimpse of how such additive processes could revolutionize aerospace manufacturing.

Typically, the ducts and flow tubes Northrop Grumman shows that cus- of an aircraft’s warm air mixer are tomers are beginning to embrace made by pouring metal into casts additive manufacturing and EBM in and welding the finished pieces to- particular. In the months and years gether. CalRAM, the company I co- to come, we are confident that EBM founded in Simi Valley, Calif., figured will perform well compared to other out how to build warm air mixers as additive techniques, such as a ver- a single piece (including complex in- sion of EBM called wire feed, where ner structures) by using an electron solid metal, not powder, is melted, beam to melt titanium powder a and laser sintering, in which pho- layer at a time. This is illustrative of tons heat metal so it can be formed our part count reduction ability; very into shapes without melting it. significant for the aerospace world, The X-47B warm air mixers were where up until now each of the multi- not considered flight-critical compo- ple pieces produced by conventional nents, but we have no doubt that the methods had to be designed, built, military and FAA will one day allow inspected, tracked, inventoried and EBM components to be used for such then assembled. Furthermore, each applications. The economics of addi- joint becomes a potential failure tive manufacturing are just too com- mechanism. By eliminating these in- pelling not to seize the opportunity. terfaces, part count is reduced, relia- Our EBM process requires no custom bility is increased and delivery sched- tooling to recreate broken or worn ules are compressed. parts that might no longer be in pro- The X-47B’s warm air mixers are duction. A component can be laser Dave Ciscel is a retired Air Force lieutenant among the hundreds of devices Cal- scanned and turned into a CAD file, colonel and acquisition RAM has made with the electron and in about two weeks we can de- expert. He co-founded beam melting — EBM — technique liver a finished component. We cal- CalRAM in 2005 with since our founding in 2005. We be- culate that with EBM, our customers materials engineer John Wooten. lieve the Navy’s willingness to in- in the aircraft maintenance, repair clude them at the urging of and overhaul market can cut 85 per-

14 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 A Navy X-47B UCAS at Palmdale, Calif.

Northrop Grumman cent to 90 percent off the cost of re- Our engineers have solved duce material up to five times faster placing titanium parts. For engineers many challenges to bring EBM man- than laser methods. Additionally the who are working on entirely new air- ufacturing to today’s high level of re- EBM process creates a cleaner mate- frames, CalRAM can deliver a proto- liability. Using proprietary software rial than the laser process due to type part within about two weeks of we digitally slice existing 3-D design the vacuum environment in which receiving a CAD file. Further itera- models into a series of separate lay- EBM works. tions can follow the same manufac- ers, much as a modern CAT scan A challenge we faced was to turing path, significantly reducing a machine does. With this software prevent sagging and swelling during client’s time to market. ready to direct the melting, powder the build. We solved this by learning Our process takes place inside can then be spread on the start plate to add small, temporary titanium an EBM machine provided by the by the rake in the build chamber. struts to physically support the part, Swedish company Arcam AB, whom Layers are typically btween 0.000050 if necessary, as it takes shape. The we’ve been working with since our meters and 0.000070 meters thick. supports also act as thermal and elec- founding. Current is run through a The first layer is sintered to the plate trical shunts from the melt pool, so filament to produce an electron by heat from the electron beam, and that each layer cools at a precise rate, beam. A series of magnetic coils fo- then melted by a second higher en- which is a key to preventing swelling cuses this beam into an enclosed ergy pass. Each successive layer is of the material as it solidifies. build tank that receives titanium alloy sintered to the previous layer to en- The machine also must operate powder from two hoppers, one on sure a conductive path for the elec- within a precise temperature win- either side. A small rake — the only trons. The second pass consolidates dow — about 700 C for Ti-64. If the moving part in the machine — the material into shape. We repeat powder is not hot enough, it won’t spreads the powder across the com- this process layer-by-layer, until the sinter to the preceding layer and ponent a layer at a time. The beam is entire part is complete. Since parts electrical charge will build up. If steered across the powder by varying are formed directly in the powder that happens, the powder will repel the magnetic field. It sinters and then bed, EBM is fast, with maximum itself and go airborne as a fine dust melts the powder on the build plat- build times that are normally less resembling smoke that can block form precisely as planned in the CAD than 60 hours. We calculate that be- the electron beam gun. But if the file. We use Ti-64 powder, an alloy of cause of the higher energy of the operating temperature is too hot, titanium with 6 percent vanadium electron beam compared to lasers (3 the material will swell. Staying in and 4 percent aluminum. kilowatts vs. 700 watts), we can pro- the precise temperature window be-

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 15 Case Study

tween smoke and swelling was an early issue that’s been resolved with the advent of more reliable EBM Electron beam column machines. A goal in any additive process is Inside Filament to avoid oxygen contamination of the titanium melt. EBM minimizes contamination by operating in a vacuum the instead of an inert gas environment, as in laser sintering. This leads to improved microstructure with excellent beam mechanical and physical properties. The high temperatures used during machine Lenses EBM (700 C for titanium and up to 1,000 C for nickel-based superalloys and other materials) leave parts stress-free after cooling, eliminating Heat shield the need for separate post-build ther- Vacuum Powder Powder mal treatments to develop full tita- chamber hopper hopper nium mechanical properties. As good as EBM has become, Electron beam there remains room for innovation. The size of parts we can make is limited by the size of the build CalRAM makes aerospace components Rake Powder chambers in the EBM machines. Ar- by raking metal powder onto a platform Build Start tank plate cam and others are working on and melting it into shape with an Build larger machines. Also, there is cur- electron beam, one layer at a time. platform rently no database that designers The process is an example of additive can consult to learn about the prop- manufacturing. erties of EBM-built parts. That is Source: CalRAM Inc. slowing adoption of the technology. Also, the surfaces of finished components are somewhat rough. This is because particles adjacent to the be done by filing the part, blowing melt pool are melted a little bit as air over it or loading it in a chuck each layer is added. For many com- and machining it. Those finishing ponents, the roughness is not an is- processes add cost and are an area sue. But for some parts, cleanup ripe for innovation. work is required. This can Overall, however, EBM is giving designers new options for in- corporating Ti-64 into their plans. Engineers love titanium because of its strength at high temperatures, but those on the business sides of their companies CalRAM Inc. or agencies have often been de- terred by its high cost and design challenges. Our EBM process is beginning to shift that calculus. Engi- Northrop Grumman neers might soon be able to choose titanium where they are today using Close-up: Warm air mixers are located near the avionics bay on each X-47B. CalRAM used an aluminum or steel — in short, all electron beam melting technique to manufacture over the aircraft. the components in one piece, a layer at a time. Dave Ciscel [email protected]

16 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Continuing Education Courses and Workshops

31 July–1 August 2014 Cleveland, Ohio 3–4 August 2014 San Diego, California Hybrid Rocket Propulsion Decision Analysis Instructor: Joe Majdalani Instructor: John Hsu Summary: The purpose of this course is to Summary: Different decision analysis methods present and discuss fundamental theory will be introduced starting from the traditional alongside research ﬁndings with emphasis trade study methods; then continue to trade on unsolved problems, open questions, and space for Cost as Independent Variable (CAIV), benchmark tests. Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHV) which is part of the Analytic Network Process (ANP), Missile Propulsion Design, Technologies, and Weighted Sum Model (WSM), Potentially All System Engineering Pairwise Rankings of All Possible Alternatives Instructor: Eugene Fleeman (PAPRIKA), and Decision Analysis with Uncertain information/data. Summary: Attendees will gain an understanding of missile propulsion design, missile propulsion technologies, launch platform integration, missile propulsion system measures of merit, and missile propulsion system development process.

The Application of Green Propulsion for Future Space Instructors: Alan Frankel, Ivett Leyva, and Patrick Alliot Unparalleled Summary: Topics include a brief history of hypergols; what is considered green and what is driving the green propulsion movement; Expertise figures of merit and lessons learned in the development of green propellants; flight The AIAA Continuing Education experience and applications for the various Program offers more than just courses. classes of satellites; and challenges for current and future green thrusters and systems. With your course participation, you will also receive a year of AIAA member 2nd AIAA Propulsion Aerodynamics Workshop benefits – including savings on AIAA Summary: The focus of the workshop will be publications, journal subscriptions, and on assessing the accuracy of CFD in obtaining multi-stream air breathing jet performance and so much more! flow structure to include nozzle force, vector and moment; nozzle thrust (Cv) and discharge (Cd) coefficients; and surface pressure prediction accuracy.

14-369 Honoring Achievement: An AIAA Tradition

AIAA Distinguished Service Award AIAA is proud to recognize the very best in our industry: Michael I. Yarymovych those individuals and teams who have taken aerospace President and CEO technology to the next level ... who have advanced Sarasota Space Associates the quality and depth of the aerospace profession ... Osprey, Florida who have leveraged their aerospace knowledge for the beneﬁt of society. Their achievements have inspired us to dream and to explore new frontiers. We celebrate our industry’s discoveries and AIAA Engineer of the Year achievements from the small but brilliantly simple William B. Blake innovations that affect everyday lives to the major Principal Aerospace Engineer discoveries and missions that fuel our collective human Aerospace Systems Directorate, Air Force Research drive to explore and accomplish amazing things. For Laboratory over 75 years, AIAA has been a champion to make sure Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio that aerospace professionals are recognized for their contributions. AIAA Fluid Dynamics Award Paul E. Dimotakis John K. Northrop Professor of Aeronautics and AIAA congratulates the following Professor of Applied Physics individuals and teams who were California Institute of Technology recognized from April 2014 to June 2014. Pasadena, California

AIAA Foundation Award for Excellence AIAA Aeroacoustics Award X-51A WaveRider Team Edward J. Rice The Boeing Company, Aerojet Rocketdyne, U. S. Air Force Aerospace Engineer (Retired) Research Laboratory (AFRL) NASA Glenn Research Center Award accepted by Charles Brink, AFRL; George Thum, Cleveland, Ohio Aerojet Rocketdyne; and Joseph Vogel, The Boeing Company

AIAA Goddard Astronautics Award AIAA Aerodynamic Measurement Technology Award Glynn S. Lunney NASA Flight Director and Program Manager Alexander J. Smits Rockwell Division President of Satellite Systems Eugene Higgins Professor of Mechanical and Aerospace Division, Seal Beach and Rockwell Space Operations Engineering Co. Houston Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering United Space Alliance Vice President and Program Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey Manager

AIAA Aerodynamics Award AIAA Ground Testing Award Michael S. Selig Jeffrey Haas Associate Professor Chief, Testing Division (retired) Aerospace Engineering Department Facilities and Testing Directorate University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign NASA Glenn Research Center Urbana, Illinois Cleveland, Ohio

AIAA Aircraft Design Award AIAA Hap Arnold Award For Boeing 787 Dreamliner Team Excellence in Aeronautical Program Seattle, Washington Management Award Accepted by Steven H. Walker Michael Sinnett, Vice President Product Development, Deputy Director The Boeing Company Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Arlington, Virginia

AIAA Hypersonic Systems and AIAA Piper General Aviation Award Technologies Award Mark D. Maughmer John I. Erdos Professor of Aerospace Engineering President and CEO (retired) Pennsylvania State University GASL, Inc. University Park, Pennsylvania Ronkonkoma, New York

AIAA International Cooperation AIAA Public Service Award Award Kathie L. Olsen John E. LaGraff Founder and Managing Director Emeritus Professor, Mechanical and Aerospace ScienceWorks Engineering Washington, D.C. Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York

AIAA James A. Van Allen Space AIAA Reed Aeronautics Award Environments Award Ben T. Zinn Stamatios M. Krimigis David S. Lewis, Jr. Chair, School of Aerospace Emeritus Head, Space Department Engineering and Regents’ Professor Johns Hopkins University/Applied Physics Laboratory Georgia Institute of Technology Laurel, Maryland Atlanta, Georgia

AIAA Losey Atmospheric Sciences AIAA Thermophysics Award Award Van P. Carey John Hallett Professor, A. Richard Newton Chair Research Professor Emeritus Mechanical Engineering Department Division of Atmospheric Sciences University of California at Berkeley Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada Berkeley, California

AIAA Multidisciplinary Design Daniel Guggenheim Medal Optimization Award (Sponsored by AIAA, AHS, ASME, and SAE) Robert A. Canﬁeld Abraham Karem Professor and Assistant Department Head President and Founder Aerospace and Ocean Engineering Karem Aircraft, Inc. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Lake Forest, California Blacksburg, Virginia

SAE/AIAA William Littlewood AIAA National Capital Section Barry Memorial Lecture M. Goldwater Educator Award Axel Krein Arthur F. “Rick” Obenschain Senior Vice President Research & Technology Deputy Center Director Airbus Group NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Bremen, Germany Greenbelt, Maryland

AIAA Plasmadynamics and Lasers Award John T. Lineberry President and General Manager (retired) LyTec LLC Manchester, Tennessee

14-357 Learning fast from MH370

The international aviation community The International Civil Aviation Organization reacted to the disappearance wants to put an airliner-tracking of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 by calling experts from more than 30 countries to a system in place to prevent more meeting in Montreal in May. As things stand, the world’s airlines and air traffic mysteries like that of Malaysia Airlines controllers have no system in place to track planes as they cross the world’s vast ocean Flight 370. And it wants to do so and desert regions. For the normally re- strained ICAO, the meeting’s official an- quickly. Natalia Mironova and nouncement amounted to a bureaucratic scream about the need to fix that problem. Philip Butterworth-Hayes examine ICAO said the goal was “to try and increase current momentum on deliberations over the options. the specific aircraft and satellite-based capabilities needed to permit global implementation of worldwide flight tracking.” Pundits and airline passengers were shocked in March to learn that a Boeing 777 like Flight MH370 could simply disappear into the black of night in this age of satellite phones, in-flight Wi-Fi and re- motely piloted aircraft. But those who gathered in Montreal were prob- Photo by Laurent Errera ably not surprised. Today, the passengers and crews of airliners are virtually on their own once they move beyond the approximately 290-statute-mile range of shore radars and radio towers. Before

20 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Copyright 2014 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics MH370 vanished, the desire for better surveillance had been driven mostly by the al- Boeing lure of cutting fuel costs by allowing planes to fly closer together and spend less time in holding patterns. The world is about to learn whether the mystery of Flight 370 will be enough to prompt the airlines and the world’s air navigation service providers — meaning the FAA and equivalent organizations around the globe — to finally resolve the technical, financial and policy challenges posed by global airliner tracking. Whatever technology is chosen, the goal would be to plug the radar “dead zones” that could, in the- Tamper proof? Fire concerns are making authorities hesitant to ory, put other jets at risk. over geosynchronous satellites and ground deny the crew the ability to turn What’s clear is that the aviation indus- gateways. Airlines use ACARS mainly to re- off GPS broadcasts. Shown here is try has a fresh determination: “I hope we ceive intermittent performance reports from an artist’s rendering of the cockpit learn more from Flight 370 than let’s have planes in flight so maintenance work on of Boeing's new 737 MAX family of aircraft. longer-life batteries,” says Allan McArtor, engines or electrical systems can be done chairman and CEO of Airbus Group, for- once the planes land. It is used less often to merly EADS North America, referring to relay navigation data. The maintenance calls for longer lasting black boxes. data arrives at airline operations centers via Time is of the essence. Coming out of radio links when the planes are over land the May meeting, ICAO set up a new Air- or via Iridium and Inmarsat satellites when craft Tracking Task Force to identify and as- they are over the oceans. As the world now sess the options. An ambitious deadline of knows, the satellite carrying ACARS data October 14 was set for a final report. kept shaking hands hourly with MH370 via an Inmarsat geosynchronous satellite, al- The choice though no data was sent. One camp would like to adapt the existing There is another camp, and this camp Aircraft Communications Addressing and would like to take advantage of the fact by Natalia Mironova and Reporting System to relay position data that airliners are starting to be equipped to Philip Butterworth-Hayes

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JJULY-AUGUST 2014 21 Association, which represents the interests of EXPANDED SURVEILLANCE the world’s airlines and Airlines are equipping planes to broadcast GPS locations to controllers via automatic dependent surveillance- leads the new task force. broadcast, ADS-B, services. These signals are meant for ground towers, but they also radiate to space, where new Iridium Which options or satellites would listen for them and track planes when they are out of range of towers. option would constitute near-term solutions? GPS satellite Iridium That’s unclear at this NEXT point. Flint says it will be up to the task force to GPS signal broadcast Iridium NEXT Position cross links identify those options.

Going global 1090 MHz ES The main alternative to (extended squitter the ACARS-Inmarsat pro- 290-mile range transmission format) posal comes from Aireon, oadcast the joint venture between Position br Control Iridium Iridium Communications, tower gateway Inc., and Nav Canada, the Data Data not-for-profit company ADS-B tower processing processing that owns and operates center center Canada’s air navigation IP-based networks Teleport network system. Aireon payloads Sources: FAA, Iridium, Exelis Illustrations by John Bretschneider will be installed on 66 Iridium NEXT satellites, which Iridium plans to begin launching next broadcast GPS coordinates via new auto- year, with the tracking service expected to matic dependent surveillance-broadcast, or start in 2017. Aireon is banking that its ADS-B, transponders, as required by the timetable will mesh well with installation of FAA under its NextGen air traffic control the ADS-B technology on airliners. Each air- modernization initiative. These transpon- craft’s avionics compartment (usually located ders broadcast GPS signals through anten- below the pilots) must be fitted with a nas positioned on the roofs and bellies of transponder box the size of a microwave planes so the plane doesn’t lose connectiv- oven that sends out the plane’s GPS location ity with receiving towers when it banks. data every 10 to 15 seconds to a ground- The signals are meant for those ground based data center, which processes the infor- towers, but they also radiate into space. mation and distributes it to the airlines and That’s where satellite operator Iridium and air traffic control. The FAA is already rolling the multinational venture called Aireon out ADS-B in U.S. airspace as part of the come in. Even before MH370 disappeared, NextGen initiative, and it will be mandatory Aireon executives were laying plans to lis- for all aircraft flying into the U.S. by 2020. ten in on ADS-B signals with antennas If ADS-B is going to be turned into a aboard Iridium’s forthcoming next-genera- tracking solution, it “needs a global roll- tion low-Earth-orbit satellites. out...not just in the U.S.,” cautions McArtor The task force is saying only that it of Airbus. wants to examine timely solutions. “The Aireon hopes to make ADS-B a global [task force] is focused on identifying near- system by fixing its one disadvantage: The term options for global tracking of aircraft. stations and towers that receive ADS-B One of the primary activities of [the task broadcasts and relay them to controllers force] will be to assess the products and are all on land, which limits coverage to services that exist today to see how they when planes are over land or within a few may be used to implement global flight hundred miles. tracking. Because the industry has commit- ADS-B has not been fully rolled out ted to an extremely aggressive timeline to aboard planes, but advocates note that the develop recommendations, it is imperative towers and networking equipment are in to limit the scope of the assessment,” says place and that aviation authorities beyond Perry Flint, spokesman for the Americas for the FAA are beginning to mandate it — al- IATA, the International Air Transportation though not yet the satellite version. “Europe

22 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 has a similar thing in place. And more and lines sometimes use it to transmit position more countries are moving to that model,” information. In this model known as ADS- says Ed Sayadian, vice president of air traf- C (the C standing for contract), the air- fic management at Exelis, which built and plane’s position message is automatically is maintaining the ground system for the broadcast to a requesting air navigation FAA’s portion of ADS-B and will also build service provider as part of an international and maintain the data management and dis- initiative called FANS for Future Air Naviga- tribution system for Aireon. According to tion System, using ACARS as the communi- Sayadian, the transition to satellite-based cations medium. A plane entering an au- ADS-B would be seamless for aircraft al- thority’s airspace establishes a real-time ready equipped with ADS-B transmitters communications “contract” after it’s re- because of the omni-directional nature of quested by air traffic control. The contract the antennas. spells out how often position information Even so, the FAA hasn’t signed on to be will be transmitted. This is different from part of Aireon just yet. Onboard so far are ADS-B, in which airliner positions are Nav Canada, the Irish Aviation Authority, broadcast almost continuously for anyone the Italian Company for Air Navigation with the right equipment to receive them. Services — known by the Italian acronym Inmarsat wants the airlines to make ENAV — and Naviair, which provides avia- greater use of ADS-C, and following the loss tion infrastructure in Denmark, Greenland of MH370, the company has offered to pro- and the Faroe Islands. vide this position reporting data for free. As Wayne Plucker, an aviation industry ex- Inmarsat aviation vice president David pert with global consulting firm Frost & Sul- Coiley explains: “What we’re trying to do is livan, says the “heavyweights” like the FAA stimulate the routine use of that capability and Eurocontrol will have to adopt Aireon globally other than the way that it’s currently for it to become a global standard for flight used for flight-tracking. What we would like tracking, and he says he is not convinced to see is more ANSPs take this up.” everyone is onboard yet. “There is still a lot Inmarsat-compatible communications of talking going on about data-sharing,” he antennas are already on 90 percent of the says. “No one wants a terrorist to use track- world’s widebody, long-haul airliners, Coiley ing information for ill use,” he adds. says. “There is no additional expenditure re- On top of that, making sure smaller quired or hardware, and the solution facil- and less financially stable nations can af- ity and the flight-tracking capability already ford to participate will be key to making exist on the aircraft. So it’s an immediate Aireon truly global. Aireon President and hit, an immediate improvement we are try- CEO Don Thoma tells Aerospace America ing to stimulate to encourage the broader that’s an issue Aireon’s partners have al- adoption of ADS-C positional reporting,” ready thought through: “To take advantage he adds. of Aireon’s service there are no additional SITA, the ACARS communication service charges that they already incur provider, has an idea for how to expand from ANSPs (air navigation service ADS-C smoothly. Prompted by the Montreal providers) and we expect those additional meeting, the company announced in June fees will be based on a net savings to the that it will offer what it called an enhanced airlines, as the cost of the Aireon service data sharing capability to complement In- will be less than the value of fuel saved,” marsat’s proposal. The SITA AIRCOM he explains by email. Server Flight Tracker service would allow an airline’s flight dispatchers to access ADS- The case for existing technology C data currently only available to air navi- The ACARS proponents say they have an gation service providers. edge, because while ADS-B transponders But ACARs has its own limitations as a are being installed in some planes, ACARS flight tracking service. The service relies on is already aboard many more. ACARS data geosynchronous satellites whose positions link service providers SITA of Geneva and over the equator limit how far north or south ARINC of Annapolis, Md., have been using they can reach, and so some regions are un- Inmarsat and Iridium satellites to comple- covered. There is the problem of reliability ment the VHF and HF radio communica- and security — a new back-up and system tions used over land. monitoring network will be needed to en- The primary role of ACARS has been sure the space-based and ground-based sys- maintenance messages, but even now air- tems are operating to the required standards.

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 23 Airliner surveillance: Iridium's Aireon venture plans to use the forthcoming Iridium NEXT satellites to gather up position broadcasts.

Aireon

Tamper proof? sure bulkhead. “But then you would need Besides the logistics of data sharing and af- to re-consider aircraft certification issues,” fordability issues, one topic keeps coming says David Gleave, an aviation accident in- up in discussions about onboard tracking vestigator based in the U.K. Today, long- devices — all of them can be turned off by haul aircraft must be ready to fly on battery the pilot. The Flight 370 mystery has been power alone for 30 minutes. Adding a flight punctuated by speculation that someone — tracking device would increase the load on the flight crew or perhaps terrorists — inten- the batteries, and this could mean that tionally switched off or disabled the com- many aircraft would not be able to operate munications equipment that would transmit for the required 30 minutes. position data. Inmarsat is exploring a potential solu- So far, no one has proposed a device tion to the “off switch problem” independ- that would be locked away in a tamper-proof ently of the free flight-tracking service the box with its own wiring and power source, company is offering. The one piece of similar to the way airliner black boxes oper- equipment that stays on even if the avionics ate. The main reason for that is the pilot’s are turned off is the aircraft’s antenna, need to be able to turn off avionics or any- which sends hourly signals to the satellite thing else electrical in case of fire, be it with with the airplane’s unique code to ensure an off switch or a circuit breaker. It’s a safety continuous connectivity. This is known as issue, according to the pilots. The Interna- “handshaking.” It provided the only clues tional Federation of Air Line Pilots’ Associa- about MH370’s possible flight path after tions “supports the concept of global tracking other communications were lost. of aircraft; however, as with any issue related Handshaking, however, is not a great to aviation, there needs to be a safety and tool for flight tracking — the updates hap- cost benefit analysis for procedures and/or pen only once an hour and the signal equipage proposals,” says Valerie McLeod, a doesn’t include any position data, so the spokeswoman for the federation. “IFALPA is direction of flight had to be calculated from not in favor of simply making aircraft com- the angle between the aircraft and the munications equipment ‘tamper proof’ — the satellite. Coiley says Inmarsat is working to ability to turn off electrical equipment in the fix that. “What Inmarsat is evaluating at the aircraft in the event of a malfunction or elec- moment is enhancing the handshake capa- trical fire is essential.” bility — the signaling capability in our net- One solution could be to place the work to actually include positional report flight tracking device in a part of the aircraft data. It is currently possible for us to en- that cannot be accessed by the flight crew hance the handshake to include position — such as in the tail behind the rear pres- data,” he says.

24 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Policy questions This is the work that ICAO is currently Whether the international community will undertaking after Montreal, separately embrace Aireon or sign on to Inmarsat’s from the airliner tracking task force. The proposal depends on how a host of institu- data-sharing is likely to be based on the tional challenges are resolved. Agreement current system, in which the communica- would be needed about which class of air- tions service providers (ARINC and SITA) craft must be covered. Should the smallest distribute aeronautical telecommunications type of aircraft be required to engage in data to different clients, but use the same the global flight tracking service? If an air- core system. line’s aircraft is never out of radar range, is Not all governments are waiting for it really necessary to re-equip with a sat- those questions to be sorted. In early May com transmission system? Where does the India’s civil aviation regulator instructed information go? Directly to the nearest air Indian airlines to track all aircraft in real navigation service provider, or to a ground time using onboard ACARS or ADS-B. It station that would automatically distribute ordered flight crews to report aircraft co- the information to the relevant en-route, ordinates, speed and altitude every 15 approach or airport centers? Who would minutes while flying over areas not cov- be responsible for tracking the aircraft’s lo- ered by radar. cation against the flight plan, and alerting One thing experts agree on is that mak- first the crew then the appropriate security ing airliner tracking global will require in- and safety organizations in case the aircraft novation and compromise. As Frost & Sulli- did not return to its agreed flight plan? van’s Plucker says, “It’s a study in How fast should the data update rate be? international conundrums. There is not a What sort of timescale should be consid- good answer at this point.” Or at least not ered for implementation? an easy one.

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Growing concerns over U.S. dependence on Russia’s RD-180 engine for launching Atlas 5 rockets led to the recently released “Mitchell Report,” named for the chairman of the panel that studied the issue. Marc Selinger explains the report’s recommendations and looks behind the scenes at the long-simmering controversy.

hen the U.S. signed quisition decision memorandum” — or ADM an agreement in 1994 — directing the Air Force to develop an to import RD-180 equivalent to the RD-180 on its own or be- rocket engines built come a co-producer of the engine, meaning by Russia’s NPO En- a second nation to build RD-180s — not that ergomash, many de- it would build them jointly with Russia. Wfense officials figured the U.S. would one “I am deeply troubled by dependence day get around to doing what a panel of on Russian-produced RD-180s for its space experts chaired by retired Air Force Maj. lift,” Young wrote in cursive at the bottom Gen. H.J. “Mitch” Mitchell now recom- of the one-page document. “I want to see a mends it should do: figure out how to pro- robust, aggressive, fully funded plan to de- pel the first stage of the Atlas 5 without re- velop a new engine, co-produce RD-180s, lying cooperation with Russia. Specifically, or both!” the Mitchell report recommends a domesti- Young tells Aerospace America that in cally produced engine. light of the “long history of roller-coaster No one through the years was clairvoy- relations” between the United States and ant enough to predict that a Russian deputy Russia, it was too risky to rely on Russian prime minister would tweet a threat to cut engines for vital space launches. That con- off the supply of RD-180s because of ten- cern is reflected in his memorandum, sions over Ukraine. But U.S. defense and which tells the Air Force to “maintain a intelligence officials were not unaware of sufficient RD-180 inventory to ensure ac- the risk they were taking. Some inside the cess to space in the event of a disruption Pentagon argued that Boeing-built Delta 4 in the supply of Russian engines. This in- rockets could back up the Atlas 5 rockets if ventory is intended to allow for the the inventory of RD-180s at a United smooth transition to a new engine for At- Launch Alliance manufacturing plant in De- las 5 or for the orderly transfer of payloads catur, Ill., ran out. Mitchell recommends to the Delta 4 system.” making sure payloads are also compatible As a Georgia Tech-educated aerospace with Delta 4s, but cautions there is no op- engineer, Young also strongly believed that tion that would fully replace the RD-180s the U.S. military could — and should — use through fiscal 2017. American-made engines. Most recently, in 2007, then-Pentagon “I saw it as a matter of national pride,” by Marc Selinger acquisition chief John Young penned an “ac- recalls Young. “In a nation that created the

28 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Copyright 2014 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Source of controversy: The two thrust chambers on the RD-180 engine on an Atlas 5 rocket. The U.S. depends on the Russian-built engine to power the rocket’s first stage.

NASA AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 29 aerospace industry — or the vast majority of it — we were using Russian engines. That was never a satisfying condition for me.” Despite Young’s effort, Air Force funding for a new or co-produced engine never materialized, and Young says the issue fell by the wayside when he left office in 2009. “It just got buried in the Pentagon budget process,” Young says. The Air Force, in a prepared statement, said it “did continue R&D efforts to ‘improve understanding’ [of the RD-180] as di- rected by the ADM. Those efforts continue to inform the ongoing review of the issue and any decisions that may be made.” U.S. lawmakers are also concerned about continued reliance on Russian engines. The House Appropriations Commit- tee has proposed spending $220 million in fiscal year 2015 to begin developing a new U.S.-made engine.

Starting anew? The Mitchell panel estimates it would take six years to develop a new engine, which is typical, even aggressive, for a new rocket engine program, industry officials say. The program would begin with two years Standby: A Boeing Delta 4 lifts off. of technical risk-reduction efforts, followed Some in the Pentagon have argued United Launch Alliance that if the RD-180 engine became by four years of full-scale development. unavailable, this heavy-lift rocket The risk reduction Blasting off: An Atlas 5 launch at Vandenberg Air Force Base. could fill in for the Atlas 5. An angry tweet by a Russian official during the Ukraine crisis phase would cover threatened to cut off the supply of RD-180 engines that standard issues for a power the rocket’s first stage. new engine, including pre-burner and main- of utilizing alloys that can withstand an chamber combustion oxygen-rich combustion environment like stability, the injector that inside the RD-180 — an environment and turbo-pump de- that can burn parts absent the right engi- signs, and metallurgy neering solution. technology. “There are not many things you would U.S. rocket experts start with 40-year-old technology, and say developing a new rocket engines are no exception,” one in- engine would be dustry official says. preferable to learning Also, an agreement allowing the U.S. to to make the RD-180 in co-produce the RD-180 expires in 2022, and the U.S. Domestic pro- there is no guarantee Russia would approve duction of the RD-180 renewing that agreement, especially with would save little time U.S.-Russian relations tense over Ukraine. or money and would On the other hand, developing a new en- use a 40-year-old de- gine would create its own set of challenges. sign, these industry of- The 46 Atlas 5 launches powered by the ficials say. One prob- RD-180 have gone well. “If we do a new en- lem is that Russian gine, there will be no track record,” Young engineers protect met- says. “We’re going to have to start over and als parts inside the RD- we’re going to be taking some risk. But I be- 180s by applying coat- lieve…the U.S. should have the capability ings. The U.S., by and the national will to have a rocket engine contrast, would prefer industrial base that can launch any payload the newer approach we need to launch.” Boeing 30 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 AND CONNECT NETWORK

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14-223 Atmos

The desire by Google and Facebook to make broadband boosts but don’t have to be constantly moving to stay aloft. Engineers have yet to prove access truly ubiquitous is breathing new life into work that batteries or fuel cells can function reli- on atmospheric satellites – aircraft or aerostats that ably on a solar-powered plane for months at a time. Aerostats have the advantage that would ﬂy for months at time. Debra Werner examines they can be reeled down to change their the technology. batteries. But if too much maintenance is required or their lightweight materials can’t withstand the elements, then their economic T he financial world was abuzz earlier this advantages disappear quickly. year with rumors that Facebook was about Enter the impressive financial resources to pay $60 million to buy Titan Aerospace. of Google and Facebook. Observers are be- Out of nowhere came Google, with a plan ginning to wonder aloud whether the pri- to buy the 14-person unmanned plane vate sector’s research dollars can be com- maker for an undisclosed sum. bined with the research to date to make Why would two online giants be locked this the age of the atmospheric satellite. in a tug-of-war over a small company spe- cializing in solar-powered drones? Busi- nesses like Facebook and Google know that two-thirds of the world’s people don’t have Internet connections of any kind, and they see long-duration aircraft as a potentially cost-effective way to soar beyond an obvi- ous roadblock to their long-term growth. Facebook and Google, which completed the Titan acquisition in April, are not alone in sensing the potential of long-duration aircraft. For more than two decades, government agencies and aerospace heavyweights have dabbled in attempts to build airplanes and aerostats that would spend months or years in the stratosphere, relay- ing communications, providing surveillance and serving as stand-ins for satellites. Some refer to their proposed craft as atmospheric satellites, and their key advantage over the orbiting kind would be their relatively low cost and ease of launch. So far, the technical challenges have been too much for these craft to pose competition to satellites, by Debra Werner which need occasional station keeping

“In the last 5 years, the aeronautical that would have to han- technology needed, the actual structural as- dle the journey upward Qinetiq pects as well as solar panels have become through wind and more efficient and the storage mechanism weather to calmer skies for the electrical energy have become much above 18 kilometers. better. We are now finding a situation Some atmospheric where it is possible to build a solar pow- satellites have achieved ered plane we were originally looking at impressive results. over a decade ago,” says David Grace, head Zephyr, an unmanned of the communications and signal process- aircraft built by Qine- ing research group at England’s University tiq, a defense technol- of York. ogy company based in Zephyr, developed by U.K.-based Farnborough, England, set an endurance Qinetiq. The unmanned solar Why it’s hard record in 2010 when its 50-kilogram plane aircraft set an endurance record in 2010, remaining Virtually limitless flight would require get- with a 22.5-meter wingspan remained air- airborne for 14 days. ting to the stratosphere in a light airframe borne for 14 days. Earlier this year, a high-

Artist’s rendering of Solara 50, designed to stay airborne for five years. The plane is under development by Titan Aerospace, the New Mexico company purchased by Google in April. Titan Aerospace AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 33 altitude balloon built by Raven Aerostar, an with a wingspan of 50 meters, but they’ve aerospace company with headquarters in advertised a goal of keeping it aloft for five Sioux Falls, S.D., demonstrated its ability to years. “It’s very early days for Titan Aero- keep a high-altitude balloon aloft for 77 space, but they have designed, built and days. [See “Flying around the world on so- tested early prototypes and components as lar power,” Page 5.] a proof of concept,” says a Google Many more projects have failed because spokesman. “We aren’t providing details of the enormous financial investments re- about these tests — except to say they have quired and the significant technical chal- shown that atmospheric satellites have the lenges. The challenges posed by long-en- potential to solve problems that Google has durance aircraft are very different from long been interested in, such as Internet ac- those of a “conventional airliner, which after cess and disaster relief.” a mission duration of a few hours, can be brought down and repaired,” Grace says. Power progress He knows the problem well. A decade No aircraft has come close to the five-year ago, he served as principal scientific officer mark. In 2010, the Defense Advanced Re- for Capanina, a European Union project search Projects Agency awarded Boeing an that tested the ability of high-altitude craft, $89-million contract to develop an un- including balloons, airships and unmanned manned solar-powered plane capable of solar-powered planes, to relay wireless and lifting 450 kilograms above 18 kilometers optical communications. When Capanina and keeping it there for five years. Within funding ran out in 2008, aeronautical tech- two years, DARPA scaled back the effort to nology simply was not ready for long-dura- focus on the project’s major obstacles: solar tion airship or unmanned aircraft missions. and fuel cell technology. Since then, solar panels, batteries, fuel Extremely efficient solar panels can cells and composite structures have im- provide aircraft, aerostats and their onboard proved. “We are now finding a situation electronics with enough power for daytime where it is possible to build a solar-pow- operations. To keep electronics humming ered plane we were originally looking at through the night requires some way to over a decade ago,” Grace says. turn the solar energy into electricity and Google’s Titan Aerospace agrees. Com- store it. That means batteries or fuel cells, pany officials declined to say what per- which have not yet been able to demon- formance they have achieved to date with strate the energy density needed for long- Solara 50, a 15.5-meter-long solar plane term unmanned aircraft flights.

AeroVironment’s Helios prototype used battery power and solar cells. It was the precursor to Global Observer.

NASA 34 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Companies have made incremental is another piece of the progress. “People who have been able to puzzle that must be demonstrate high energy density in the lab found. Much of the have not been able to turn that into a prac- weight of a solar-pow- tical battery that can have useful life in the ered plane is reserved Inc. AeroVironment, field,” says John Langford, chairman and for energy storage, so chief executive of Aurora Flight Sciences, the aircraft body is an unmanned aircraft developer in Manas- made of lightweight sas, Va. “The batteries begin to fall apart af- carbon fiber composites ter 30 to 50 charge cycles, and that is not that can be vulnerable enough.” to atmospheric turbu- AeroVironment, a technology company lence. “There are ques- focused on unmanned aircraft, energy and tions about how well electric vehicles in Monrovia, Calif., experi- the aircraft will hold up AeroVironment’s Global Observer mented with batteries and regenerative fuel in the high-altitude environment, but we’ve is hydrogen powered. The first prototype crashed in 2011 after cells when it built the Helios Prototype, an done reasonable amounts of testing, and I spending 18 hours airborne; a unmanned flying wing with a 61-meter think that’s a very manageable engineering second plane is nearly finished. wingspan that set an altitude record in problem,” Langford says. “In our analysis 2001, reaching 29.5 kilometers during a we’re pretty convinced we can build a so- flight that lasted nearly 17 hours. That flight lar-powered airplane where the structure relied on batteries. In testing on the will not be the limited life item. ground, AeroVironment engineers proved they also could use solar panels to elec- Balloon science trolyze water into hydrogen and oxygen For high-altitude balloons, materials are during the day and reverse the flow at night everything. “Nobody has been able to fig- to produce electricity. “It worked, but it ure out how to get a lightweight, low-cost, ended up being a complex system; and not clear, very reliable material into the strato- inexpensive,” says Steve Gitlin, AeroViron- sphere, where the temperature swings 40, ment vice president for marketing strategy 50 or 60 degrees in a day-night cycle, and and communications. keep it there,” says Lon Stroschein, vice After Helios, AeroVironment executives president and general manager for Raven decided their best bet for achieving persist- Aerostar. “It’s harder than rocket science.” ent high-altitude operations with existing Raven Aerostar has been developing technology was to ditch solar power alto- high-altitude balloons for 50 years. The gether. “We spent millions of dollars and work gained momentum in 2013 when concluded if you’re interested in providing Google began supporting Raven Aerostar’s seamless coverage over the tropics, there’s work through Project Loon, the search gi- probably enough solar energy year-round,” ant’s effort to use a group of high-altitude Gitlin says. “To operate in other areas, you balloons to establish aerial wireless net- need some other solution.” works to provide communication links for For AeroVironment, the solution is hy- rural and remote populations. drogen power. With funding from the U.S. The super pressure helium balloons Defense Department and the U.S. Depart- that Raven Aerostar builds for Project Loon ment of Homeland Security, the company stand 12 meters high and have a diameter developed Global Observer, a hydrogen- of 15 meters when inflated. They are made powered plane with a 53-meter wingspan of translucent polyethylene plastic that is that can fly at an altitude of 17 to 20 kilo- about as thick as a Ziploc sandwich bag. meters for five to seven days. By swapping The material’s clarity helps to minimize the aircraft weekly, Global Observer can pro- impact of ultraviolet rays and lets sunlight vide persistent coverage, Gitlin says. pass through the balloon to the solar panels AeroVironment conducted test flights that hang below. of its first Global Observer prototype from As the balloons are carried by stratos- 2007 until 2011, when it crashed after pheric winds in a circle around the globe, spending 18 hours airborne. The firm is they must withstand enormous pressure. At nearly finished building a second Global the hottest time of the day, the balloon’s Observer and looking for customers to fund polyethylene plastic, which is buttressed by additional demonstration flights, Gitlin says. 2-centimeter-thick tendons that run from top Companies that continue to pursue so- to bottom, must withstand 30,000 pounds of lar-powered flight say materials technology (Continued on page 41)

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 35 MARSBRAKING TECH

Landing plan: A NASA drawing shows an inflatable drag device and parachute.

NASA

36 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Copyright 2014 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics NASA has entered the test phase of an ambitious program to develop inﬂatable drag devices and mammoth parachutes for landing heavier things on Mars, including the many tons of life-support equipment human explorers would require. Leonard David examines NASA’s eﬀorts.

ne of NASA’s greatest triumphs of Density Supersonic Decelerator project, By Leonard David innovation came when the Curios- with low density referring to the challenge ity rover dangled to the surface of of slowing down a heavy object in the thin Mars from its Sky Crane module. Martian atmosphere. At stake is whether As impressive as those moments were,O other parts of the descent could have been mistaken for the Viking spacecraft landings of 1976. Curiosity used a Viking-era parachute design. That was fine for the one-ton rover. NASA knows that stronger atmospheric braking technology will be required to land heavier robots and hardware to sustain human explorers on Mars. An inflatable drag vessel will surely have to be added to the entry vehicle, and a larger parachute — perhaps several — will be required. Viking 1, the orbiter With that on their minds, engineers at that delivered the NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in first Mars lander in Pasadena are coming to the crucial flight 1976. The same basic test phase of a five-year, $200 million plan parachute design has been used ever since. to develop and evaluate new braking technologies. The initiative is called the Low NASA AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 37 Clean room: At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA workers prepare the saucer-shaped low-density supersonic decelerator for shipment to Hawaii, NASA JPL where it will be launched into near-space for testing.

NASA will be able to check a key box on Creating drag the list of breakthroughs that might con- Adler’s team began the project in 2010, and vince skeptics about the feasibility of send- so far it has devised a 30.5 meter-diameter ing people to the red planet. To be sure, parachute – almost twice the width of the there are questions about the design of the 16-meter chute that slowed Curiosity — rocket to get there and the ability of hu- and two different versions of inflatable drag mans to survive the radiation environment devices, known as SIADs, short for Super- on Mars. Those questions are moot if the sonic Inflatable Aerodynamic Decelerators, agency can’t land heavier things. or SIADs. A SIAD would be inflated around The Viking landers were launched four the periphery of the entry vehicle to slow it decades ago, and “Since that time we have to less than Mach 2 from speeds greater not done any tests of supersonic flight of than Mach 3.5 The giant parachute or para- these things, and we just relied on test chutes would be unfurled after the SIAD data,” says Mark Adler, project manager for does its job of slowing the capsule enough the braking technology work at JPL. that the chute wouldn’t be ripped apart. “With Curiosity we landed a ton on The engineers are glad to be ending Mars. To land humans it’s something like in the long test hiatus after the Viking mis- the 40-ton range. You can’t go from one to sions. “We have been standing on the 40 tons in one fell swoop. You have to take shoulders of those tests for all of our Mars some steps in-between,” says Adler. “So parachutes used since. What makes this we’re taking the first steps along that path, [test program] much more challenging than also increasing the Mach number.” those early tests is the larger size and mass

38 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 of the systems we are testing,” says Rob titude of 120,000 feet using a 34-million cu- Manning, chief engineer for the low-density bic foot research balloon to be released braking project. from a tower at the Navy’s Pacific Missile So far, NASA has tested the big para- Test Range on the island of Kauai. At that chute and a SIAD at the Navy’s China Lake, altitude, pyrotechnics will release the vehi- Calif., range using a rocket sled designed to cle and a split second later, four solid roar across the desert floor. To test the rocket motors are to stabilize the capsule’s parachute, a rope was run through a attitude. This ensures it is pointed correctly ground pulley and attached to the sled. The when an ATK Star-48 solid motor kicks on parachute was released and once fully to blast the vehicle up to the top of the opened, the sled’s rockets were fired. As stratosphere — 160,000 to 180,000 feet — and the sled raced ahead it pulled the parachute a velocity of Mach 4. At that point, the ve- toward the ground and imparted the de- hicle should be positioned approximately sired loads — some 90,000 pounds of force. horizontally. More parachute and SIAD tests at China “Then the vehicle is ready to conduct Lake are planned for later this year. the technology experiments at the proper JPL engineer Mike Meacham says that Mars-flight-like conditions,” Adler says. the quest for much larger supersonic para- As the vehicle plunges back toward the chutes has, in the past, relied on wind tun- ocean the SIAD inflates at Mach 3.8 to de- nel data. However, the parachutes were celerate it to Mach 2.7, at which point a getting so large that they no longer could fit small chute called a ballute pulls out the into wind tunnels. 30.5-meter parachute. The craft splashes “We needed a way to apply this same down about 40 minutes after it was re- type of wind in a controlled way and we leased from the balloon and is recovered. had to get outside the building,” Meacham The need to accelerate the vehicle cre- says. “You want to go to Mars. You want ated an engineering challenge. “The Star 48 to go big…then you’ve got to test big here motor plume will be releasing a huge on Earth,” he says, so “You got to be a lit- amount of radiative heat, so we have lots tle crazy sometimes if you want to do and lots of blankets to protect the vehicle,” crazy things.” Adler says. The engineers set out to make a larger chute with a new shape, called a supersonic disk sail parachute. Proving the capa- “With Curiosity we landed a ton on Mars. bility of such a large diameter parachute is To land humans it’s something like in the 40-ton range. not to be underestimated. Supersonic parachutes are “fickle devices,” says Ian Clark, You can’t go from one to 40 tons in one fell swoop. the principal investigator for the Low Den- You have to take some steps in between, so we’re sity Supersonic Decelerator work at JPL. “When we have to use them like we taking the first steps along that path, also increasing do at Mars, it’s behind a very large, blunt the Mach number.” vehicle. That vehicle is screaming through the atmosphere. It’s punching a hole in the — Mark Adler, NASA JPL atmosphere. All the air is rushing in behind it to fill the vacuum that it’s creating,” he says. “That creates a very turbulent, “It’s much, much more complicated very unsteady environment for the para- than the steel structure we put on the chute to live in. You need a particular kind rocket sled,” he adds. “But what we did of parachute.” learn is how to integrate SIAD onto the vehicle and make sure we knew how to inter- Simulating a Mars descent face it with the inflation devices. We The sled tests were a good start, but the showed that it deployed properly.” team needed a way to more realistically Last month, the team was waiting for simulate the forces that the parachute and the winds to ease enough at Kauai to con- SIAD would encounter during the descent duct the first of three planned stratos- to the surface of Mars. The engineers de- pheric tests — one this year and two in cided to attach cameras to a test article of 2015. The team expects a rich bonanza of the size and shape of an entry vehicle and information once the vehicle is recovered. send it up to the stratosphere. A plan was How did the SIAD survive the event? Did drawn up to slowly loft the vehicle to an al- it start to rip and is there thermal damage?

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 39 NASA

Rocket power: A deceleration device on a rocket sled test fixture at China Lake, Calif. NASA wants to go to the stratosphere next.

How did the parachute fare? TRL-5, meaning a less-refined breadboard Adler will consider the first flight a suc- technology. cess if the test vehicle is launched to the “They have similar mass, so the 8-meter proper speed and altitude. He describes it would be more efficient,” Adler explains. as a “shakeout flight” to see how the test approach works. Any information about the Good to be testing again SIAD and parachute he considers a The flight tests will mark the first time “bonus.” Lessons will be applied to the since the 1970’s that NASA has tested flights next year. large deceleration devices at supersonic One version of the inflatable device is speeds. called SIAD-R, with R short for robotic. This The tests from Kauai would be the most version is six meters across and is the ver- ambitious steps yet to go beyond that tech- sion that Adler was trying to test from Kauai nology. in June. It is meant to be paired with the “It’s been quite a while getting to this next version of the Curiosity rover, which point,” Adler says, comparing the work to would be a bit larger than a ton. It would be “a spacecraft development.” inflated with pressurized hot gas. The sec- An optimistic Adler says the technolo- ond version is called SIAD-E, with E short gies tested now might be used as early as for exploration. It’s for payloads in the 3- NASA’s proposed 2020 Mars rover mission, ton, 5-ton or 10-ton class. Scoops on its side which is now being scoped out. would pull air in at 2,000 miles per hour, in- But his team has even greater ambi- flating the SIAD to the proper shape. tions. One idea that’s blossoming would be “They are somewhat competitive, but it to use a cluster of three to five of the 30.5 is the 6-meter that will be brought to Techni- meter diameter parachutes to place perhaps cal Readiness Level (TRL-6)” — meaning a 15 tons on Mars. prototype or representational model — “and “Getting the humans down on Mars ready for use in a project,” Adler says. doesn’t require that much mass. But it’s not The exploration version is more exper- going to do them much good to land…and imental and is planned to be brought to not have a place to live,” Adler notes.

40 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 Satellites whose founders helped to build early ver- (Continued from page 35) sions of the record-setting Zephyr. Ascenta employees will work with a team of experts force. “Making sure all those pressures are in aerospace and communications technol- balanced and the balloon does not meet its ogy in Facebook’s Connectivity Lab, the or- ultimate demise in a burst takes a lot of ganization responsible for spreading Inter- solid engineering,” Stroschein says. net access, which Zuckerberg calls, “a Earlier this year, a Loon balloon spent 77 human right.” Internet.org did not respond days in the stratosphere as it circumnavi- to requests for comment on its atmospheric gated the southern hemisphere. Raven satellite projects. Aerostar will continue to push for longer du- Although atmospheric satellites have ration and to address other vexing issues like not proven their ability to establish commu- Raven Aerostar

A Raven Aerostar high-altitude balloon. The craft is part of Project Loon, Google’s effort to create a network of balloons to provide wireless communications to remote populations.

station-keeping. While no one expects bal- nication networks, Facebook and Google loons to remain in place, operators do need must believe it’s possible or they would not to have some control over their location. invest in the technology, says Michael Raven Aerostar gains that control by using a Blades, Frost & Sullivan Aerospace and De- ballonet to make the balloon ascend or defense senior industry analyst. Even if un- scend to the appropriate level in the strato- manned aircraft can spend only six months sphere where it can catch a ride on winds aloft instead of five years, Google and Face- that will move it in the proper direction. book could reap enormous savings by us- Since 2012, Grace and his European ing aircraft rather than satellites to establish Union colleagues have set aside plans for communication networks, because high-al- high-altitude aircraft and worked on devel- titude solar aircraft would cost a fraction of oping low-altitude tethered aerostats to re- the price of a single satellite. And at the end store communications in the wake of earth- of a flight when the aircraft lands, Google quakes, hurricanes or other disasters. “This and Facebook can upgrade the onboard is a very tried and trusted technology that sensors or communication equipment, gives you the benefit of the aerial perspec- Blades says. tive,” says Grace, lead investigator for Proj- Titan Aerospace and Ascenta are two ect ABSOLUTE — Aerial Base Stations with of many firms recently gobbled up by Opportunistic Links for Unexpected and Google and Facebook. In late 2013 and Temporary Events. “You get the coverage early 2014 alone, Google purchased seven you want with quick deployments.” robotics companies. Google and Facebook Still, Grace has not given up on unteth- companies are willing to spend money on ered missions. “High-altitude platforms, in interesting technologies in the hope that general, need investments which Facebook some of them will pay off down the road, and Google would be able to provide,” says Rich Kapusta, marketing vice presi- he says. dent for Alta Devices, a Sunnyvale, Calif., manufacturer of thin, flexible solar power Pushing back films. The company, according to Kevin Not to be outdone by Google, in March Jones, research associate professor at the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg an- Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, nounced Facebook’s purchase of Ascenta, Calif., is becoming the DARPA of the com- an aerospace company based in the U.K. mercial world.

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 41 25 Years Ago, July 1989 director general of Aeroflot, says the Soviet airline is now ready to open direct, non-stop air service between the USSR and the U.S. It will be another four July 24 The European Space Agency years, however, before the service begins: The Moscow-New York route opens launches two communications satellites in 1968, 10 years after negotiations for the service started. Flight International, — one French and one German — on an July 16, 1964, Page 86. Ariane rocket. NASA, Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1986-1990, Page 273. July 11 The USSR orbits a pair of scientific satellites, Elektron 3 and Elektron 4, on a single rocket. Both satellites are to study and make simultaneous Fifty Years Ago, July 1964 measurements of the Earth’s magnetic field, cosmic radiation, and radiation July 5 About 30 light aircraft representing belts. Washington Evening Star, July 11, 1964; Aviation Week, July 20, 1964, France, Switzerland and Austria fly en Page 23. masse across the English Channel to commemorate Louis Blériot’s historic July 11 Japan launches its most advanced research rocket, the three-stage first flight over the same course, made Lambda 3, from the Kagoshima Space Center, up to an altitude of 600 miles, nearly 55 years earlier on July 25, 1909. to gather data on the upper atmosphere. Washington Post, July 12, 1964. Flight International, July 9, 1964, Page 41. July 16 Boeing announces plans to build the Boeing 737 short- to medium-range twinjet narrow-body July 5 The Library of airliner. The 737 series enters production Congress distributes Braille in 1967 and becomes the best-selling jet translations of books on airliner in the history of aviation, with more space exploration to 30 large than 7,500 aircraft delivered and the plane still city and state libraries, it is in production 50 years later. Flight International, announced. The library publishes July 23, 1964, Page 127; Boeing 737 file, National these works under a NASA grant. Las Air and Space Museum. Cruces Sun-News, July 5, 1964. July 16 The joint Ryan-General Electric XV-5A, an July 5 The European Space Research experimental lift-fan jet-powered very short takeoff Organization launches its first solid- and landing aircraft developed for the Army, makes propellant British Skylark sounding rocket its first flight at Edwards Air Force Base, Calif. Flight to an altitude of 125 miles at the Salto di International, July 23, 1964, Page 123. Quirra range on the island of Sardinia, Italy. The rocket carries two chemical July 20 Space Electric Rocket Test 1 is launched cloud experiments for investigating by a solid-propellant Scout booster from Wallops photo-ionization and diffusion of gases Island, Va. The 375-pound spacecraft confirms that in the upper atmosphere. The launch electrostatic, or ion, engines can produce thrust in space. Even though their marks the start of a planned eight-year levels of thrust are minuscule, these engines have very high exhaust velocities launch program. New York Times, July 11, and theoretically could propel vehicles into deep space for long-duration missions. 1964, Page 5; Aviation Week, July 13, Scout carries two engines, one built by the NASA Lewis Research Center and 1964, Page 26; Flight International, July 16, the other by Hughes Aircraft. They use mercury 1964, Page 117. and cesium propellants, produce 0.0637 and 0.001 pounds of thrust, respectively, and are July 6 An Atlas-Agena D rocket mounted on opposite sides of the craft. launches Elint, a U.S. electronic American rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard intelligence-gathering satellite, as a first thought of electric propulsion for spacecraft “piggyback” payload with a KH-7 as early as 1906. Flight International, July 30, high-resolution reconnaissance satellite, 1964, Page 196. at Vandenberg Air Force Base, Calif. D. Baker, Spaceflight and Rocketry, Page 168. July 27 Rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard is posthumously named the winner of the 1964 Daniel Guggenheim Medal. Goddard created the first July 7 In a statement broadcast on liquid-powered rocket, one of his many achievements cited in the award. Moscow radio, Gen. Yevgeni Loginov, Washington Evening Star, July 27, 1964.

42 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 An Aerospace Chronology by Frank H. Winter and Robert van der Linden

July 28 The 806-pound Ranger 7 space probe departs Cape corps. Sir Robert Saundry, “Air Kennedy, Fla., for the moon. Launched on an Atlas-Agena Bombardment,” Page 10. rocket, the probe carries six TV vidicon cameras to take and relay close-up views of the lunar surface 17-18 minutes before July 7 Robert H. Goddard takes impacting. Ranger 7 follows the failed attempts of its six out his second predecessors and becomes the first U.S. space probe to transmit patent, No. close images of the lunar surface back to Earth. New York Times, 1,103,503, for July 29, 1964; D. Baker, Spaceflight and Rocketry, Page 169; a “Rocket Aviation Week, Aug. 3, 1964, Pages 18-19. Apparatus.” It is the first of his July 29 West Germany’s two-jet VJ101 vertical takeoff aircraft, developed by inventions to Boelkow, Heinkel, and Messerschmitt, exceeds the speed of sound in a test flight. feature a liquid- Washington Post, July 31, 1964. propellant rocket. E. Goddard and And During July 1964 G. Pendray, eds., “The Papers of Robert H. Goddard, Vol. III,” Page Pan American Airways announces it will adopt inertial navigation for its 48 Boeing 1651. 707s and the seven more it has ordered. It is the largest electronic equipment purchase ever made by an airline. The system chosen is the new Sperry New York July 11 Walter L. Brock becomes SGN-10. Flight International, July 30, 1964, Page 171. the first man to travel from London to Paris and back in one day when 75 Years Ago, July 1939 he wins the London to Paris air race, July 8 German aircraft designer Adolf Rohrbach dies at age 55 in Berlin. One of flying a Morane monoplane. The his most remarkable craft was the Staaken E.4/20 of 1919 which was made of Aeroplane, July 15, 1914, Pages 49, duraluminum, had a wingspan of 101 feet, could seat 12-18 passengers, had a 66-68, 70-71. toilet and separate luggage space, and flew at approximately 140 mph. Passengers entered the plane from the nose. The aircraft was scrapped, however, by the Inter-Allied Control Commission because it believed the plane had military potential and would therefore violate Treaty of Versailles stipulations. Flight, July 13, 1939, Page 41; Interavia, July 14, 1939, Page 9.

July 17 The prototype of the Bristol Type 156 aircraft, later known as the Beaufighter, makes its inaugural flight. C. Barnes, Bristol Aircraft Since 1910, Page 292.

July 25 The Avro Type 679 twin-engined heavy bomber, later known as the July 18 U.S. military aviation takes Manchester, makes its first flight. The Rolls-Royce Vulture engines are the first step toward independence underdeveloped, but replacing these with four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines when Congress establishes the improves the plane. Renamed the Aviation Section of the U.S. Army Lancaster, it becomes Signal Corps. G. Swanborough and P. one of the greatest Bowers, United States Military Aircraft heavy bombers of Since 1909, Page 1. World War II. A. Jackson, Avro Aircraft July 28 Royal Navy Lt. Arthur Since 1908, Page 354. Longmore makes the first test drop of a standard naval torpedo from an 100 Years Ago, July 1914 aircraft, a Short Folder Seaplane, at Calshot, near Southampton, England. July 1 The British Admiralty decides to form its own air force and creates the D. Wragg, “Wings Over the Sea,” Royal Naval Air Service. The Army’s Royal Flying Corps is given the status of a Page 18.

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 43 25 Years Ago, August 1989 a light plane. The Harmon awards are to be presented in a White House ceremony on Sept. 14. New York Times, Aug. 2, 1964, Page 78.

Aug. 10 Paul Haney of the NASA Public Affairs office at the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston announces that NASA will not use a paraglider-type landing system for the recovery of the two-man Gemini capsule. The paraglider system, which has been under development since the Gemini program began in 1961, was to have enabled the capsule to land on a runway after its return from space rather than parachute into the ocean. Instead, NASA will use the more Aug. 25 The Voyager 2 space probe conventional water-landing system, although experimental development and makes its closest approach to Neptune, testing of the paraglider will continue. Houston Post, Aug. 11, 1964. coming within 3,042 miles and making more discoveries. There are several rings Aug. 19 Syncom 3, the world’s first geostationary satellite, around the planet and huge storm is launched by a Thrust-Augmented Delta rocket from Cape systems on the large moons Triton and Kennedy, Fla. Four hours later the communications satellite Nereid. The spacecraft also measures receives and broadcasts recorded music — “The Star Spangled the fastest wind speed yet found on any Banner” — as well as voice and teletype messages. From its planet in the solar system, near Neptune’s position over the Pacific, the satellite can communicate with Great Dark Spot. Voyager 2, launched in surface stations at Clark Air Force Base in the Philippines, at 1977, has traveled for 12 years. Its sister Guam, and at Camp Roberts in California. The plan is for the probe, Voyager 1, encountered Saturn. satellite to transmit TV pictures of the coming 1964 Olympic After passing Neptune, Voyager 2 heads Games from Tokyo. New York Times, Aug. 20, 1964, Page 51. for interstellar space. NASA, Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1986-90, Pages 228- Aug. 25 Explorer 20 is launched from the Western Test Range in California by 229; Flight International, Jan. 24-30, 1990, a four-stage Scout solid-propellant rocket. The satellite, nicknamed Topsi, is Page 22. used to map the ionosphere and relay the data back to Earth. The findings are to be compared with those gathered by the Canadian-developed Alouette 50 Years Ago, August 1964 “topside sounder” satellite. Aviation Week, Aug. 31,1964, Page 25. Aug. 1 The French Dragon two-stage solid-propellant sounding rocket is fired Aug. 25 The North American Aviation to an altitude of 275 miles from a site in XB-70A makes two taxi tests at its Iceland, according to an announcement Palmdale, Calif., plant. In one of the by France’s National Center for Space tests, the aircraft attains a speed of Research. The rocket carries 140 mph and the drag chute is instruments to measure the energy deployed for the first time. The XB-70 and direction of particles from the Valkyrie had been the prototype version Van Allen radiation belts. of the proposed six-engined B-70 Missiles & Rockets, nuclear-armed deep-penetration Aug. 10, 1964, strategic bomber, but President John Page 11. F. Kennedy cancelled the program in March 1961, in part for budgetary reasons. However, two prototypes were built as the XB-70A for use in supersonic test Aug. 2 The Clifford flights, and these tests use one of those two planes. The first flight of the XB-70A B. Harmon Trust announces that takes place on Sept. 21, and the test flights continue into 1969. Aviation astronaut and Air Force Maj. L. Week, Aug. 31, 1964, Page 25; North American XB-70A file, National Air and Gordon Cooper Jr. will receive Space Museum. the 1964 Harmon International Aviator’s Trophy for his 34-hour Aug. 28 The Nimbus 1 experimental meteorological satellite is launched into orbital spaceflight, Mercury- a polar orbit by a Thor-Agena-B rocket at the Western Test Range. On the Atlas-9, made on May 15-16, 830-pound satellite’s sixth orbit, it begins transmitting weather photos. Nimbus 1963. Others receiving the trophy is far more advanced than the Tiros satellites and carries a high-resolution will include aviatrix Betty Miller, infrared radiometer that is the first to be flown in a meteorological satellite. for her solo transpacific flight in Although Nimbus 1 is designed for testing and evaluating new sensors and

44 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 An Aerospace Chronology by Frank H. Winter and Robert van der Linden

monitoring equipment, it does lead buyer of this advanced German single-engined fighter; the first was Switzerland. to the creation of eight more Nimbus Interavia, Aug. 18, 1939, Page 6. satellites. Washington Evening Star, Aug. 29, 1964; D. Baker, Spaceflight Aug. 26 The first Japanese round-the-world goodwill flight, sponsored in part by and Rocketry, Page 170. a Tokyo newspaper chain, begins at Tokyo. A Mitsubishi twin-engine transport monoplane named Nippon, with a crew of six, heads first to Sapporo, 1,000 75 Years Ago, August 1939 kilometers away. The Nippon is a modified Type 96 attack aircraft, also known Aug. 1 Congress authorizes as the G3M2 bomber. The aircraft then flies to Alaska and the lower U.S., South construction of a second research America, Africa, Spain, Italy, India and Siam, and then back to Tokyo, covering station for NACA, the National 32,846 miles in 55 days in a total of 194 flying hours. The flight ends on Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Oct. 20. Aircraft Year Book, 1940, Page 434. at Moffett Field, Calif. The station is later renamed the Ames Aeronautical Aug. 27 Erich Lab, after Joseph S. Ames, president Warsitz secretly emeritus of Johns Hopkins University. completes the Ames, a member of NACA from its world’s first flights inception in 1915 to 1939, was its of a jet-propelled chairman between 1927 and 1939. aircraft, at Heinkel’s E. Emme, ed., Aeronautics and Marienche airfield in Astronautics 1915-60, Page 38. Germany, flying a Heinkel He-178. The engine is a Heinkel Aug. 1 Trans-Canada Airlines starts HeS 3b designed by Hans Pabst commercial radio ground-to-aircraft von Ohain. J. Smith and A. Kay, German Aircraft of the Second World War, and aircraft-to-ground services, Page 291. without charge to passengers, on the 100 Years Ago, August 1914 transcontinental run. Interavia, Aug. 22, 1939, Page 5. Aug. 2 World War I begins when Germany attacks Luxembourg. The following day, as the German army enters Belgium, the first aerial bombardment of the war Aug. 11 An Imperial Airways Caribou is made by a German airplane, over Lunéville, France. On Aug. 6, the Germans flying boat reaches Southampton, make their first bombardment by dirigible, the Zeppelin Z VI, on the square of England, completing the first British Liège, Belgium. C. Christienne and P. Lissarague, “A History of French Military round-trip transatlantic air mail Aviation,” Page 61. service. Aircraft Year Book, 1940, Page 434.

Aug. 14 Messerschmitt delivers the first batch of an order of Bf 109 single-seat fighters and Bf 108 trainers to the Yugoslav air force in Belgrade. Yugoslavia is the second foreign

Aug. 19 An Avro 504 piloted by Lt. Vincent Waterfall of the Royal Flying Corps’ Number 5 Squadron becomes the first British aircraft destroyed in combat when it is shot down during a reconnaissance mission over Belgium. F. Mason and M. Windrow, Know Aviation, Page 17.

Aug. 20 A Zeppelin falls to anti-aircraft fire, becoming the first airship known to be destroyed in the war. The craft was flying at 2,500 feet and crossed a field in the forest of Badonvillers, near Epinal, France, where a solitary 66-type field gun is stationed and shoots it down. The Aeroplane, Nov. 18, 1914, Pages 429, 440.

AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 45 Career Opportunities

FACULTY POSITION AVAILABLE DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, COLLEGE PARK The Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Maryland, College Park (http://www.aero.umd.edu) is seeking highly qualified candidates for a tenure- track faculty position in the focus area of rotorcraft engineering who will be a key Fly High with member of the internationally recognized Alfred Gessow Rotorcraft Center. Candi- dates with demonstrated technical expertise, creativity and leadership are sought in UMaine Engineering rotorcraft aeromechanics and experimental aerodynamics, in both conventional and future configurations of vertical lift aircraft. Candidates must have demonstrated a Study Aerospace proven record or high potential for excellence in instruction, development and execution of externally funded research programs, and mentorship of students. Engineering ONLINE The Dept. of Aerospace Engineering (AE) is a dynamic and growing department with starting this fall 24 faculty, six named faculty professorships and annual research expenditures of ap- with MEE 445 proximately $16M. The department has strong research and instructional programs in several core areas, including: aerodynamics and propulsion, smart and composite Aeronautics structures, space systems, rotorcraft, autonomous vehicle systems, and hypersonic vehicle systems. Close proximity to key elements of the federal research and develop- Sign Up Today ment infrastructure can lead to substantial opportunities for collaborative research in 1. start with MEE 445 problems of national interest and importance. 2. counts toward a For best consideration, a cover letter, curriculum vitae, research and education plan, certificate in Aerospace and the names of at least four references should be submitted online by September Engineering and 1, 2014: 3. Professional Science ejobs.umd.edu Masters in Engineering Information on the Department is available at the following website: www.aero.umd. & Business edu. The University of Maryland, College Park, actively subscribes to a policy of equal employment opportunity, and will not discriminate against any employee or applicant engineering.umaine.edu/aero because of race, age, sex, color, sexual orientation, physical or mental disability, religion, ancestry or national origin, marital status, genetic information, or political affiliation. The University of Maine is an equal opportunity/ affirmative action institution. Minorities and women are encouraged to apply.

46 AEROSPACE AMERICA/JULY-AUGUST 2014 ACHIEVE MORE THE AIAA CAREER CENTER IGOR SIKORSKY DISTINGUISHED PROFESSOR OF ROTORCRAFT DEPARTMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING JOB BOARD—THOUSANDS OF UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND, COLLEGE PARK JOB POSTINGS The Department of Aerospace Engineering (AE) at the University of Maryland, Col- lege Park (http://www.aero.umd.edu), which is home to the Alfred Gessow Rotorcraft CAREER TIPS Center, is seeking a world-class distinguished and leading scholar as a candidate for the Igor Sikorsky Distinguished Professor of Rotorcraft, which is a tenured faculty PROFESSIONAL RESUME WRITING position at the rank of full professor. The position is named after the inventor of the modern, multi-engine helicopter and founder of Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation. CAREER COACHING Candidates with outstanding accomplishments, creativity, and leadership are sought in all areas of research related to rotorcraft, including autonomous flight operations, SOCIAL NETWORKING/PROFILE flight control and system identification, aeromechanics, composite structures, and DEVELOPMENT advanced computer aided manufacturing. Candidates should have a proven record of excellence in instruction or development of educational materials, development and REFERENCE CHECKING/ execution of externally funded research programs, and mentorship of colleagues and EMPLOYMENT VERIFICAVERIFICATIONATTION students. In addition, candidates should have a strong interest and a track record of working with industry in areas of innovation, and technology transition. DISCOUNT TEST PREP SERSERVICES/RVVICES/ The Department of Aerospace Engineering’s undergraduate and graduate programs PRINCETON REVIEW TEST PREP are consistently ranked by US News and World report amongst the Top Five public aerospace engineering departments in the nation with its graduates highly sought after by leading corporations throughout the world. It is a dynamic and growing department with 21 faculty, six named faculty professorships and annual research expenditures of approximately $16M. The department has a vibrant research and educational environment in several core areas, including: aerodynamics and propulsion, smart and composite structures, space systems, robotics, rotorcraft, autonomous systems, and hypersonic systems. Close proximity to key elements of the federal research and development infrastructure can lead to substantial opportunities for collaborative research in problems of national interest and importance. For best consideration, a cover letter, curriculum vitae, research and education plan, and the names of at least four references should be submitted online by September 1, 2014 to: ejobs.umd.edu Information on the Department is available at the following website: www.aero.umd. edu. The University of Maryland, College Park, actively subscribes to a policy of equal employment opportunity, and will not discriminate against any employee or applicant because of race, age, sex, color, sexual orientation, physical or mental disability, religion, ancestry or national origin, marital status, genetic information, or political affiliation. Minorities and women are encouraged to apply.

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B16 AIAA BULLETIN / JULY–AUGUST 2014 Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach, Fifth Edition Daniel P. Raymer July 2012, 800 pages, Hardback ISBN: 978-1-60086-911-2 List Price: $109.95 AIAA Member Price: $84.95

This best-selling textbook presents the entire process of aircraft conceptual design—from requirements deﬁnition to initial sizing, conﬁguration layout, analysis, sizing, optimization, and trade studies. Widely used in industry and government aircraft design groups, Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach is also the design text at major universities around the world. A virtual encyclopedia of aerospace engineering, it is known for its completeness, easy-to-read style, and real-world approach to the process of design.

Special Features and Concepts Discussed: t .PSFUIBOQBHFTPGEFTJHONFUIPET JMMVTUSBUJPOT UJQT explanations, and equations t 0WFSWJFXTPGMPGUJOH TVCTZTUFNT NBJOUBJOBCJMJUZ QSPEVDJCJMJUZ vulnerability, and stealth t $PODFQUTBOEDBMDVMBUJPONFUIPETGPSBFSPEZOBNJDT TUBCJMJUZBOE of the control, propulsion, structures, weights, performance, and cost Winner eld t $PWFSBHFPGDPOWFOUJPOBMBOEVODPOWFOUJPOBMEFTJHONFUIPET Summerﬁ JODMVEJOH6"7 DBOBSE UBOEFNXJOH $XJOH PCMJRVFXJOH ok Award asymmetrical, multi-fuselage, wing-in-ground-effect, and more Bo t 750- IFMJDPQUFS TQBDFDSBGU MBVODIWFIJDMF IZQFSTPOJD BOE airship design t "EWJDFPOIPXUPCFDPNFBOBJSDSBGUEFTJHOFS t &MFDUSJDBJSDSBGU CBUUFSJFT GVFMDFMMT BOETPMBSDFMMT t (SFFOBJSQMBOFT JODMVEJOHCJPGVFMT (5- IZESPHFO NFUIBOF Buy Both and Save! and nuclear t "DUJWFBFSPFMBTUJDXJOHBOEBEWBODFEUBJMMFTTDPODFQUT Aircraft Design Fifth Edition Textbook and win RDSwin Student: Software for Aircraft Design, Sizing, RDS Student software ISBN: 978-1-60086-921-1 and Performance, List Price: $159.95 Enhanced and Enlarged, Version 6.0 AIAA Member Price: $124.95 $%30. ISBN: 978-1-60086-920-4 List Price: $109.95 AIAA Member Price: $84.95

5IFDPNQBOJPO3%4win Student aircraft design software is a valuable DPNQMFNFOUUPUIFUFYU3%4win Student incorporates the design and analysis methods of the book in menu-driven, easy-to-use modules. An extensive user’s manual is provided with the software, along with the complete data files used for the Lightweight Supercruise Fighter design example in the back of the book. Now runs on the Windows operating system. 12-0170-3d Order 24 hours a Day at arc.aiaa.org Suitable for all reading levels, the Library of Flight series encompasses a wide variety of general-interest and reference books, including case studies. Appropriate subjects include the history and economics of aerospace as well as design, development, and management of aircraft and space programs. FEATURED TITLES Eleven Seconds into the Unknown: A History of the Hyper-X Program Curtis Peebles 342 pages This is the highly-anticipated sequel to Peebles’ first book on the X-43A/Hyper-X project, Road to Mach 10: Lessons Learned from the X-43A Flight Research Program. A central theme of the Hyper-X story is how disparate groups and organizations became a unified team working toward a common goal.

ISBN: 978-1-60086-776-7 “Perfect for those interested in high-speed ﬂight, aerospace List Price: $39.95 history, the organization and management of technological AIAA Member Price: $29.95 projects, and the future of spaceﬂight.” Skycrane: Igor Sikorsky’s Last Vision John A. McKenna 136 pages The Skycrane was the last creation of aircraft design pioneer Igor Sikorsky. In SKYCRANE: Igor Sikorsky’s Last Vision, former Sikorsky Aircraft Executive Vice President John A. McKenna traces the development of this remarkable helicopter from original concept and early sketches to standout performer for the military and private industry.

ISBN: 978-1-60086-756-9 “An inside look at the continual innovation and perseverance List Price: $39.95 required for the creation and development of one of the world’s most AIAA Member Price: $29.95 unusual helicopters.” – Michael J. Hirschberg, Managing Editor, Vertiﬂite magazine

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