Wind:!Myth,!Fact,!And!Faith!In!The!Development!Of!Wind!Knowledge! In!Early!Modern!England! ! By!

Home , Anemoi, East Wind (train), Francis Beaufort, Free Zone (Scientology), Great Storm of 1703, Hunting (Succession)

The!Nature!of!the!Wind:!Myth,!Fact,!and!Faith!in!the!Development!of!Wind!Knowledge! in!Early!Modern!England! ! by!

Risha!Amadea!Druckman!

Department!of!History! Duke!University! !

Date:______! Approved:! ! ______! Gunther!Peck,!Supervisor! ! ______! Katherine!Morrissey!

______! Edward!Balleisen!

______! John!Huston!

______! Laurent!Dubois!

Dissertation!submitted!in!partial!fulfillment!of! the!requirements!for!the!degree!of!Doctor! of!Philosophy!in!the!Department!of! History!in!the!Graduate!School! of!Duke!University! ! 2015! ! i

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ABSTRACT!

The!Nature!of!the!Wind:!Myth,!Fact,!and!Faith!in!the!Development!of!Wind! Knowledge!in!Early!Modern!England! ! by!

Risha!Amadea!Druckman!

Department!of!History! Duke!University! !

Date:______! Approved:! ! ______! Gunther!Peck,!Supervisor! ! ______! Katherine!Morrissey! ! ______! Edward!Balleisen! ! ______! John!Huston! ! ______! Laurent!Dubois! !

! An!abstract!of!a!dissertation!submitted!in!partial! fulfillment!of!the!requirements!for!the!degree! of!Doctor!of!Philosophy!in!the!Department!of! History!in!the!Graduate!School!of! Duke!University! ! 2015!

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! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Copyright!by! Risha!Amadea!Druckman! 2015! !

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Abstract

Historically,!the!wind!has!functioned!in!multiple!capacities,!both!physically!and! symbolically.!The!following!study!explores!the!ways!in!which!natural!history,!myth!and! folklore,!craft!knowledge,!and!religion!contributed!to!a!growing!body!of!knowledge! about!the!wind!at!a!moment!in!British!history!when!wind!knowledge!assumed! unprecedented!political!and!economic!significance.!How!did!people!come!to!know!the! wind!and!to!narrate!and!communicate!wind!knowledge!in!the!seventeenth!century?!

What!work!did!these!complex!and!competing!narrations!perform?!And!what!do!they! make!visible?!In!pursuing!these!lines!of!inquiry,!my!work!brings!together!three!principle! bodies!of!knowledge:!Environmental!History,!History!of!Science,!and!British!Imperial!

History;!and!it!draws!upon!documents!that!include!scientific!treatises,!written!records!of! oral!anecdotes!and!weather!wising,!religious!sermons,!travel!narratives,!fictional!novels,! and!imperial!correspondence.!I!argue!that!because!the!wind!and!wind!knowledge!were! ubiquitous!to!the!emerging!success!and!identity!of!the!British!empire,!a!great!variety!of! historical!actors!sought!to!control!and!narrate!what!wind!knowledge!was,!where!it!came! from,!and!what!political!work!it!should!do.!These!efforts!were!unequivocally!rooted!in! first!hand!experience!and!observation!of!the!wind—maker’s!knowledge—and!created! what!I!call!an!intellectual!commons!that!enabled!commoners!as!well!as!elites!to!shape!

! iv! ! and!briefly!control!the!contours!of!wind!knowledge!in!early!Modern!Britain!and!its! expanding!empire.!

! v! !

Dedication

For!my!mother!and!father,!Jennifer!and!Mitchell!Druckman,!my!brother!David!

Druckman,!and!in!loving!memory!of!Bear!and!Patricia!Rhoads.!!

! vi! !

Contents

Abstract!...... !iv!

List!of!Figures!...... !ix!

Acknowledgements!...... !x!

Introduction!...... !1!

Historiography!...... !8!

Methodology!...... !15!

Map!...... !20!

Chapter!1.!Francis!Bacon!and!the!History!of!Winds!...... !24!

Bacon’s!Plan!for!Intellectual!Reform!...... !30!

Aristotle!and!the!Ancient!Greeks!...... !42!

Naming!the!Winds!...... !49!

Wind!as!Thunder,!Lightening,!and!Earthquake!...... !51!

Bacon’s!History!of!Winds!...... !54!

Naming!the!Winds!...... !60!

Trade!Winds!...... !63!

Folklore!...... !68!

Wind!and!Sailing!Ships!...... !79!

Chapter!2.!William!Dampier!and!the!Political`Economy!of!the!Intellectual!Commons!...!87!

Science!and!the!Trade!Winds!...... !95!

Dampier!and!the!Trade!Winds!...... !120!

! vii! !

Pirates,!Slaves,!and!the!Trade!Winds!...... !138!

Chapter!3.!Blowing!Out!the!Candle!of!Reason:!England!and!the!Great!Storm!of!1703!..!179!

Wind!in!Ancient!Greek!Mythology!...... !198!

The!Great!Storm!...... !210!

Science!and!the!Great!Storm!...... !223!

Religion!and!the!Great!Storm!...... !239!

Chapter!4.!Wind,!Narrative,!and!Discourse!...... !266!

Sailor!Lore!...... !273!

Wind!Knowledge!at!Sea!...... !296!

Travel!Narratives!...... !308!

Hurricanes!...... !322!

Wind!and!the!Novel!...... !336!

Religion!and!Science!...... !350!

Conclusion!...... !360!

Bibliography!...... !373!

Biography!...... !401!

! viii! !

List of Figures

Figure!1:!“Dock!Scene!at!a!British!Port,”!Jacob!Knyff.!...... !25!

Figure!2:!“A!View!of!the!General!and!Coasting!Trade`Winds! !in!the!Great!South!Ocean.”!...... !116!

Figure!3:!“England’s!Great!Storm”!(Artist!unknown).!...... !179!

! ix! !

Acknowledgements

I!have!been!fortunate!to!receive!outstanding!support!and!mentorship!from!my! department,!professors,!and!colleagues!at!both!Duke!University!and!the!University!of!

Arizona.!I!would!like!to!thank!the!members!of!my!committee!for!supporting!my! intellectual!and!professional!growth,!as!well!as!my!personal!development,!each!in!their! own!special!way.!And!I!would!like!to!thank!my!advisor,!Gunther!Peck,!for!nurturing!my! intellectual!creativity!and!exploration,!for!encouraging!me!to!take!risks,!and!for!keeping! the!bar!high.!This!work!was!made!possible,!in!part,!through!the!support!of!an!F.K.!

Weyerhaeuser!Forest!History!Fellowship!in!Environmental!History.!

! x! !

Introduction

The!wind!is!a!force!that!in!and!of!itself!cannot!be!observed.!It!is!only!through!its! relationships!with!other!objects!that!it!becomes!visible.!We!see!the!wind!through!what!it! moves!and!shakes,!bends!and!twists,!through!what!it!lifts!into!the!air!or!drags!across!the! ground—leaves!spiraling!round!the!branches!or!skipping!erratically!across!the! pavement,!the!sails!of!a!windmill!turning!on!their!axis,!or!the!hull!of!a!sailboat!propelled! across!the!sea.!We!cannot!see!the!wind!itself.!It!eludes!us.!And!yet,!it!is!always!there!and! has!always!been!there.!Or!has!it?!!

On!20!July!1969,!Buzz!Aldrin!and!Neil!Armstrong!stepped!out!of!the!lunar! module!Eagle!onto!the!surface!of!the!moon.!Here!was!an!environment!without!wind,!a! place!without!an!atmosphere.!Perhaps!no!one!was!more!attuned!to!this!fact!than!the! astronauts!themselves—their!fleshy!bodies!protected!from!the!life!threatening! environmental!hazards!of!space!by!A7L!Spacesuits!designed!and!manufactured!by!a! small!engineering!firm!based!out!of!Iowa.!These!“pressure!retention!structures,”! complete!with!life!support!systems,!provided!Aldrin!and!Armstrong!with!the!“life! sustaining!environment”!necessary!to!keep!them!alive!and!breathing!in!what!would! otherwise!have!been!an!inhospitable!and!uninhabitable!place!void!of!air.1!The!suits! regulated!the!astronauts’!body!temperatures,!and!just!as!crucially,!the!air!pressure!and!

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1!“Spacesuit!Evolution,”!NASA’s!History!Office,!ILC!Dover!Inc.!1994,!accessed!March!10,!2015,! http://history.nasa.gov/spacesuits.pdf!! 1! ! oxygen!necessary!to!allow!their!bodily!functions!to!operate!as!though!on!earth.!

Relationships!between!the!astronauts!and!their!environment!otherwise!taken!for!granted! assumed!unparalleled!significance!in!the!context!of!human!space!travel.!!

In!spite!of!the!wind’s!conspicuous!absence!on!the!moon,!illustrated!so!clearly!by! the!sophisticated!spacesuit!and!spaceship!technologies!that!enabled!the!lunar!landing,! the!astronauts!held!in!their!hands!an!American!flag!that!appeared!to!be!waving—a! testament!to!the!enduring!significance!of!wind!in!the!exploration!of!new!worlds,!in!

North!America,!the!frontier,!and!now!here!on!the!moon.2!In!this!unique!context,!at!this! precious!moment!in!time,!the!wind!was!thus!both!absent!and!duly!represented,!with! some!degree!of!irony!nevertheless!fitting!in!light!of!its!invisibility!and!centrality!to!the! triumph!of!Anglo`American!national!and!imperial!visions!for!centuries.!As!an! unprecedented!historic!event,!and!one!in!which!people!moved!through!a!notably! windless!environment,!the!American!media!narrated!the!Apollo!11!moon!landing!in!a!

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2!“The!flag!was!encased!in!a!heat!resistant!tube!attached!to!the!ladder!of!the!lunar!module.!Neil! Armstrong!and!Buzz!Aldrin!could!simply!detach!it!after!they!descended!to!Tranquility!Base…!The!flag! would!be!left!on!the!moon!along!with!a!plaque!that!reads:!‘Here!men!from!the!planet!Earth!first!set!foot! upon!the!moon,!July!1969!A.D.!We!came!in!peace!for!all!mankind…’!In!Edgar!M.!Cortwrightls!book,!Apollo* Expeditions*to*the*Moon,!astronaut!Buzz!Aldrin!recalled!what!happened!when!he!and!Neil!Armstrong!tried!to! set!the!flag!up.!‘It!took!both!of!us!to!set!it!up!and!it!was!nearly!a!public!relations!disaster,’!he!wrote,!‘a!small! telescoping!arm!was!attached!to!the!flagpole!to!keep!the!flag!extended!and!perpendicular.!As!hard!as!we! tried,!the!telescope!wouldnlt!fully!extend.!Thus!the!flag!which!should!have!been!flat!had!its!own!permanent! wave.’!The!wrong!coating!had!been!applied!to!the!telescoping!rod,!so!it!wouldnlt!fully!extend,!which!is!why! the!flag!looks!like!it!is!waving!in!the!wind.!Ironically,!that!famous!picture!of!Buzz!Aldrin!posing!next!to!the! flag!is!often!cited!as!evidence!by!conspiracy!theorists!as!proof!the!mission!to!the!moon!was!a!hoax.!They! claim!the!rippled!flag!could!not!have!actually!been!on!the!moon!since!there!is!no!breeze!on!the!moon.!The! flagls!waves,!they!argue,!were!created!by!a!breeze!in!some!top!secret!NASA!stage!set!depicting!the!moonls! surface.m!Gina!Treadgold,!“Why!Doe!the!U.S.!Flag!on!the!Moon!Have!Ripples?”!ABC!NEWS,!July!16,!2015,! accessed!February!27,!2015,!http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=97589&page=2! 2! ! variety!of!ways,!using!a!spectrum!of!discourse:!scientific,!political,!religious,!and! folkloric!in!nature.!Using!brazenly!heroic!terms!the!media!called!the!lunar!landing!a! victory!of!modern!science,!“the!realization!of!centuries!of!dreams,”!and!a!triumph!of! human!intelligence,!will,!and!courage.!Buzz!Aldrin!took!communion!on!the!moon,!and! the!New!York!Times!quoted!President!Richard!Nixon’s!reaction!to!the!event,!which! included!generous!religious!inference:!“Because!of!what!you!have!done…the!heavens! have!become!a!part!of!man’s!world,”!he!boasted.!NASA!reported!other!media!headlines! that!requested!the!astronauts!look!for!a!beautiful!girl!and!her!companion,!a!large!rabbit,! in!the!shade!of!a!cinnamon!tree,!for!an!ancient!Chinese!legend!asserted!that!the!girl!had! been!banished!to!the!Moon!for!stealing!the!pill!of!immortality!from!her!husband.!In! polite!acknowledgement,!the!astronauts!agreed!to!“keep!a!close!eye!out!for!the!bunny! girl.”!Science,!politics,!religion,!and!folklore!converged!in!this!unique!event,!and!were! rendered!visible!in!part!through!the!range!of!discourse!that!emerged!in!reaction!to!it.!In! this!manner!the!Apollo!11!moon!landing!and!the!circumstances!surrounding!it!share!a! great!deal!with!the!history!of!wind!knowledge!in!general;!a!history!with!many!currents;! a!history!that!contains!many!competing!narratives;!a!history!of!which!the!lunar!landing! could!be!viewed!as!both!a!culminating!moment!and!ironically!as!its!antithesis—science,! exploration,!folklore,!and!religion,!converging!in!a!windless!frontier.!!

Much!like!the!windless!void!of!outer!space,!the!wind!itself!has!historically! functioned!in!multiple!capacities,!both!physically!and!symbolically.!How!does!one!

3! ! narrate!an!object!or!a!force!that!is!at!once!an!absence!and!a!presence?!How!does!one! narrate!the!wind?!What!work!have!such!narrations!performed!and!precisely!what!do! they!make!visible?!And!how!have!people!applied!wind!knowledge,!in!what!contexts,!for! what!purposes,!and!with!what!consequences?!Indeed,!if!we!trace!the!lineage!of!wind! knowledge!back!in!time!to!the!period!in!history!when!it!first!swept!to!the!fore!of!public! consciousness,!we!arrive!in!a!world!far!removed!from!the!windless!environment!of!the!

20th`century!Apollo!space!mission.!We!find!ourselves,!rather,!in!early!modern!England.!

Early!Modern!England!is!a!perfect!moment!and!a!perfect!place!for!exploring!the! evolution!of!wind`knowledge.!As!an!island!country,!the!wind!and!sea!mediated!

England’s!relationship!to!the!European!continent!and!to!the!world!at!large.!Wind` powered!sailing!ships!facilitated!England’s!political!and!economic!ties!with!continental!

Europe!and!granted!access!to!the!world!beyond.!Over!the!course!of!the!16th!and!17th! centuries,!political!and!economic!power,!and!military!superiority!became!increasingly! proportional!to!maritime!might,!and!England’s!steadily!increasing!command!of!the!sea! was!thus!intimately!connected!to!the!nation’s!ability!to!effectively!harness!the!wind!for! political!and!economic!purposes.3!Mercantilism,!the!economic!counterpart!to!the!

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3!Mercantilism!is!a!highly!regulated!economic!system!aimed!at!promoting!a!favorable!balance!of! trade!in!relation!to!other!nations,!achieved!through!measures!such!as!tariffs,!the!monopolization!of! particular!markets,!colonization,!export!subsidies,!and!restrictions!on!domestic!consumption.!Philip!J.!Stern! and!Carl!Wennerlind,!eds.,!Mercantilism*Reimagined:*Political*Economy*in*Early*Modern*Britain*and*Its*Empire! (New!York,!NY:!Oxford!University!Press,!2014).! 4! ! political!absolutism!of!the!era,!emerged!as!a!vision!and!expression!of!England’s!wind` driven!and!trade`bound!expansion.!!

In!1542,!King!Henry!VIII!enlisted!the!French!artist!and!cartographer!Jean!Rotz!in! his!service.!As!both!a!sea!captain!and!merchant,!Rotz!was!well!traveled!with!a!keen! interest!in!navigational!theory!and!instrumentation.!He!was!also!trained!by!the!Deippe! school!of!cartography!which!produced!maps!that!not!only!emphasized!the!latest! geographic!discoveries!made!in!the!service!of!empire,!but!also!included!rich! mythological!references!and!illustrations,!resulting!in!elaborately!ornate!works!of!art.4!

Rotz!presented!to!King!Henry!just!such!a!map.!The!map!depicted!the!world’s!oceans! and!the!continents!of!Europe,!Asia,!and!Africa,!as!well!as!the!eastern!coastlines!of!North!

America,!South!America,!and!Canada,!as!far!as!they!were!known!at!that!time.!As!in!the!

Apollo!11!space!mission,!the!wind!was!here!at!once!conspicuously!absent!and!duly! represented!through!a!confluence!of!wind!narrations!sweeping!in!from!multiple! directions:!past!and!present,!scientific!and!technological,!mythological,!and!literary!in! nature;!while!at!the!same!time,!visually!illustrating!and!emphasizing!the!value!and! importance!of!the!wind!to!England’s!imperial!visions!in!the!early!modern!period.!While!

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4!David!B.!Quinn,!Explorers*and*Colonies:*America,*1500@1625!(London:!Hambledon!Press,!1990),!57` 58.!Aside!from!Johne!Rotz,!the!Dieppe!school!of!cartographers!included!artists!Jean!Mallard,!Pierre! Desceliers,!Nicolas!Desliens,!and!Guillaume!Brouscon,!to!name!a!few.!Quinn!writes,!“the!view!of!the!origins! of!this!school…took!its!beginning!in!the!worldwide!trading!enterprises!of!the!firm!of!Jean!Ango!and!Son!of! Dieppe!and!the!collection!of!maps!and!other!representations!made!by!and!for!the!company…This!data! inspired!mapmakers!to!graft!the!production!of!decorative!charts!on!to!the!indigenous!miniature`painting! tradition!of!the!region,!with!striking!artistic!result,”!(p.57).!The!members!of!the!Dieppe!school!worked!out!of! Normandy,!producing!maps!for!wealthy!patrons.!! 5! ! specific!oceanic!wind!currents!were!not!overtly!illustrated,!ships!at!full!sail!implicitly! harnessing!the!wind!were!depicted!at!various!coordinates!across!the!seas,!while!round! cherub`like!faces,!in!keeping!with!the!tradition!of!a!wind!rose—the!ancient!predecessor! to!the!compass!rose—blew!from!the!eight!directions!and!constituted!one!of!the!map’s! key!decorative!components.!The!cherub`like!faces!blowing!wind!through!their!puffed! cheeks!and!pursed!lips!harken!back!to!the!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!tradition!in!which! the!cardinal!winds!were!embodied!in!human`like!form!with!names,!personal!histories,! and!qualities!unique!unto!themselves.5!Reference!to!this!common!depiction!of!the!winds! appear!in!Shakespeare’s!King*Lear,!for!example,!when!he!commands!“Blow,!winds,!and! crack!your!cheeks,”!and!again!in!Shakespeare’s!tragedy!Troilus*and*Cressida,!when!Ajax!

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5!In!A*Handbook*of*Renaissance*Meteorology!historian!S.K.!Heninger!writes,!“Each!wind!had!definite! characteristics,!attributes,!and!associations,!so!that!an!author!wishing!to!use!a!wind!for!literary!purposes! necessarily!took!great!care!in!choosing!the!proper!one.!Like!most!things!that!the!Renaissance!listed! according!to!medieval!classification,!the!winds!were!fitted!into!a!neatly!interlocking!complex,!perfectly! balanced!and!complete!within!itself.!The!character!of!each!cardinal!wind!was!fundamentally!defined!by!an! identification!with!both!an!Element!and!its!corresponding!humor:!Boreas!with!Earth!and!black!bile,!Auster! with!Air!and!blood,!Eurus!with!Fire!and!yellow!bile,!and!Favonius!with!Water!and!phlem,”!all!of!which! drew!upon!the!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!mythological!traditions.!S.K.!Heninger,!A*Handbook*of*Renaissance* Meteorology:*With*Particular*Reference*to*Elizabethan*and*Jacobean*Literature,!(Durham,!NC:!Duke!University! Press,!1960),!111`112.!The!French!Poet!Du!Bartas,!for!example,!gestures!toward!the!wind’s!association!with! the!four!elements,!the!four!seasons,!and!with!particular!stages!in!the!development!of!a!person’s!life!when!he! writes,!“In!their!effects!I!finde!fower!Tempraments,!Foure!Times,!foure!Ages,!and!foure!Elements!Th’!East` Wind!in!working,!followes!properly!Fire,!Choller,!Summer,!and!soft!Infancie:!That,!which!dries!up!wild! Affrick!with!his!wing,!Resembels!Aire,!Bloud,!Youth!and!lively!Spring:!That!which!blowes!moistly!from!the! Westerne!stage,!Like!Water,!Phleme,!Winter!and!heavie!Age:!That,!which!comes!shiv’ring!from!cold! climates!soly,!Earth,!withered!Eld,!Autumne,!and!Melancholy,”!(p.112).!Henniger!writes!further,!“The!tetrad! arrangement!of!the!winds,!the!humors,!the!periods!of!man’s!life,!the!seasons,!and!the!Elements!owed!much,! at!least!indirectly!to!the!tetpaxtus!of!Pythagorus,”!(p.112).! 6! ! orders!his!trumpeter!to!“blow…till!thy!sphered!bias!cheek/!Outswell!the!colic!of!puff’d!

Aquilon.”6!!

Yet,!whereas!the!moon!landing!may!be!viewed!as!a!moment!of!imperial!triumph! and!the!ultimate!realization!of!imperial!ambitions,!Rotz’s!map!in!many!ways!points!to! the!opposite.!It!points!to!the!as!of!yet!unrealized!ambitions!of!a!growing!nation,!it!takes! us!back!to!a!moment!before!such!visions!had!taken!shape!or!fully!materialized.!The! mapmaker!himself!was!not!English,!the!information!upon!which!he!based!his! geographical!references!were!not!derived!from!English!sources,!and!the!global!terrain! represented!by!the!map!consisted!of!territories!explored!and!controlled!by!rival!nations! considerably!more!powerful!than!England,!namely!Spain!and!the!Netherlands.!The!map! thus!depicted!imperial!desire,!illustrating!where!England!wanted!to!go,!where!it!would! in!fact!go!in!the!future,!while!at!the!same!time!calling!attention!to!all!it!was!not!at!this! particular!moment.!!

This!is!where!our!story!begins,!this!is!the!context!in!which!the!value!and! significance!of!wind!knowledge!is!thrust!to!the!fore,!functioning!as!a!key!technology! that!would!enable!such!visions!to!materialize,!invisible!but!nevertheless!central!to! empire!and!brazenly!exemplifying!its!many!contradictions,!epistemological!and! otherwise.!Thus,!like!the!converging!incommensurable!narratives!about!the!wind! brought!together!in!the!Apollo!11!moon!landing,!in!another!bold!illustration!of!the!

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6!Shakespeare!as!quoted!in!Henniger,!A*Handbook*of*Renaissance*Meteorology,!118! 7! ! ambitions!of!empire,!the!juxtaposing!incommensurable!images!of!the!winds!depicted! and!gestured!toward!through!Rotz’s!map—scientific,!mythological,!literary!and! otherwise—raise!the!following!questions:!how!does!one!narrate!and!communicate!wind! knowledge?!What!work!have!these!complex!and!competing!narrations!performed,!and! what!does!knowledge!of!this!invisible!force!make!visible?!!!

Historiography

In!pursuing!these!lines!of!inquiry!my!work!brings!together!three!principle!bodies! of!knowledge:!Environmental!History,!History!of!Science,!and!British!Imperial!history.!

In!the!field!of!environmental!history!I!build!upon!two!intellectual!subfields:!first,!studies! produced!by!environmental!historians!such!as!Jon!Coleman,!Jennifer!Price,!and!John!

McPhee!who!have!explored!the!mutually!constitutive!character!of!an!evolving!capitalist! ethos!and!changing!popular!perceptions!and!definitions!of!nature;!and!second,!the!work! of!historical!geographers!and!scholars!interested!in!the!intersection!of!labor!and! environmental!history!such!as!Richard!White,!Kathryn!Morse,!and!Thomas!Andrews! who!are!among!the!first!and!the!few!to!explore!how!people!have!come!to!understand! nature!through!work,!and!how!resources!and!commodities!have!historically!connected! people!to!local!and!distant!markets!and!to!local!and!distant!landscapes!and!ecosystems.7!!

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7!Richard!White,!“Are!You!An!Environmentalist!or!Do!You!Work!for!a!Living?”!Uncommon! Ground,!ed.!William!Cronon,!(New!York:!W.W.!Norton,!1995),!171`185;!Kathryn!Morse,!The*Nature*of*Gold:* An*Environmental*History*of*the*Klondike*Gold*Rush!(Seattle:!University!of!Washington!Press,!2003);!Thomas! Andrews,!Killing*for*Coal:*America’s*Deadliest*Labor*War!(Cambridge,!Mass.:!Harvard!University!Press,! 20008).! 8! !

In!their!various!descriptions!of!the!ways!in!which!people!have!historically! interacted!with!nature,!themes!of!appropriation!and!exploitation!emerge!time!and!time! again,!as!they!do!in!environmental!history!scholarship!as!a!whole.!More!often!than!not!it! is!nature!that!emerges!as!the!victim!in!these!scenarios:!species!hunted!to!the!brink!of! extinction!or!beyond,!landscapes!and!ecosystems!defiled!or!destroyed,!the!very!fate!of! the!planet!and!of!humanity!itself!hinging!on!our!species’!capacity!to!return!to!a!state!of! healthy!equilibrium!with!nature,!a!state!implicitly!conflated!with!our!far!distant!past,!for! in!such!narratives,!nature’s!past!is!unequivocally!portrayed!as!better,!healthier,!and! more!balanced!than!its!future,!as!is!humanity’s!fate!by!implication.!Incorporating! discussions!of!labor!and!capital!into!the!mix!succeeds!at!further!compounding!this! unrelenting!declensionism,!for!in!such!instances!it!is!not!merely!nature!being!exploited,! but!the!laborer!as!well.!It!is!not!only!our!relationships!with!the!natural!world!that!are! portrayed!as!out!of!balance,!but!our!social!relations!with!one!another.!Such!narratives! highlight!human!alienation!from!the!natural!world!as!a!consequence!of!capitalism’s! intrinsic!demands—privileging!profit!first!and!foremost,!at!the!gross!expense!of!social! and!environmental!welfare.8!

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8!Jon!Coleman,!Vicious:*Wolves*and*Men*in*America!(New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,!2004);!Jenny! Price,!Flight*Maps:*Adventures*with*Nature*in*Modern*America!(New!York,!NY:!Basic!Books,!1999);!John! McPhee,!The*Control*of*Nature!(New!York:!Farrar,!Straus,!Giroux,!1989);!Richard!White,!The*Organic*Machine:* The*Remaking*of*the*Columbia*River!(New!York:!Hill!and!Wang,!1995);!William!Cronon,!Natures*Metropolis:* Chicago*and*the*Great*West!(New!York:!W.W!Norton,!1991);!Arthur!MacEvoy,!The*Fisherman’s*Problem:*Ecology* and*Law*in*the*California*Fisheries,*1850@1980!(Cambridge;!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1986).! 9! !

Unlike!most!histories!that!lie!at!the!intersection!of!nature!and!labor,!a!history!of! wind!knowledge!resists!simple!declensionism.!The!wind!is!not!a!victim!in!this!particular! tale.!Quite!the!contrary.!People!attempted!to!control!the!wind!discursively,!magically,! and!ideologically.!With!mixed!success!they!attempted!to!rationalize!its!movements!and! patterns.!They!modified!their!actions!and!their!faith!in!an!attempt!to!influence!its! behavior.!They!developed!and!improved!their!technologies!to!best!harness!its!power.!

But!in!all!of!these!efforts!it!was!humanity!that!was!subject!to!the!will!of!the!wind!rather! than!the!other!way!around.!The!wind!was!not!exploited.!It!was!not!commodified!and! subsequently!depleted.!The!wind!was!not!defiled,!or!polluted,!or!exhausted.!It! continued!to!blow,!indifferent!to!the!needs!or!agendas!of!mankind,!and!impervious!to! those!demands.!This!is!not!a!story!of!loss.!It!is!not!a!tragedy.!It!is!rather,!an!example!of! humanity’s!reaction!to!the!undeniable!contradiction!of!nature!as!a!force!that!on!the!one! hand!provides!for!humanity’s!every!need,!while!at!the!same!time!operating!as!a!chief! opponent!to!human!comfort,!ease,!and!effort,!a!partner!in!mankind’s!many!creations!as! well!as!the!culprit!responsible!for!their!overwhelming!destruction.!In!discourse!about! the!wind!we!see!reflected!therefore,!mankind’s!ambitions!as!well!as!his!fears,!his!efforts! to!control!his!environment!coupled!with!a!difficult!acknowledgment!of!the!limits!of!that! control,!his!awe!of!nature!and!its!mysteries,!and!his!own!arrogance.!It!is!therefore,!an! anti`teleological!narrative,!charting!neither!progress!nor!decline,!but!highlighting!rather! the!chorus!of!voices!involved!in!conversations!that!strike!at!the!very!heart!of!the!human!

10! ! predicament,!and!which!call!into!question!the!value!and!meaning!of!human!life!from!an! infinitely!broader!perspective,!a!perspective!of!which!the!vast,!mysterious,! uncontrollable,!indifferent,!and!powerful!wind!serves!as!a!convenient,!apt,!and! unrelenting!reminder.!

Connecting!nature!and!labor!from!a!different!vantage!point,!scholars!in!the! history!of!science!have!devoted!increasing!attention!to!what!Antonio!Perez`Ramos!has! called!“makers!knowledge”—knowing!through!doing—examining!the!extent!to!which! artisanal!methods,!knowledge,!and!skill!informed!the!codification!of!experiment!as!a! truth!ordering!practice!in!the!field!of!natural!philosophy.9!In!keeping!with!this! trajectory,!scholars!in!the!history!of!science!have!faced!the!challenge!presented!by!post` modern!critique!by!taking!steps!toward!deconstructing!the!methods!of!science!and!its! respective!claims!to!truth,!characterizing!these!methods!and!truth!claims!as!products!of! social!convention,!and!thus!politically!motivated!rather!than!objectively!justified.10!My!

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9!Antonio!Pérez`Ramos,!Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of*Science*and*the*Maker’s*Knowledge*Tradition!(Oxford:! Clarendon!Press;!New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!1988).!Other!notable!examples!include!the!classic! work!of!Edgar!Zilsel,!encapsulated!in!the!volume!titled!The*Social*Origins*of*Modern*Science!(Dordrecht;! Boston:!Kluwer!Academic!Publishers,!2000);!Pamela!Long’s!Artisan/Practitioners*and*the*Rise*of*the*New* Sciences,!(Corvallis,!OR!:!Oregon!State!University!Press,!2011);!Pamela!Smith’s!The*Body*of*the*Artisan:*Art*and* Experience*in*the*Scientific*Revolution;*Pamela!Smith!ed.!and!Benjamin!Schmidt!ed.,!Making*Knowledge*in*Early* Modern*Europe:*Practices,*Objects,*and*Texts,*1400@1800;!Rupert!Hall,!“Scholar!and!Craftsmen,!in!J.V.!Field,! and!A.!J.!L.!James,!eds.,!Renaissance*and*Revolution:!Humanists,*Scholars,*Craftsmen*and*Natural*Philosophers*in* Early*Modern*Europe!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1997).! 10!Some!notable!examples!include,!Steven!Shapin,!A*Social*History*of*Truth:*Civility*and*Science*in* Seventeenth@Century*England!(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1994);!Steven!Shapin,!Simon!Schaffer.* Leviathan*and*the*Air*Pump:*Hobbes,*Boyle,*and*the*Experimental*Life!(Princeton!University!Press:!Princeton! University!Press,!1985);!Peter!Dear,!Discipline*and*Experience:*The*Mathematical*Way*in*the*Scientific*Revolution! (University!of!Chicago!Press:!1995);!Charles!B.!Schmitt.!“Experience!and!Experiment:!A!Comparison!of! 11! ! research!brings!the!complexities!and!interconnectedness!of!these!various!fields!into! sharper!focus,!first!by!looking!at!the!way!in!which!labor!functioned!as!a!key!component! in!the!production!of!scientific!knowledge!and!of!wind!knowledge!in!particular,!and! second,!by!broadening!the!definition!of!labor!to!include!the!intellectual!work!involved!in! the!production!of!knowledge!more!generally.!In!doing!so!I!merge!the!knowledge`power! schematic!of!Michael!Foucault!with!the!spatial,!material,!and!cultural!connections! between!nature!and!labor!that!Gunther!Peck!defines!as!“geographies!of!labor.”11!I! combine!these!analytic!frameworks!to!allow!me!to!examine!not!the!history!of!wind!itself,! but!rather,!a!history!of!knowledge!produced!about!the!wind,!a!history!of!the!labor,! customs,!and!practices!that!narratively!constituted!the!wind!within!the!context!of! seventeenth`century!English!society!and!culture.!If!the!wind!exists!as!a!matter!of!fact,! how!have!people!characterized!and!narrated!its!presence?!On!what!basis!and!by!what! authority?!How!have!they!defined!the!wind!and!described!its!behaviors,!and!what! politics!are!embedded!in!these!varied!definitions!and!descriptions?!What!work!do!they!

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Zabarellals!View!With!Galileols!in!De!Motu,”!Studies*in*the*Renaissance!16!(1969):!80`138;!Thomas!Kuhn,!The* Structure*of*Scientific*Revolutions*(University!of!Chicago!Press,!1962).! 11!Michael!Foucault,!Discipline*and*Punish:*The*Birth*of*the*Prison,!trans.,!Alan!Sheridan!(New!York:! Vintage!Books,!1995);!Gunther!Peck.!“The!Nature!of!Labor:!Fault!Lines!and!Common!Ground!in! Environmental!and!Labor!History.”!Environmental*History*11,!no.!2!(2006):!212`238.!In!doing!so,!I!consider! the!labor!processes!by!which!knowledge!is!constructed!and!presume!as!Foucault!suggests,!that!power!uses! knowledge!to!reproduce,!replicate,!and!perpetuate!its!fields!of!exercise.!My!analytic!neologism!is!thus!a! term!and!concept!I!will!refer!to!as!geographies!of!knowledge*production.!Additional!publications!by! Foucault!illustrating!the!knowledge`power!schematic!he!is!most!well!known!for!include:!The*Order*of*Things:* An*Archaeology*of*the*Human*Sciences!(1970;!repr.,!New!York,!Pantheon!Books,!1971);!Madness*and*Civilization:* A*History*of*Insanity*in*the*Age*of*Reason!(1965;!repr.,!New!York:!Vintage!Books,!1988).!! 12! ! perform?!A!history!of!wind!knowledge!thus!challenges!us!to!consider!not!only!the! quality!of!knowledge!that!comes!from!experience!and!the!role!that!experience!plays!in! the!development!and!perpetuation!of!ideology,!but!conversely!how!ideologies!inform! the!meaning!people!make!of!their!experiences,!and!how!such!meaning!is!mapped!onto! broader!social,!cultural,!and!physical!landscapes.!!!

Mapping!the!wind!lay!at!the!very!heart!of!imperial!ambitions!and!mapping! empire!has!emerged!as!a!prominent!theme!in!contemporary!British!Imperial!history.!In!

Captives:*Britain,*Empire,*and*the*World,*1600@1850,!for!example,!Linda!Colley!maps!the! rise!of!the!British!Empire!while!simultaneously!calling!attention!to!empire’s!many! paradoxes:!juxtaposing!the!smallness,!fragility,!and!weakness!of!this!small!island!nation! with!the!magnitude!of!its!imperial!ambitions,!the!violence!of!its!implements,!and!the! challenges!and!dependencies!created!by!such!overextension!as!the!nation!reached!the! peak!of!its!colonial!rule!and!authority!by!1850.12!What!began!as!an!arguably!sad!little! nation!at!the!opening!of!the!17th!century,!boasted!the!largest!overseas!empire!in!history! by!the!middle!of!the!19th!century.!Fears!of!failure!and!the!dangers!of!extending!political! and!economic!reach!beyond!what!could!be!reasonably!managed!loomed!large!in!the! nation’s!collective!consciousness,!however.!The!coalescence!of!a!centralized!nation!state! and!of!a!cohesive!national!ideology!functioned!as!both!reactions!and!solutions!to!these!

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12!Linda!Colley,!Captives:*Britain,*Empire,*and*the*World,*1600@1850!(New!York:!Pantheon!Books,! 2002).! 13! ! problems!of!empire,!facilitating!its!management!and!reinforcing!its!ambitions!and! identity.!!

A!history!of!wind!knowledge!extends!and!deepens!Colley’s!work!by! incorporating!nature!into!this!story!of!nation!building!and!it!follows!her!lead!by!calling! attention!to!the!messiness,!to!the!contradictions,!fragility,!and!limits!of!empire!in!light!of! its!broader!ambitions,!thereby!enriching!our!understanding!of!British!imperial!history.!

The!seventeenth!century,!with!which!this!study!concerns!itself,!is!a!moment!of! emergence,!a!moment!of!origin,!a!moment!preceding!the!overt!visibility!of!what!will! later!coalesce!into!the!British!Empire,!as!we!know!it.!England’s!emphasis!on!the! accumulation!of!wind!knowledge!at!this!time!may!be!read!as!a!sign!of!the!nation’s! aspirations,!for!prior!to!the!17th!century,!there!was!not!a!clearly!demarked!body!of! knowledge!performing!this!particular!work.!If!we!were!to!examine!the!19th!century,!we! would!see!the!customs,!institutions,!epistemologies,!and!networks!involved!in!wind! knowledge!more!clearly!structured!and!professionalized,!but!in!the!seventeenth!century! this!tangled!web!of!sources!and!their!competing!and!contradictory!epistemological! trajectories!are!potentially!richer!and!more!explicit!in!what!they!can!reveal!about!the! messy!underbelly!of!an!immaterialized!empire,!an!empire!in!the!making,!an!empire! whose!ambitions!were!simultaneously!enabled!and!challenged!by!the!wind.!A!history!of! wind`knowledge!production!thus!signifies!a!return!to!very!traditional!terrain!of!great! symbolic!and!historiographical!importance:!the!labor!involved!in!the!creation!of!the!

14! !

British!Empire!and!of!English!national!identity!within!the!context!of!expanding! intellectual!and!geographic!frontiers.!And!it!does!so!from!a!vantage!point!that! foregrounds!the!role!human!relationships!with!and!human!conceptions!of!nature!played! in!these!historical!developments.!!

Methodology

The!aspirations!of!this!particular!history!are!not!encyclopedic!in!scope.!I!make!no! attempt!to!tell!a!history!of!all!wind!knowledge.!Instead,!I!focus!on!key!historical!figures! and!adopt!what!might!be!described!as!a!case!study!approach!to!the!subject.!Each!of!the! main!characters!I!examine!functioned!as!a!crucial!figure!in!the!historic!development!of! wind!knowledge!over!the!long!17th!century!in!England.!Coming!to!the!subject!through! their!work!provides!a!measure!of!narrative!stability!and!continuity!in!what!might! otherwise!be!a!non`linear!conglomeration!of!discourse!challenging!a!necessarily! progressive!trajectory.!By!bringing!the!subject!of!labor!into!more!conventional! examinations!of!these!great!thinkers,!I!consider!how!these!writers!sought!to!locate!their! own!authority!about!the!wind!in!common!knowledge,!in!maker’s!knowledge.!In!doing! so,!and!in!conceptualizing!the!wind!as!a!commons,!I!frame!their!work!within!a!broader! political!struggle!over!who!represents!and!is!represented!by!the!commons.!When!it!came! to!articulating!wind!knowledge,!these!individuals!were!some!of!the!loudest!voices! amidst!the!crowd,!and!representative!of!a!cross!section!of!epistemologies—scientific,! kinesthetic,!religious,!and!discursive.!Knowing!and!narrating!“truths”!about!the!wind!

15! ! proved!to!be!such!a!challenging!and!elusive!task!that!people!resorted!to!an!unusually! wide!range!of!explanatory!mechanisms—rendering!the!epistemologies!themselves!that! much!more!visible!because!the!conclusions!they!supported!proved!far!from!absolute.!

Each!chapter!of!this!study!thus!offers!a!unique!lens!through!which!to!view!facets!in!the! kaleidoscope!of!knowledge!and!discourse!about!the!wind!visible!at!this!time.!

My!method!draws!on!three!subfields—Environmental!History,!History!of!

Science,!and!History!of!the!British!Empire—and!integrates!all!three!into!each!chapter,!as! opposed!to!pairing!them!off!and!tackling!each!of!them!discretely.!I!am!not!the!first! scholar!to!bring!these!fields!together.!Andrew!Hurley,!for!example,!has!linked!labor!and! environmental!history!around!questions!of!class!and!race!in!Environmental*Inequalities;! while!in!Green*Imperialism!Richard!Grove!locates!the!origins!of!modern! environmentalism!in!the!colonial!context!of!the!British!Empire.!13!However,!few!scholars! have!worked!with!all!three!of!these!subfields!simultaneously.!In!this!case,!such!an! approach!results!in!a!sum!greater!than!the!parts.!It!makes!for!a!richer!analysis!of!the! complex!interface!among!various!ways!of!knowing!and!narrating!the!wind,!and! knowing!and!narrating!nature.!!

As!a!narrative!about!wind`narratives,!my!analysis!draws!upon!published! documents!that!include!scientific!treatises,!written!records!of!oral!anecdotes!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

13!Andrew!Hurley,!Environmental*Inequalities:*Class,*Race,*and*Industrial*Pollution*in*Gary*Indiana,* 1945@1980!(Chapel!Hill:!University!of!North!Carolina!Press,!1995);*Richard!Grove,!Green*Imperialism:*Colonial* Expansion,*Tropical*Island*Edens*and*the*Origins*of*Environmentalism,*1600@1860!(Cambridge;!New!York:! Cambridge!University!Press,!1995).!! 16! ! weather!wising,!religious!sermons,!travel!narratives,!fictional!novels,!and!imperial! correspondence.!These!published!documents!necessarily!favor!the!literate!male! population!of!England.!However,!by!analyzing!what!is!overtly!articulated!and!what!the! content!of!such!texts!infer!about!the!ideas!and!practices!of!populations!not!explicitly! represented,!I!attempt,!insofar!as!it!is!possible,!to!bring!forth!the!voices!and!ideas!of!the! non`literate!rural!Englishmen!to!supplement!that!which!is!more!explicitly!narrated!by! the!literate!and!elite.!Thus,!while!not!all!people!are!equally!represented!in!this!work,!the! thoughts!and!ideas!about!the!wind!presented!and!analyzed!here!are!nevertheless! indicative!of!a!large!swath!of!17th`century!English!society.!Wind!knowledge!developed! in!the!metropole!as!well!as!in!the!hinterlands.!It!emerged!from!both!above!and!below.!It! circulated!unilaterally!forming!currents!of!cultural!intersection.!And!as!an!aspect!of!the! physical!world!that!affected!all!people!of!all!classes,!both!the!wind!and!wind!knowledge! challenged!narrative!and!imperial!order!by!virtue!of!their!inexclusive!nature,!their! symbolic!and!metaphoric!malleability!and!utility!to!people!of!all!classes!and!stations.!

The!analytic!approach!I!adopt!is!one!that!views!nature!as!a!both!a!colonial! subject!and!agent—subject!to!observation,!appraisal,!investigation,!and!ordering,!while! alternately!facilitating!and!undermining!the!various!agendas!of!empire.!In!doing!so,!I! extend!the!methodology!of!scholars!of!the!British!Empire!such!as!David!Lambert!and!

Alan!Lester,!Brett!Bennett,!Joseph!Hodge!and!Tony!Ballantyne,!by!adopting!a!networked! conception!of!empire!that!acknowledges!the!unstable,!contingent,!and!non`deterministic!

17! ! nature!of!colonial!relations!and!which!extends!that!view!to!encompass!England’s! relationships!not!only!with!foreign!populations!and!colonial!subjects,!but!with!foreign! and!colonial!environments,!and!with!nature!more!generally.14!Conceptually,!this! particular!moment!in!the!history!of!wind!knowledge!corresponds!with!the!initial! evolutionary!phase!of!the!European!encounter!with!foreign!people!and!places!as! described!by!George!Basalla!in!his!essay,!“The!Spread!of!Western!Science”!whereby!

European!explorers,!missionaries,!and!travelers!surveyed,!collected,!and!appraised!the! foreign!environments!they!encountered!“in!their!search!for!potential!sources!of!wealth! or!settlement.”15!The!wind!was!subject!to!such!survey,!appraisal,!and!assessment!at!the! same!time!that!it!facilitated!these!endeavors!more!generally.!“It!is!no!coincidence!that! the!Scientific!Revolution!and!the!Enlightenment!in!Britain,!as!Richard!Drayton!points! out,!“took!place!in!tandem!with!the!forging!of!empire.”16!However,!as!both!an!imperial!

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14!David!Lambert,!Alan!Lester!eds.!Colonial*Lives*Across*the*British*Empire:*Imperial*Careering*in*the* Long*Nineteenth*Century!(Cambridge,!UK;!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2006);!Brett!Bennett!and! Joseph!M.!Hodge!eds.!Science*and*Empire:*Knowledge*and*Networks*of*Science*Across*the*British*Empire,*1800@ 1970!(New!York,!NY!:!Palgrave!Macmillan,!2011);!Tony!Ballantyne,!Between*Colonialism*and*Diaspora:*Sikh* Cultural*Formations*in*an*Imperial*World!(Durham:!Duke!University!Press,!2006);!Tony!Ballantyne!and! Antoinette!Burton,!eds.,!Moving*Subjects:*Gender,*Mobility*and*Intimacy*in*an*Age*of*Global*Empire,!(Urbana:! University!of!Illinois!Press,!2009).! 15!It!does!so,!however,!without!necessarily!adopting!the!diffusionist!assumptions!of!Basalla’s! developmental!model.!Basalla!conceptualized!the!transmission!of!western!science!as!taking!place!in!three! evolutionary!stages!and!eventually!resulting!in!what!he!described!as!a!‘native’!scientific!tradition!that!is!an! amalgamation!of!European!science!and!colonial!science!informed!by!the!rise!of!nationalism.!See!George! Basalla,!“The!Spread!of!Western!Science”!in!William!K.!Storey,!ed.,!Scientific*Aspects*of*European*Expansion,! vol.!6!of!Expanding*World!(Aldershot,!Hampshire,!Great!Britain;!Brookfield,!Vt.,!USA!:!Variorum,!1996);!and! Joseph!Hodge,!“Science!and!Empire:!An!Overview!of!the!Historical!Scholarship,”!in!Bennett!and!Hodge,! Science*and*Empire,!4.! 16!Bennett!and!Joseph!M.!Hodge,!Science*and*Empire,!5! 18! ! subject!and!agent,!the!wind!remained!unruly!and!unmanageable,!at!once!supporting! imperial!ambitions!and!undoing!imperial!efforts.17!

Science!has!occasionally!been!critiqued!by!environmental!historians!such!as!

Donald!Worster!as!yet!another!tool!employed!by!capitalists!to!increase!profits!and! bypass!nature’s!limits!with!devastating!economic!and!environmental!consequences.18!!In!

Vicious,!however,!a!cultural!environmental!history!of!wolves!in!America,!Jon!Coleman! implies!that!science!can!be!utilized!to!respect!nature’s!limits!and!to!enhance! contemporary!human!relationships!with!the!environment!by!rendering!more!precise! translations!of!natural!activity!than!alternative!epistemologies!such!as!myths,!folktales,! and!personal!interactions!alone!possibly!could.19!Indeed,!a!running!theme!among!much! environmental!history!has!been!an!easy!alliance!with!the!natural!sciences!predicated!on! the!assumption!that!scientific!facts!about!nature!incorporated!into!environmental!history!

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17!Bennett!and!Hodge!suggest!that!a!“networked!conception!of!empire”!provides!a!useful! conceptual!model!for!further!critical!scholarship!addressing!the!relationship!between!science!and!empire.! Likewise,!discourse!and!conceptions!of!the!wind!might!be!described!as!traveling!within!these!“web`like! space!of!layered!networks!of!communication”!that!circulated!unilaterally,!across!class!lines,!and!across! space.!Bennet!and!Hodge!note!that!this!networked!conception!of!empire!“recognizes!that!multiple!colonial! projects!and!discourses!existed!in!tandem,!and!often!in!competition!and!in!opposition!with!each!other.”!The! very!same!could!be!said!of!wind!knowledge!during!the!long!17th!century,!and!perhaps!of!the!wind!at!large.! In!the!same!way!that!Ballantyne’s!study!emphasizes!the!processural!quality!of!empire!(as!distinct!from!the! notion!of!it!as!a!fixed!and!stable!structure),!so!too!does!this!study!of!wind`knowledge!approach!the! knowledge!systems!at!work!as!equally!mobile,!fluctuating,!and!unstable,!“moving!through!institutional! webs!that!brought!disparate!places,!people,!and!activities!together!at!a!given!moment!in!time.”!Yet,!the! distinguishing!feature!of!this!study!is!an!approach!that!views!both!nature!and!the!wind!as!actors!in!this! narrative;!actors!that!exercise!agency,!the!effects!of!which!informed!the!tone!and!quality!of!the!relationship! between!people!and!the!physical!environment,!as!well!as!the!discourse!about!these!interactions!produced! after!the!fact,!which!themselves!shaped!subsequent!encounters.!Bennet!and!Hodge,!Science*and*Empire,!16`17! 18!Donald!Worster,!Dust*Bowl:*The*Southern*Plains*in*the*1930’s!(Oxford!University!Press:!New!York,! 1979),!5`6.! 19!Coleman,!Vicious,!14.! 19! ! narratives!bestow!an!empirical!quality!that!implicitly!elevates!the!credibility!of!the!field.!

This!presumption!is!often!made,!however,!without!mindfully!interrogating!the!notion!of! science!itself!as!yet!another!episteme!informed!as!much!by!convention,!tradition,! politics,!and!culture!as!any.!A!history!of!wind!knowledge!calls!this!methodology!into! question!by!considering!the!work!that!scientific!narrative!performs.!Science!in!this!case! does!not!hold!a!privileged!position!as!it!does!in!Coleman’s!work!and!is!examined!rather,! as!merely!one!among!a!wide!range!of!discourses!about!the!wind!coursing!through!early! modern!English!society—an!important!one!to!be!sure,!but!not!necessarily!a!better!or! more!correct!way!of!knowing!the!wind!or!the!natural!world!for!that!matter.!

Map

We!begin!with!an!epistemologically!familiar!starting!point,!locating!the! experiential/maker’s!knowledge!tradition!of!wind!knowledge!within!the!scholarship!of! the!natural!philosopher!and!statesman!Francis!Bacon.!In!1622!Bacon!published!the!first! comprehensive!study!of!the!wind!to!appear!in!the!western!world!since!Aristotle’s!

Meteorologica!(published!in!340!B.C.).20!Though!an!elite!himself!and!socially!situated! within!the!upper!tiers!of!the!political!and!scientific!communities,!Bacon’s!prescribed! methodology!privileged!first`hand!experience!and!observation,!and!implicitly!

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20!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!trans.,!H.D.P.!Lee!(Cambridge:!Harvard!University!Press,!1978);!Francis! Bacon,!The*Works*of*Francis*Bacon,*vol.!12!Containing*The*History*of*Winds,*The*History*of*Condensations*and* Rarifactions,*and*Physical*Essays!(London:!M.!Jones,!1815).!! 20! ! championed!the!wind!knowledge!of!the!everyday!worker!while!advocating!for! numerous!applications!of!wind!knowledge!perceived!as!beneficial!to!the!British!nation.!!

Continuing!along!this!trajectory!we!broaden!outward!in!the!second!chapter!and! turn!our!attention!to!what!might!initially!appear!to!be!a!less!likely!place!for!thinking! about!the!merging!of!science,!environmental!history,!and!imperial!history—the!writing! of!buccaneer,!explorer,!and!natural!philosopher!William!Dampier.!Dampier!emerges!as! an!emblematic!actor,!the!culmination!or!fulfillment!of!a!Baconian!ideal—a!scientist!as! well!as!a!laborer,!a!man!who,!in!keeping!with!Bacon’s!methodological!prescription!but! unlike!Bacon!himself,!boasted!extensive!wind!knowledge!derived!through!first!hand! experience!and!labor!as!a!sailor.!21!Dampier’s!writing!about!the!wind,!and!the!global! maritime!context!in!which!he!operated!allow!us!to!further!consider!the!role!that!the! wind!and!a!cartographic!and!systematic!approach!to!wind!knowledge!played!in! facilitating!England’s!imperial!ambitions!in!the!political!and!economic!circuitry!of!this! expanding!empire.!!

The!philosophic!work!of!Francis!Bacon!and!William!Dampier!exemplify! relatively!ordered!and!regimented!intellectual!approaches!to!wind!knowledge.!They! speak!most!pointedly!to!the!institutionalization!of!wind!knowledge,!to!its!codification! and!applications!geared!in!the!service!of!the!state,!and!additionally,!to!the!way!in!which! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

21!William!Dampier,!Dampier’s*Voyages:*Consisting*of*a*New*Voyage*Round*the*World,*A*Supplement*to* the*Voyage*round*the*World,*Two*Voyages*to*Campeachy,*A*Discourse*of*Winds,*A*Voyage*to*New*Holland,*and*a* Vindication,*in*Answer*to*the*Chimerical*Relation*of*William*Funnell,!ed.,!John!Masefield!(London:!E!Grant! Richards,!1906).! 21! ! the!wind!commons!at!times!undermined!the!order!and!ambitions!of!empire.!Building!on! the!theme!of!disorder!brings!us!to!our!third!chapter.!In!1703!the!Great!Storm!struck!

England!inciting!a!state!of!utter!chaos!and!evoking!a!flurry!of!discourse!that!attempted! to!explain!the!wind!and!the!destruction!wrought!by!the!storm.!Daniel!Defoe!complied! records!of!this!event!and!chronicled!the!public!outcry!in!his!publication!The*Storm.22!In! doing!so!he!not!only!began!honing!his!craft!as!a!storyteller,!but!produced!a!vastly! different!type!of!wind!narrative!that!not!only!animated!the!multi`vocal!conversations! taking!place!about!the!wind!at!this!particular!moment,!but!which!opened!up!these! conversations!to!many!others.!Indeed,!if!Francis!Bacon!and!Dampier!exemplify! relatively!organized!and!systematic!approaches!to!wind`knowledge!and!the!ambitions! of!empire—an!ideal!if!you!will—then!the!Great!Storm!represents!its!antithesis:!imperial! anxieties!coming!home!to!roost;!the!actual!state!of!affairs;!an!illustration!of!what!was!in! relation!to!what!was!being!prescribed;!and!the!politics!embedded!in!the!varied!discourse! about!wind!that!erupted!in!response!to!its!unbridled!force!and!power.!!

Thus!in!the!final!chapter!we!hone!in!on!the!concept!of!narrative!itself.!We!explore! the!work!wind!narratives!performed!in!a!spectrum!of!contexts!and!in!an!array!of!styles! and!genres!at!the!close!of!the!17th!century,!as!a!way!of!contemplating!the!utility!and! malleability!of!the!wind!as!a!symbol!and!as!metaphor—performing!different!tasks,! assuming!different!roles!at!different!moments!and!in!different!contexts.!Having!arrived!

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22!Daniel!Defoe,!The*Storm!(London:!1704).! 22! ! here!it!is!possible!to!see!wind!narration!within!a!single!universe!of!meaning!making,!a! knowledge!commons!created!and!nurtured!by!different!voices!and!competing! intellectual,!political,!and!cultural!agendas,!with!maker’s!knowledge!at!the!center.!

23! !

Chapter 1. Francis Bacon and the History of Winds

In!1673!Dutch!artist!Jacob!Knyff!painted!a!scene!of!a!British!port,!one!of!the!many! maritime!scenes!for!which!he!would!achieve!lasting!renown.!Set!in!a!busy!harbor,!

English!and!Dutch!ships!are!depicted!alternately!arriving!or!loading!cargo!from!the! quay.!In!the!background,!large!cumulous!clouds!billow!in!the!sky!suggesting!moisture! in!the!air!and!the!possibility!of!rain.!An!English!flagship!with!full!sails!“firing!a!salute! and!flying!the!ensign!from!the!stern!carved!with!the!royal!coat!of!arms”!is!depicted!on! the!right,!and!a!royal!yacht!can!be!seen!arriving!on!the!left.!!Workers!load!cargo!onto! smaller!ships,!and!“a!horse!is!dragging!a!barrel!on!skids!to!the!waterls!edge”!while! several!small!groups!of!women!and!gentlemen!observe!the!activities!from!a!safe! distance.1!Between!all!that!is!visible!in!the!scene!before!us—the!water,!the!sky,!the!ships,! the!cargo,!and!the!people!themselves—one!key!aspect!of!the!picture!though!wholly! present,!remains!solely!implicit:!the!wind.!The!invisible!force!moving!the!clouds,!filling! the!ship!sails,!and!providing!the!raw!motive!power!enabling!the!entire!maritime! enterprise!on!the!docks!remains!unseen.!Yet!the!knowledge,!labor,!technology,!and! political!economy!depicted!in!this!beautiful!representation!of!the!port!all!gesture!toward! the!wind’s!presence.!!

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1!Jacob!Knyff,!Dock*Scene*at*a*British*Port,!“Your!Paintings:!Uncovering!the!Nation’s!Art!Collectionm! BBC,!February!15,!2015,!http://www.bbc.co.uk/arts/yourpaintings/paintings/dock`scene`at`a`british`port` 174922!! 24! !

Figure!1:!“Dock!Scene!at!a!British!Port,”!Jacob!Knyff.!!

From!this!scene!we!can!begin!to!get!a!sense!of!the!different!ways!in!which!people! of!different!classes!interacted!with!the!wind—the!sailors!and!dock!workers!whose!lives! and!livelihoods!were!largely!governed!by!this!natural!force,!the!artisans!who!designed! and!built!the!wind`powered!sailing!ships!to!best!harness!the!power!and!movement!of! the!air,!the!merchants!whose!goods!stood!by!ready!for!transport!upon!these!enormous! sailing!vessels,!and!the!gentlemen!standing!further!away,!contemplating!the!scene!at!a! distance.!How!did!people!of!different!classes!and!occupations!know!and!understand!the! wind!based!on!the!quality!of!their!interactions!and!the!nature!of!their!labor!in!relation!to!

25! ! it?!To!what!extent!did!labor!itself—intellectual!and!physical—inform!the!way!in!which! people!saw!the!wind?!

In!1622!philosopher!and!statesmen!Francis!Bacon!published!the!first! comprehensive!study!of!the!wind!to!appear!in!the!western!world!since!Aristotle’s!

Meteorologica!(published!in!340!B.C.).2!At!a!time!when!Aristotelianism!dominated!the! academy,!Bacon!intended!his!History*of*the*Winds!to!serve!first!and!foremost!as!an! example!of!his!newly!proposed!method!of!intellectual!inquiry.3!His!text!accomplished! this,!and!far!more:!it!identified!the!wind!as!an!object!of!scholarly!interest,!visible!to!the! intellectual!community,!and!it!unwittingly!brought!to!light!the!voices!and!experiences!of! everyday!workers!as!the!wind!affected!them!in!their!daily!lives.!By!including!artisanal! knowledge!and!folkloric!anecdotes!about!the!wind!in!his!work,!Bacon,!like!Knyff,! gestured!toward!the!wind’s!broader!effects!upon!human!populations!of!all!social! classes,!from!aristocracy,!to!artisan,!to!peasant.!As!such,!Bacon’s!History*of*the*Winds* represents!a!surprising!intersection!between!popular!knowledge!and!elite!scholarship!at! a!time!when!intellectual!dialogue!across!class!lines!was!neither!particularly!common!nor! encouraged.4!The!scope!of!Bacon’s!study!points!toward!the!wide!range!of!cultural!

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2!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!trans.,!H.D.P.!Lee!(Cambridge:!Harvard!University!Press,!1978).! 3!Francis!Bacon,!The*Works*of*Francis*Bacon,!vol.!12,!Containing*The*History*of*the*Winds,*The*History*of* Condensations*and*Rarefactions,*and*Physical*Essays!(London,!1815).!! 4!Bacon’s!writing!from!the!17th!century!is!part!of!the!strain!in!western!discourse!centered!on!nature.! For!an!overview!of!these!ideas!up!through!the!18th!century!see!Clarence!J.!Glacken,!Traces*on*the*Rhodian* Shore:*Nature*and*Culture*in*Western*Thought*from*Ancient*Times*to*the*End*of*the*Eighteenth*Century!(Berkeley:! University!of!California!Press,!1967).!! 26! ! interpretations!about!the!wind!circulating!at!this!moment:!religious,!folkloric,! philosophic.!These,!at!times,!competing!discourses!challenge!us!to!see!the!history!that! lies!at!the!intersection!between!human!experience!and!an!otherwise!invisible!force!in! nature,!providing!insight!into!a!deeply!complex!and!largely!unhistoricized! relationship—an!oversight!the!present!scholarship!seeks!to!remedy.!!

Bacon!is!a!controversial!historical!figure.!The!triumph!and!tragedy!of!his!career! and!the!questionable!quality!of!his!character!have!provoked!great!scholarly!debate,!as! has!the!prodigious!amount!of!writing!he!produced!over!the!course!of!his!lifetime.5!

Scholars!have,!on!the!one!hand,!charged!him!with!initiating!human!attitudes!and! practices!toward!nature!predicated!on!the!subjugation!of!nature!to!human!will,!while! others!laud!him!as!a!hero!responsible!for!implementing!a!utilitarian!based!approach! toward!nature!and!science!inspired!by!nature’s!wonder!and!mystery.!Politically,!he!has! been!characterized!as!both!a!rogue!who!accepted!brides!and!compromised!the!integrity! of!his!judicial!office,!and!alternately,!as!a!victim!of!the!very!system!he!pledged!fidelity!

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5!A!lawyer!and!judge!by!profession,!Bacon!held!such!prestigious!positions!as!Attorney!General!of! England,!Queen’s!Council,!and!Lord!Chancellor!over!the!course!of!his!career.!In!1621,!however,!at!the!height! of!his!success!Bacon!was!impeached!from!office!as!Lord!Chancellor!on!the!grounds!of!having!accepted! bribes.!As!penalty,!Bacon!was!temporarily!imprisoned!within!the!Tower!of!London,!fined,!and!subsequently! banned!from!the!English!court.!Publically!disgraced,!Bacon!retired!to!the!English!countryside!where!he! devoted!himself!to!philosophical!writing.!For!an!excellent!biography!on!Bacon!that!takes!a!critical!and! compassionate!approach!toward!his!legal!entanglements!in!an!attempt!to!reinstate!a!favorable!legacy!see,! Catherine!Drinker!Bowen,!Francis*Bacon:*The*Temper*of*a*Man!(Fordham!University!Press:!New!York,!1963).! 27! ! to,!depending!upon!the!narration!in!question.!His!character,!career,!and!philosophic! work!have!all!been!hotly!debated.!6!!

It!seems!fitting!that!a!powerful!and!enigmatic!man!such!as!himself!would!choose! the!wind—a!natural!phenomenon!that!exhibits!such!similar!qualities—as!the!subject!of! his!first!natural!history.!Taking!into!account!Bacon’s!philosophic!agenda,!it!makes!sense! as!well.!Bacon!believed!that!the!laws!of!nature,!the!principles!and!substance!of!matter! should!be!applied!for!the!benefit!of!mankind.!The!wind,!in!Bacon’s!estimation,!was!an!

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6!The!amount!of!literature!published!on!Bacon!is!too!extensive!to!cite!but!some!particularly! poignant!works!in!the!historiographical!debate!over!Bacon’s!life!and!character!include:!Nieves!Mathews,! Francis*Bacon:*The*History*of*a*Character*Assassination!(New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,!1996);!Lisa!Jardine! and!Alan!Stewart,!Hostage*to*Fortune:*The*Troubled*Life*of*Francis*Bacon!(London:!Victor!Gollancz,!1998).!Other! works!in!this!vein!in!include!Alan!Soble,!“In!Defense!of!Bacon,”!Philosophy*of*the*Social*Sciences,!25!(1995):! 192`215;!Perez!Zagorin,!Francis*Bacon!(Princeton,!N.J.:!Princeton!Univ.!Press,!1998);!Peter!Pesic,!Labyrith:*A* Search*for*the*Hidden*Meaning*of*Science!(Cambridge!Mass.:!MIT!Press,!2000).!On!Bacon’s!attitudes!toward! natural!philosophy!and!his!influence!upon!the!evolution!of!the!field!please!see!Paolo!Rossi,!“Bacon’s!Idea!of! Science,”!in!The*Cambridge*Companion*to*Bacon,!ed.!Markku!Peltonen!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!Univ.!Press,! 1996),!25`46.!For!feminist!critique!regarding!Bacon’s!attitudes!toward!nature,!particularly!as!exemplified!in! his!use!of!aggressive!gendered!language!see!Carolyn!Merchant,!The*Death*of*Nature!(San!Francisco:!Harper!&! Row,!1980);!Merchant,!“Secrets!of!Nature:!The!Bacon!Debates!Revisited,”!Journal*of*the*History*of*Ideas,!2008,! 69:147;!Merchant,!“The!Scientific!Revolution!and!The!Death!of!Nature,”!Isis,!97!(2006,!97):!513`533;!Evelyn! Fox!Keller,!Reflections*on*Gender!and*Science!(New!Haven,!Conn.:!Yale!Univ.!Press,!1985);!and!Sandra! Harding,!The*Science*Question*in*Feminism!(Ithaca,!N.Y.:!Cornell!Univ.!Press,!1986).!For!a!counter!argument! please!see,!“!Alan!Soble,!“In!Defense!of!Bacon,”!Philosophy!of!the!Social!Science,!25,!(1995):!192`215;!Peter! Pesic,!“Wrestling!with!Proteus:!Francis!Bacon!and!the!“Torture”!of!Nature,!Isis,!90,!no.!1!(March,!1999):!81` 94;!Pesic!“Proteus!Rebound:!Reconsidering!the!Torture!of!Nature,”!Isis,!98!(2008):304`317;!and!Iddo!Landau! “Feminist!Criticism!of!Metaphors!in!Bacon’s!Philosophy!of!Science,”!Philosophy,!78*(1998):!47`61.!Merchant! writes:!“Interpretations!of!Bacon!and!his!role!in!the!rise!of!experimental!science!have!a!long!history!and! have!been!discussed!in!numerous!books!and!articles.!At!one!end!of!the!spectrum!is!the!view!of!the!Frankfurt! School!philosophers,!who!see!Bacon!as!initiating!a!tradition!of!human!power!and!dominion!over!nature.! Thus!mechanistic!science!itself,!as!it!emerged!in!the!seventeenth!century,!may!be!seen!as!complicit!in!some! of!humanityls!current!ecological,!medical,!and!human!survival!problems.!At!the!other!end!of!the!scale!are! those!who!view!Bacon!as!the!humble!servant!of!nature!who!gave!humanity!new!tools!to!uncover!the!truths! of!nature.!A!modicum!of!middle!ground,!however,!may!exist!between!the!two!perspectives!when!larger! political!and!social!issues!underlying!his!concept!of!power!are!taken!into!consideration.”!Carolyn!Merchant,! “The!Violence!of!Impediments”:!Francis!Bacon!and!the!Origins!of!Experimentation,”!Isis!99,!no.!4!(December! 2008):!731`760.! 28! ! unparalleled!source!of!power!and!utility.!He!recognized!the!wind!as!an!object!worthy!of! intellectual!inquiry,!the!investigation!of!which!would!ultimately!lead!to!the!discovery!of! ennoble!truths!and!general!principles.!And!he!championed!the!practical!applications!of! wind!knowledge,!be!they!technological,!political,!economic,!agricultural,!medicinal!and! otherwise.7!!

Environmental!history!scholars!such!as!Richard!White!have!long!since!called! attention!to!the!ways!in!which!humans!have!come!to!know!nature!through!labor,!and! even!through!recreational!activities!such!as!hiking,!climbing,!rafting,!or!hunting,!that!at! their!most!fundamental!level!replicate!to!a!large!extent!the!gains!and!stakes!of!human! labor.8!Consideration!of!the!extent!to!which!labor!informs!human!understanding!of!the! physical!and!material!landscape!and!the!environment!has!much!deeper!roots,!however.!

This!notion!was!not!only!present!in!Bacon’s!time!but!comprised!a!substantial!portion!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

7!In!the!opening!of!a*History*of*Winds!Bacon!writes,!“The!winds!may!be!called!the!wings!of! mankind;!by!means!whereof!men!fly!through!the!sea,!and!maintain!traffic!and!correspondence!with!all!parts! of!the!globe.!They!are!also!the!sweepers!of!man’s!habitation,!the!earth;!and!at!the!same!time!brush!and! cleanse!the!air!about!it…they!produce!strong!and!violent!motion,!without!human!assistance;!and!thus,!as! servants!to!mankind!drive!our!ships!and!turn!our!mills.!They!might!also!be!applied!to!abundance!of!other! useful!purposes;!if!men!would!exert!their!diligence.”!Later!in!the!text!he!lists!a!sequence!of!inquiries!related! to!the!wind,!among!these:!“Enquire!their!effect!upon!vegetables!and!insects;!as!to!their!bringing!in!of! locusts,!cankerworms,!mill`dews,!blights,!blast,!&c.”!And!further:!“Enquire!their!effects,!as!to!purging!and! infecting!the!air;!producing!of!pestilences,!diseases,!and!disorders!in!animals.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!pp.! 12,!23`24,!24! 8!See!Richard!White,!“Are!you!an!Environmentalist!or!Do!You!Work!for!a!Living?:!Work!and! Nature”!in!William!Cronon!ed.,!Uncommon*Ground,!!(New!York:!W.W.!Norton,!1996),!171`185.!For!a! discussion!of!the!social!organization!of!labor!among!Native!Americans!and!early!American!settlers!during! the!early!19th!century!please!see!Richard!White,!“Knowing!Nature!through!Labor:!Energy,!Salmon!and! Society!on!the!Columbia,”!Ch.1,!The*Organic*Machine:*The*Remaking*of*the*Columbia*River!(New!York:!Hill!and! Wang,!1995).!For!emphasis!on!the!legal!aspects!of!nature/labor!relations!see!MacEvoy,!The*Fisherman’s* Problem.!Key!studies!in!the!field!of!environmental!history!devoted!to!the!subject!of!nature!and!labor!also! include!Hurley,!Environmental*Inequalities;!Morse,!The*Nature*of*Gold;!Andrews,!Killing*for*Coal;!and!Peck,! “The!Nature!of!Labor.”! 29! !

Bacon’s!philosophy!of!learning.!Bacon!endeavored!to!bridge!the!gap!separating!the! artisanal!knowledge!of!the!common!laborer!from!the!intellectual!labor!of!the!natural! philosopher!and!wind!knowledge!provided!the!location!where!these!two!epistemologies! convened.!!

Bacon’s Plan for Intellectual Reform

For!the!last!thirty!years!of!his!life!(1598`1628)!Francis!Bacon!devoted!his!efforts!to! constructing!a!plain!aimed!at!“a!general!reform!of!learning,”!which!he!titled!The*Great*

Instauration.!It!included!reforms!applicable!to!the!fields!of!political,!social,!legal,!moral,! and!natural!philosophy,!all!of!which!were!considered!“sciences”!at!the!time.9!What!

Bacon!proposed!was!a!method!of!inquiry!in!which!the!accumulation!of!small!particular! truths!would!lead!to!the!recognition!of!larger!more!general!truths,!and!thereby!establish!

“progressive!stages!of!certainty”!on!any!given!subject.10!The!best!way!to!acquire!

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9!I!use!the!term!science!here!as!defined!by!Perez`Ramos,!to!mean!“conceptual!grasp,!as!in!the!old! Aristotelian!scientia.”!Antonio!Pérez`Ramos,!Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of*Science*and*the*Maker’s*Knowledge*Tradition! (Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,!1988),!135.!! 10!Francis!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!trans.!Rose`Mary!Sargent!(Indianapolis/Cambridge:! Hackett!Publishing,!1999),!x,!63,!86.!Bacon’s!approach!was!based!largely!on!what!he!described!as!inductive! reasoning,!and!in!direct!opposition!to!the!popular!formula!prescribed!by!Greek!syllogism!where!universal! statements!formed!the!premise!rather!than!the!derivative!of!individual!instances!of!truth.!To!quote!Bacon!at! length:!“There!are!and!can!be!only!two!ways!of!searching!into!and!discovering!truth.!The!one!flies!from!the! senses!and!particulars!to!the!most!general!axioms,!and!from!these!principles,!the!truth!of!which!it!takes!for! settled!and!immovable,!proceeds!to!judgment!and!to!the!discovery!of!middle!axioms.!And!this!way!is!not!in! fashion.!The!other!derives!axioms!from!the!senses!and!particulars,!rising!by!a!gradual!and!unbroken!ascent! so!that!it!arrives!at!the!most!general!axioms!last!of!all.!This!is!the!true!way,!but!as!yet!untried…!Both!ways! set!out!from!the!sense!and!particulars,!and!rest!in!the!highest!generalities,!but!the!difference!between!them! is!infinite.!For!the!one!just!glances!at!experiment!and!particulars!in!passing,!the!other!dwells!duly!and! orderly!among!them.!The!one,!again,!begins!at!once!by!establishing!certain!abstract!and!useless!generalities,! the!other!rises!by!gradual!steps!to!that!which!is!prior!and!better!known!in!the!order!of!nature,”!(p.93).!For! more!information!on!the!difference!between!Bacon’s!approach!and!Aristotle’s!demonstrative!syllogism,!see! 30! ! knowledge!and!to!arrive!at!such!certainty,!according!to!Bacon,!was!through!first!hand! experience!and!observation.!“Man!being!the!servant!and!interpreter!of!Nature,!he! writes,!“can!do!and!understand!so!much!and!so!much!only!as!he!has!observed!in!fact!or! in!thought!of!the!course!of!nature:!Beyond!this!he!neither!knows!anything!nor!can!do! anything.”11!Bacon’s!philosophy!was!thus!rooted!in!what!scholar!Antonio!Pérez`Ramos! has!coined!“the!maker’s!knowledge!tradition”:!knowing!through!doing.12!In!setting!forth!

“the!true!way!for!the!interpretation!of!nature,”!Bacon!proclaimed,!“the!best!

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Peter!Dear,!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences:*European*Knowledge*and*Its*Ambitions,*1500@1700!(Princeton,!New! Jersey:!Princeton!University!Press),!61`62;!and!Rose`Mary!Sargent,!“Baconian!Experimentalism:!Comments! on!McMullin’s!History!of!the!Philosophy!of!Science”!in!Philosophy*of*Science!68,!no.!3!(Sep.,!2001):!311`318.! According!to!Sargent,!“Bacon!maintained!that!before!experience!can!be!properly!analyzed!it!must!first!be! made!‘literate’!by!being!compiled!into!written!histories!and!tables!that!would!in!turn!supply!the!material!for! the!‘true!induction’!This!induction!was!designed!to!go!beyond!the!level!of!correlation!to!the!discovery!of! causes,!particularly!those!latent!processes!‘too!small!to!strike!the!sense.’!Simple!induction!would!not!work! for!this!project.!Neither!would!a!strictly!empirical!approach!that!depended!solely!upon!the!reliability!of! sense!experience!and!rejected!appeal!to!unobservable!causal!processes.”!Sargent,!“Baconian! Experimentalism,”!313! 11!Francis!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!90! 12!“Bacon’s!induction,!writes!scholar!Perez`Ramos,!“is!not!confined!to!the!realm!of!language!as!a! putative!vehicle!for!knowledge.!It!rather!resorts!to!checks!placed!outside!human!discourse!and!belonging!to! human!material!agency,!such!as!the!inspection!of!certain!unusual!or!normally!unexamined!phenomena,!the! devising!of!experiments,!and!the!use!and/or!construction!of!artifacts,”!(Pérez`Ramos,!Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of* Science,*239`240).!Indeed,!Bacon!writes,!“I!propose!to!establish!progressive!stages!of!certainty.!The!evidence! of!the!sense,!helped!and!guarded!by!a!certain!process!of!correction,!I!retain.!But!the!mental!operation!which! follows!the!act!of!sense!I!for!the!most!part!reject;!and!instead!of!it!I!open!and!lay!out!!a!new!and!certain!path! for!the!mind!to!proceed!in,!starting!directly!from!the!simple!sensuous!perception…There!remains!but!tone! course!of!the!recovery!of!a!sound!and!healthy!condition—namely,!that!the!entire!work!of!the!understanding! be!commenced!afresh,!and!the!mind!itself!be!from!the!very!outset!not!left!to!take!its!own!course,!but!guided! at!every!step,!and!the!business!be!done!as!if!by!machinery…Neither!the!naked!hand!nor!the!understanding! left!to!itself!can!do!much.!It!is!by!instruments!and!helps!that!the!work!is!done,!which!are!as!much!wanted! for!the!understanding!as!for!the!hand.!And!as!the!instruments!of!the!hand!either!give!motion!or!guide!it,!so! the!instruments!of!the!mind!supply!either!suggestions!for!the!understanding!or!cautions.”!Francis!Bacon,! Selected*Philosophical*Works,!86`87! 31! ! demonstration!by!far!is!experience.”13!Properly!applied!within!the!field!of!natural! philosophy,!first`hand!experience,!observation,!and!experiment!would!ultimately!lead!to! the!recognition!of!Forms:!general!principles!or!laws!of!nature!that!dictated!the! fundamental!properties!and!behavior!of!matter.!Understanding!such!natural!principles! would!allow!for!their!application!in!the!service!of!mankind,!while!promoting! opportunity!for!greater!wisdom!and!discovery.14!

Precisely!who!did!Bacon!believe!would!follow!through!with!his!prescribed! endeavors?!To!what!strata!of!society!was!his!manifesto!directed?!Bacon’s!audience!was! at!least!three`fold.!On!the!one!hand,!he!aimed!to!appeal!to!the!state!and!to!the!leaders!of! government!institutions!he!hoped!would!implement!the!intellectual!reforms!for!which! he!so!vehemently!advocated.!On!the!other!hand,!he!meant!to!convert!his!fellow! philosophers!to!his!way!of!thinking!as!he!recognized!the!importance!and!necessity!of! collective!enterprise—a!shared!system!of!investigation!that!would!facilitate!both!the! exchange!and!evolution!of!knowledge.!Lastly,!Bacon!spoke!indirectly!to!the!artisans!and! craftsmen!whose!occupations!at!once!derived!from!and!furthered!the!practical! application!of!knowledge,!and!whose!occupational!training!and!methods!provided!

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13!Francis!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!110!!! 14!For!Bacon,!the!discovery!and!application!of!natural!principles!was!both!a!perpetual!and!a!self` referential!process.!Bacon!is!often!characterized!as!a!utilitarian!but!it!would!be!a!mistake!to!oversimplify!his! philosophy!in!exclusively!those!terms.!According!to!philosophy!of!science!scholar!Antonio!Pérez`Ramos,! “Bacon!insists!that,!within!his!hierarchy!of!concepts,!‘works!(opera)!themselves!are!of!greater!value!as! pledges!of!truth!(quantenus!veritatis*pignora)!than!as!contributing!to!the!comforts!of!life,’”!(Pérez`Ramos,! Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of*Science,*139).!There!is!nevertheless!an!unmistakable!aspect!of!practical!utility!to! Bacon’s!agenda!with!respect!to!wind`knowledge.!! 32! ! much!of!the!basis!for!his!hands`on!approach!to!learning!and!philosophy.15!Wind! knowledge!was!derived!from!the!activities!and!occupation!of!all!classes.!Bacons!text!was! thus!directed!to!all!classes,!if!only!implicitly.!

The!relationship!between!knowledge!and!power!is!now!a!familiar!concept!as! philosophers!ranging!from!Thomas!Hobbes!to!Michael!Foucault!have!since!explicated! this!notion!in!a!variety!of!ways!and!for!a!multitude!of!intellectual!purposes.!Yet!as!early! as!1597!Bacon!first!articulated!the!concept!“ipsa*scientia*potestas*est,”!(“knowledge!itself!is! power”)!in!the!Meditations*Sacrae.!While!poststructuralists!have!since!emphasized!the! possibilities!the!knowledge`power!dialectic!presents!in!creating!opportunities!for! opposition!to!the!modern!state,!Bacon,!as!a!statesmen!turned!philosopher,!sought!to! more!closely!link!ruling!power!to!intellectual!endeavor.!He!wished!to!see!his!plan! carried!out!by!government!institutions!that!would!sponsor!his!prescribed!reforms!and! he!ultimately!envisioned!what!scholar!José!Roderíguez!García!has!described!as!“an! emergent!class!of!experimental!scientists!with!the!means!and!the!authority!requisite!to! become!the!ruling!state!power.”!16!

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15!Perez`Ramos!asserts!that!Bacon’s!“evaluation!of!the!mechanical!arts!amounts!to!an! epistemological!postulate:!the!conviction,!against!Sceptics!and!Aristotelians,!that!it!is!among!craftsmen!and! artisans!that!the!natural!philosopher!ought!to!seek!the!privileged!model!for!a!human!science.”!Pérez`Ramos,! Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of*Science,*147! 16!For!a!nuanced!discussion!of!Bacon’s!conception!of!the!relationship!between!knowledge!and! power!please!see!José!María!Rodríguez!García,!“Scientia!Potestas!Est—Knowledge!is!Power:!Francis!Bacon! to!Michel!Foucault,”!Neohelicon!28,!no.!1!(2001):!109`121,!accessed!February!25,!2015,! http://wsblog.iash.unibe.ch/wp`content/uploads/Garcia.pdf.!For!an!excellent!discussion!on!the!influence!of! Bacon’s!work!as!a!statesman!and!judiciary!on!the!methods!and!concerns!of!his!natural!philosophy!see!Julian! Martin,!“Natural!Philosophy!and!Its!Public!Concerns,”!in!Science,*Culture,*and*Popular*Belief*in*Renaissance* 33! !

In!the!New*Atlantis,!published!in!1624,!Bacon!painted!a!clear!picture!of!an!ideal! commonwealth!of!new!philosophers,!as!he!envisioned!it.!He!described!a!hierarchically! organized!college!of!scientists!working!collectively!in!various!fields!such!as!medicine,! botany!and!agriculture,!astronomy,!etcetera,!all!under!the!patronage!of!the!state.!The! various!laboratories!housed!in!this!expansive!intellectual!complex!were!each!geared! toward!experimental!and!applied!science.!As!historian!Deborah!Harkness!writes,!!

Specially!equipped!caves!were!dug!into!the!earth!to!simulate!natural!mines!and! accommodate!refrigeration!experiments,!and!observation!towers!were!erected! for!studying!the!heavens.!Hospitals!and!distillation!apparatus!were!erected!to! foster!the!study!of!useful!medicinal!cures.!Orchards!and!gardens!were!planted!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Europe,!eds.,!Stephen!Pumfrey,!Paolo!L.!Rossi,!and!Maurice!Slawinski!(Manchester:!Manchester,!University! Press,!1991).!Martin!argues!that!the!distinguishing!characteristic!that!set!Bacon!and!his!philosophy!and! methods!apart!from!his!contemporaries!in!natural!philosophy!(“Paracelsus,!Fabricius,!John!Dee,!William! Gilbert,!Kepler,!Galileo!or!Harvey”)!was!that!Bacon!first!and!foremost!self!identified!as!a!politician!and! statesmen:!“Bacon!was!a!member!of!the!English!governing!elite;!his!overriding!ambition!was!the! augmentation!of!the!powers!of!the!Crown!in!the!state,!and!he!believed!his!refashioned!natural!philosophy! was!but!one!(albeit!novel)!instrument!by!which!to!achieve!this!political!aim…his!natural!philosophy!cannot! be!separated!from!his!political!ambitions,”!(Martin,!“Public!Concerns,”!105).!The!ambitions!and!bureaucratic! strategies!of!his!father’s!generation!of!Tudor!statesmen!greatly!informed!the!aims!of!Bacon’s!philosophic! program—the!institutionalization!of!natural!philosophy!as!a!governing!apparatus!augmenting!the! administrative!powers!of!the!crown—while!the!procedures!of!English!common!law!accordingly!shaped!his! philosophic!methods.!Along!these!lines,!scholar!José!Roderíguez!Garcia!writes:!“Anyone!who!approaches! Bacon!from!the!standpoint!of!cultural!studies!must!confront!the!following!distinction:!Bacon’s!unrealized! reform!projects!consisted!in!institutionalizing!the!new!experimental!learning,!in!endowing!the!emergent! class!of!experimental!scientists!with!the!means!and!the!authority!requisite!to!become!the!ruling!state! power,”!(Garcia,!“Scienta!Potesta!Est,”!109`110).!!For!more!on!Bacon’s!influence!upon!the!court/judiciary!as! a!statesmen!please!see!John!C.!Hogan!and!Mortimer!D.!Shwartz,!“On!Bacon’s!‘Rules!and!Maximes’!of!the! Common!Law,”!Law*Library*Journal!76!(1983):!48`77;!and!Mark!S.!Neustadt,!“The!Making!of!the!Instauration:! Science,!Politics,!and!Law!in!the!Career!of!Frances!Bacon”!(Ph.D.!diss.,!Johns!Hopkins!Univ.,!1987);!Barbara! J.!Shapiro!“Sir!Francis!Bacon!and!the!Mid`Seventeenth`Century!Movement!for!Law!Reform,”!American* Journal*of*Legal*History!24!(1980):!331`362.!For!a!legal!and!politically!oriented!analysis!of!Bacon’s!scientific! agenda!see!Harvey!Wheeler,!“The!Invention!of!Modern!Empiricism:!Juridical!Foundations!of!Francis! Bacon’s!Philosophy!of!Science,”!Law*Library*Journal!76!(1983):!78`120;!Julian!Martin,!Francis*Bacon,*the*State,* and*the*Reform*of*Natural*Philosophy!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1992);!Paul!Kocher,!“Francis! Bacon!on!the!Science!of!Jurisprudence,”!History*of*Ideas!18!(1957):!3`26.! 34! !

provide!ample!opportunities!for!botanizing,!grafting,!viticulture,!and!agriculture.! Sound!houses,!perfume!houses,!bake!houses,!brew!houses!and!engine!houses! emitted!a!cacophony!of!sounds!and!a!sneeze`inducing!set!of!aromas,!all!in! pursuit!of!natural!knowledge.17!! ! The!entire!operation,!which!Bacon!named!Salomon’s!House,!would!be!headed!by!a! single!man!(presumably!Bacon!himself)!and!its!collective!effort!geared!toward,!what!

Bacon!described!as:!“the!knowledge!of!causes,!and!secret!motions!of!things…the! enlarging!of!the!bounds!of!human!empire,!to!the!effecting!of!all!things!possible.m18!The! government,!as!he!perceived!it,!would!be!a!collaborative!partner!and!the!principle! beneficiary!in!the!realization!of!these!higher!goals,!the!fruits!born!of!experimental! science.19!In!his!appeal!to!King!James!I,!to!whom!he!dedicated!his!works,!Bacon!writes! for!example:!!

But!to!your!Majesty!(Whom!God!in!his!goodness!has!already!blessed!with!so! much!royal!issue,!worthy!to!continue!and!represent!you!forever,!and!whose! youthful!and!fruitful!bed!still!promises!more)!it!is!proper!and!convenient!not! only!to!shed!a!luster!(as!you!do)!on!your!age,!but!also!to!extend!your!care!to! those!things!which!all!memory!may!preserve!and!which!are!in!their!natural!

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17!Deborah!Harness,!The*Jewel*House:*Elizabethan*London*and*the*Scientific*Revolution!(New!Haven:! Yale!University!Press!2007),!213.! 18!This!model!would!become!the!basis!for!the!Royal!Society.!Francis!Bacon,!The*New*Atlantis!(1624;! repr.,!Oxford:!Clarendon!Press,!1915),!35,!accessed!February!18,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=ieXrK6lXaPYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Francis+Bacon,+The+New+Atl antis&hl=en&sa=X&ei=h5LmVNvGDMu5ggSCiYS4BQ&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Francis%20B acon%2C%20The%20New%20Atlantis&f=false.!! 19!For!a!discussion!of!Bacon’s!notion!of!experiment!see!Michel!Malherbe,!“Bacon’s!Notion!of! Science,”!in!Cambridge*Companion*to*Bacon,!ed.!Markuu!Peltonen!(Cambridge,!Mass.:!Cambridge!University! Press,!2006)!75`98;!and!from!this!same!work,!Paolo!Rossi,!“Bacon’s!Idea!of!Science,”!25`46.!Bacon!ultimately! failed!to!gain!the!recognition!and!support!of!the!crown!for!his!far`reaching!intellectual!program.!However,! he!never!ceased!directing!his!vision!toward!the!noble!personage!of!the!King!in!hopes!of!winning!favor!and! patronage.!The!Royal!Society!ultimately!modeled!itself!after!Solomon’s!House.! 35! !

eternal.!Among!which…there!is!not!any!more!noble!or!more!worthy!than!the! endowment!of!the!world!with!sound!and!fruitful!knowledge.20! ! Bacon!aimed!to!align!his!intellectual!program!and!personal!legacy!with!the!power!and! legacy!of!King!James!I.!

In!addition!to!orienting!his!appeals!for!intellectual!reform!toward!the!king,! government!officials,!and!to!those!in!relative!positions!of!authority,!Bacon!also!had! another!audience!in!mind—his!fellow!philosophers.!Humanism!had!emerged!in!the! fifteenth`century!as!a!response!to!what!many!scholars!perceived!as!the!languishing!state! of!the!academy!over!the!course!of!the!Middle!Ages.!As!a!critical!response!to!the! increasingly!liberal!translations!of!ancient!texts!by!scholars!and!religious!leaders!alike,! the!humanists!focused!first!and!foremost!on!the!power!of!language.!They!advocated!for! strict!interpretations!of!ancient!Latin!texts,!and!emphasized!the!importance!of!graceful! and!expressive!writing!and!oration.!Following!the!example!of!ancient!Roman!orators! and!statesmen!such!as!Cicero,!for!example,!they!claimed!that!the!wise!and!responsible! individual!required!a!thorough!education!and!command!of!such!abilities!in!order!to!best! exercise!their!duties!as!citizen.!The!humanists’!agenda!was!thus!framed!not!so!much!in! opposition!to!but!rather!as!a!supplemental!corrective!to!the!intellectual!model!currently! in!place.!They!perceived!themselves!as!restoring!something!valuable!and!precious!that!

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20!“To!the!King”!in!Francis!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!49.!Bacon’s!dedication!was!in!fact!a! long!appeal!to!James!I!in!support!of!his!intellectual!program!and!included!an!assessment!of!what!past!rulers! had!accomplished!in!this!direction.!Bacon!writes,!“Let!us!now!review!and!consider!with!ourselves!what!has! hitherto!been!done!by!kings!and!others!for!the!increase!and!advancement!of!learning!and!what!has!been!left! undone,”!(p.!49).!! 36! ! through!distortion!and!manipulation!had!been!lost!over!time.!The!legacy!of!the!ancient!

Greeks!and!the!texts!they!authored!provided!models,!they!argued,!for!a!renewed! classical!culture!based!on!the!values!and!wisdom!of!antiquity.!21!!!

Bacon!disagreed.!He!criticized!his!fellow!scholars’!obsession!with!the!past!and! disapproved!of!their!methods!as!well.!He!writes,!“the!works!already!known!are!due!to! chance!and!experiment!rather!than!to!sciences;!for!the!sciences!we!now!possess!are! merely!systems!for!the!nice!ordering!and!setting!forth!of!things!already!invented—not! methods!of!invention!or!directions!for!new!works.”22!While!the!humanists!advocated!for! a!return!to!antiquity!and!emphasized!intellectual!methods!rooted!in!contemplation!and! logic,!Bacon!heralded!the!present!as!a!more!worthwhile!place!to!investigate!the!natural! world,!principally!through!direct!observation,!experiment,!and!productive!activity.!He! perceived!himself!as!an!intellectual!forerunner!charged!with!the!duty!of!initiating! something!new—orchestrating!the!next!wave!of!intellectual!progress.!He!writes,!!

We!do!not!think!that!it!is!any!more!relevant!to!the!present!subject!whether!the! discoveries!to!come!were!once!known!to!the!ancients…than!it!should!matter!to! men!whether!the!New!World![i.e.!America]!is!the!famous!island!Atlantis!which!

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21!For!a!classic!introduction!to!Humanism!see!Paul!Oskar!Kristeller,!“The!Humanist!Movement”! and!“Humanism!and!Scholasticism!in!the!Italian!Renaissance,”!in!Paul!Oskar!Kristeller,!Renaissance*Thought:* The*Classic,*Scholastic*and*Humanist*Strains!(New!York:!Harper!Torchbooks,!1961),!3`23!and!92`119.!For!a!brief! discussion!of!Humanism!during!the!16th!and!17th!centuries!see!Dear,!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences,!30`32.! 22!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!90.!Along!these!same!lines!Bacon!writes,!“As!the!sciences,! which!we!now!have!do!not!help!us!in!finding!out!new!works,!so!neither!does!the!logic!which!we!now!have! help!us!in!finding!out!new!sciences,”!(p.91).!Bacon’s!most!virulent!polemics!on!the!subject!appear!in!his! early!unpublished!texts:!“The!Masculine!Birth!of!Time,”!“Thoughts!and!Conclusion,”!and!“The!Refutation! of!Philosophies,”!trans.!In!Benjamin!Farrington,!The*Philosophy*of*Francis*Bacon!(Liverpool:!Liverpool! University!Press,!1964),!61`133.!! 37! !

the!ancient!world!knew…For!the!discovery!of!things!is!to!be!taken!from!the!light! of!nature,!not!recovered!from!the!shadows!of!antiquity.23!! ! Studying!nature!with!a!critical!eye,!and!even!more!importantly,!working!directly!to! apply!the!principles!of!natural!knowledge!to!the!production!of!technologies!or!to! experiments!meant!to!test!such!knowledge,!he!believed,!would!reveal!far!more!about!the! properties!of!the!physical!world!than!one!might!hope!to!gain!by!pouring!over!the! ruminations!of!ancient!men.!

If!applied!knowledge!was!a!fundamental!component!of!Bacon’s!vision!for!a!new! science,!artisanal!trade,!skill,!and!method!was!an!inspiration!for!and!a!location!where!

Bacon’s!vision!readily!manifested.!He!not!only!recognized!the!value!of!artisan!skill,!but! also!understood!the!craftsmen’s!potential!to!apply!and!test,!through!their!occupational! labor,!the!conjectures!he!and!other!natural!philosophers!proposed.24!Developments!in! the!fields!of!navigation,!shipbuilding,!metallurgy,!and!basic!optics,!as!products!of! applied!craft`knowledge!and!science,!attested!to!this!line!of!thinking.!Bacon!believed! that!the!purpose!of!science!should!be!directed!toward!practical!aims!such!as!these!as!a! crucial!step!toward!the!realization!of!higher!truths.!His!manifesto!for!the!new!science! was!thus!implicitly!addressed!to!the!skilled!artisan’s!and!craftsmen!whom!he!recognized! as!necessary!if!unequal!partners!in!applying!the!knowledge!derived!through!

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23!Bacon!cited!in!Dear,!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences,!59! 24!“Marxist!Historian!Christopher!Hill!considers!Bacon!the!single!most!important!catalyst!in!the! appearance,!in!seventeenth`century!Protestant!England,!of!an!intellectual!climate!that!favored!individual! interpretation!over!tradition,!experimentation!over!abstract!thought,!and!meritocratic!principles!over! aristocratic!ones,”!writes!Jose!García.!Garcia,!“Scientia!Potesta!Est,”!111! 38! ! experimental!science,!explicitly!addressed!to!scholars!in!the!academy!whose!methods!he! believed!were!in!great!need!of!redirection,!and!dedicated!to!King!James!and!to!the!state,! with!whom!he!hoped!to!work!in!collaborative!partnership!toward!the!realization!of! these!goals.25!

Bacon’s!vision!of!intellectual!reform—pioneering!in!its!approach!and!remarkably! ambitious!in!its!aims—was!directed!toward!the!“total!reconstruction!of!sciences,!arts,! and!all!human!knowledge.”26!Twenty`two!years!after!commencing!the!project,!however,!

Bacon!reconciled!himself!to!the!fact!that!he!would!never!finish!the!entire!work.!He! nevertheless!chose!to!publish!several!parts!of!his!writing!on!the!subject,!these!included:!

The*New*Organon,!an!outline!and!prefatory!from!The*Great*Instauration,!and!The*

Preparative*towards*a*Natural*and*Experimental*History,!which!collectively!laid!out!the!

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25!For!a!discussion!of!Bacon’s!big!goals!see:!Peter!Dear,!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences,!58.!On!the! relationship!between!craft!knowledge!and!the!evolution!of!science!see!the!classic!work!of!Edgar!Zilsel,!The* Social*Origins*of*Modern*Science!(Dordrecht;!Boston:!Kluwer!Academic!Publishers,!2000).!For!a!particularly! poignant!essay!Zilsel!authored!on!the!subject!see,!“The!Sociological!Roots!of!Science,”!American!Journal!of! Sociology,!47!(1942):!544`562.!For!further!reading!on!the!subject!see!Paolo!Rossi,!Philosophy,*Technology,*and* the*Arts*in*the*Early*Modern*Era!trans.!Salvator!Attanasio,*(New!York:!Harper!&!Row,!1970);!Arthur!Clegg,“! Craftsmen!and!the!Origin!of!Science,”!Science*and*Society!43!(1979)!186`201;!Reijer!Hooykaas,!“The!Rise!of! Modern!Science:!When!and!Why?”!British*Journal*for*the*History*of*Science!20!(1987):!453`473;!Michael!Hunter,! Science*and*Society*in*Restoration*England!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1983);!Pamela!Long’s! Artisan/Practitioners*and*the*Rise*of*the*New*Sciences,!(Corvallis,!OR!:!Oregon!State!University!Press,!2011);! Pamela!Long,!“The!Contribution!of!Architectural!Writers!to!a!‘Scientific’!Outlook!in!the!Fifteenth!and! Sixteenth!Centuries,”!Journal*of*Medieval*and*Renaissance*Studies!15!(1985);!265`298;!William!Eamon,!Science* and*the*Secrets*of*Nature:*Books*of*Secrets*in*Medieval*and*Early*Modern*Culture!(Princeton,!N.J.:!Princeton! University!Press,!1994);!Pamela!Long!“Power!Patronage,!and!the!Authorship!of!Arts,”!Isis!88!(1997):!1`41;! Pamela!Smith’s!The*Body*of*the*Artisan:*Art*and*Experience*in*the*Scientific*Revolution;*Pamela!Smith!ed.!and! Benjamin!Schmidt!ed.,!Making*Knowledge*in*Early*Modern*Europe:*Practices,*Objects,*and*Texts,*1400@1800;! Rupert!Hall,!“Scholar!and!Craftsmen,!in!J.V.!Field,!and!A.!J.!L.!James,!eds.,!Renaissance*and*Revolution:! Humanists,*Scholars,*Craftsmen*and*Natural*Philosophers*in*Early*Modern*Europe!(Cambridge:!Cambridge! University!Press,!1997).! 26!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!66! 39! ! fundamentals!of!his!design.27!!Two!years!later,!in!1622,!he!published!the!Natural*and*

Experimental*History*for*the*Foundation*of*Philosophy,!complete*with*Preface*and*Rule.!

Included!in!this!work!were!the!titles!of!six!natural!histories,!which!he!intended!to!author! and!publish!once!a!month,!until!they!were!complete.28!The!first!of!these!histories,*The!

History*of*the*Winds,!was!published!as!part!of!this!first!volume.!

It!was!not!a!coincidence!that!Bacon!chose!the!wind!as!the!subject!of!his!first! natural!history.!It!was!not!happenstance!that!he!selected!this!particular!natural! phenomenon!as!the!centerpiece!of!a!work!intended!to!exemplify!a!method!of!intellectual! inquiry!largely!predicated!on!maker’s!knowledge!and!oriented!around!applied!and! experimental!science!in!the!service!of!the!state.!In!the!opening!of!his*History*of*Winds!

Bacon!writes:!

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27!Francis!Bacon,!The*New*Organon,!eds.!Lisa!Jardine,!Michael!Silverthorne!(Cambridge;!New!York:! Cambridge!University!Press,!2000);!The*Great*Instauration,!ed.!Gail!Kennedy*(Garden!City,!NY:!Doubleday,! 1937);!The*Preparative*towards*a*Natural*and*Experimental*History,*Natural*and*Experimental*History*for*the* Foundation*of*Philosophy,*complete*with*Preface*and*Rule!in!Francis!Bacon,!The*Philosophical*Works*of*Francis* Bacon,!eds.,!James!Spedding;!Robert!Leslie!Ellis,!J.M.!Robertson!(London:!G.!Routledge!and!Sons;!New!York:! E.P.!Dutton!&!Co.,!1905).!It!is!worth!mentioning!that!the!name!Bacon!selected!for!his!treatise—The*New* Organon—was!not!coincidental.!Aristotle’s!writings!on!the!subject!of!applied!logic!were!compiled!into!a! work!entitled!Organon!or!“instrument”;!thus!even!in!its!title!Bacon’s!New!Organon!gestured!toward!the! traditional!methods!of!learning!he!endeavored!to!replace.!For!a!discussion!of!Aristotle’s!rhetoric!and!its!role! in!the!evolution!of!natural!philosophy!and!the!scientific!method!please!see,!Maurice!Slawinski,!“Rhetoric! and!Science/Rhetoric!of!Science/Rhetoric!as!Science”!in!Science,*Culture*and*Popular*Belief*in*Renaissance* Europe,!eds.!Stephan!Pumfry,!Paolo!Rossi!and!Maurice!Slawinski!(Manchester:!Manchester!University!Press,! 1991),!71.! 28!These!included:!a!History*of*Winds;!a!History*of*Life*and*Death;!and!a!History*of*Dense*and*Rare.! According!to!scholar!Rose`Mary!Sargent,!“Bacon!also!compiled!a!different!type!of!history,!composed!of!one! thousand!observations!and!experiments!taken!primarily!from!the!works!of!other!authors!and!arranged!in! ten!‘centuries’!of!one!hundred!reports!each.”!This!work!was!published!posthumously!as!the!Sylva*Sylvarum.! For!a!discussion!of!Bacon’s!publication’s!see!Rose`Mary!Sargent’s!introduction!in!Bacon,!Selected* Philosophical*Works,!x`xi.! 40! !

The!winds!may!be!called!the!wings!of!mankind;!by!means!whereof!men!fly! through!the!sea,!and!maintain!traffic!and!correspondence!with!all!parts!of!the! globe.!They!are!also!the!sweepers!of!man’s!habitation,!the!earth;!and!at!the!same! time!brush!and!cleanse!the!air!about!it…they!produce!strong!and!violent!motion,! without!human!assistance;!and!thus,!as!servants!to!mankind!drive!our!ships!and! turn!our!mills.!They!might!also!be!applied!to!abundance!of!other!useful! purposes;!if!men!would!exert!their!diligence.29! ! In!this!single!poetic!passage,!Bacon!gestured!toward!the!many!ways!in!which!the!wind! informed!the!daily!experience!of!the!English!population!at!this!time:!the!craftsmen! building!the!wind`powered!sailing!ships!used!in!exploration!and!commerce;!the!scores! of!producers!whose!goods!traveled!to!foreign!markets!aboard!these!vessels,!and!the! thousands!of!sailors!employed!on!these!wind!powered!ships;!the!merchants!who! sponsored!and!prospered!from!such!trade;!the!farmers!and!millers!cultivating!the!grains! ground!by!the!wind`mills,!and!the!general!population!who!relied!upon!these!grains!for! sustenance;!the!state!itself,!which!expanded!the!scope!of!its!power!through!exploration! and!control!of!the!seas;!and!everyone!who!relied!upon!the!wind’s!restorative!healing! power.!The!wind!lay!at!the!center!of!it!all,!an!invisible!current!connecting!people!at!all! levels!of!society,!from!those!at!the!very!bottom!to!the!most!privileged!at!the!very!top.!

Bacon!knew!this,!and!he!was!also!convinced!of!this!resource’s!untapped!potential,!a! potential!that!he!hoped!to!uncover!through!further!intellectual!exploration.!In!his!

History*of*Winds!he!endeavored!to!illustrate!not!only!how!one!might!go!about!knowing! the!wind!but!additionally,!how!wind`knowledge!might!be!strategically!applied!for!

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29!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!B2! 41! ! collective!benefit.!He!did!so!by!drawing!upon!the!wisdom!and!experience!of!the! everyday!workers!who!applied!wind`knowledge!on!a!regular!basis!as!an!occupational! requirement!and!necessity.!Bacon!appropriated!this!knowledge!and!incorporated!it! within!the!bounds!of!natural!philosophy,!in!the!interest!of!furthering!his!agenda!of! intellectual!reform.!!

Aristotle and the Ancient Greeks

Bacon’s!History*of*Winds!was!the!first!comprehensive!study!on!the!subject! produced!since!Aristotle’s!Meteorologica!(340!B.C.),!still!regarded!at!that!time!as!the! authoritative!voice!on!virtually!all!meteorological!phenomena.!With!the!publication!of!

Bacon’s!History*of*Wind,!the!ways!in!which!people!understood!the!wind!became!openly! subject!to!scholarly!reevaluation!for!the!first!time!in!over!two!thousand!years.!In!order!to! understand!the!character!and!significance!of!what!Bacon!presented!in!his!natural! history,!what!his!text!reveals!about!the!nature!of!wind`knowledge!in!early!modern!

England,!and!what!set!his!work!apart!from!that!of!his!predecessors,!it!is!therefore! important!to!understand!precisely!who!and!what!he!was!writing!in!opposition!to.30!!

The!ancient!Greeks!speculated!a!great!deal!about!the!logic!and!composition!of! the!universe!and!are!often!credited!as!being!the!first!known!civilization!to!engage!in!

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30!For!more!on!the!relationship!of!Aristotelianism!to!Early!Modern!scholasticism!see!Schristia! Mercer,!“The!Vitality!and!Importance!of!Early!Modern!Aristotelianism,”!in!The*Rise*of*Modern*Philosophy:* The*Tension*between*the*New*and*Traditional*Philosophies*from*Machiavelli*to*Leibniz,!ed.,!Tom!Sorell!(Oxford:! Claredon!Press,!1993),!3`67.! 42! ! regular!meteorological!observation!and!purposeful!meteorological!theories.31!These! theories,!which!were!based!on!personal!observations!of!the!natural!world,!attempted!to! account!for!the!meteorological!phenomena!people!witnessed!and!experienced!in!their! daily!lives:!the!formation!of!clouds,!for!example,!or!the!falling!of!rain,!and!the!origins! and!direction!of!the!wind.32!Their!theories—and!Aristotle’s!in!particular—as!the!starting! point!for!western!meteorological!science,!had!great!bearing!on!the!evolution!of!the!field.!

One!of!the!central!puzzles!the!ancient!philosophers!concerned!themselves!with! was!determining!the!fundamental!composition!of!the!universe.!They,!(like!our! contemporary!scientists),!speculated!and!debated!about!what!elements!constituted!the! basic!building!blocks!of!the!physical!world!and!thus!accounted!for!the!meteorological! phenomena!evident!all!around!us.!Empedocles!(ca.!492`430!B.C.),!for!example,!a!natural! philosopher!who!resided!in!what!we!now!recognize!as!Sicily,!suggested!that!four! elements!made!up!the!basic!building!blocks!of!the!universe.!He!associated!these!four! basic!elements—earth,!air,!fire,!and!water—with!four!basic!qualities—heat,!cold,! moistness,!and!dryness—the!various!combinations,!oppositions,!and!affinities!of!which,!

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31!Howard!Frisinger,!The*History*of*Meteorology*to*1800!(New!York:!Science!History!Publications),!3.! 32!The!explanatory!method!of!the!ancient!Greeks!was!predicated!on!offering!explanations!for! universally!accepted!phenomena!on!the!basis!of!logic!and!an!appeal!to!common!experience.!Observation! and!experience!were!core!aspects!of!Greek!natural!philosophy.!However,!the!ways!in!which!they!were! understood,!practiced,!and!applied!changed!over!time.!For!general!overviews!of!Aristotle’s!natural! philosophy!and!the!natural!philosophy!of!the!ancient!Greeks!as!they!informed!the!methods!and!practices!of! natural!philosophy!in!the!Early!Modern!period!see!Peter!Dear,!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences,!132.!See!also,! Steven!Shapin,!The*Scientific*Revolution!(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1996),!65`117.! 43! ! produced!the!meteorological!phenomena!of!the!physical!world!around!us.33!His! argumentative!premise!became!the!basis!for!the!Aristotelian!model!of!the!universe,! which!would!come!to!dominate!western!meteorology!for!approximately!2,000!years.!

According!to!Aristotle’s!system,!the!earth!lay!at!the!center!of!the!universe.!

Because!the!composition!of!any!body!governed!its!motion,!bodies!composed!of!the! heavy!elements!(earth!and/or!water)!tended!to!sink!toward!the!center,!whereas!bodies! composed!of!the!lighter!elements!(air!and/or!fire)!tended!to!rise.!Thus,!water!surrounded! the!earth!(as!demonstrated!by!the!oceans),!air!surrounded!water!(as!demonstrated!by! the!atmosphere)!and!fire!surrounded!air!(for!which!there!was!no!demonstration).34!

However,!the!stratification!between!these!four!elements!was!not!necessarily!rigid,!for!as! we!know,!dry!land,!in!some!instances,!is!wont!to!rise!above!the!sea,!and!fire!inclined!to! burn!upon!the!earth.!35!What!was!the!cause!for!this?!According!to!Aristotle’s!logic,!the! motion!of!the!celestial!sphere!prevented!the!elements!from!permanently!settling!in!their! natural!positions.!Moreover!the!elements!were!transmutable!through!the!processes!of!

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33!Empedocles!reasoned!that!because!water!extinguishes!fire,!these!two!elements!must!be!in! opposition!to!one!another.!Whereas,!water!and!air!combined/transmutated!into!one!another!and!thereby! possessed!an!affinity!for!each!other.!Thus,!the!four!fundamental!elements,!associated!with!four!primary! qualities,!on!the!basis!of!either!opposition!or!affinity!formed!the!foundation!of!the!natural!world.!See! Frisinger,!The*History*of*Meteorology,!7.!!! 34!“We!have!previously!laid!down!that!there!is!one!element!from!which!the!natural!bodies!in! circular!motion!are!made!up,!and!four!other!physical!bodies!produced!by!the!primary!qualities,!the!motion! of!these!bodies!being!twofold,!either!away!from!or!toward!the!centre.!These!four!bodes!are!fire,!air,!water! and!earth:!of!them!fire!always!rises!to!the!top,!earth!always!sinks!to!the!bottom,!while!the!other!two!bear!to! each!other!a!mutual!relation!similar!to!that!of!fire!and!earth—for!air!is!the!nearest!of!all!to!fire,!water,!to! earth.!The!whole!terrestrial!region!then!is!composed!of!these!four!bodies,!and!it!is!the!conditions!which! affect!them,!which,!we!have!said,!are!the!subject!of!our!inquiry.”!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!7`8!! 35!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!trans.!H.D.P.!Lee!(Cambridge:!Harvard!University!Press,!1978),!9.! 44! ! rarefaction!and!condensation,!which!depended!upon!the!degree!of!heat!or!cold! present.36!Thus,!what!we!as!humans!perceived!and!recognized!as!meteorological! phenomena!within!the!terrestrial!realm!was!merely!the!various!manifestations!of!these! elemental!transmutations,!which!occurred!in!response!to!the!disturbance!caused!by!the! motion!of!the!celestial!sphere,!as!each!element!attempted!to!return!to!its!natural!position! in!the!universe.37!

The!wind!was!a!particular!meteorological!phenomenon!that!intrigued!and! puzzled!natural!philosophers!for!centuries.!Discussions!over!its!origin,!composition,!and! direction!inspired!countless!debates.!Anaximander!(ca.!611`547!B.C.),!a!contemporary!of!

Thales,!for!example,!defined!wind!as!“a!flowing!of!air,”!and!in!doing!so!is!credited!as! the!first!westerner!to!offer!a!scientific!definition!of!wind.!38!Interestingly,!subsequent!

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36!We!maintain!that!fire,!air,!water!and!earth!are!transformable!into!another,!and!that!each!is! potentially!latent!in!the!others,!as!is!true!of!all!other!things!that!have!a!single!substratum!underlying!them! into!which!they!can!in!the!last!resort!be!resolved,!”Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!11! 37!The!passage!from!The*Conspiracy*and*Tragedy*of*Charles,*Duke*of*Byron!authored!by!the!proliferate! George!Chapman!and!published!and!performed!in!1608,!readily!reflects!the!moisture!cycle!as!defined!by! Aristotelian!meteorology:!“The!clouds,!observing!their!aerial!natures,!Are!borne!aloft,!and!the!to!moisture! [c]hang’d,!Fall!to!the!earth;!where!being!made!thick!and!cold,!They!lose!both!all!their!heat!and!levity;!Yet! then!again!recovering!heat!and!lightness,!Again!they!are!advanc’d,!and!by!the!sun!Made!fresh!and! glorious.”!Chapman!as!cited!in!S.K.!Heninger,!A*Handbook*of*Renaissance*Meteorology!(Durham,!N.C.:!Duke! University!Press,!1960)!184.!! 38!Frisinger,!The*History*of*Meteorology,!5.!Please!note,!however,!that!scholar!Harold!Burstyn! attributes!this!same!idea!to!Hippocrates,!whom!he!claims!proposed!that,!“‘Wind!is!simply!a!moving!current! of!what!we!call!air.”!Harold!Burstyn,!“Early!Explanations!of!the!Role!of!the!Earth’s!Rotation!in!the! Circulation!of!the!Atmosphere,”!Isis,!52!(1966):!169.! 45! ! generations!of!natural!philosophers!overwhelmingly!rejected!this!definition!of!wind,!

Aristotle!among!them.39!!In!the!Meteorologica,!Aristotle!writes:!!

There!are!some!who!say!that!wind!is!simply!a!moving!current!of!what!we!call! air,!while!cloud!and!water!are!the!same!air!condensed;!they!thus!assume!that! water!and!wind!are!of!the!same!nature,!and!define!wind!as!air!in!motion.!And! for!this!reason,!some!people,!wishing!to!be!clever,!say!that!all!the!winds!are!one,! on!the!grounds!that!the!air!which!moves!is!in!fact!one!and!the!same!whole,!and! only!seems!to!differ,!without!differing!in!reality,!because!of!the!various!places! from!which!the!current!comes!on!different!occasions:!which!is!like!supposing! that!all!rivers!are!but!one!river.!The!unscientific!views!of!ordinary!people!are! preferable!to!scientific!theories!of!this!sort.40!! ! It!is!unclear!from!Aristotle’s!writing!precisely!what!the!unscientific!views!of!ordinary! people!actually!were!regarding!the!wind,!but!presumably!some!of!Aristotle’s! contemporaries!took!to!heart!the!rich!discussions!about!the!wind!that!appeared!in!Greek! mythology.!More!pointedly,!Aristotle’s!reference!here!to!the!disparate!views!held!by! ordinary!people!and!scientists!alike!suggests!that!even!in!ancient!Greece!the!wind!was!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

39!One!notable!exception,!however,!was!the!atomist!and!geometer,!Democritus!(ca.!460`370!B.C.),! who,!using!atomistic!theory,!postulated!that!wind!was!the!outcome!of!a!large!number!of!particles!(“atoms”)! in!a!small!space.!A!small!number!of!particles!in!a!large!space,!by!contrast,!resulted!in!a!still!and!pleasant! atmosphere.!Seneca!related!the!illustration!used!by!Democritus!as!follows:!“To!illustrate:!in!the!market! square!or!in!a!side!street!as!long!as!there!is!a!sprinkling!of!people!there!is!no!disturbance!as!one!walks!along! it;!but!when!a!crowd!meets!in!a!narrow!space,!then!they!jostle!against!each!other!and!quarreling!arises.! Similarly!in!this!space!which!surrounds!our!earth;!when!many!bodies!have!crowded!a!very!small!portion,!it! is!unavoidable!that!they!should!jostle!on!another!and!be!driven!back!and!forward,!and!be!intertwined!and! squeezed.!Hence!results!wind:!the!particles!that!were!struggling!have!had!to!give!way,!and!after!being! tossed!about!and!remaining!in!suspense!for!a!long!time!thy!at!length!lean!their!weight!toward!one!side.!But! when!a!few!bodies!occupy!a!large!roomy!place,!they!can!neither!ram!each!other!nor!be!jostled!by!one! another.”!Apparently,!however,!this!theory!was!quickly!dismissed!by!Democritus’!contemporaries!on!the! basis!that!wind!did!not!always!occur!in!conjunction!with!a!cloud`laden!atmosphere.!Frisinger,!The*History*of* Meteorology,!9! 40!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!89.!Later!in!the!text!he!repeats!this!argument!on!similar!grounds:!“It!is! absurd!to!suppose!that!the!air!which!surrounds!us!becomes!wind!simply!by!being!in!motion,!and!will!be! wind!whatever!the!source!of!its!motion;!for!we!do!not!call!a!volume!of!water,!however,!large,!a!river! whatever!its!flow!but!only!if!it!flows!from!a!source,!and!the!same!thing!is!true!of!the!winds.”!Aristotle,! Meteorologica,!167! 46! ! controversial!subject!characterized!by!a!lack!of!consensus!regarding!its!causes!and! constitution!that!split!not!only!along!class/educational!lines,!but!which!was!also! contested!among!people!of!comparable!social!and!educational!status,!just!as!it!was!in!

17th`century!England.!!

How,!then,!did!Aristotle!attempt!to!create!a!singular!and!stable!definition!of!the! wind!and!to!control!the!content!of!the!conversation!that!could!take!place!about!the! wind?!First,!by!explaining!the!wind’s!content!and!composition!within!the!context!of!his! broader!structure!of!the!universe;!second,!by!naming!and!classifying!it!on!the!basis!of! directionality!and!seasonality;!and!third,!by!describing!its!relationships!to!other!natural! phenomena.!In!this!manner!Aristotle!delineated!what!the!right!way!to!talk!about!the! wind!was,!and!therefore!what!ideas!and!questions!about!the!wind!were!worth! considering!and!what!questions!and!ideas!could!be!readily!dismissed.!

Aristotle!directed!his!arguments!principally!toward!his!fellow!philosophers,!and! rejected!the!notion!that!wind!was!simply!air!in!motion!on!the!grounds!that!wind!and! water!were!not!of!a!similar!nature.!Likewise,!he!refused!to!accept!the!argument!that!all! winds!were!one!wind—a!premise!that!would!imply!that!the!atmosphere!itself!was!of!a! singular!nature.!Wind,!Aristotle!argued,!was!caused!by!dry`hot!exhalation!from!the! earth,!rather!than!a!moving!current!of!air.!The!earth,!he!explained,!when!heated!by!the! sun’s!warm!rays,!produced!two!kinds!of!exhalation:!one!hot!and!dry!and!originating! from!the!land!itself,!(which!he!called!smoke,!for!lack!of!a!better!term),!the!other!cool!and!

47! ! moist,!(which!he!called!vapor),!originating!from!the!oceans!which!surround!the!earth.41!

Thus,!what!we!humans!perceived!as!atmosphere!was,!according!to!Aristotle,!actually! two!distinct!kinds!of!exhalation!that!made!up!two!different!regions!above!the!earth:!the! furthermost!terrestrial!strata,!which!he!described!as!fire,!being!composed!of!this!hot`dry! exhalation,!and!the!region!directly!below!it—air,!composed!of!the!hot`moist!exhalation.!

The!meteorological!effects!that!resulted!from!each!kind!of!exhalation!differed!in!quality! as!well.!He!writes:!!

The!exhalation!containing!the!greater!amount!of!moisture!is,!as!we!have!said! before,!the!origin!of!rain!water:!the!dry!exhalation!is!the!origin!and!natural! substance!of!winds.!That!this!must!be!the!case!is!evident!from!the!facts.!For!the! exhalation!that!produce!rain!and!wind!must!differ!and!it!is!not!only!possible!but! necessary!that!the!sun!and!the!warmth!in!the!earth!should!produce!exhalations.42!! ! Aristotle!suggested!that!just!as!rivers!resulted!from!an!accumulated!flow!of!water! drained!from!surrounding!hills,!wind!must!be!understood!as!the!composite!effect!of!a! gradual!accumulation!of!dry`hot,!earthly!exhalation!seeking!its!natural!position.43!

Exhalation!rose!vertically,!drawn!upward!by!the!force!of!the!sun,!according!to!

Aristotle’s!model.!Yet,!as!any!observer!knows,!wind!appears!to!blow!horizontally.!The!

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41!“For!we!have!said!that!there!are!two!kinds!of!exhalation—one!moist!and!one!dry:!of!these!the!firs! is!called!vapour,!the!second!has!no!name!that!applies!to!it!as!a!whole,!and!we!are!compelled!to!apply!to!the! whole!a!name!which!belongs!to!a!part!only!and!call!it!a!kind!of!smoke.!The!moist!exhalation!does!not!exist! without!the!dry!nor!the!dry!without!the!moist,!but!we!speak!of!them!as!dry!or!moist!according!as!either! quality!predominates.”!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!165! 42!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!164`165! 43!“The!facts…make!it!clear!that!winds!are!formed!by!the!gradual!collection!of!small!quantities!of! exhalation,!in!the!same!way!that!rivers!form!when!the!earth!is!wet.!For!they!are!all!least!strong!at!their!place! of!origin,!but!blow!strongly!as!they!travel!farther!from!it.!Besides,!the!north,!that!is!the!region!immediately! about!the!pole,!is!calm!and!windless!in!winter;!but!the!wind!which!blows!so!gently!there!that!it!passes! unnoticed!becomes!strong!as!it!moves!farther!afield.”!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!173! 48! ! reason!for!this,!he!argued,!was!that!the!rotation!of!the!celestial!sphere!dictated!the! motion!of!the!atmosphere!surrounding!the!earth.44!Thus,!the!spinning!heavens!caused! the!atmosphere!within!the!terrestrial!realm!to!spin!as!well.!Aristotle!recognized!that!this! argument!potentially!complicated!the!question!of!whether!winds!in!fact!originated!from! above!or!below—from!the!heavens!or!the!terrestrial!realm.!His!conclusion,!however,! was!that!although!the!heavens!above!were!powerful!enough!to!influence!phenomena!at! a!great!distance!and!thereby!dictate!the!movement!of!terrestrial!exhalation,!the!actual! content!of!the!exhalation!was!clearly!dictated!by!the!material!of!the!terrestrial!realm— the!earth!and!sea!interacting!with!the!heat!emanating!from!the!sun.45!!Therefore,!the! direction!of!the!winds!was!dictated!from!above!but!their!content!from!below.46!

Naming the Winds

Aristotle!also!attempted!to!classify!the!winds.!He!suggested!that!the!northern! winds!and!the!southern!winds!were!the!two!primary!winds.!The!north!winds,!or!what! he!called!the!Etesian!Winds,!were!cool!because!they!emanated!from!the!coldest!regions!

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44!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!171! 45!“But!since!a!wind!is!a!body!of!dry!exhalation!moving!about!the!earth,!it!is!clear!that!though!their! motion!takes!its!origin!from!above,!the!material!from!which!they!are!produced!comes!from!below.”! Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!171`173!!! 46!According!to!Harold!Burstyn,!in!Aristotle’s!explanation!the!motion!of!the!wind!“became! secondary,!and!the!primacy!given!to!the!water!cycle!dominated!speculation!on!the!winds!until!late!in!the! seventeenth!century.!Not!until!the!concept!of!atmospheric!pressure!arose!was!the!wind!treated!as!a!current! of!air!whose!composition!is!not!relevant!to!its!motion.”!Harold!Burstyn,!“Early!Explanations!of!the!Role!of! the!Earth’s!Rotation!in!the!Circulation!of!the!Atmosphere,”!Isis!52!(1966):!168`187;!170.!! 49! ! of!habitable!world!in!the!northern!hemisphere.47!The!south!winds,!by!contrast,!emanated! from!the!torrid!zone,!or!what!we!would!now!identify!as!the!Tropic!of!Cancer,!which!

Aristotle!regarded!as!the!furthest!limit!of!the!habitable!world!in!the!southern! hemisphere.48!Winds!emanating!from!the!west,!the!direction!of!sunset,!he!argued,!were! cooler!than!those!emanating!from!the!east,!the!direction!of!sunrise.49!As!a!consequence,! he!categorized!the!former!as!northern!winds!and!the!latter!as!southern.!

Beyond!his!general!classification!of!northern!and!southern!winds,!Aristotle! identified!a!total!of!eleven!specific!winds!whose!names!and!directions!he!charted.50!

Zephyros,!he!explained,!blew!from!the!equinoctial!sunset!and!was!set!opposite!Aeliotes,! which!blew!from!the!equinoctial!sunrise.!Boreas!blew!from!the!north,!while!Notos!blew! from!the!south.!Caecias!blew!from!the!summer!sunrise!and!its!opposite!was!Lip,!which! blew!from!the!winter!sunset.!Eurus!blew!from!the!winter!sunrise!and!its!opposite,!which! blew!from!the!summer!sunset,!went!by!several!names—Argestes,!Olympias,!or!Sciron.!

In!addition!to!these!winds,!each!of!which!was!paired!with!its!opposite,!two!other!winds! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

47!“There!are!two!habitable!sectors!of!the!earth’s!surface,!one,!in!which!we!live,!towards!the!upper! pole,!the!other!towards!the!other,!the!south!pole…The!lands!beyond!the!tropics!are!uninhabitable,!as!there! the!shadow!would!not!fall!towards!the!north,!and!we!know!that!the!earth!ceases!to!be!habitable!before!the! shadow!disappears!or!falls!toward!the!south,!while!the!lands!beneath!the!Bear!are!uninhabitable!because!of! the!cold.”!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!177`181! 48!“Our!south!wind!is!not!the!wind!that!blows!from!the!South!Pole.!But!it!does!not!blow!from!the! winter!tropic!any!more!than!from!the!South!Pole.!For!there!would!have!to!be!a!wind!from!the!summer! tropic!if!the!correspondence!is!to!be!complete;!but!in!fact!there!is!no!such!wind,!but!one!wind!only!that! blows!from!this!region.!The!south!wind!must!therefore!be!the!wind!that!blows!from!the!Torrid!Zone.”! Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!185! 49!“Winds!from!the!sunrise!are!warmer!than!winds!from!the!sunset,!because!those!from!the!sunrise! are!exposed!to!the!sun!for!longer;!while!those!from!the!sunset!are!reached!by!the!sun!later!and!it!soon!leaves! them.”!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!193! 50!For!a!diagram!of!Aristotle’s!wind!rose,!see!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!187.!! 50! ! existed!that,!according!to!Aristotle,!had!no!winds!opposite!them:!Thrascieas,!and!Meses,! both!of!which!were!northern!winds!and!as!such,!cold!and!wont!to!blow!from!mid!fall! until!the!spring.!!

Overall,!there!were!more!northern!winds!than!southern!winds,!despite!the!fact! that!the!southern!winds!were!stronger!than!their!counterparts.!The!reason!for!this,! according!to!Aristotle,!was!that!the!heat!in!the!southern!hemisphere!drove!a!great!deal! of!rain!and!snow!northward.!Thus,!when!the!heat!from!the!sun!and!the!heat!emanating! from!the!earth!itself!warmed!the!snow,!causing!it!to!melt!across!the!earth’s!surface,! exhalation!of!great!magnitude!resulted!in!the!region.51!Moreover,!he!states:!“Because!of! its!proximity!to!the!sun,![the!torrid!zone]!has!no!streams!or!pasture!land!to!produce!

Etesian!winds!by!thawing;!but!because!the!region!is!greater!in!extent!and!open,!the! south!wind!is!greater,!stronger!and!warmer!than!the!north!and!reaches!farther! northwards!than!the!north!wind!southwards.”52!The!cold,!plentiful!winds!from!the!north! were!thus!complimented!by!the!strong,!warm!winds!from!the!south.!!!

Wind as Thunder, Lightening, and Earthquake

Aristotle!argued!that!the!hot`dry!exhalations!of!the!earth,!the!very!cause!and! substance!of!wind,!produced!other!meteorological!phenomena!as!well.!If!wind!“of!a!fine! texture”!became!trapped!within!a!cloud,!for!example,!its!forcible!ejection!as!the!cloud!

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51!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!193! 52!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!185! 51! ! condensed!would!result!in!thunder!and!lightening,!he!argued.!The!sound!we!recognized! as!thunder!was!merely!the!noise!resulting!from!the!impact!of!the!ejected!exhalation! striking!against!dense!neighboring!clouds.53!Thus,!variations!in!cloud!density!accounted! for!differences!in!the!tone!of!thunder.54!Lightening,!contrary!to!our!perceptions,!he! argued,!actually!occurred!after!this!impact,!and!was!merely!the!ejected!wind!burning! with!“a!fine!and!gentle!fire…that!appears!to!us!as!if!it!were!coloured.”55!He!identified! two!distinct!kinds!of!thunderbolts:!the!first,!which!he!described!as!gleaming,!occurred! when!the!wind!in!question!was!very!fine!in!texture.!Thunderbolts!of!this!nature,!he! argued,!moved!so!quickly!that!they!passed!right!through!the!very!objects!they!struck! without!burning!or!blackening!them.!The!second!type!of!thunderbolt,!however,!which! he!called!smoky,!resulted!from!wind!of!a!thicker!texture!and!slower!velocity,!and!tended! to!scorch!any!object!it!struck—blackening!it,!but!moving!quickly!enough!not!to!burn!it.56!!

Earthquakes!too!were!caused!by!hot`dry!exhalations.!They!occurred!when!wind! trapped!within!the!earth!flowed!in!toward!the!core.!The!earth,!Aristotle!argued,!was! itself!dry,!but!falling!rain!and!melting!snow!added!moisture,!and!when!this!moisture! was!heated!by!the!sun,!a!large!amount!of!wind—emanating!from!inside!the!earth!as!well! as!from!its!surface—resulted.!This!exhalation!could!flow!both!up!and!out!of!the!earth,!or!

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53!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!225! 54!Different!kinds!of!sound!are!produced!because!of!the!lack!of!uniformity!in!the!clouds!and! because!hollows!occur!where!their!density!is!not!contiguous.”!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!225! 55!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!225`227! 56!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!237! 52! ! downward!and!in.!When!the!former!occurred,!a!breeze!resulted,!but!when!the!latter! occurred,!the!earth!itself!would!crack!and!shake!and!tremor!with!motion!described!as!an! earthquake.!57!Thus,!earthquakes!were!more!likely!to!occur!in!the!spring!and!fall!seasons,! and!during!rains!and!droughts,!Aristotle!argued,!because!exhalation!was!at!its!greatest! during!these!particular!times.58!!!!!

In!conclusion,!Aristotle!contended!that!hot`dry!earthly!exhalation!accounted!for! wind,!thunder,!lightening,!and!earthquakes!despite!their!apparent!differences.!He! writes:!!

Our!view!is!that!the!same!natural!substance!causes!wind!on!the!earth’s!surface,! earthquakes!beneath!it,!and!thunder!in!the!clouds;!for!all!these!have!the!same! substance,!the!dry!exhalation.!If!it!flows!in!one!way!it!is!wind,!in!another!it! causes!earthquakes;!and!when!the!clouds!change!in!the!process!of!contracting! and!condensing!into!water,!it!is!ejected!and!causes!thunder!and!lighting!and!all! other!phenomena!of!the!same!nature.59!! ! In!Aristotle’s!search!for!the!underlying!forms!and!basic!structures!that!governed!the! known!universe!his!theory!of!the!four!elements!provided!explanations!for!the! meteorological!effects!of!the!world!around!him,!including!the!wind.!The!ideas!he! published!about!the!wind!and!weather!in!the!Meteorologica!would!govern!western!ideas! about!weather!for!over!two!thousand!years.!In!fact,!it!would!not!be!until!the!early!17th! century!that!another!natural!philosopher,!Rene!Descartes,!would!produce!a! comprehensive!treatise!on!the!weather!comparable!to!the!Meteorologica,!or!that! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

57!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!205`207! 58!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!209! 59!Aristotle,!Meteorologica,!231! 53! ! statesman!and!philosopher!Francis!Bacon!would!offer!a!new!interpretation!of!the!wind! in!his!History*of*Winds!that!so!sharply!challenged!Aristotle’s!views!on!the!subject.60!

Bacon’s History of Winds

In!The*Intellectual*Globe,!originally!published!in!1612!Francis!Bacon!proposed! three!categories,!or!“divisions”!of!“human!learning”:!history,!poesy,!and!philosophy,! corresponding!to!“the!three!Faculties!of!the!Mind”:!memory,!imagination,!and!reason.61!

He!further!divided!the!field!of!history!into!two!general!types,!natural!history!and!civil! history:!“In!natural!history!we!recount!the!events!and!doings!of!nature;!in!civil!of!men,”! writes!Bacon.62!Natural!history,!according!to!Bacon’s!designation,!occupied!a!

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60!Francis!Bacon!published!his!History*of*the*Wind!before!Descartes,!but!he!limited!his!inquiry!to! focus!exclusively!on!the!wind,!whereas!Descartes!chose!to!tackle!weather!phenomena!as!a!whole.!René! Descartes,!Discourses*on*Method,*Optics,*Geometry,*and*Meteorology,!trans.!Paul!Olscamp!(Indianapolis:! Hackett!Publishing,!2001).! 61!Francis!Bacon,!The*Works*of*Francis*Bacon,*Lord*Chancellor*of*England,!ed.!Basil*Montagu,*Vol.!16,! part!2!(London:!William!Pickering,!1834),!150.!According!to!scholar!Robert!Schuler,!these!divisions!and!their! associated!faculties!are!not!arbitrary!but!arguably!locate!science!as!the!highest!discipline,!allied!with!the! highest!faculty:!reason.!See,!Robert!Schuler,!“Francis!Bacon!and!Scientific!Poetry,”!Transactions*of*the* American*Philosophical*Society*82,!no.!2!(1992):!i`65;!11.! 62!Montagu,!The*Works*of*Francis*Bacon,!152.!For!a!discussion!of!disciplinary!history,!or!what!might! be!described!as!the!shifting!disciplinary!geography!pertaining!to!the!fields!of!Natural!History,!Natural! Philosophy,!and!various!subfields,!see!Daniel!Garber,!“Philosophia,*Historia,*Mathematica:!Shifting!Sands!in! the!Disciplinary!Geography!of!the!Seventeenth!Century,”!in!Science*in*Early*Modern*Philosophy:*Seventeenth@ century*Thinkers*on*Demonstrative*Knowledge*From*First*Principles,!eds.,!Tom!Sorrell,!G.A.J.!Rogers,!and!Jill! Kraye!(Dordrecht,!Netherlands;!New!York,!NY:!Springer,!2010):!1`17.!For!a!discussion!of!Bacon’s!sense!of! the!relationship!between!Natural!History!and!Natural!Philosophy!see!Peter!Anstey,!“Francis!Bacon!and!the! Classification!of!Natural!History,”!Early*Science*and*Medicine!17,!no.!1`2!((2012):!11`31.!Anstey!writes,! “Natural!philosophy!has!two!parts,!the!speculative!and!the!operative.!Speculative!natural!philosophy!has! three!parts:!natural!history,!physic![material!and!efficient!causes]!and!metaphysic![formal!and!final!causes].! Physic!has!three!subject!matters:!configuration,!origin,!and!variety.!According!to!Bacon,!the!three! constituents!of!speculative!natural!philosophy!form!a!pyramid!with!natural!philosophy!as!the!foundation,! physic!as!the!centerpiece!and!metaphysic!as!the!apex.!This!architectural!metaphor!suggests!a!foundational! role!for!natural!history!in!relation!to!physic!and!metaphysics![i.e.!material!and!efficient!causes,!and!formal! and!final!causes],”!(p.!20).!In!calling!it!a!History!of!Wind’s!it!might!appear!as!though!Bacon!distinguished! 54! ! foundational!role!in!relation!to!physic!and!metaphysics—fields!oriented!toward!material! and!efficient!causes,!and!formal!and!final!causes,!respectively.!Bacon’s!History*of*Winds! was!thus!equal!parts!taxonomy!and!prescription.63!He!established!what!was!currently! known!about!the!wind!in!England!and!Western!Europe,!naming!and!categorizing!the! winds!on!the!basis!of!directionality,!seasonality,!force,!and!geography,!for!example,! before!moving!on!to!detailed!particulars!in!each!of!these!arenas;!and!he!laid!out!a!clear! agenda!for!future!research!that!would!build!toward!practical!applications!for!human! benefit,!and!more!significantly,!toward!knowledge!of!material!and!final!causes.!!

In!keeping!with!the!maker’s!knowledge!tradition,!Bacon’s*History*of*Winds! underscored,!through!numerous!examples,!the!dynamic!human`nature!relationships!at!

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! his!work!from!Aristotle’s!by!grounding!wind!knowledge!in!events.!Substantively,!however,!both!texts!were! event!oriented!to!some!extent.!! 63!Natural!history!concerned!observations!of!nature!in!its!regular!state,!in!aberrant!and!unusual! states,!and!in!altered!and!manipulated!forms—i.e.!nature!transformed!by!man,!which!Bacon!calls!“art.”!He! writes,!“’nature!is!one!and!the!same!and!her!power!extends!through!all!things,!nor!does!she!ever!forsake! herself,!these!three!things!should!by!all!means!be!set!down!as!alike!subordinate!only!to!Nature;!namely,!the! course!of!Nature;!the!wandering!of!Nature;!and!art,!or!Nature!with!man!to!help.’”!Bacon!as!quoted!in!Perez` Ramos,!Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of*Science,!146`147.!In!his!Advancement*of*Learning!Bacon!writes!further:!“History! is!properly!concerned!with!individuals,!which!are!circumscribed!by!place!and!time.!For!though!natural! History!may!seem!to!deal!with!species,!yet!this!is!only!because!of!the!general!resemblance!which!in!most! cases!natural!objects!of!the!same!species!bear!to!one!another;!so!that!when!you!know!one,!you!know!all.! And!if!individuals!are!found,!which!are!either!unique!in!their!species,!like!the!sun!and!moon;!or!notable! deviations!from!their!species,!like!monsters;!the!description!of!these!has!as!fit!a!place!in!Natural!History!as! that!of!remarkable!men!has!in!Civil!History,”!(Bacon!as!quoted!in!Garber,!“Philosophia,*Historia,*Mathematic,”! 2).!Garber!notes!further!that!Goclenius!offers!a!similar!definition!in!his!authoritative!Lexicon*Philosophicum!of! 1613:!‘History!means!the!awareness!of!singular!things,!either!setting!them!out!or!describing!them.! ….[History]!is!understood!by!philosophers…as!observation,!and!as!knowledge!from!one’s!own!experience,! that!is,!as!belief!derived!from!the!senses!over!the!course!of!time,’”!(Goclenius!as!quoted!in!Garber,! “Philosophia,*Historia,*Mathematic,”!2`3).! 55! ! once!the!object!of!and!exemplified!by!his!philosophic!investigations.!His!treatise! categorized!the!winds!on!the!basis!of!directionality!in!accordance!with!the!established! practices!of!the!maritime!community,!for!example.!It!included!a!discussion!of!trade! winds,!the!currents!primarily!responsible!for!facilitating!overseas!markets!that!were! both!reliant!upon!and!fundamental!to!the!craft!oriented!occupations!of!many! commoners,!and!crucial!to!England’s!expanding!economic!and!political!power.!He!also! discussed!wind!and!weather!prognostics!presumably!rooted!in!the!daily!observations!of! farmers,!peasants,!and!others!who!through!observation!and!experience!had!developed!a! useful!compendium!of!knowledge!relevant!to!their!occupations.!Lastly,!he!included! sections!on!ship!design!as!well!as!a!list!of!related!wind!applications,!ostensibly!derived! from!the!knowledge!and!experience!of!the!artisans!and!sailors!who!worked!intimately! with!the!wind!in!their!daily!lives.!Indeed,!the!crucial!point!of!departure!between!Bacon! and!Aristotle!on!the!subject!of!wind!lay!not!only!in!Bacon’s!assessment!of!precisely!what! constituted!this!natural!phenomenon!but!more!poignantly,!in!Bacon’s!zeal!to!incorporate! common!knowledge!into!his!discussion!and!to!articulate!the!ways!in!which!such!wind! knowledge!might!be!applied!for!collective!benefit.!Bacon!implicitly!validated!such!craft! knowledge!by!including!it!in!his!History*of*Winds,!and!thereby!incorporating!it!within! the!bounds!of!natural!philosophy.!He!explicitly!appropriated*that!knowledge!by!the! same!measure.!

56! !

Bacon!believed!that!wind!was!simply!air!put!into!in!motion!through!the!“natural! rotation!of!the!air”!and!through!processes!of!condensation!and!rarefication!via! temperature.!The!sun,!as!the!“principal!parent!of!the!winds,”!or!what!Bacon!later! describes!as!the!“primary!efficient!of!many!winds”!was!thus!of!utmost!significance!in! determining!the!cause!and!motion!of!the!air.64!!On!this!basis,!and!many!others,!Bacon! distinguished!his!ideas!from!the!ancients,!going!so!far!as!to!chastise!the!Greeks,!and!

Aristotle!specifically,!for!their!part!in!promoting!what!he!described!as!absurd,! unfounded,!and!specious!ideas!about!the!wind!rooted!in!the!theory!of!the!four!elements.!

He!writes,!

What!the!ancients!have!delivered!upon!the!subject!of!winds,!and!their!causes,!is! very!confused,!doubtful,!and!but!seldom!true.!No!wonder!any!one!should!not! see!clearly!who!stands!remote.!They!speak!as!if!the!wind!was!something! different!from!air!in!motion;!as!if!exhalations!generated,!and!made!up!the!whole! body!of!the!winds;!as!if!the!matter!of!the!winds!were!only!a!hot!and!dry! exhalation;!and!lastly,!as!if!the!origin!of!the!motion!of!the!winds;!was!only!a! precipitation!and!percussion,!from!the!cold!and!middle!region.!All!which!are!but! arbitrary!hypotheses!and!creatures!of!the!imagination;!and!yet,!from!such! threads!as!these,!they!have!wove!large!webs,!in!imitation!of!the!spider.65!

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64!The!moon!and!stars!were!likewise!considered!enormously!influential,!though!it!is!unclear!from! Bacon’s!writing!precisely!how!he!believed!these!forces!affected!processes!of!rarefaction!or!condensation.! What!is!clear!is!that!because!Bacon!saw!a!correlation!between!the!sea!and!the!air,!and!because!the!moon!was! observed!to!exert!such!a!noticeable!effect!on!the!tide,!that!he!presumed!this!heavenly!body!likely!informed! the!atmosphere’s!motion!and!temperament!as!well.!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!63,!65! 65!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!72.!Later!in!the!text!Bacon!offers!a!clearer,!and!comparatively!kinder! critique!of!the!Greek!theory!about!wind!as!hot!dry!exhalation.!He!writes,!“Vapours!arising!from!the!sea,! rivers,!and!lands!overflowed,!produce!a!much!greater!quantity!of!wind,!than!terrestrial!exhalations;!but!the! winds!that!arise!from!the!earth,!and!drier!places,!are!more!obstinate!and!durable;!and!prove,!generally!such! as!are!thrown!from!above:!so!that!the!opinion!of!the!ancients!has!its!use!in!this!respect;!only!they!thought!fit! to!divide!the!right!and!assign!rains!to!vapours,!and!nothing!but!exhalations!to!the!winds;!with!the!like! distributions;!which!look!pretty!in!discourse,!though!they!are!empty!at!the!bottom.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,! 77! 57! !

According!to!Bacon,!not!only!were!the!ancients!mistaken!about!the!wind,!but! their!mistakes!and!“arbitrary!hypotheses”!had!lasting!ramifications!for!future! generations!who!attempted!to!research!the!topic.!Entire!intellectual!edifices!had! emerged!out!of!the!foundations!of!Greek!knowledge,!edifices!that!Bacon!characterized! as!grossly!flawed.66!He!took!issue!with!the!Greek!“poets!fable,”!for!example,!that! described!the!winds!as!imprisoned!captives!on!the!island!of!Aeolus!“seated!in!dens!and! caverns!under!the!earth”!and!further!called!into!question!sympathetic!religious! interpretations!that!suggested!that!the!wind’s!originated!solely!from!“certain! subterraneal!repositories,!or!magazines,”!owing!to!the!scriptural!passage!that!referenced!

God!“bring[ing]!forth!the!winds!out!of!his!treasures.’”67!While!he!acknowledged!“there! is,!doubtless,!a!large!quantity!of!air!contained!in!the!bowels!of!the!earth;!and!this! probably!may!gradually!breath!from!thence!and!sometimes!upon!particular!causes!rush! out!in!a!body,”!he!argued!nevertheless!that!this!was!not!the!exclusive!way!in!which! winds!were!generated,!nor!even!their!primary!origin:!“Winds!are!generated!a!thousand! ways,”!he!writes,!and!further,!“the!scripture!likewise!speaks!of!the!‘Treasures!of!snow! and!hail;’!which,!no!one!doubts,!are!generated!from!above.”68!Bacon!challenged!people!

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66!“My!course!and!method,!he!writes,!is…not!to!extract!works!from!works!or!experiments!from! experiments!(as!an!empiric),!but!from!works!and!experiments!to!extract!causes!and!axioms,!and!again!from! those!causes!and!axioms!new!works!and!experiments,!as!a!legitimate!interpreter!of!nature,”!asserted!Bacon.! Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!138! 67!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!49! 68!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!48,!49,!50.!!Bacon!also!mentions!that!ancient!Greek!mythology! surrounding!the!kingdom!of!Aeolus!described!an!island!in!which!the!wind!was!help!captive!in!“dens!and! cavern’s!under!the!earth,”!and!released!at!the!will!of!their!ruler,!(p.!49).! 58! ! to!reconsider!their!received!knowledge!about!the!wind.!He!advocated!for!a!more! expansive!view!of!the!subject,!proposing!instead!that!concerning!the!origins!and!nature! of!the!winds,!nature!itself!should!be!consulted!and!observed.69!He!writes,!!

1.!Every!impulse!of!the!air!makes!a!wind;!2.!The!exhalations!mixed!with!the!air,! contribute!more!to!the!motion!than!to!the!matter!of!winds;!3.!Moist!vapours!are,! by!a!proportionate!heat,!easier!resolved!into!wind!than!dry!exhalations;!and,!4.! Numerous!winds!are!generated!in!the!lower!region!of!the!air;!and!many!breathe! out!of!the!earth;!besides!those!which!are!drove!back,!and!thrown!down!from! above”70!! ! By!suggesting!that!hot!dry!exhalations!were!not!the!fundamental!cause!of!wind,!Bacon! radically!undermined!the!entire!structure!of!Aristotelian!logic!on!the!subject!and!thereby! rendered!the!majority!of!Aristotle’s!philosophic!conclusions!about!the!wind!moot.71!

Bacon!endeavored!to!divest!Aristotelianism!of!its!position!of!intellectual!authority,!and! to!replace!the!Aristotelian!tradition!and!its!attendant!models!of!nature!and!the!universe! with!findings!derived!from!a!method!of!inquiry!that!privileged!observers!and! observation,!events!and!physically!verifiable!physical!evidence!in!the!here!and!now.!His! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

69!“Men!express!themselves!as!if!the!wind!were!a!certain!body,!that,!of!itself,!impelled,!and!drove! the!air!before!it,!by!its!own!force;!and!when!it!changes,!they!speak!as!if!the!wind!had!removed!itself!to! another!place:!and,!whilst!the!populace!in!this!manner,!philosophers!do!not!correct!such!notions;!but,! instead!of!stopping!the!error,!give!somewhat!into!the!same!themselves.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!76! 70!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!63! 71!From!a!more!objective!standpoint,!each!of!their!positions!was!tenuous,!however.!The!difficulty! inherent!in!Bacon’s!assumption!about!the!fundamental!composition!of!the!wind!lay!in!the!fact!that,!as!he! readily!acknowledged,!the!“nature!and!power!of!the!air,!which!the!winds!administer!and!wait! upon…remain[ed]!absolutely!unknown,”!(Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!Introduction).!As!a!result,!there!were! limits!to!his!course!of!inquiry.!He!could!only!delve!so!deep.!Until!a!more!conclusive!understanding!of!the! air!emerged,!the!fundamental!qualities!of!this!force!would!remain!unknown.!With!that!in!mind,!Bacon! nevertheless!produced!a!formidable!tomb!on!the!subject,!one!which!attempted!to!demystify,!classify,!and! interrogate!many!of!the!wind’s!apparent!mysteries,!and!which!illustrated!the!philosophic!method!he! advocated!for!by!which!logical!conclusions!might!be!reached!regarding!the!various!causes!for!the!wind’s! behavior.!! 59! ! treatise!on!wind!was!one!facet!of!this!larger!goal.!Wind`knowledge!became!a!vehicle! through!which!Bacon!asserted!intellectual!power!and!challenged!the!existing!intellectual! order,!and!he!did!so!by!drawing!largely!upon!the!wind`knowledge!and!experience!of! the!everyday!worker—the!population!arguably!most!attuned!to!the!wind!on!the!basis!of! their!first`hand!experience!and!routine!observations!and!interactions!with!it.!!

Naming the Winds

Bacon!nominally!acknowledged!the!power!of!Aristotle’s!ideas!and!of!the!Greek! tradition!more!generally!when!early!in!his!text!he!proposed!to!annex!the!names!of!the! winds!designated!by!the!ancient!Greeks!in!favor!of!new!criteria!in!keeping!with! practices!established!by!the!contemporary!maritime!community.72!He!named!and! divided!the!winds!into!directional!categories!“with!regard!to!the!points!of!the!compass,! or!the!method!observed!at!sea”:!!cardinal!winds!(which!blow!from!the!four!cardinal! points!of!the!world,!i.e.!north,!south,!east!west),!semi`cardinal!winds!(which!blow! between!these),!and!greater!and!lesser!median!winds!(which!blow!between!the! quarters).73!“For!the!sake!of!clarity,!and!to!help!the!memory,!we!would!enumerate!and!

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72!He!further!divided!the!winds!on!the!basis!of!locality!and!seasonality.! 73!These!designations!become!more!familiar!when!one!thinks!of!them!in!terms!akin!to!navigational! rhetoric:!North!winds,!North`eastern!winds,!or!East`north`east!winds,!for!example.!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,! 14,!26! 60! ! range!the!winds,!rather!according!to!their!natural!order!and!degrees,!than!under!the! names!and!method!assigned!to!them!by!antiquity,”!he!writes.74!!

In!making!this!break!with!the!past!Bacon!not!only!recognized!the!force!of! traditional!ideas,!but!positioned!himself!as!a!vanguard!of!a!new!intellectual!paradigm! canonized!by!the!prestige,!power,!and!intellectual!credibility!of!his!identity!as!a!natural! philosopher,!though!informed!largely!by!the!knowledge,!methods,!and!observations!of! the!common!worker.!By!aligning!his!wind!categorization!with!the!navigational!language! used!by!sailors—a!population!intimately!familiar!with!the!wind—Bacon!unified!the! terminology!of!the!academy!and!the!maritime/artisan!communities.!Doing!so!helped! him!meet!his!goal!of!establishing!a!common!intellectual!language!that!would!allow!for! greater!ease!in!the!process!of!sharing!and!accumulating!knowledge!about!wind,!and!on! subjects!of!natural!knowledge!more!generally.!More!importantly,!this!maneuver!calls! attention!to!the!locations!in!which!wind!knowledge!was,!at!that!time,!most!actively! investigated!and!applied:!sites!of!manual!labor,!at!sea,!on!the!farm,!and!in!the!field.!

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74!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!26.!Bacon!further!organized!his!history!by!categorizing!the!winds!and! mapping!the!trajectory!of!his!study!on!the!following!basis:!General!Winds!(or!what!were!more!commonly! referred!to!as!the!trade!winds—on!which!very!little!had!been!written!according!to!Bacon),!Stated!Winds! (which!varied!in!accordance!with!the!season—and!on!which!much!had!been!written!tho!“ramblingly”),! Serving!Winds!(which!varied!from!country!to!country!and!according!to!season),!and!Free!Winds.!Of!these,! the!General!Winds,!or!trade!winds,!clearly!had!the!greatest!bearing!on!political!and!economic!fortune!They! also!constituted!the!largest!bodies!of!wind,!and!for!this!reason!were!more!readily!characterized.!Knowing! something!about!the!trade!winds!established!understanding!of!a!powerful!natural!phenomenon!that!had! bearing!on!many!people!from!many!parts!of!the!globe,!for!the!maritime!community!actively!engaged!with! these!winds!on!a!regular!basis.!Bacon!thus!began!his!treatise!with!a!discussion!of!the!Trade!Winds!before! moving!on!to!an!examination!of!more!local!and!particular!winds.! 61! !

Bacon’s!reliance!upon!and!inclusion!of!common!knowledge!comes!forth!again!in! his!documentation!of!what!he!described!as!“stable!and!certain”!particulars!related!to! observations!regarding!the!“qualities,!and!powers!of!the!winds.”75!He!writes!for! example,!“With!the!south!wind!the!breath!of!men!smells!stronger,!animals!lose!their! appetite,!pestilential!distempers!are!more!frequent,!colds!common,!and!the!bodies!of! men!more!indisposed!and!heavy:!but!with!the!north!wind!men!are!more!brisk,!healthy,! and!better!in!appetite.”76!He!likewise!characterized!the!east!wind!as!“drying,!predatory,! and!destructive;!but!the!west!wind!moist,!moderate,!and!cherishing.”77!While!Bacon! never!explicitly!identified!the!sources!for!his!information,!his!repeated!references!to!the! effects!of!the!cardinal!winds!on!farming,!grazing,!and!other!agricultural!activities!give! voice!to!the!popular!credos!of!those!who!through!occupational!experience!and! observation!had!presumably!made!such!correlations.78!He!writes!for!example,!!

The!north!wind!is!to!be!avoided!in!the!sowing!of!seed;!and!the!south!wind!in!the! business!of!inoculating!and!engrafting…The!east!wind,!blowing!when!the!spring! is!advances,!proves!destructive!to!fruits;!by!bringing!in!caterpillars!and!other! worms:!so!as!scarce!to!spare!the!leaves;!nor!is!it!friendly!to!corn:!the!west!wind,!

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75!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!37.!To!quote!Bacon!at!length,!“Men!have!shewn!little!diligence,!and! curiosity,!in!observing!the!qualities,!and!powers!of!the!winds,!We!shall!here!only!select!such!particulars! relating!thereto,!as!are!more!stable!and!certain;!leaving!the!lighter!to!the!mercy!of!the!winds,”!(Bacon,! History*of*Winds,!37).! 76!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!43! 77!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!43! 78!“Pliny!observes!that,!in!wide!pasture!grounds,!shepherds!should!drive!their!flocks!to!the!north! side;!that!they!may!feed!up!to!the!south;!because!feeding!against!the!north!gives!them!lameness,!blear`eyes! and!scouring.!He!adds!that!the!north!wind!debilitates!them!for!generation;!so!that!if!they!were!to!copulate! with!this!wind!blowing!in!their!faces,!they!would!generally!produce!ewe`lambs;!but!in!this,!Pliny,!acting! only!as!a!transcriber,!is!not!very!consistent.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!42! 62! !

on!the!contrary,!is!very!favourable!and!friendly!to!herbs,!flowers,!and!all!the! vegetable!tribe.79!! ! In!these!passages!the!wind`knowledge!of!the!horticulturist!cultivating!the!orchard,!or! the!farmer!growing!the!corn,!or!the!gardener!nurturing!the!flowers!comes!forward,! though!as!a!rule!they!and!their!trades!go!explicitly!unidentified!and!unnamed!within!the! text.80!Bacon!also!made!reference!to!popular!national!attitudes!about!particular!winds,! noting!for!example,!“in!England,!we!take!the!east!for!a!pernicious!wind:!whence!our! common!saying,!“East!is!neither!good!for!man!nor!beast.”81!Wind!knowledge!was! cultivated!by!various!populations!and!through!numerous!professions!throughout!

England,!and!the!nation!collectively!possessed!some!degree!of!common!knowledge!on! the!subject!rooted!in!the!occupational!labor!of!its!citizenry.82!!

Trade Winds

In!the!western!world!relatively!little!was!known!about!the!general!winds,!argued!

Bacon,!for!they!tended!to!blow!most!noticeably!in!the!Tropics,!a!region!“condemned!by! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

79!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!41,!43.!He!writes!further,!“the!east!wind,!likewise!is!somewhat! favourable!about!the!autumnal!equinox”!(Bacon,!History!of!Wind,!43).!He!also!notes!that,!“the!leaves!of! trees!soonest!fall!off!on!the!south!side;!but!vines!throw!out!their!shoots!to!the!south,!and!scarce!have!any! other!tendency,”!(p.!41).!! 80!“There!are!three!principal!times!when!winds!prove!hurtful!to!growing!corn;!viz.!1.!In!the! opening!of!the!bud;!2.!The!going!off!of!the!bloom;!and,!3.!Near!the!time!of!ripening.!In!the!latter!case!they! empty!the!ear,!or!blow!out!the!grain;!and!in!the!former!two,!either!strike!off!the!flower,!or!blast!it!in!the! stem.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!42! 81!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!43.!He!writes!further,!“with!a!strong!east!wind!all!visible!objects!appear! larger;!but!with!a!strong!west!wind,!sounds!are!more!audible,!and!reach!to!a!greater!distance,”!(p.!43).!! 82!“The!sun!has!the!fate!of!princes,!whose!governors!of!remote!provinces,!frequently!have!more! submissive!and!obsequious!subjects!than!the!prince!himself.!Certainly!the!winds,!which!have!their!power! and!origin!from!the!sun,!govern!and!influence!the!temperatures!of!countries,!and!the!disposition!of!the!air,! as!much!or!more!than!the!sun!itself,”!(Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!46).!Bacon!also!mentioned!that!although!the! winds!were!enormously!powerful!that!power!was!not!necessarily!extraordinary!in!nature.! 63! ! the!ancients![as]!uninhabitable.”83!In!the!1620’s,!when!Bacon!was!authoring!this!text,! only!a!handful!of!European!explorers!had!ventured!into!this!region!of!the!world!and! much!remained!to!be!learned!about!the!people!and!landscapes!that!comprised!it.!That! said,!enough!exploration!had!taken!place!for!Bacon!to!propose!some!statements!about! the!trade!winds!based!presumably!on!the!information!of!the!sailors!who!had!ventured! into!these!relatively!unexplored!territories.!Bacon!noted,!for!example,!that!those!who! ventured!well!into!tropical!waters!observed!a!strong!and!continuous!breeze!that!blew! steadily!from!east!to!west!“following!the!sun.”84!The!combination!of!this!breeze!coupled! with!its!effect!upon!the!water!currents!“renders!it!impossible!for!ships!to!return!from!

Peru,!the!same!way!they!came,”!noted!Bacon.85!!

Bacon!made!several!more!declarative!statements!about!this!particular!wind:!first,! he!stated!that!a!gentle!breeze!had!been!observed!in!Europe!that!also!blew!from!the!east! and!which!appeared!to!follow!the!movement!of!the!sun.86!Second,!he!noted!that,!

“common!observation”!revealed!that,!“the!higher!clouds!generally!move!from!east!to! west;!and!this!even!at!the!same!time!when!there!is!calm,!or!a!wind!blowing!in!a!contrary! direction!near!the!surface!of!the!earth.”87!Lastly,!Bacon!suggested!the!trade!winds!were!

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83!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!32! 84!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!23! 85!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!32! 86!By!this!line!of!reasoning,!in!regions!with!more!sunlight!this!same!breeze!would!be!amplified.! 87!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!23.!In!those!instances!when!this!was!not!the!case,!he!proposed!that!the! cause!might!be!attributed!to!a!particular!wind!blowing!at!higher!altitudes,!which!interfered!with!the!eastern! motion!of!the!general!wind.! 64! ! more!explicitly!manifest!in!the!tropics!because!there!the!open!sea!permitted!the!currents! to!blow!unimpeded.!Therefore,!anyone!wishing!to!detect!the!presence!of!this!general! wind!in!regions!outside!the!tropics,!he!argued,!should!conduct!an!experiment!in!a!calm! and!open!space!on!high!ground,!using!an!instrument!that!was!very!sensitive!to!motion.!

They!should!commence!their!experiment!in!the!evening,!for!the!particular!eastern!winds! tended!to!be!at!rest!at!this!time,!which!would!facilitate!ease!of!observation!of!the!trade! winds.!He!noted!that!corroborative!observations!should!be!made!by!monitoring!“the! weather!cock,!vanes,!streamers,!and!the!like,!on!the!tops!of!steeples,!high!edifices,!ships! etc.,”!to!provide!sufficient!evidence!for!conclusive!statements!about!the!presence!and! behavior!of!this!general!wind.88!The!declarative!statements!Bacon!made!about!the!trade! winds!and!the!common!observations!he!reported!were!rooted!in!the!experience!of! sailors!themselves,!who!while!out!on!the!open!water!had!encountered!the!trade!winds!in! full!force.!Yet!Bacon!neglected!to!identify!precisely!who!had!made!such!observations.89!

He!presented!his!information!about!the!trade!winds!in!the!form!of!truth!statements! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

88!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!24,!33! 89!In!his!discussion!on!stated!winds!Bacon!makes!passing!references!to!the!famed!commander! Christopher!Columbus!and!in!one!instance!to!“an!intelligent!merchant!who!was!master!of!a!colony!in! Newfoundland”!who!remained!unnamed,!Bacon!writes,!“Upon!asking!a!certain!intelligent!merchant,!who! was!master!of!a!colony!in!Newfoundland,!and!had!wintered!there!himself,!the!reason!why!that!country!was! reputed!so!extremely!cold…he!replied…that!the!causes!were!two:!the!one,!that!the!huge!masses!of!ice! brought!down!by!the!currents!from!the!frozen!sea,!passed!along!the!shores;!the!other,!which!he!judged! abundantly!the!more!considerable,!was,!that!the!west!wind!there,!blows!for!a!much!greater!part!of!the!year,! than!the!east;!as!it!does!also,!says!he,!in!England;!but!at!the!fishery!it!blows!cold!from!the!continent;!whereas! in!England,!it!blows!warm!from!the!sea:!but!continues!he,!if!the!east!wind!blew!so!often,!and!so!long!in! England!as!the!west!does!at!the!fishery;!the!cold!in!England!would!be!much!more!intense,!and!equal,! perhaps,!to!what!it!is!there.”!These!specific!references!are!the!by!far!the!exception,!rather!than!the!rule.!By! and!large,!Bacon!makes!virtually!no!reference!to!the!sources!of!his!information.!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!28,! 33.!! 65! ! rooted!in!common!observation!rather!than!characterizing!these!findings!as!the! conglomerate!of!discrete!observations!made!by!particular!individuals!at!specific! moments!in!time.!In!doing!so!he!grounded!his!authority!on!the!subject!in!common! experience,!in!the!experience!of!the!common!sailor!and!the!everyday!worker.!90!!

Bacon!was!keen!to!mention!that!further!deductions!might!be!drawn!from!the! general!motion!of!the!trade!winds.!Deferring!to!common!knowledge!once!again,!Bacon! stated!that!the!eastern!wind!was!generally!recognized!as!“sharp!and!dry”!while!the! western!wind!was!“moist!and!favourable.”91!The!reason!for!this,!he!argued,!was!that!if! in!fact!the!general!motion!of!the!atmosphere!rotated!from!east!to!west,!eastern!winds,!

(by!moving!in!this!same!direction)!effectively!rarified!the!air!by!driving!it!forward!and! dissipating!it!which!gave!it!a!“dry!and!predatory”!quality;!while!western!winds,!by! moving!in!a!contrary!motion,!were!thereby!condensed!and!became!moist.92!He!noted! further!that!determining!the!general!motion!of!the!tides!might!assist!in!determining!the! general!motion!of!the!air,!for!the!tides!marked!the!lowest!point!of!the!atmosphere.!He! reasoned!that!if!an!eastern!motion!was!detected!at!both!the!highest!point!of!the! atmosphere!as!well!as!the!lowest!point,!it!was!likely!that!the!air!occupying!the!space! between!them!would!exhibit!the!same!tendency.!Bacon!used!logical!deduction!to!

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90!In!this!manner!his!method!in!many!way!harkened!back!to!those!of!the!Aristotelians!who!begin! with!statements!of!truth!and!then!use!logical!deduction!to!justify!these!statements.! 91!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!33! 92!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!33,!! 66! ! formulate!explanations!for!the!common!observations!made!by!the!unnamed!laborers,! the!unnamed!contributors!to!his!work.!!!

Having!made!this!series!of!small!deductions!about!the!presence!and!behavior!of! the!General!Wind,!Bacon!concluded!his!discussion!on!the!subject!by!posing!a!broader! query!that!took!all!of!his!earlier!points!into!consideration:!given!the!fact!that!a!general! wind!was!known!to!exist!which!blew!from!east!to!west!and!which!was!more!clearly! observed!in!the!tropics,!might!we!come!to!some!conclusion!about!its!cause?!Bacon,!then! put!forth!the!following!propositions:!he!suggested!that!air!tended!to!move!in!the!

“direction!of!the!heavens”!and!that!this!fact!was!more!evident!in!wide!open!spaces.93!He! stated!further!that!heat!caused!air!to!expand,!which!compelled!it!to!move,!and!that!the! contiguous!air!was!thus!cast!into!motion!by!the!heat!of!the!sun!as!it!moved!across!the! sky!from!east!to!west.!Moreover,!“this!expansion,!he!suggested,!“must!be!more! considerable!within!the!tropics,!where!the!sun!is!hottest.”94!Simply!put,!and!to!conclude:! the!rotation!of!the!earth!and!the!heat!of!the!sun!caused!air!to!expand!which!resulted!in!a! general!wind!exhibiting!an!east!to!west!rotation!and!which!was!more!evident!in!tropical! waters!owing!to!the!high!temperatures!and!the!vast!open!space!unique!to!that!region!of! the!sea.95!It!was!this!wind!that!drew!European!explorers’!ships!across!the!Atlantic;!this!

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93!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!34! 94!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!35! 95!Bacon!noted!that!in!order!to!test!his!theory!about!whether!the!sun!and!the!motion!of!the! atmosphere!was!responsible!for!the!motion!of!the!General!Wind,!it!was!first!necessary!to!establish!whether! the!General!Wind!continued!to!blow!at!night!after!the!heat!of!the!sun!has!passed.!And!in!fact,!this!was!the! 67! ! wind!that!filled!the!sails!of!the!Santa!Maria!as!Columbus!journeyed!to!the!North!

American!continent;!and!this!wind!that!confounded!the!will!of!any!captain!who!tried!to! sail!in!opposition!to!its!currents.!And!the!knowledge!of!this!wind!that!Bacon!presented! was!presumably!the!knowledge!of!the!sailors!who!made!these!journeys!and!who! traveled!these!waters!on!board!the!sailing!ships!powered!by!these!currents,!though! precisely!how!Bacon!acquired!this!information!remains!unclear.!!

Folklore

In!a!country!where!the!majority!of!the!population!earned!their!living!off!the!land,! the!value!of!observational!knowledge!and!the!prevalence!of!folklore!devoted!to!the! workings!of!nature!cannot!be!underestimated.!These!saying!generally!originated!with! people!most!closely!tied!to!the!land,!people!who!through!observation!and!occupational! experience!had!formulated!their!own!sets!of!natural!principles.!Over!time,!folk! knowledge!crossed!class!boundaries!and!became!part!of!a!national!tradition!rooted!in! the!wisdom!of!generations!past.96!Folklorists!of!the!nineteenth!century!were!largely!

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! case,!he!argued.!The!general!wind,!said!Bacon,!was!known!to!spring!up!in!the!morning!after!the!sun!had! risen.!However,!rather!than!disprove!his!theory!about!the!cause!of!the!wind,!Bacon!asserted!that!this!fact! merely!complicated!the!variables,!because!the!change!in!temperature!from!night!to!day!would!mean!that!the! air!would!condense!as!the!temperature!dropped,!and!thereby!confuse!the!motion!of!the!General!Wind.! Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!34`35! 96!By!the!16th!century!much!of!this!information!had!begun!to!find!its!way!into!print.!For!general! overviews!of!the!field!of!folkloric!study!see!Alan!Dundes,!The*Study*of*Folklore!(Englewood!Cliffs,!NJ:! Prentice!Hall,!1965).!The!theoretical!underpinnings!of!modern!English!and!American!folklore!studies!can!be! traced!back!to!the!work!of!Richard!M.!Dorson’s!The*British*Folklorists:*A*History,!(Chicago:!University!of! Chicago!Press,!1968),!and!Peasant*Customs*and*Savage*Myths:*Selections*from*the*British*Folklorists,!2!vols.! 68! ! responsible!for!compiling!and!publishing!collections!of!these!traditional!sayings.!

However,!the!material!they!collected!reflected!not!only!contemporary!proverbs,!but! truisms!that!had!circulated!for!centuries.97!

In!records!of!proverbial!lore!the!wind!was!linked!to!a!broad!range!of! phenomena,!and!regularly!employed!as!a!powerful!metaphor.!The!subjects!that!emerge! in!these!texts!run!the!gamut!of!human!experience,!touching!on!subjects!from!commerce,! to!health,!to!wit!and!common!sense.!Under!the!heading!“Truisms”!for!example,!one! proverb!states,!“He!that!spits!against!the!wind,!spits!in!his!ain!face.”98!In!another,!“He! that!sells!his!wares!for!words!maun!live!on!wind,”!and!perhaps!the!most!problematic! but!also!true!in!particular!instances:!“Wives!and!wind!are!necessary!evils.”99!These! sayings!purportedly!captured!longstanding!truths!about!the!human!experience,!bits!of! folk!wisdom!that!people!might!take!to!heart!based!on!their!evidentiary!truth!and/or! explanatory!power.!They!occasionally!offered!warnings,!cautioning!people!for!example!

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(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1968).!For!Jungian!interpretations!see!Joseph!Campbell’s!four!volume! set,!The*Masks*of*God:*Primitive*Mythology,*Oriental*Mythology,*Occidental*Mythology,*and*Creative*Mythology! (New!York:!Viking!Press,!1959`1968).!For!contemporary!psychological!interpretations!see!Alan!Dundes,! Interpreting*Folklore!(Bloomington:!Indiana!University!Press,!1980).!For!contemporary!accounts!that! emphasize!the!cultural!production!of!folklore!see!Alan!Dundes,!Folklore!Matters!(Knoxville:!University!of! Tennessee,!1993);!Barre!Toelken,*The*Dynamics*of*Folklore!(Logan,!Utah:!Utah!State!University!Press,!1996).! 97!“Many!of!these!sayings!were!already!centuries!old!when!they!were!printed,!some!going!back!as! far!as!classical!antiquity,”!writes!historian!Jan!Golinski.!Jan!Golinski,!British*Weather*and*the*Climate*of* Enlightenment!(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!2007),!70.!! 98!Motherwell,!Scottish*Proverbs,*eds.,William!and!Andrew!Henderson!(Edinburgh:!Oliver!and! Boyd,!1832),!81.! 99!Motherwell,!Scottish*Proverbs,!70,!84! 69! ! to!take!care!when!choosing!the!company!they!kept!or!the!choices!they!made!for!“He!that! sleeps!wi’!dogs!maun!rise!wi’!flaes.”100!Other!proverbs!made!reference!to!common! personality!types!or!behaviors.!Of!an!upstart!who!feigns!power,!for!example,!it!might!be! said!that,!“His!wind!shakes!nae!corn,”!just!as!it!is!commonly!spoken!even!to!this!day! that!each!person!must!make!his!or!her!own!way!in!life,!and!take!responsibility!to! provide!for!their!own!needs,!for!“He!that!waits!for!a!dead!man’s!shoon,!gaes!lang! barefoot.”101!That!said,!“what!will!come!with!the!wind!will!go!with!the!water.”102!!

Bacon!was!clearly!aware!of!this!immense!compendium!of!knowledge!and!made! good!use!of!its!relevant!information!in!his!wind!treatise!and!likewise!included! occasional!proverbs!and!anecdotes!throughout!his!text.!He!also!devoted!an!entire! section!of!his!work!to!wind!and!weather!prognostics,!and!clearly!identified!the!practical! utilities!of!such!prediction!for!agriculture,!trade,!exploration,!and!war.!Divination!was! regarded!skeptically!by!many!members!of!the!scientific!community!at!this!time.!Bacon,! however,!was!reluctant!to!dismiss!all!forms!of!predictive!knowledge!outright.!He! proposed!the!investigation!of!what!he!characterized!as!sound!prognostic!methods— ostensibly!those!rooted!in!common!experience!and!in!reliable!and!verifiable! observations!of!the!natural!world:!“The!more!divination!has!been!corrupted!with!vanity!

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100!Motherwell,!Scottish*Proverbs,!81! 101!Motherwell,!Scottish*Proverbs,!123,!81! 102!Motherwell,!Scottish*Proverbs,!7! 70! ! and!superstition;!the!more!the!purer!of!it!should!be!received!and!regarded,”!he!writes.103!

As!an!uncertain!art,!he!argued!that!divination’s!reliability!depended!largely!upon!the! variability!of!the!subject!one!sought!to!divine:!“In!a!subject!of!a!constant!and!regular! nature,!for!example,!“it!affords!a!true!prediction;!but!in!things!of!a!various,! compounded,!and!casual!nature,!one!that!is!fallacious,”!writes!Bacon.104!Even!forces!as! variable!as!the!wind!were!possible!to!predict,!and!by!implication,!subject!to!regular!and! discernable!laws,!provided!great!care!was!taken!in!identifying!the!patterns!governing! their!behavior.!The!wind,!Bacon!suggested,!was!in!fact!a!knowable,!regular,!and! predictable!thing!provided!people!understood!the!rules!that!determined!its!motions!and! qualities.!!

The!prognostics!that!followed!were!presumably!rooted!in!careful!and!direct! observations!of!trends!regularly!exhibited!in!the!natural!world!by!those!whose! occupations!were!most!dependent!upon!them:!everyday!workers!such!as!farmers,! sailors,!and!artisans.!The!first!three!pages,!for!example,!centered!on!observations!that! revolved!around!the!relationship!between!the!wind!and!the!sun—its!color,!the! relationship!of!its!rays!to!the!surrounding!clouds!and!precipitation!in!the!atmosphere! etcetera.!Bacon!writes,!for!example,!“if!the!body!of!the!sun!set!blood`red,!it!fortels!great! winds,!for!many!days.”!If,!however,!“at!sun`rising,!his!rays!appear!fiery,!not!yellow:!it!

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103!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!109! 104!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!109! 71! ! denotes!rain!rather!than!wind.”105!The!fact!that!Bacon!included!such!a!long!list!of! prognostics!oriented!around!the!wind!and!sun!speaks!volumes!about!the!centrality!of! these!forces!to!the!daily!lives!of!the!rural!Englishman!and!just!as!readily!to!the!care!with! which!people!observed!the!sun!and!its!relationship!to!the!wind!and!the!broader! ecosystem!they!were!a!part!of.!It!also!attests!to!the!degree!and!ease!with!which!these! particular!prognostics!could!be!both!“tested”!in!the!field!by!anyone!and!everyone,!and! thereby!readily!accepted!as!true!by!virtue!of!their!being!rooted!in!common!or!universal! experience.106!!

Some!of!the!observations!about!the!sun!and!the!wind!that!Bacon!noted!were! quite!complex.!For!example,!“If!the!sun,!at!setting,!be!wrapt!in!a!cloud;!it!denotes!rain! the!next!day:!but!if!it!actually!rain!at!sun`set,!it!rather!denotes!wind;!or,!if!the!clouds! seem!to!be!drawn!towards!the!sun,!it!denotes!both!wind!and!storms,”!writes!Bacon.107!

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105!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!110.!In!a!lengthier!passage,!he!notes,!“if!the!rising!sun!be!encompassed! with!a!circle,!wind!may!be!expected!from!that!quarter!where!the!circle!shall!open;!but!if!the!whole!circle! shall!vanish!equably,!it!is!a!sign!of!fair!weather,”!(p.110).!! 106!In!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences,!Peter!Dear!writes!that!because!universalism!rooted!in!common! experience!had!constituted!such!an!integral!part!of!the!model!of!natural!philosophy!for!so!long,!those!who! made!assertions!about!nature’s!operations!or!habitual!behavior!based!on!specialized!knowledge!not!“rooted! in!universally!accepted!experience,”!(like!that!which!emerged!in!the!mathematical!fields!of!science)!were! charged!with!the!task!of!converting!their!specialized!knowledge!into!common!knowledge!if!they!hoped!for! favorable!public!reception.!“A!frequent!recourse!for!astronomers!and!other!kinds!of!mathematicians!was!to! rely!on!their!individual!reputations!as!truth!tellers…!or!association!with!powerful!sources!of!patronage,”! (p.137).!Dear!writes!further:!“when!a!natural!phenomenon!was!well!known,!it!could!be!adduced!as!part!of! natural!philosophical!reasoning!with!no!difficulty,!because!no!one!would!be!likely!to!contest!it.!But!if!the! phenomenon!were!not!well!known,!and!instead!brought!to!light!only!through!careful!and!unusual! experimentation,!how!could!the!natural!philosopher!make!it!acceptable!for!use!in!creating!philosophical! explanations?”!Dear,!Revolutionizing*the*Sciences,!133! 107!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!111! 72! !

Predicting!the!wind!and!weather!was!clearly!no!simple!task,!even!for!the!most!seasoned! and!acute!observer.!In!another!detailed!example,!Bacon!writes,!!

If,!at!sun`rising!the!sun!throws!his!rays!from!the!clouds,!whilst!one!half!of!his! body!remains!clouded;!it!foreshows!rain;!especially!if!those!rays!strike! downwards,!so!as!to!shew!the!sun!bearded:!but!if!the!rays!break!from!the!middle! or!from!several!parts,!whilst!the!sun’s!external!face!remains!covered!with!clouds;! it!signifies!great!storms!both!of!wind!and!rain.108! ! To!accurately!predict!the!wind!based!on!observations!of!the!sun,!it!would!appear!that! one!had!to!take!into!account!all!the!details,!and!understand!the!intricate!relationships! among!them.!Accurate!prediction!would!likely!have!been!based!on!regular!and!repeated! observations!additionally!substantiated!through!corroborative!evidence!gleaned!from! observations!of!other!aspects!of!the!environment.!Corroborations!of!this!nature!might! come!from!prognostics!based!on!observations!of!animal!behavior,!for!example,!or!on!the! quality!and!movement!of!the!clouds,!or!the!appearance!of!the!moon!or!other!stars!and! planets.!Accordingly,!Bacon!went!on!to!include!numerous!examples!of!prognostics!in! precisely!these!arenas.!

Among!the!various!planets,!the!moon!was!second!only!to!the!sun!with!respect!to! cultural!significance!and!relevance!to!the!lives!of!most!Englishmen.!The!waxing!and! waning!of!the!moon!signified!times!for!reaping!and!sowing;!its!phases!were!thought!to! orchestrate!the!phases!of!women’s!fertility!cycle;!and!the!moon,!like!the!sun,!helped!

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108!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!110! 73! ! people!keep!track!of!both!time!and!the!order!of!the!seasons.!This!celestial!body!was!also! believed!to!exercise!its!powerful!and!mysterious!influence!upon!the!human!mind,!and! had!the!capacity!to!evoke!startling!changes!in!people.!The!word,!lunacy,!derived!from! the!Latin,!Luna—meaning!moon,!for!example,!signified!a!condition!of!madness!long! recorded!by!the!ancients!and!described!by!seventeenth`century!physicians!such!as!

Paracelsus!who!asserted!that!particular!cases!of!mental!instability!worsened!with!the! appearance!of!the!full!and!new!moons.!As!much!as!two!hundred!years!later!(1842),!

British!law!formally!decreed!that!a!lunatic!was!“a!demented!person!enjoying!lucid! intervals!during!the!first!two!phases!of!the!moon!and!afflicted!with!a!period!of!fatuity!in! the!period!following!after!the!full!moon.”109!Apart!from!the!strong!effects!it!exerted!upon! human!beings,!however,!the!moon’s!appearance!was!also!believed!to!foreshadow! portending!wind!and!weather!patterns.!!

Bacon!included!a!significant!number!of!wind!prognostics!related!to!the!moon’s! appearance,!and!he!emphasized!that!“it!well!deserves!to!be!observed,!what!effects!the! motions!and!changes!of!the!moon!have!upon!the!winds;!since!they!certainly!have!one! upon!the!waters…[and]!it!is!certain,!that!water!and!air!are!very!homogenous!bodies,!and! next!to!the!sun,!the!moon!has!here!the!greatest!power!below.”110!According!to!common! knowledge!the!moon!was!such!a!powerful!oracle!that!correctly!reading!the!moon!signs!

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109!Robert!Eisler,!The*Royal*Art*of*Astrology!(London:!H.!Joseph,!1946),!145.! 110!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!64! 74! ! might!permit!a!general!prediction!of!the!wind!pattern!for!an!entire!month.!Bacon!writes! for!example,!“If!the!new!moon!does!not!appear!till!the!fourth!day,!it!prognosticates!a! troubled!air!for!the!whole!month.”111!In!general,!however,!regular!lunar!observations! were!considered!necessary!in!order!to!accurately!determine!if!wind!was!in!the! immediate!weather!forecast.!Bacon!noted!for!example,!“an!erect!moon!is!generally! threatening,!and!unfavourable;!but!particularly!denotes!wind:!though!if!she!appear!with! short!and!blunted!horns,!it!rather!denotes!rain,”!unless!of!course,!one!of!the!moons’! horns!was!more!pointed!and!crested!and!the!other,!i.e.!“more!obtuse,”!in!which!case!it! again!denoted!wind.112!A!single!halo!around!the!moon!was!another!sign!of!wind!and! specifically,!wind!approaching!from!the!direction!where!the!halo!may!have!broken!or! where!there!was!“a!remarkable!brightness!of!the!circle!in!any!part.”113!On!the!other! hand,!multiple!halos,!particularly!if!they!were!broken!or!spotted,!were!an!ominous!sign! that!suggested!the!approach!of!severe!and!terrible!storms.!Bacon!also!included!the!wind! omens!denoted!by!astronomical!and!meteorological!phenomena!such!as!shooting!stars,! thunder,!and!lightening,!as!well!as!by!cloud!formations.!Shooting!starts,!for!example,! could!foretell!wind!arising!from!the!direction!from!which!the!meteor!originated;!if!more!

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111!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!112! 112!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!113! 113!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!113! 75! ! thunder!than!lightening!was!noted!people!should!expect!“great!winds;”!and!dark!clouds! rising!near!the!sun!or!from!the!west!also!forecasted!winds.114!!

Animal!behavior!also!informed!people’s!reading!of!the!wind.!The!prognostics!

Bacon!included!based!on!observations!of!animal!behaviors!were!thus!not!only! somewhat!amusing,!but!also!deeply!revealing!about!the!cultural!milieu!of!the!rural!

Englishmen.!They!point!to!a!way!of!life!and!to!a!compendium!of!knowledge!centered!on! intimate!relationships!with!the!non`human!world,!and!to!an!intimate!reliance!upon!and! interaction!with!the!weather,!the!land,!and!the!animals!that!inhabited!it—all!of!which! were!key!to!human!survival.!For!the!farmer!and!the!shepherd,!animals!were!not!only!a! source!of!subsistence,!but!largely!mediated!human!relationships!with!nature.!Mindful! observations!of!animal!behavior!informed!not!only!the!purpose!and!quality!of!these! interactions,!but!provided!insight!into!more!general!patterns!about!the!wind!and! weather.115!!

Spiders!ply!their!work!hard!before!wind,”!wrote!Bacon,!and!“hogs!are!so! disturbed,!affrightened,!and!strangely!affected!at!the!rising!of!wind,!that!the!country!

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114!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!117.!As!an!aside,!Bacon!noted!that,!“The!ringing!of!bells!is!thought!to! dissipate!thunder!and!lightening;!but!the!same!is!not!observed!as!to!winds,”!(Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!80).! He!also!asserted!that!“it!is!observed,!that!the!greatest!winds!blow!about!the!time!of!the!conjunctions!of!the! planets.!Storms!and!tempests!frequently!happen!at!the!rising!of!Orion:!but!it!must!be!here!examined,! whether!this!happens!not!because!that!constellation!rises!at!the!time!of!the!year!most!disposed!to!produce! wind;!so!as!rather!to!be!a!concomitant!than!a!cause.!And!the!Same!question!may!justly!be!put,!as!tot!the! rising!of!the!Pleiades,!with!regard!to!showers;!and!of!Arcturus,!with!regard!to!storms,!And!so!much!for!the! moon!and!stars.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!64`65! 115!They!additionally!provided!human!beings!with!the!material!resources!to!cope!with!the!task!of! survival—namely,!food,!clothing,!and!by!extension,!shelter.!Mindful!observations!of!animal!behavior! offered!a!insight!into!what!people!could!expect!in!the!immediate!weather!forecast.! 76! ! people!have!a!notion,!this!is!the!only!creature!that!can!see!the!wind;!and!imagine!it!a! frightful!sight.”116!Birds!in!particular,!as!animals!whose!flight!and!daily!activities!were! intimately!tied!to!the!wind,!functioned!as!key!prognostic!references!on!the!subject.117!

Bacon!included!a!long!list!of!behaviors!specific!to!various!species!of!birds,!which! purportedly!revealed!the!likelihood!of!wind,!or!rain,!or!tempests.!He!noted!for!example! that!when!water`foul!such!as!mews,!gulls,!and!moor`hens!“quit!the!sea”!and! congregated!on!land!it!suggested!winds,!particularly!if!this!behavior!was!observed!in! the!morning.!As!a!general!rule!birds!quit!their!feeding!and!returned!to!their!nests! uncommonly!early!before!the!appearance!of!a!storm.!Likewise,!when!land`fowl— particularly!the!crow—approach!the!water,!“strike!it!with!their!wings,!wash!themselves,! and!raise!their!cry…this!portends!tempests,”!stated!Bacon.!!Ducks,!coots,!and!didappers!

“pruned!their!feathers”!before!a!windy!spell;!and!geese,!he!asserted,!called!forth!the!rain! by!gaggling.118!!

The!calls!and!cries!of!many!birds!could!function!as!weather!guides!argued!

Bacon.!“The!continued!croaking!of!the!raven,!in!a!sobbing!manner,!presages!wind;!for! example,!“but!if!it!be!by!fits,!in!a!stifled!manner;!or!if!the!croak!be!repeated!at!longer!

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116!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!121.!Wild!animals!factored!into!Bacon’s!prognostics!more!overtly!than! domesticated!animals.!! 117!Likewise,!Bacon!noted!that,!“when!dolphins!play!in!a!calm!at!sea,!this!is!thought!to!foretell!wind! from!that!quarter!whence!the!dolphins!come.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!121! 118!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!120! 77! ! intervals,!it!denotes!rain,”!he!noted.119!Bacon!likewise!observed!that!although!the! ancients!claimed!that!the!hoot!of!an!owl!preceded!a!change!in!the!weather,!in!England,! the!same!call!denoted!fair!weather,!especially!during!the!winter.!These!various! observations!of!animal!behavior,!which!people!interpreted!as!prognostic!references,! point!to!a!world!and!a!to!a!way!of!life!in!which!human!beings!recognized!the!natural! knowledge!of!the!creatures!they!coexisted!with,!and!recognized!the!ways!in!which! animals!under!certain!circumstances!and!to!some!extent!could!read!the!wind!more! accurately!and!readily!than!humans.!Thus!learning!to!read!the!behavior!of!animals! allowed!humans!to!read!the!wind!by!extension.!120!!!!

The!sheer!quantity!of!wind!portents!included!in!Bacon’s!text!is!truly!startling!and! suggests!the!value!that!not!only!Bacon,!but!the!English!population!at!large!attached!to! this!kind!of!prognostic!data:!if!the!new!moon!rose!red,!if!the!sun!set!pale,!if!planets! conjuncted,!rolling!thunder!(particularly!in!the!morning),!and!fast!driven!clouds!all! forecasted!wind,!as!did!numerous!other!observable!phenomena.!The!details!and! complexities!of!these!varied!observations!gesture!toward!a!rural!population!who,! although!never!explicitly!mentioned!in!Bacon’s!writing,!were!clearly!present!and! attuned!to!the!nuances!of!the!ecosystems!they!inhabited!given!how!reliant!upon!and! subject!they!were!to!its!variables.!Bacon!recognized!the!utility!of!wind`forecasting!in!

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119!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!120! 120!Wild!animals!factored!into!Bacon’s!text!more!overtly!than!domesticated!animals.!! 78! ! applications!such!as!agriculture!and!navigation!and!he!validated!and!appropriated!the! knowledge!of!the!farmers,!herdsmen,!and!sailors!who!through!observation!and! experience!had!determined!correlations!between!natural!events!and!the!behavior!of!the! wind!at!any!given!moment.!!

Wind and Sailing Ships

Ship!and!sail!design!also!figured!prominently!in!Bacon’s!list!of!practical!and!

“immediately!serviceable”!applications!of!wind!knowledge:!“a!thing!of!great!use!for! shortening!voyages,!and!lessening!their!expense,”!he!noted,!“so!as!with!a!less!wind!to! make!more!way.”121!Bacon!painted!a!detailed!portrait!of!the!complex!technologies! specific!to!the!English!flagship,!naming!and!describing!the!construction!of!the!masts,! rigging,!and!the!geometry!of!their!sails.122!!He!also!noted!the!specific!purpose!of!each!sail! as!it!interacted!with!the!wind,!and!he!described!how!the!sails!were!deployed!as!a! collective!unit!to!optimally!harvest!the!wind.123!!

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121!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!130! 122!The!flagship!was!otherwise!known!as!a!Ship!of!the!Line.!Although!he!doesn’t!call!the!ship!by! name!it!is!clear!from!the!following!quote!that!this!was!the!type!of!ship!Bacon!was!referring!to:!“We!here! chuse,!for!our!example,!the!largest!British!ships,!which!have!four!and!sometimes!five!masts…Their!names! are!the!main`mast,!which!stands!in!the!centre:!the!fore`mast,!the!mizzen`mast,!which!is!sometimes!double:! and!the!bow`sprit.”!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!93`94! 123!Bacon!writes!for!example,!“The!most!commodious!and!advantageous!disposition!of!the!sails! before!a!wind,!is!to!hoist!the!two!lower!sails!of!the!fore`mast;!where,!as!we!said,!the!motion!is!the!more! effectual:!and!again,!also!the!top`sail!of!the!main`mast;!as!t!here!will!still!be!left!space!enough!underneath,! for!the!wind!to!fill!the!lower!fore`sails,!without!robbing!them!too!much,”!In!the!next!paragraph!he!notes,!“in! a!side!wind,!all!the!sails!may!be!crowded,!without!taking!the!wind!from!one!another,”!(Bacon,!History*of* Winds,!99`100).!Bacon!followed!his!discussion!of!sailing!ships!with!a!discussion!of!windmills!and!sail!design! relevant!to!this!piece!of!agriculturally!oriented!technology.!He!conducted!experiments!using!paper!sails!and! bellows!to!mimic!the!motion!of!real!mills!from!which!he!concluded!that!the!speed!and!efficiency!of!the!sails! might!be!improved!by!increasing!the!number!of!sails!used!on!a!windmill,!or!perhaps!by!altering!the!shape! 79! !

Recent!improvements!in!naval!technologies!had!opened!up!the!world!to!trade! and!far`reaching!exploration.!The!ships!used!for!such!purposes,!however,!were!not! necessarily!fast!or!particularly!efficient.!According!to!historian!Peter!Earle,!“a!small! ship…averaged!one!round!trip!a!month!between!London!and!Maldon!in!Essex!in!the!

1680’s,”!whereas!coal!bearing!ships!making!the!round!trip!voyage!between!Newcastle! and!London!in!time!that!averaged!closer!to!six!weeks.124!Trips!between!London!and!

Norway!transporting!timber!might!take!approximately!two!and!half!months,!and!the! winter!weather!combined!with!the!speed!of!the!ships!only!permitted!approximately!four! of!these!trips!a!year.!These!short,!relatively!local!trips!in!coastal!trade,!however,!were! nothing!compared!to!the!substantial!amount!of!time!it!took!to!complete!a!meaningful! international!voyage.!For!example,!it!took!approximately!seven!to!ten!weeks!to!cross!the!

Atlantic!and!even!longer!on!the!way!back.!Trade!in!goods!such!as!spices,!sugar,!and! textiles!between!America!and!the!West!Indies!averaged!seven!or!eight!months!for!a! round!trip!voyage;!and!while!“a!trip!to!the!east!and!back!to!London!lasted!between! eighteen!months!and!two!years…!trading!within!Asia!could!extend!such!times!to!three! years!or!more.125!To!successfully!complete!trade!of!this!nature,!merchants!had!to!invest!a! substantial!amount!of!money!in!supplies!and!risked!great!losses!owing!to!the!numerous! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! and!length!of!the!sails,!though!noting!that!conclusive!evidence!on!the!subject!would!require!additional! research!(p.106`107).!! 124!Peter!Earle,!Sailors:*English*Merchant*Seamen,*1600@1750,!(London:!Methuen,!1998),!8!! 125!Earle,!Sailors,!9! 80! ! uncertainties!of!these!voyages!such!as!weather,!sickness,!and!piracy.126!Bacon!foresaw! that!greater!knowledge!of!wind!and!weather!patterns!could!only!improve!returns!in!the! shipping!trade,!and!empower!England’s!merchant!and!naval!fleets!more!generally.!

Bacon!repeatedly!employed!the!metaphor!of!“good!husbandry”!to!describe!the! way!in!which!adept!sailors!procured!the!greatest!benefit!of!motion!from!the!smallest! quantity!of!wind.!His!rhetoric!evoked!metaphoric!similarity!between!the!farmer!and!the! sailor!as!he!tacitly!championed!the!skills!and!knowledge!of!their!trades.127!Bacon!writes! for!example:!!

A!sufficient!quantity!of!wind!must!be!carefully!procured![to!propel!a!ship].!The! means!to!procure!it!is,!in!the!way!of!thrift!and!good!husbandry,!to!prevent!being! robbed!of!it;!and!therefore!as!much!as!possible,!let!no!wind!be!lost,!misemployed! or!taken!from!the!ship.!The!wind!blows!either!above!the!ship’s!sides,!or!below! them,!toward!the!surface!of!the!sea;!and!as,!in!the!way!of!good!husbandry,!it!is! usual!to!be!very!careful!of!small!matters…so!a!particular!regard!must!be!had!to! these!lower!winds;!though!they!doubtless!are!of!less!efficacy!than!the!higher.128!! ! Bacon!made!virtually!no!reference!to!the!sailors!themselves,!nor!to!the!shipwrights! responsible!for!constructing!the!wind`powered!vessels!he!so!carefully!described.!Yet,!the! knowledge!and!experience!these!skilled!trades!brought!to!bear!on!their!craft!is! nevertheless!unmistakably!present!in!his!work,!despite!his!clear!appropriation!of!that!

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126!Bacon!noted!however,!“with!a!brisk!and!favourable!gale!even!a!ship!of!burden!may!sail!an! hundred!and!twenty!Italian!miles!in!four!and!twenty!hours,”!(Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!101).!He!used!this! example!to!illustrate!the!fact!that!the!size!of!a!ship’s!sails!were!not!built!in!proportion!to!the!weight!she! carried,!but!rather!in!proportion!to!the!size!of!the!ship.!That!said,!this!information!still!illustrated!the! substantial!amount!of!time!it!took!to!move!goods!by!boat.! 127!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!101`102! 128!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!101`102! 81! ! knowledge!for!his!own!ends.!Reading!between!the!lines!one!can!readily!imagine!sailors!

“hoist[ing]!the!two!lower!sails!of!the!foremast,”!or!cutting!away!“cross!and!cross,!out!of! their!course;!shifting!their!sails!as!the!wind!requires,”!or!in!instances!of!great!storms!

“lower[ing]!their!yards,!and!down!with!the!topsails;!…even!cutting!away!the!masts! themselves,!and!throwing!their!guns,!lading,!&c.!over!board;!to!lighten!the!ship,!and! keep!her!floating!at!the!mercy!of!the!waves.”129!The!maker’s!knowledge!Bacon!so!readily! championed!comes!forward!in!his!work,!though!the!people!who!readily!possessed!such! knowledge!and!skill!remain!implicit.!!

In!addition!to!noting!the!utility!of!wind!knowledge!in!applications!of!ship!and! sail!design!Bacon!believed!that!the!discovery!of!methods!which!would!enable!people!to! predict!the!“rising,!falling,!and!times!of!the!winds,”!would!be!especially!relevant!not! only!to!navigation!and!agriculture,!“but!especially!in!chusing!the!times!for!sea`fights.”130!

The!direction!of!the!wind!coupled!with!strategy,!and!sheer!luck,!had!played!an! important!role!in!the!defeat!of!the!Spanish!Armada,!for!example.!In!July!1588,!the!

Spanish!fleet!had!set!sail!intending!to!overthrow!Queen!Elizabeth!I!of!England.!

Elizabeth!dispatched!Sir!Francis!Drake!to!lead!the!Royal!Navy!in!defense.!Lengthy! battles!ensued!during!which!high!winds!blowing!across!the!English!Channel! complicated!England’s!attempts!to!best!her!enemy.!Ultimately,!however,!England’s!

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129!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!99`100,!101! 130!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!131! 82! ! tactics!prompted!the!Spanish!to!withdraw!to!the!north!in!an!attempt!to!regroup!their! forces.!Unbeknownst!to!the!Spanish!Fleet,!however,!the!Gulf!Stream!had!carried!them! north`east!toward!the!coast!of!Scotland!where!their!intention!had!been!to!move!west!out! into!the!open!sea.!Owing!to!this!drift,!the!fleet!made!the!fatal!error!of!turning!south!at! the!wrong!coordinates!which!put!them!in!the!direct!line!of!a!series!of!devastating! westerly!gales—the!worst!of!the!entire!year—which!ultimately!destroyed!half!the!fleet! on!the!rocks!of!the!Irish!Coast,!and!resulted!in!the!death!of!thousands!of!men!through! either!drowning,!slaughter!at!the!hands!of!English!soldiers,!or!ensuing!sickness!and! starvation.131!!

This!event,!and!the!larger!battle!that!preceded!it!figured!prominently!in!the! minds!of!the!English!population—who!viewed!the!storm!and!winds!as!divine! intervention!on!their!behalf.!Yet,!even!divine!intervention!could!readily!be! supplemented!by!strategic!planning!when!it!came!to!naval!warfare.!At!a!time!when! naval!superiority!largely!determined!a!nation’s!political!and!economic!strength!relative! to!other!European!nations,!the!capacity!to!read!the!winds!properly,!and!even!more!so,! the!ability!to!somehow!control!the!winds!would!have!constituted!an!outrageously! powerful!economic!and!political!advantage.!Bacon!noted!that!his!entire!treatise! contained!information!relevant!to!this!line!of!investigation!but!he!emphasized!that!his!

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131!James!McDermott,!England*and*the*Spanish*Armada:*The*Necessary*Quarrel!(New!Haven,!CT:!Yale! University!Press,!(2005).! 83! ! discussion!of!weather!prognostics—solar,!lunar,!and!animal!observations!rooted!in!the! wind`knowledge!of!the!everyday!worker—were!the!most!directly!relevant.!By! implication,!he!suggested!that!the!wind`knowledge!of!the!everyday!worker!had!broad! applications!of!great!political!and!economic!significance.132!!

As!an!avenue!for!further!research!Bacon!suggested!that!natural!philosophers! consider!the!way!in!which!human!activity!might!affect!the!motion!and!substance!of!the! wind,!for!example:!“the!burning!of!heath,!fuzzes,!&c.!for!the!improvement!of!land;!the! burning!of!corn,!or!villages,!as!in!wars;!the!draining!of!marshy!lands;!the!continual! discharging!of!cannon;!the!ringing!of!numerous!bells!together!as!in!great!cities,!&c.”133!In! each!of!these!instances,!as!throughout!his!text,!the!wind!becomes!visible!as!a!force!with! which!humanity!was!in!constant!relationship.!Cast!in!equally!sharp!relief!are!the! unnamed!actors!interacting!with!the!wind!in!each!of!these!instances:!the!farmers! burning!the!heath!and!improving!the!land,!the!soldiers!and!sailors!fighting!the!wars!and! discharging!the!cannon,!the!clergy!ringing!the!church!bells!after!a!great!wind!storm! ravaged!London,!as!it!did!in!1703.134!Bacon!may!not!have!explicitly!mentioned!them!in!

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132!Simply!understanding!the!cause!of!the!winds!would!“afford!more!much!more!exact! prognostics,”!which!were!of!clear!economic,!political,!and!military!importance!he!argued.!Bacon,!History*of* Winds,!131! 133!Bacon,!History*of*Winds,!19! 134!For!first`hand!accounts!of!the!Great!Storm!of!1703!please!see!Daniel!Defoe,!The*Storm!(London:! printed!for!G.!Sawbridge,!1704).!For!an!excellent!secondary!account!of!this!disaster!based!largely!on!the!first! hand!accounts!compiled!by!Defoe!please!see!Martin!Brayne,!The*Greatest*Storm!(Gloucestershire:!Sutton! Publishing,!2002).!! 84! ! his!text,!but!the!wind`knowledge!of!the!common!worker,!their!experiences!with!this! otherwise!invisible!and!mysterious!natural!force,!figured!prominently!in!his!philosophic! investigations!and!ruminations!on!the!subject.!By!including!information!such!as!weather! prognostics!and!ship!design!in!his!treatise!Bacon!elevated!and!appropriated!the!wind` knowledge!and!experience!of!the!everyday!worker—maker’s!knowledge—to!the!level!of! that!possessed!by!the!natural!philosopher.!!

So!here!we!have!two!voices:!the!voice!of!the!commoner,!whose!insights!about!the! wind!were!rooted!in!first`hand!knowledge!and!experience!with!the!wind;!and!the!voice! of!the!educated!elite—in!this!case,!the!voice!of!Bacon!himself,!propounding!a!new! scientific!method!based!on!observation!and!experience.!135!The!same!questions!remain:!

Why!did!Bacon!choose!to!explicitly!incorporate!craft!knowledge!and!local!knowledge! into!his!text?!Does!it!represent!his!recognition!of!the!power!of!local!knowledge!and!of! the!experiential!knowledge!of!the!lower!classes?!Is!it!that!emerging!scientific!discourse! at!this!time!privileged!one!way!of!speaking!while!still!relying!on!another,!older!set!of! knowledge!and!discourse?!Or!is!it!that!the!wind!itself,!as!an!invisible!force!of!nature,! inherently!demands!a!type!of!knowing!rooted!in!experience,!rooted!in!praxis?!The! voices!of!the!everyday!worker!may!have!been!subsumed!within!elite!discourses!such!as!

Bacon’s,!but!his!treatise!clearly!illustrates!that!when!it!came!to!knowing!the!wind,!

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135!Bacon!writes,!“man,!being!the!servant!and!interpreter!of!Nature,!can!do!and!understand!so! much!and!so!much!only!as!he!has!observed!in!fact!or!in!thought!of!the!course!of!nature:!Beyond!this!he! neither!knows!anything!nor!can!do!anything.”!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!89! 85! ! popular!knowledge!and!elite!knowledge!were!in!conversation!with!one!another.!They! were!partners,!unequal!partners!perhaps,!but!partners!nevertheless!in!the!cultivation! and!quest!for!natural!knowledge.!

86! !

Chapter 2. William Dampier and the Political-Economy of the Intellectual Commons

On!10!August!1698,!writer!and!natural!philosopher!John!Evelyn!dined!at!the! home!of!Samuel!Pepys,!senior!fellow,!president,!and!founding!member!of!the!Royal!

Society!and!the!current!Secretary!of!the!Royal!Navy.!Although!dinner!between!these! two!friends!was!not!an!uncommon!occurrence,!on!this!particular!occasion!Evelyn!and!

Pepys!found!themselves!in!interesting!company.!The!“famous!Buccaneere”!and!recently! published!author!Captain!William!Dampier!joined!them!for!dinner,!and!in!this!manner!

Evelyn!became!acquainted!with!a!man!whose!reputation!preceded!him!in!spite!of!his! surprisingly!modest!and!mild`mannered!demeanor.1!We!can!only!speculate!what!they! discussed!over!dinner:!perhaps!they!talked!about!the!Piracy!Act!recently!passed!by!

Parliament,!or!about!the!abolishment!of!the!Royal!African!Company’s!slave!trade! monopoly;!many!details!are!left!unrecorded!in!Evelyn’s!description!of!the!evening.!

However,!one!particular!bit!of!information!stands!out!in!the!historical!record:!Dampier! had!brought!with!him!a!map!that!he!eagerly!shared!with!Evelyn!and!Pepys.!The!map! illustrated!“a!View!of!the!General!&!Coasting!Trade`Winds!in!the!great!South!Ocean”!— a!region!of!the!globe!still!largely!unexplored!by!England!and!the!western!world—and!

Dampier!assured!Evelyn!and!Pepys!that!“the!Maps!hitherto!extant,!were!all!false!as!to! the!Pacific`sea.”! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1!Adrian!Mitchell,!Dampier’s*Monkey:*The*South*Sea*Voyages*on*William*Dampier!(Kent!Town,!South! Australia:!Wakefield!Press,!2007)!18.! 87! !

Dampier,!who!had!spent!the!last!twenty!odd!years!sailing!in!the!South!Pacific! was!more!qualified!than!most!to!know,!and!he!must!have!had!the!natural!philosopher!

Edmund!Halley!in!mind!when!he!made!this!pointed!remark.!2!Halley!was!a!rising!star!in! the!field!of!natural!philosophy!and!with!the!financial!support!of!his!father,!Edmond!

Halley!Sr.,!and!the!political!support!of!King!Charles!II,!he!had!published!a!comparable! map!of!prevailing!wind!currents!(1686).!Halley’s!mind!and!his!pedigree!conferred! respect,!but!unlike!Dampier,!he!could!not!claim!a!lifetime!of!experience!with!the! wonders!and!dangers!of!the!South!Seas.!Dampier,!a!skilled!and!experienced!navigator! by!contrast,!would!boast!a!total!of!three!circumnavigations!of!the!globe!by!the!time!he! concluded!his!sailing!career.!His!knowledge!of!the!sea!translated!into!knowledge!of!the! winds,!knowledge!upon!which!he!intended!to!capitalize.3!!

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2!Evelyn!dined!with!the!secretary!of!the!Royal!Navy!Samuel!Pepys!in!August!1698!and!had!this!to! say!of!Dampier:!“6th!August.!I!dined!with!Mr.!Pepys,!where!was!Captain!Dampier,!who!had!been!a!famous! buccaneer,!had!brought!hither!the!painted!Prince!Job,!and!printed!a!relation!of!his!very!strange!adventure,! and!his!observations.!He!was!now!going!abroad!again!by!the!King’s!encouragement,!who!furnished!a!ship! of!290!tons.!He!seemed!a!more!modest!man!than!one!would!imagine!by!the!relation!of!the!crew!he!had! assorted!with.!He!brought!a!map!of!his!observations!of!the!course!of!the!winds!in!the!south!Sea,!and!assured! us!that!the!maps!hitherto!extant!were!all!false!as!to!the!Pacific!Sea,!which!he!makes!on!the!south!of!the!line,! that!to!the!north!end!running!by!the!coast!of!Peru!being!extremely!tempestuous.”!William!H.!Bonner,! Captain*William*Dampier:*Buccaneer@Author:*Some*Account*of*a*Modest*Buccaneer*and*of*English*Travel*Literature* in*the*Early*Eighteenth*Century*(Stanford,!CA:!Stanford!University!Press,!1934)!36.!Historian!Adrian!Mitchell! quotes!Evelyn!further:!“…He!brought!a!map,!of!his!observations!of!the!Course!of!the!winds!in!the!South` Sea,!&!assured!us!that!the!Maps!hitherto!extant,!were!all!false!as!to!the!Pacific`sea…”!Mitchell,!Dampier’s* Monkey,!18! 3!A!handful!of!famed!commanders!such!as!Magellan,!Drake,!Schouten,!Cavendish,!and!most! recently!Narborough,!had!come!before!him,!and!unlike!these!men,!Dampier!functioned!as!navigator!rather! than!captain!of!the!vessels!that!had!taken!him!on!his!journey.!However!Dampier!has!much!to!his!credit.!He! may!not!have!been!the!first!to!sail!the!South!Seas,!or!to!circumnavigate!the!earth;!but!Dampier!had!other! accomplishments!that!made!his!voyages!significant.!He!took!careful!notes!over!the!course!of!his!travels!and! worked!hard!to!have!them!publicized!so!that!in!many!instances!he!was!the!first!to!publish!a!description!of!a! foreign!place!even!if!he!was!not!the!first!British!sailor!to!set!foot!there.!Further!to!his!credit,!Dampier!would! 88! !

Historians!have!not!completely!ignored!Dampier.!His!adventurous!life!and!the! prodigious!amount!of!writing!he!published!over!the!duration!of!his!career!has!prompted! a!handful!of!biographical!accounts!that!portray!him!in!an!overwhelmingly!glowing! light—a!bias!that!arguably!fails!to!do!justice!to!the!rich,!dark!complexity!of!his!character! and!experiences.4!Yet,!historians!have!not!as!readily!incorporated!him!into!traditional! accounts!of!the!history!of!science!despite!his!enormous!contributions!to!the!field,!and! those!who!do!include!him!tend!to!focus!on!his!anthropological!work!rather!than!his! wind!treatise.!Why!is!this!the!case?!It!may!be!that!the!very!qualities!that!make!Dampier! such!an!appealing!character!to!study—his!adventures!and!exploits!as!a!buccaneer,!his! questionable!relationship!with!the!law,!and!his!middling!class!and!lack!of!university!

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! later!command!his!own!ship!on!an!expedition!to!New!Guinea!and!New!Britain—though!the!expedition! would!prove!a!failure!in!more!ways!than!one—and!he!would!make!the!trip!around!the!world!two!more! times,!so!that!by!the!end!of!his!career!he!could!boast!more!miles!and!experience!under!his!belt!than!many.! Mitchell,!Dampier’s*Monkey,!7.! 4!In!A*Pirate*of*Exquisite*Mind,!for!example,!Diana!and!Michael!Preston!recreate!Dampier’s!journey! for!their!readers!by!following!in!his!footsteps,!retracing!Dampier’s!paths!around!the!world!and!drawing! upon!his!travel!narratives!as!references.!The!Preston’s!are!keen!to!point!out!the!important!and!extensive! contributions!Dampier!made!to!the!field!of!natural!history!and!to!the!historical!record!more!generally,!but! make!scant!mention!of!his!wind!treatise.!Diana!and!Michael!Preston.!A*Pirate*of*Exquisite*Mind:*Explorer,* Naturalist,*and*Buccaneer:*The*Life*of*William*Dampier!(New!York:!Walker!and!Company:!2004).!Biographer! Willard!Hallam!Bonner!paints!an!equally!glowing!portrait!of!Dampier!in!Captain*William*Dampier:*Buccaneer@ Author,!but!rather!than!simply!recount!Dampier’s!journey,!he!provides!a!compelling!analysis!of!the!extent!to! which!Dampier’s!work!informed!literary!triumphs!such!as!Gulliver’s*Travels!by!Jonathan!Swift,!and!Daniel! Defoe’s!Captain*Singleton!and!most!famously!Robinson*Crusoe.!Willard!Hallam!Bonner,!Captain*William* Dampier:*Buccaneer@Author*(California,!Stanford!University!Press:!1934)!The!only!texts!that!take!a!critical! approach!of!Dampier’s!life!and!work!are!Dampier’s*Monkey,!by!Adrian!Mitchell,!and!The*Devil’s*Mariner!by! Anton!Gill.!Adrian!Mitchell,!Dampier’s*Monkey:*The*South*Seas*Voyages*of*William*Dampier!(Kent!Town,! Australia,!Wakefield!Press:!2010);!Anton!Gill.!The*Devil’s*Mariner,*A*Life*of*William*Dampier,*Pirate*and* Explorer,*1651@1715!(London,!Michael!Joseph:!1997).!! ! 89! ! training—are!precisely!those!qualities!that!make!it!difficult!to!locate!him!strictly!within! the!scientific!camp!as!conventionally!demarcated!by!historians!of!science.!He!does!not!fit! neatly!into!that!box,!or!in!any!one!box!in!fact.!With!this!in!mind!it!should!come!as!no! coincidence!that!the!chief!subject!of!Dampier’s!philosophic!investigations—the!wind— has!proven!itself!equally,!if!not!more!difficult!to!locate!and!to!define!for!scholars!both! past!and!present.!Like!Dampier,!the!wind!moved!between!worlds,!across!oceans!and! continents,!connecting!people!of!all!classes!and!races,!both!domestically!and!abroad.!

And!its!invisibility,!mystery,!and!physical!accessibility!rendered!it!a!type!of!commons! that!everyone!was!in!a!position!to!access,!explore,!and!narrate.!A!history!of!science! narrative!focused!strictly!on!the!ways!in!which!natural!philosophers!such!as!Edmund!

Halley!investigated!the!trade!winds!unquestionably!reveals!a!great!deal!about!the! evolution!of!wind!knowledge!during!this!crucial!century.!However,!as!the!dinner! among!Evelyn,!Pepys,!and!Dampier!illustrates,!taking!such!a!narrow!approach!to!the! subject!misses!the!most!interesting!part!of!the!story:!how!sailors!and!former!pirates!like!

Dampier!sought!to!parlay!layman’s!knowledge!of!the!wind!to!imperial!ends!and! personal!purposes.!It!is!precisely!this!line!of!inquiry!the!present!chapter!seeks!to!explore.!!

Over!the!course!of!the!17th!century,!English!scientists,!working!both! independently!and!in!conjunction!with!the!English!government,!increasingly!codified! wind!knowledge!in!the!service!of!the!state.!They!sought!to!map,!define,!contain,!harness,! and!deploy!this!natural!force!for!imperial!purposes—political!and!economic!in!nature.!

90! !

However,!as!a!commons,!other!members!of!the!population,!such!as!sailors,!pirates,!and! slaves,!through!first`hand!experience!and!observation!and!at!times!working!outside!the! bounds!of!legality,!also!learned!to!read!the!wind,!to!narrate!its!causes!and!effects,!and!to! apply!their!knowledge!for!personal!gain.!Investigation!into!the!interwoven!strands!of! this!historical!process!highlights!the!tension!that!emerged!in!the!contest!for!narrative! and!epistemological!control!over!the!wind,!not!merely!among!different!classes!and! populations!of!people,!but!between!the!wind!and!mankind!as!well,!for!the!wind! confounded!human!attempts!to!bound!it!completely!and!in!doing!so!called!attention!to! the!limits!of!human!control!over!nature.!As!a!pirate,!buccaneer,!and!natural!philosopher!

William!Dampier!straddled!both!worlds—polite!and!not!so!polite!society.!He!therefore! provides!an!entry!point!into!a!complex!investigation,!a!lens!through!which!to!view!not! only!the!scientific!narrative!of!the!trade!winds,!but!the!politics!of!wind!knowledge!and! the!significance!of!a!large!and!messy!knowledge!commons!that!shaped!it.!

England’s!burgeoning!political!influence!abroad!and!the!scope!of!its! international!mercantile!networks!hinged!largely!upon!the!nation’s!capacity!to! effectively!harness!the!oceanic!trade!winds—a!project!with!which!Dampier!was! intimately!connected.!Over!the!course!of!the!17th!century,!as!the!relationship!between! international!political!power!and!territorial!control!of!the!seas!became!more!readily! apparent,!politicians!and!natural!philosophers!had!begun!turning!their!attention!to!the! wind!with!increasing!frequency!and!vigilance.!Yet,!prior!to!the!efforts!of!Edmund!

91! !

Halley!in!1686,!a!comprehensive!map!of!worldwide!wind!currents!had!not!been! published!in!England.!Knowledge!of!atmospheric!flow!within!the!vast!stretches!of!the!

South!Seas!and!beyond!remained!confined!to!the!minds!and!quarters!of!those!whose! occupations!drew!them!there,!navigators!and!ship!captains!like!Dampier,!whose! livelihoods!and!very!lives!depended!upon!masterful!knowledge!of!this!powerful!and! invisible!natural!force.!!

The!Royal!Society!endeavored!to!diminish!the!chasm!that!separated!the! experiential!knowledge!of!the!seaman!from!the!philosophic!work!of!British! intellectuals.5!Almost!a!century!prior,!Francis!Bacon!had!proposed!a!method!of!scientific! inquiry!that!emphasized!knowing!through!doing.!He!suggested!that!the!operative! framework!of!natural!philosophy!should!first!and!foremost!emphasize!experiential! knowledge,!and!that!such!knowledge!should!be!incorporated!into!the!authoritative! records!and!interpretations!accepted!by!the!scientific!community.!Later,!and!along!these! same!lines,!Robert!Boyle!and!the!Royal!Society!lobbied!sailors!and!explorers!to!share! what!they!had!learned!and!observed!during!their!voyages!abroad.!Dampier!voluntarily! participated!in!this!collaborative!endeavor!and!contributed!an!enormous!amount!of!

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5!Much!like!its!mascot!Francis!Bacon!claimed!all!knowledge!as!his!province.!In!a!Letter!to!William! Cecil,!1st!Baron!of!Burghley,!Bacon!writes,!“I!confess!that!I!have!as!vast!contemplative!ends,!as!I!have! moderate!civil!ends,!for!I!have!taken!all!knowledge!to!be!my!province.!Francis!Bacon,!“Letter!to!William! Cecil,!1st!Baron!of!Burghley!in!The*Works*of*Francis*Bacon:*Baron*of*Verulam,*Viscount*St.*Alban,*and*Lord*High* Chancellor*of*England,!eds.,!James!Spedding,!Robert!L.!Ellis,!Douglas!D.!Heath,!vol.!8!(London,!1870),!109.! 92! ! personal!knowledge!he!had!recorded!during!his!international!escapades,!particularly!on! the!subject!of!wind.!!

His!approach!toward!the!accumulation!of!knowledge!accorded!well!with!the! scientific!method!proposed!by!Bacon!in!The*Great*Instauration.!Indeed,!Dampier!may!be! viewed!as!an!embodiment!of!Bacon’s!ideal;!for!the!wind`knowledge!Dampier!boasted! was!knowledge!qua!maker:!knowing!through!doing.!By!1699,!Dampier!had!authored! three!extensive!travel!narratives!based!on!his!adventures!at!sea,!one!of!which!included!a! technical!treatise!on!oceanic!wind!currents.!The!popularity!and!success!of!these! publications!meant!that!Dampier’s!wind`knowledge!reached!a!wide!audience;!his!texts! broadly!disseminated!information!about!the!wind!formerly!confined!to!specialists.!

Implicit!is!a!growing!public!awareness!of!the!value!of!wind`knowledge!to!England’s! political!and!economic!strength.!Thus,!while!Francis!Bacon!offered!us!a!glimpse!into!the! development!of!scientific!knowledge!about!the!wind!at!the!opening!of!the!17th!century,!

William!Dampier!provides!us!with!a!measure!of!its!development!at!the!close!of!the! century.!He!emerges!as!an!emblematic!actor!whose!writing!at!once!highlights!and!casts! in!sharp!relief!the!significance!of!wind!knowledge!for!the!Royal!Society,!the!Royal!Navy,! and!for!imperial!circuitry!more!generally—both!within!and!beyond!the!bounds!of! legality.!!

We!begin!therefore!by!exploring!the!aims!and!purposes!of!scientific!work! produced!by!natural!philosophers!in!their!investigation!of!the!trade!winds.!What!did!

93! ! natural!philosophers!have!to!say!about!the!trade!winds!and!why!did!these!winds! assume!the!importance!that!they!did!among!the!intellectual!community!of!the!early!17th! century?!To!what!extent!do!narrations!of!the!trade!winds!in!this!context!illuminate!the! political!and!economic!agendas!of!empire?!With!this!in!mind!we!then!turn!our!attention! to!the!work!of!William!Dampier!in!order!to!explore!two!aspects!of!his!particular! contribution!to!this!conversation—the!map!of!the!South!Seas!he!shared!with!John!Evelyn! and!Samuel!Pepys,!and!the!scientific!wind!treatise!he!published!as!a!supplement!to!his! popular!travel!narratives.!Dampier’s!life!and!works!invites!the!question!of!what!other! groups,!besides!natural!philosophers,!may!have!capitalized!upon!knowledge!of!the! trade!winds?!Thus!the!final!portion!of!this!chapter!considers!the!instability!of!wind! knowledge!via!populations!such!as!mutineers!and!pirates!operating!on!the!fringes!of! imperial!politics!utilizing!the!wind!to!personal!advantage,!as!well!as!enslaved! populations!on!the!receiving!end!of!England’s!imperial!politics!who!were!both!subject!to! the!applications!of!wind!knowledge!but!also!capable!of!harnessing!the!wind!to!their! advantage!when!the!opportunity!presented!itself.!Advances!in!wind!knowledge!within! the!field!of!natural!philosophy!may!have!promoted!imperialist!aims,!however,!as!a! commons!both!physically!and!epistemologically,!the!wind!just!as!readily!lent!itself!to!the! aims!and!purposes!of!rebels!and!of!the!subjugated.!At!key!moments,!those!in!positions! of!power!just!as!quickly!found!themselves!and!their!efforts!potentially!undermined!by! the!same!natural!force!that!had!otherwise!facilitated!their!efforts.!!

94! !

Science and the Trade Winds

Natural!philosophers!at!this!time!worked!hard!to!explain!the!physical!ordering! of!their!environment!and!its!forces,!and!in!doing!so!to!most!advantageously!orient! themselves!and!humanity!in!relation!to!it.!The!scientific!narratives!about!the!wind! published!at!the!turn!of!the!17th!century!reflected!this!curiosity!and!more!pointedly! reflected!the!natural!philosophers’!often!conflicting!attempts!at!controlling!the!wind! through!the!limited!means!available!to!them,!notably!through!discourse.!Led!by!the! pragmatic!and!utilitarian!driven!Royal!Society—an!organization!of!natural!philosophers! aimed!at!promoting!and!applying!natural!knowledge—these!narratives!also!aimed!to! facilitate!nature’s!functional!utility!by!making!the!causes!and!behaviors!of!its! manifestations!more!readily!transparent!and!therefore,!more!manageable!and! employable.!Wind!knowledge!produced!by!the!scientific!community!at!this!time!thus! focused!principally!on!how!to!account!for!the!motion!of!the!trade!winds!because!the! practical!applications!of!these!particular!winds!were!readily!apparent.!An!enhanced! understanding!of!the!trade!winds!promised!commercial!benefits!and!military! advantages!that!translated!into!political!power,!a!relationship!further!underscored!by! the!fact!that!the!secretary!of!the!Royal!Navy,!Samuel!Pepys,!was!not!only!a!member!of! the!Royal!Society!but!served!as!the!organization’s!president!from!approximately!1684!to!

1686.!Given!the!associated!economic,!military,!and!political!incentives,!how!to!account! for!the!motion!of!the!trade!winds!became!one!of!the!most!puzzling,!pressing,!and!

95! ! unresolved!questions!among!Britain’s!scientific!polity!during!the!mid!to!late!17th` century.!Natural!philosophers!came!up!with!many!explanatory!theories,!the!most! successful!of!which!are!attributed!to!two!men!with!similar!names:!Edmond!Halley,!and! later,!George!Hadley.!!!

Edmond!Halley!demonstrated!a!great!interest!in!astronomy!as!well!as!great! aptitude!for!success!in!the!field!at!a!very!young!age.6!At!twenty!he!moved!to!the!British! colony!on!St.!Helena,!an!island!off!the!coast!of!western!Africa,!where!he!spent!the! following!two!years!collecting!astronomical!data!and!making!observations!which! ultimately!culminated!in!his!chart!of!magnetic!variation.!This!chart,!published!in!1702,! was!in!fact!a!thematic!map!that!attempted!to!account!for!the!degrees!of!variation! between!true!north,!(the!direction!of!the!north!pole!along!the!Earth’s!rotational!axis),! versus!magnetic!north!(as!indicated!by!the!needle!of!a!compass).7!Understanding!the!

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6!Halley!was!born!in!Haggerston,!England,!on!October!29,!1656.!He!attended!St.!Paul’s!school! followed!by!Queens!College!at!Oxford.!For!more!on!Halley!see!Edmond!Halley,!Correspondence*and*Papers*of* Edmond*Halley,!ed.!Eugene!Fairfield!MacPike!(Oxford:!Clarendon!Press,!1932).! 7!Halley’s!chart!contained!information!on!the!coastlines!as!well!as!information!on!the!sea,!tides,!and! magnetic!variation.!According!to!the!National!Maritime!Museum!(England):!“[Halley’s]!chart!shows!the! results!of!the!first!British!state`sponsored!expedition!with!a!purely!scientific!purpose.!Because!the!earthls! magnetic!field!is!not!uniform,!the!marinerls!compass!points!either!side!of!north!to!a!variable!degree! depending!on!the!shipls!position.!To!make!navigation!safer,!Halley!made!an!extensive!series!of!comparisons! between!compass!readings!and!determinations!of!north!by!astronomical!observation.!He!plotted!isogonic! lines,!joining!points!of!equal!magnetic!variation.”!Edmond!Halley,!“A!New!and!Correct!Sea!Chart!of!the! Whole!World!Showing!the!Variations!of!the!Compass!as!They!Were!Found!in!the!Year!1700,”!Kew!National! Archives,!Royal!Museums!Greenwich!Art!Prints.!Accessed!February!21,!2015.! http://prints.rmg.co.uk/art/506063/A_new_and_correct_sea_chart_of_the_whole_world_showing_the.!! 96! ! angle!of!variance!between!these!two!poles,!as!a!function!of!geographic!location,!was!of! enormous!importance!for!successful!oceanic!navigation.!!

In!addition!to!this!notable!achievement!Halley!enjoyed!a!successful!career!full!of! prestigious!appointments!and!titles!such!as!Clerk!to!the!Royal!Society!(1687),!Savilian!

Professor!of!Geometry!at!Oxford!(1702),!Honorary!Secretary!to!the!Royal!Society!(1713),! and!Astronomer!Royal!to!King!George!I!(1720)!(Weld,!35).!!By!the!time!he!died!in!1742!

Halley!had!published!over!eighty`one!papers!on!a!wide!range!of!scientific!and! philosophic!subjects!such!as!mathematics,!astronomy,!meteorology,!magnetism,!history! and!mortality.8!Yet!his!most!notable!achievements!in!natural!history!by!and!large!speak! to!naval!applications—astronomy,!navigation,!and!wind`currents.!

In!1686,!the!Royal!Society!published!a!map!of!tropical!surface!wind!created!by!

Halley!using!wind!data!he!had!collected!from!ship!logs!coupled!with!knowledge! gleaned!from!his!time!in!St.!Helena.!The!map!was!the!first!publication!of!its!kind.9!In! tandem!with!his!map,!Halley!published!a!paper!devoted!to!the!trade!winds!entitled:!

“An!Historical!Account!of!the!Trade!Winds,!and!Monsoons,!observable!in!the!Seas! between!and!near!the!Tropicks,!with!an!attempt!to!assign!the!Physical!Cause!of!the!Said!

Winds,”!in!which!he!explored!the!systematic!motion!of!the!trade!winds!from!east!to!

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8!Charles!Richard!Weld,*Descriptive*Catelogue*of*the*Portraits*in*the*Possession*of*the*Royal*Society! (London:!Taylor!and!Francis,!1860),!35,!accessed!February!28,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=LBAHAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:Li5KGShOvMw C&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5_voVP3ZCY37sASD1YLwDw&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false!! 9!Kerry!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind:*The*History*and*Science*of*Hurricanes!(Oxford,!New!York:!Oxford! University!Press,!2005),!41.! 97! ! west.!Halley!noted!that!some!philosophers!attributed!the!steady!eastern!air`current! characteristic!of!the!trade!winds!to!the!earth’s!rotation.10!According!to!this!line!of! reasoning,!argued!Halley,!as!the!earth!rotated!eastward!on!its!axis!“the!loose!and!fluid* particles!of!the!Air,!being!so!exceedingly!light!as!they!be!are!left!behind,!so!that!in! respect!of!the!Earths!surface!they!move!Westwards,!and!become!a!Constant!Easterly!

Wind.”11!Halley!further!acknowledged!that!the!prevalence!of!the!trade!winds!in!the! equatorial!region!of!the!globe!corresponded!with!the!“Parallels!of!Latitude!where!the! diurnal!Motion!is!swiftest,”!and!thus!seemingly!confirmed!this!theory.!Yet,!despite!these! marks!in!its!favor,!he!noted!several!key!factors!that!undermined!the!soundness!of!the! theory!overall:!the!presence!of!the!“constant!Calms”!in!the!equatorial!region!of!the!

Atlantic!known!as!the!doldrums;!the!“Westerly!Winds!near!the!Coast!of!Guiney;!and!the!

Periodical!Westerly!Monsoons!under!the!Equator!in!the!Indian!Seas.”12!In!Halley’s! estimation,!these!three!variances!contradicted!the!line!of!reasoning!propounded!by!this! theory,!and!thus!prevented!Halley!from!accepting!the!hypothesis!that!the!earth’s! rotation!accounted!for!the!motion!of!the!Trades.!!!

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10!Edmund!Halley,!“An!Historical!Account!of!the!Trade!Winds,!and!Monsoons,!observable!in!the! Seas!between!and!near!the!Tropicks,!with!an!attempt!to!assign!the!Physical!Cause!of!the!Said!Winds,”!in! Philosophical*Transactions!16,!no.!183!(1686):!153! 11!Halley,!Trade*Winds,!164! 12!Halley,!Trade*Winds,!164! 98! !

What!Halley!proposed!instead!was!that!“air!tends!to!‘follow!the!sun’!as!it!moves! from!east!to!west!across!the!sky.”13!The!reason!for!this,!he!argued!was!that!the!heat!from! the!sun!rarefied!the!air,!causing!it!to!expand!and!propelling!it!into!motion.!He!also!noted! that!such!an!explanation!would!account!for!the!northeasterly!winds!north!of!the! equator,!and!for!the!southeasterly!winds!south!of!the!equator,!because!the!air!near!the! line!was!proportionally!more!rarefied!than!the!air!to!the!north!and!south!and!thus! compelled!swifter!motion.!Complicating!matters!further,!he!argued,!was!the!impact!of! the!continents!upon!the!motion!of!the!atmosphere.!According!to!Halley,!the!quality!of! the!soil!and!the!location!of!mountain!ranges!upon!the!continents!influenced!the!degree! of!rarefication!present!in!the!air!and!the!air’s!subsequent!motion.!For!example,!!

If!a!Country!lying!near!the!Sun,!prove!to!be!flat,!sandy,!low!Land,!such!as!the! Desarts!of!Lybia!are!usually!reported!to!be,!the!heat!occasioned!by!the!reflection! of!the!Sun!Beams,!and!the!retention!thereof!in!the!Sand,!is!incredible...whereby! the!Air!being!exceedingly!rarified,!it!is!necessary!that!this!cooler!and!more!dense! Air!should!run!thitherwards!to!restore!the!Equilibrium.14!! ! The!inclination!of!the!atmosphere!to!restore!equilibrium!to!those!rarefied!sectors!above! the!continents!created!variations!in!the!atmosphere’s!general!eastward!motion.!This,!he! argued!was!the!reason!why!the!winds!near!the!coast!of!Guinea!blew!westerly,!and! further!explained!the!doldrums!in!the!Atlantic!as!well!as!the!periodic!westerly! monsoons!in!the!Indian!Ocean.!!

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13!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,*42! 14!Halley,!Trade*Winds,!166! 99! !

Although!Halley’s!argument!was!ultimately!incorrect!by!contemporary! standards,!it!came!closer!than!any!at!that!time!to!accurately!explaining!the!cause!of!the! trade!winds.!Moreover,!he!was!not!entirely!wrong!in!his!line!of!reasoning.!According!to! contemporary!meteorologist!and!professor!Kerry!Emanuel,!“laboratory!experiments! confirm!that!moving!a!heat!source!around!the!rim!of!a!pan!of!water!does!give!rise!to!a! motion!that!follows!the!heat!source,!but!the!effect!is!far!too!weak!to!explain!the!trade! winds.”15!Halley’s!theory!was!well!received!nevertheless!and!garnered!adherents!who! promoted!his!ideas.16!More!significantly,!his!efforts!suggested!that!even!if!humanity! could!not!control!the!wind,!the!behavior!of!this!natural!force!could!be!both! systematically!described!and!mechanically!defined!within!the!rubrics!of!natural!history.!

And!while!Halley!made!no!reference!to!notions!of!maker’s!knowledge,!the!experimental!

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15!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,*42! 16!In!1708,!for!example,!London’s!Scientific!periodical!the!British*Apollo!printed!the!following! question!and!answer!pertaining!to!the!cause!of!the!Trade!Winds.!Clearly!evident!is!the!popularity!of! Halley’s!explanation!and!line!of!reasoning:!“Q:!Gentlemen,!You!are!desired!to!give!a!Reason!why!the!Trade` Wind!in!the!West`Indies!always!blows!within!one!Quarter!of!the!Compass,!and!at!all!times!of!the!Year.! Yours,!M.L.”!!“A:!…the!wind!you!speak!of!is!both!Constant!and!General.!And!because!it!is!General,!that!is,! blows!in!many!places!from!the!same!Point!over!a!large!quantity!of!the!Globe,!it!is!therefore!call’d!a!Trade` Wind.!It!is!an!East`Wind,!and!blows!in!the!Atlantick,!Ethiopick,!and!Pacifick!Seas.!It!is!least!Variable!in!the! Latter,!since!Sea`men!can!Sail!from!Aquapulco!in!New`Spain!to!the!Philippine!Islands!9a!Voyage!of!1650! Leagues!in!60!Days,!without!any!occasion!to!shift!their!Sails.!This!wind!is!observable!not!only!within!the! Tropicks,!but!even!to!the!30th!Degree!of!Latitude!on!each!side!of!the!equator…”!The!author!goes!on!to!say! that!some!people!attribute!the!cause!of!this!wind!to!the!“daily!Rotation!of!the!Earth”!with!a!detailed! description!to!follows.!“But!the!Copernicans!in!Defense!of!their!Modern!System!of!Astronomy,!have!clearly! overthrown!this!Plausible!Solution.!For!(as!they!well!observe)!since!the!Air!Gravitates!towards!the!Earth,! and!Adheres!to!it,!it!is!naturally!carries!round!with!the!same!motion.!Cartesius!draws!the!Phenomenon!from! the!Influence!of!the!Moon…but![this!explanation]!is!Rejected!by!Varenius…The!Best!and!indeed!True! Solution,!is!taken!from!the!Sun.!For!as!the!Course!of!the!Sun!is!Westward,!and!as!the!Air!is!most!Rarified! under!the!Sun’s!Meridian,!so!it!follows!from!the!Necessary!Laws!of!Staticks,!that!Air!which!is!more! Condense,!readily!flows!to.!British*Apollo!(London,!England),!December!29,!1708!`!December!31,!1708;!Issue! 93.! 100! ! practices!and!emphases!of!the!Royal!Society,!which!he!participated!in,!and!the!auspices! under!which!this!scientific!institution!emerged,!derived!in!part!from!precisely!this!

Baconian!value!and!its!utilitarian!corollary.!Halley’s!findings!were!accordingly! predicated!on!the!promise!that!science!could!offer!truthful,!accurate!explanations!for!the! workings!of!nature!that!would!allow!mankind!to!employ!nature!in!its!service!more! readily.17!!!

Approximately!fifty!years!later,!in!1735,!Englishmen!and!Royal!Society!member!

George!Hadley!published!a!paper!entitled:!Concerning*the*Cause*of*the*General*Trade*

Winds,!which!came!much!closer!to!providing!a!correct!explanation!for!the!movement!of! the!trade!winds.!George!Hadley!(1685`1768)!was!a!lawyer!by!profession.18!After! becoming!a!member!of!the!Royal!Society!in!1735!he!took!over!William!Derham’s! position!supervising!the!meteorological!data!collected!by!Society!fellows!and!providing! the!Society’s!foreign!correspondents!with!instruments!necessary!to!their!meteorological!

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17!The!practices!and!relations!among!members!of!the!Royal!Society!at!the!turn!of!the!18th!century! are!examined!in!Lisa!Jardine’s!study,!Ingenious*Pursuits:*Building*the*Scientific*Revolution!(New!York:! Doubleday,!1999).!For!more!studies!related!to!scientific!institutions!and!Royal!Society!in!particular!see!James! E.!McClellan!III,!Science*Reorganized:*Scientific*Societies*in*the*Eighteenth*Century!(New!York:!Columbia! University!Press,!1985);!Martha!Ornstein,!The*Role*of*Scientific*Societies*in*the*Seventeenth*Century*(Chicago:! University!of!Chicago!Press,!1928);!Margery!Purver,!The*Royal*Society:*Concept*and*Creation!(Cambridge:!MIT! Press,!196);!Michael!Hunter,!Science*and*Society*in*Restoration*England!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University! Press,!1989;!Michael!Hunter,!Science*and*the*Shape*of*Orthodoxy:*Intellectual*Change*in*Late*Seventeenth@Century* Britain!(Woodbridge:!Boydell!Press,!1995);!Marie!Boas!Hall,!Promoting*Experimental*Learning:*Experiment*and* the*Royal*Society,*1660@1727!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1991).! 18!George!Hadley.!mConcerning!the!Cause!of!the!General!Trade!Winds,m!Philosophical*Transactions,! vol.!39!(London,!1735).! 101! ! work.19!In!keeping!with!his!meteorological!responsibilities!Hadley!pursued!his!own! research!in!the!field,!building!upon!the!work!of!his!predecessor.!In!a!paper!published!in!

1735,!for!example,!William!Derham!had!suggested!that!people!had!not!fully!considered! the!extent!to!which!the!diurnal!rotation!of!the!earth!informed!the!motion!of!the!trade! winds.20!Hadley!chose!to!extend!this!line!of!investigation.!

Reiterating!Halley’s!general!line!of!reasoning,!Hadley!concurred!that!the!sun!was! indeed!a!primary!cause!of!the!trade!winds.!Hadley!stated!that!at!the!equator!the! sunlight!hit!the!earth!at!a!perpendicular!angle,!creating!a!greater!concentration!of!heat!in! that!region!than!at!higher!or!lower!latitudes.!The!result!was!a!convection!system!in! which!the!warm!air!tended!to!rise!while!cooler,!denser!air!from!the!north!and!the!south! moved!toward!the!equator!to!equalize!the!atmospheric!pressure.!For!this!reason,! northerly!winds!occurred!north!of!the!equator!and!southerlies!south!of!the!equator.!

However,!Hadley!went!on!to!suggest!that!without!taking!into!account!other! contributing!factors!this!explanation!was!clearly!insufficient!because!we!know!that!the! trade!winds!tend!to!blow!east!to!west.21!The!diurnal!motion!of!the!earth!was,!in!his! estimation,!the!missing!link!in!the!equation.!The!diurnal!motion!of!the!earth!combined! with!the!effects!of!the!sun!on!the!atmosphere!created!the!east`west!motion!we!recognize!

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19!Anders!O.!Persson!!“Hadley’s!Principle,!Understanding!and!Misunderstanding!the!Trade! Winds”!History*of*Meteorology!3!(2006),1,!accessed!February!21,!2015,! http://www.meteohistory.org/2006historyofmeteorology3/2persson_hadley.pdf!! 20!Hadley,!mGeneral!trade!winds,m!10! 21!Hadley,!mGeneral!trade!winds,”!10! 102! ! in!the!trade!winds.!In!Divine*Wind,!the!contemporary!Meteorologist!Kerry!Emanuel! provides!a!mathematically!based!summary!of!Hadley’s!argument:!!

Hadley!had!calculated!that!to!an!observer!stationary!in!space,!an!object!fixed!to! the!equator!would!be!moving!from!west!to!east!at!over!450!m/s!(1,000!mph),! owing!to!the!earth’s!rotation.!But!an!object!fixed!at!30!degrees!north!latitude! would!be!moving!at!only!400!m/s!(900!mph).!Hadley!thought!that!if!this!object! started!to!move!toward!the!equator,!it!would!preserve!its!eastward!velocity!of! 400!m/s,!so!that!by!the!time!it!got!to!the!equator,!it!would!still!be!moving! eastward!at!400!m/s,!or!more!than!45!m/s!(100!mph)!slower!than!the!earth! underneath!it.!Thus!to!an!observer!at!the!equator,!the!object!would!be!moving! from!east!to!west!at!more!than!45!m/s.!Hadley!reasoned!that!the!same!thing! would!happen!to!air!moving!from!higher!toward!lower!latitudes.22! ! The!problem!with!this!explanation!by!contemporary!scientific!standards!is!that!Hadley! had!applied!Newton’s!first!law!of!motion!incorrectly,!for!in!a!rotating!system!it!is! angular*momentum!rather!than!linear!momentum!that!is!conserved.!In!this!instance,!the! angular!momentum!was!“the!product!of!the!west`to`east!velocity!and!the!distance!from! the!axis!of!rotation.”23!Emanuel!provides!the!correct!explanation!for!the!motion!of!the! trade!winds!to!explain!what!went!wrong!in!Hadley’s!calculation:!

When!an!object!moves!from!30!degrees!north!latitude!toward!the!equator,!it! moves!further!away!from!the!earth’s!axis!of!rotation.!To!preserve!its!angular! momentum,!the!object!actually!has!to!slow!down.!This!means!that!when!it! reaches!the!equator,!it!is!traveling!somewhat!more!slowly!than!400!m/s!(900! mph)—actually!about!350!m/s!(780!mph).!Thus,!relative!to!an!observer!on!the! equator,!the!object!is!actually!moving!from!east!to!west!at!more!than!110!m/s!(250! mph).!Fortunately,!friction!between!the!moving!air!and!the!earth’s!surface!slows! the!winds!way!down,!to!the!more!modest!5`10!m/s!(10`25!mph)!of!the!trades.24!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

22!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,!42`43! 23!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,!43! 24!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,!43! 103! !

In!layman’s!terms!the!physics!of!trade!winds!described!by!Emanuel!(above)!is!as! follows:!surface!winds!from!both!the!northern!and!Southern!hemisphere’s!flow!toward! the!equator!and!converge!in!a!relatively!small!region!that!modern!scientists!refer!to!as! the!Inter`Tropical!Convergence!Zone!(ITCZ).!In!this!region!the!converging!air! condenses,!cools!and!rises,!creating!enormous!storm!clouds!and!torrential!showers.!

According!to!Emanuel!these!regions!produce!the!“tallest!thunderstorms!on!earth…a! height!of!more!than!16km!(10!miles;!well!above!the!maximum!cruising!altitude!of! commercial!aircraft),”!and!the!air!emerging!from!the!top!of!these!enormous!clouds!has! cooled!considerably!and!thus!flows!toward!the!poles!“conserving!its!angular! momentum”!until!approximately!20!to!30!degrees!latitude!where!it!begins!to!loose!its! eastward!momentum!and!sink!toward!the!surface!again;!and!the!cycle!repeats.!“This! circulation!of!air,!flowing!equatorward!at!the!surface,!rising!in!the!ITCZ,!flowing!back!to! the!subtropics!at!high!altitude,!and!sinking!back!toward!the!surface,!is!called!a!Hadley! cell,!after!its!discoverer,”!writes!Emanuel.25!

Despite!the!flaws!in!Hadley’s!work,!by!contemporary!scientific!standards!at! least,!the!two!principles!he!identified!as!central!to!the!cause!and!direction!of!trade!wind! motion!were!correct:!first,!that!variations!in!air!pressure!resulting!from!the!uneven! heating!of!the!earth’s!surface!(hotter!at!the!equator!than!at!other!latitudes)!are! responsible!for!the!motion!of!the!wind;!and!second,!that!the!rotation!of!the!earth!

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25!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,!45! 104! ! overwhelmingly!modifies!the!direction!of!the!wind.!These!two!principles!have! continued!to!hold!true!by!modern!scientific!standards!despite!further!scientific!work! and!testing.!However,!not!until!the!late!19th!century!would!the!scientific!community! widely!accept!the!theory!Hadley!had!put!forth!almost!150!years!prior.26!

The!fierce!debate!taking!place!among!the!members!England’s!Royal!Society! regarding!the!cause!of!the!trade!wind’s!motion!was!in!fact!part!of!a!larger!ongoing! continental!debate!on!the!subject!initiated!many!years!prior!by!proponents!of!

Copernicanism.27!Aristotle’s!ancient!theories!about!the!wind,!which!were!generally! accepted!by!the!early`modern!English!academic!community!had!been!predicated!on!a! stationary!earth!enveloped!within!rotating!heavens.!Copernicus’!assertion!that!the!earth! in!fact!rotated!around!the!sun,!rather!than!the!other!way!around!thus!demanded!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

26!In!1880!the!German!Meteorologist!Adolph!Sprung!named!the!atmospheric!convection! phenomenon!first!correctly!identified!by!Hadley!a!“Hadley!Cell”!in!Hadley’s!honor.!Sprung’s!validation! went!a!long!way!toward!bringing!the!rest!of!the!scientific!community!on!board!with!Hadley’s!theory.!It!is! also!worth!noting!that!Halley’s!explanation!for!the!motion!of!the!trade!winds!had!been!published!in!the! Chamber’s*Cyclopaedia!in!1728,!seven!years!prior!to!Hadley’s!publication!on!the!subject,!which!meant!that!the! general!public!and!the!scientific!community!were!already!well!exposed!to!Halley’s!ideas!on!the!subject,! which!were,!as!a!result,!generally!accepted!as!doctrine.!Further!complicating!matters,!the!counter`intuitive! nature!of!Hadley’s!theory!(predicated!as!it!was!on!what!scholar!Anders!Persson!describes!as!“frictionless! inertial!motion!in!a!rotating!system”)!made!it!difficult!for!many!people,!even!scientists,!to!conceptualize!and! understand.!The!similarity!of!Halley’s!name!to!Hadley’s!presented!further!cause!for!confusion!when!it!came! to!recognition!and!credit,!as!did!the!fact!that!Hadley’s!older!brother!John!was!already!famous!within!the! scientific!community!for!his!astronomical!work,!notably!the!“Hadley!sextant,”!and!who,!incidentally,!had! also!written!on!the!subject!of!the!trade!winds!himself.!Anders!O.!Persson!!“Hadley’s!Principle,! Understanding!and!Misunderstanding!the!Trade!Winds”!History*of*Meteorology!3!(2006)!17,!19`20,!accessed! February!21,!2015!http://www.meteohistory.org/2006historyofmeteorology3/2persson_hadley.pdf!! 27!For!a!detailed!description!of!the!evolution!of!this!debate!please!see!Harold!Burstyn,!“Early! Explanations!of!the!Role!of!the!Earth’s!Rotation!in!the!Circulation!of!the!Atmosphere,”!Isis,!52,!(1966)!168` 187.!Burstyn!writes!that!in!the!papers!of!George!Hadley!(1735)!and!Colin!Maclaurin!(1740)!“there!appears! for!the!first!time!the!notion!of!the!deflecting!effect!of!the!earth’s!rotation!on!winds!and!currents,!the!basis!for! scientific!understanding!of!the!motions!in!the!earth’s!fluid!envelope,”!(p.169).!See!too!Persson,!!“Hadley’s! Principle,”!for!further!details!on!the!historical!evolution!of!these!meteorological!debates.!! 105! ! modification!of!the!Aristotelian!theory!of!the!wind.!What!Copernicus!proposed!was! essentially!a!simple!reversal!of!Aristotle’s!theory!such!that!the!earth!moved!and!the! heavens!were!stationary.!In!keeping!with!this!new!model!the!westward!motion!of!the! atmosphere!could!thus!be!readily!ascribed!to!the!failure!of!the!atmosphere!to!“keep!up! with!the!speed!of!the!rotating!earth,!“as!proposed!by!Galileo!in!1616,!and!further! corroborated!by!Johannes!Kepler!in!his!work!on!ocean!currents!(1618).28!In!spite!of!its! similarity!to!Aristotle’s!original!theory,!however,!the!Galilean!explanation!failed!to!take! hold!until!the!composition!of!the!wind!was!treated!independently!from!its!motion,!a! shift!predicated!on!the!acceptance!of!Newton’s!science!of!moving!bodies!(1696).!History! of!science!scholar!Harold!Burstyn!writes,!!

So!long!as!motion!had!been!considered!a!quality!of!bodies!rather!than!the! process!by!which!they!move,!it!was!necessary!to!consider!in!seeking!the!cause!of! the!winds!all!the!varied!qualities!that!they!possessed.!Once!motion!was! established!as!a!process!rather!than!a!quality,!the!motion!of!winds!might!be! treated!independently!of!their!composition.!What!had!previously!been! dependent!on!which!vapors!or!exhalations!were!involved,!on!how!water!became! air!and!air!water,!could!now!be!treated!with!no!reference!to!vapors!at!all.!After! Newton,!the!problem!of!winds!and!currents!could!become!a!problem!simply!of! motion!provided!that!air!and!water!could!be!treated!like!planets!or!projectiles.29!! !

Until!that!shift!took!place,!and!even!to!some!extent!thereafter,!Aristotelian! theories!on!the!subject!continued!to!circulate!among!members!of!the!scientific!

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28!Burstyn,!“Early!Explanations,”!170! 29!Burstyn,!“Early!Explanations,”!171`172! 106! ! community!and!the!debate!raged!on.30!In!1686,!Edmond!Halley!presented!to!the!Royal!

Society!the!posthumous!treatise!authored!by!French!scientist!Edme!Mariott!whose! vehement!rejection!of!Aristotle’s!explanation!for!the!wind,!for!example,!suggests!that! adherents!to!that!model!still!persisted.!In!keeping!with!the!Galilean!model,!Mariott!

“explained!the!tendency!of!the!wind!to!approach!the!equator!from!the!north`east!and! south`east!as!a!consequence!of!the!sun’s!varying!path!between!the!equinoxes,”!writes!

Anders!Persson.31!More!significantly,!Mariott!is!recognized!as!having!situated!this! particular!problem!of!winds!within!the!context!of!“fluid!mechanics”!a!framework!that! by!contemporary!standards!allowed!for!a!viable!solution.!!At!this!point,!Halley!entered! the!debate!and!presented!his!chart!of!global!wind!systems—the!first!of!its!kind—and! with!Hadley’s!subsequent!intervention!fifty!years!later,!the!debate!over!the!cause!of!the! trade!winds!slowly!began!to!draw!to!a!close.32!!!

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30!In!1685,!a!year!before!Newton!presented!his!theories!of!motion!the!debate,!for!example,!was! taken!up!by!a!Dr.!Garden!“enthusiastically!promoting”!Galileo’s!ideas!on!the!subject.!! 31!Persson!!“Hadley’s!Principle,”!18`19! 32!Robert!Hooke!followed!close!on!the!heels!of!Halley,!and!again!“invoked!the!centrifugal!force!of! the!earth!rotation!to!explain!the!equatorward!component!of!the!trade!winds.”!Persson,!“Hadley’s!Principle,”! 19.!The!debate!ended!for!a!time,!until!Hadley!broached!the!subject!approximately!fifty!years!later.! Nevertheless,!in!1746!the!Berlin!Academy!of!Sciences!announced!a!“prize!for!anybody!who!could!determine! ‘the!nature!and!the!law’!which!the!wind!ought!to!obey!in!case!the!earth!was!covered!by!an!ocean.!The! solution!had!to!be!presented!in!a!form!that!allowed!predictions,”!Persson,!“Hadley’s!Principle,”!20.!Jean!le! Rond!d’Alembert!took!the!prize,!based!on!a!set!of!flawed!hypothesis!that!nevertheless!attempted!to!explain! atmospheric!motions!mathematically.!Although!Halley’s!explanation!was!still!the!most!widely!accepted,!the! cause!for!motion!of!the!trade!wind’s!continued!to!inspire!debate.!Natural!philosopher!Immanuel!Kant!even! wrote!on!the!subject,!first!in!a!short!pamphlet!published!in!1756!entitled,!“”Neue!Anmerkungen!zur! Erläterung!der!Theorie!der!Winde”!(new!Comments!to!clarify!the!Theory!of!Winds),!second,!in!his!lecture! notes!on!meteorology!entitled:!“On!the!winds;!Law!of!the!trade!winds!from!the!rotation!of!the!earth,”!and! “A!law!on!the!monssoons!due!to!the!same!reason;”!and!again,!much!later!in!a!textbook!Physikalische* 107! !

In!the!meantime,!buccaneer!William!Dampier!was!on!his!own!mission!to!make!a! name!for!himself!in!the!scientific!community.!However,!he!endeavored!to!fill!a!different! lacuna!based!on!a!different!set!of!questions.!Whereas!Halley!and!Hadley!asked:!what! accounts!for!the!motion!of!the!trade!winds?!Dampier!asked:!what!are!the!trade!winds!and! what!do!we!know!about!them?!Halley!and!Hadley’s!approach!was!mechanical!and! analytic.!Dampier’s!was!largely!descriptive,!and!as!such,!it!ostensibly!fulfilled!a!different! set!of!goals.!Dampier!sought!to!define!and!classify!the!winds.!He!created!a!wind! taxonomy!that!referred!to!all!manifestations!of!the!wind!that!had!any!bearing!on!English! maritime!endeavors!in!the!tropics,!with!several!audiences!in!mind:!on!the!one!hand!his! specialized!and!technical!language!suggests!his!writing!was!aimed!at!ship!captains,! navigators,!and!merchants!who!might!benefit!from!his!descriptions;!while!on!the!other! hand!he!sought!the!recognition!and!approval!of!leaders!in!government!and!members!of! the!Royal!Society!as!evidenced!by!his!dinner!with!Evelyn!and!Pepys.33!Lastly,!his!wind! treatise!was!included!as!part!of!a!larger!set!of!travel!narratives!with!broad!appeal!geared! toward!literate!layman.!So!in!this!sense!he!sought!approval!from!multiple!tiers!of!society!

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Geographie!(Physical!Geography)!published!in!1802,!near!the!end!of!Kant’s!life.!Persson,!“Hadley’s! Principle,”!9`20! 33!His!close!descriptions!of!wind!currents!enabled!natural!philosophers!to!test!and!validate!their! causal!theories!of!the!wind’s!motion.! 108! ! and!straddled!the!gulfs!that!separated!them.34!His!approach!was!most!deeply!aligned! with!the!inductive!method!advocated!by!his!predecessor!Francis!Bacon.!In!his!History*of*

Winds,!Bacon!not!only!outlined!an!exhaustive!list!of!queries!and!descriptive!facts!he! considered!necessary!for!a!comprehensive!understanding!of!the!wind,!his!wind!treatise! exemplified!what!he!heralded!as!a!novel!approach!toward!natural!philosophy!in! general,!an!approach!in!which!the!accumulation!of!descriptive!facts!on!a!subject!would,! over!time,!yield!progressively!more!complex!and!elevated!levels!of!inquiry!and! understanding!on!a!given!subject.35!Description!was!a!central!element!of!Bacon’s! inductive!method!and!Dampier!readily!followed!Bacon’s!prescription!for!a!history!of! winds,!intentionally!or!not.!!

Dampier!entered!the!sailing!world!at!a!moment!when!the!English!were!engaged! in!a!war!for!naval!supremacy!with!the!Dutch—the!most!economically!powerful!nation! in!Europe.36!At!the!age!of!seventeen,!having!requested!apprenticeship!to!a!Weymouth!

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34!Dampier!aimed!to!gain!public!approval!by!appealing!not!only!to!people’s!imaginations,!but!more! importantly,!to!their!pragmatism.!Dampier!took!to!heart!the!attitude!of!Francis!Bacon,!who!in!the!words!of! scholar!Dominic!Balestra,!believed!“knowledge!is!power!to!control!the!kingdom!of!nature!in!service!to!the! kingdom!of!man.”!Balestra!as!quoted!in!Catherine!Drinker!Bowen,!Francis*Bacon:*The*Temper*of*a*Man,!New! York:!Fordham!University!Press,!1993),!xiii.! 35!Francis!Bacon,!The*Works*of*Francis*Bacon,!Containing*The*History*of*the*Winds,*The*History*of* Condensations*and*Rarefactions,*and*Physical*Essays,!vol.!12!(London,!1815).! 36!William!Dampier!was!born!in!1651!to!a!family!of!tenant!farmers!in!East!Coker,!Somertsetshire.! He!lost!his!parents!at!a!young!age.!His!father!passed!away!when!Dampier!was!merely!ten!years!old!and!he! lost!his!mother!six!years!later.!His!parents!had!placed!him!in!a!Latin!School!(grammar!school),!presumably! in!Yeovil.!After!his!mother’s!death,!however,!his!guardians!saw!to!it!that!he!received!a!pragmatic!education! that!emphasized!the!writing!and!arithmetic!skills!necessary!for!a!successful!naval!career.!William!Dampier,! Dampier’s*Voyages:*Consisting*of*a*New*Voyage*Round*the*World,*A*Supplement*to*the*Voyage*Round*the*World,* Two*Voyages*to*Campeachy,*A*Discourse*of*Winds,*A*Voyage*to*New*Holland,*and*a*Vindication*in*Answer*to*the* Chimerical*Relation*of*William,!ed.*Funnel,!John!Masefield,!vol.!1!(London:!E.!Grant!Richards,!1906),!1.!! 109! ! master`mariner,!Dampier!participated!in!voyages!to!France!and!Newfoundland!where! he!presumably!cut!his!teeth!in!the!salt!cod!trade.!37!The!cold!did!not!suit!him,!however,! and!seeking!warmer!climates,!he!left!his!apprenticeship!after!two!years!and!took!a! position!as!a!foremast!hand!on!board!an!East!Indiaman!bound!for!Bantam.38!When!the! second!Anglo`Dutch!war!broke!out!in!1672!Dampier!returned!to!his!brother’s!house!in!

Somersetshire!and!enlisted!in!the!navy!the!following!year.!He!served!on!board!the!Royal*

Prince!under!Sir!Edward!Spragge,!but!as!fate!would!have!it,!sickness!took!him!out!of!the! war!early.39!Nevertheless,!as!a!sailor!coming!of!age!during!a!time!of!naval!war!and! conflict,!the!contemporaneous!political!circumstances!impressed!upon!him!the!political! and!economic!gravity!of!maritime!strength!and!superiority,!the!enormous!opportunities! it!afforded!in!terms!of!trade!and!imperial!expansion,!and!the!hope!of!national!security!it! promised.!It!is!fair!to!presume!that!the!conversation!that!took!place!during!Dampier’s! dinner!with!Evelyn!and!Pepys—secretary!of!the!Royal!Navy!and!past!president!of!the!

Royal!Society—focused!on!precisely!such!topics.!!

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37!Trade!in!salt!cod!from!Newfoundland!was!an!important!market!and!it!is!likely!that!this!was!the! trade!Dampier’s!master!engaged!with!on!these!voyages.!While!some!ships!picked!up!cargos!of!cod!caught! by!settlers!in!Newfoundland!and!merely!transported!them!to!other!parts!of!Europe,!the!crews!of!some!ships! were!charged!with!the!tasks!of!catching!and!preserving!the!fish!themselves;!labor!intensive!work!that! involved!“catching,!splitting,!drying!and!salting!the![fish].”!These!ships!stayed!at!sea!for!months!catching! fish!off!the!Newfoundland!coast!and!sailing!for!port!only!after!the!ship’s!holds!were!full!to!the!brim!with! cod.!Peter!Earle,!Sailors:*English*Merchant*Seamen*1650@1775!(London:!Methuen,!1998),!10.! 38!His!work!in!Newfoundland!and!northern!Europe!made!Dampier!realize!how!much!he!disliked! cold!weather—a!predilection!that!remained!with!him,!as!evidenced!by!his!work!in!almost!exclusively! tropical!climates!for!the!remainder!of!his!maritime!career.! 39!Though!the!war!itself!ended!that!same!year.! 110! !

Pepys!was!instrumental!in!legally!establishing!the!Royal!Navy!through!statute.!

He!was!also!responsible!for!implementing!massive!reforms!that!transformed!the!Navy! from!a!deeply!corrupted!and!disorganized!institution!into!a!comparatively!professional! and!disciplined!fighting!force.!His!reforms,!for!example,!attempted!to!stem!the!tide!of! corruption!among!naval!contractors,!and!to!establish!protocols!for!sailors’!pay!and!for! the!distribution!of!their!rations.!Pepys!also!eliminated!the!long`time!practice!of!buying! rank!in!the!navy.!Instead,!he!required!officers!to!earn!their!rank!and!subjected!would`be! lieutenants!to!exams!in!mathematics!and!navigation,!establishing!uniform!standards!of! competence,!applicable!to!all!officers!regardless!of!their!class!origin.40!He!even!briefly! eliminated!impressment,!until!labor!shortages!compelled!him!to!revisit!that!position.41!

!As!past!president!of!the!Royal!Society,!Pepys!also!exhibited!a!keen!awareness!of!the! ways!in!which!science!might!contribute!to!the!nation’s!naval!superiority!and!might.!In! light!of!the!continued!threat!of!rival!Spanish,!Dutch,!and!French!fleets,!Pepys!and!his! administration!were!eager!to!find!and!exploit!any!advantage!the!Royal!Navy!might!

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40!“In!1662!Pepys,!who!initially!knew!nothing!of!the!navy,!resolved!to!pursue!his!new!duty!as!best! he!could.!There!followed!a!period!of!intense!learning!on!all!aspects!of!the!lsenior!servicel!(shipbuilding,! stores,!organization)!followed!by!years!of!dedicated!work.!His!ability!was!proved!during!the!Second!Dutch! War!and!in!1673!he!was!appointed!Secretary!for!the!Admiralty,!the!administrative!head!of!the!British!Navy.! He!held!this!post!for!much!of!the!next!fifteen!years.!Pepys!fought!Parliament!for!money,!obtained!a! commission!lfor!the!Recovery!of!the!Navyl!and!became!First!Sea!Lord!when!the!Duke!of!York!was!barred!by! Parliament.!He!doubled!the!number!and!strength!of!Englandls!ships,!cut!corruption,!reformed!the!structure! and!discipline!of!the!ranks!and!established!the!Royal!Navy!as!the!worldls!greatest!armada.!Britain!had! claimed!to!rule!the!waves!for!decades,!but!Samuel!Pepys!made!the!legend!real.!His!legacy!would!affect! Nelson!and!live!on!until!World!War!One.”!Robert!Wilde,!“Samuel!Pepys,”!About!Education,!2015! http://europeanhistory.about.com/od/famouspeople/p/prsampepys.htm!! 41!See!Denver!Brunsman’s,!The*Evil*Necessity:*British*Naval*Impressment*in*the*Eighteenth@Century* Atlantic*World*(Charlottesville:!University!of!Virginia!Press,!2013).! 111! ! exercise!over!their!European!competitors.42!A!clear!understanding!of!the!oceanic!wind! and!water!currents—topics!currently!under!examination!by!members!of!the!Royal!

Society—offered!the!promise!of!such!competitive!edge.!Safe!and!efficient!oceanic! navigation!was!essential!in!order!to!avoid!the!hazards!engendered!by!the!sea,!and! necessary!in!order!to!exploit!the!political!and!economic!opportunities!created!by! seafaring.!Dampier!possessed!the!kind!of!knowledge!and!familiarity!with!oceanic!winds! and!waters!that!the!Royal!Navy!and!the!Royal!Society!valued!under!these! circumstances.!Both!organizations!shared!a!vested!interest!in!learning!the!winds;!and! both!were!eager!to!put!wind`knowledge!to!work,!a!fact!not!lost!on!Dampier.!

In!making!such!careful!observations!about!the!wind!and!in!formulating!his!map,!

Dampier!responded!most!directly!to!the!request!printed!by!the!Royal!Society!in!Volume!

8!of!the!Philosophical*Transactions!(1666)!entitled:!Directions*to*Seamen*bound*for*far*

Voyages,!authored!by!Society!Fellow!and!Philosopher!Master!Rooke,!“Geometry!Professor! of!Gresham*Colledge.”43!Rooke’s!colleagues!asked!him!to!develop!a!list!of!instructions!for!

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42!Pepys!and!Sir!William!Penn!authored!the!Naval!Discipline!Act,!which!contained!the!Articles!of! War!and!delineated!causes!for!and!rules!of!engagement.!Henry!VIII!(1491`1547),!known!as!“Father!of!the! Royal!Navy,”!greatly!expanded!the!British!Navy!and!further!contributed!to!the!growth!and!the!evolution!of! the!English!maritime!industry!by!granting!the!Trinity!House!of!London!a!royal!charter!and!establishing!the! Navy!Board!six!years!later.!Charles!II!built!upon!Henry’s!legacy!by!inaugurating!the!Royal!Marines!and!the! Royal!Society!of!London!to!encourage!the!relationship!between!science!and!state!naval!power.!“A!Brief! History!of!the!Royal!Navy:!Eleven!Years!of!Naval!Development,”!The!Royal!Navy!National!Museum,! Research!Library!Information!Sheet!#60,!accessed!March!2,!2015,! http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/info_sheets_naval_history.htm! 43!“Directions!for!Sea`Men,!Bound!for!far!Voyages,!drawn!up!by!Master!Rook,!late!Geometry! Professour!of!Gresham!Colledge,”!Philosophical*Transactions!1,!no.!8!(Oxford:!A:!&!L.!Lichfield,!1666),!140` 143.*“It!being!the!Design!of!the!R.*Society,!for!the!better!attaining!the!End!of!their!Institution,!to!study!Nature! 112! ! seamen!bound!for!the!East!and!West`Indies!“the!better!to!capacitate!them!for!making! such!observations!abroad.”44!Among!other!things,!sailors!were!encouraged!to!“keep!an! exact!Diary,!delivering!at!their!return!a!fair!Copy!thereof!to!the!Lord*High*Admiral!of!

England,!his!Royal!Highness!the!Duke!of!York,!and!another!to!Trinity@house!to!be!perused!

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! rather!than!Books,!and!from!the!Observations,!made!of!the!Phænomena!and!Effects!the!presents,!to!compose! such!a!History!of!Her,!as!may!hereafter!serve!to!build!a!Solid!and!Useful!Philosophy!upon;!They!have!from! time!to!time!given!order!to!several!of!their!Members!to!draw!up!both!Inquiries!of!things!Observable!in! forrain!Countries,!and!Directions!for!the!Particulars,!they!desire!chiefly!to!be!informed!about…!it!was! thought!not!to!be!unseasonable!as!this!time!to!make!it!publique,!the!more!conveniently!to!furnish! Navigators!with!Copies!thereof.!They!are!such,!as!follow;!1.!To!observe!the!Declination!of!the!Compass,!or!its! Variation!from!the!Meridian!of!the!place,!frequently;!marking!withal,!the!Latitude!and!Longitude!of!the!place,! wherever!such!Observation!is!made,!as!exactly!as!may!be,!and!setting!down!the!Method,!by!which!they! made!them.!2.!To!carry!Dipping*Needles!with!them,!and!observe!the!Inclination!of!the!Needle!in!like!manner.! 3.!To!remark!carefully!the!Ebbings!and!Flowings!of!the!Sea,!in!as!many!places!as!they!can,!together!with!all! the!Accidents,!Ordinary!and!Extraordinary,!of!the!Tides;!as,!their!precise!time!of!Ebbing!and!Flowing!in! Rivers,!at!Promontories!or!Capes;!which!way!their!Current!runs,!what!Perpendicular!distance!there!is!between! the!highest!Tide!and!lowest!Ebb,!during!the!Spring`Tides!and!Neap`Tides;!what!day!of!the!Moons!age,!and! what!times!of!the!year,!the!highest!and!lowest!Tides!fall!out:!And!all!other!considerable!Accidents,!they!can! observe!in!the!Tides,!chiefly!neer!Ports,!and!about!Ilands,!as!in!St.!Helenahs!Iland,!and!the!three!Rivers!there,! at!the!Bermodas!&c.!4.!To!make!Plotts!and!Draughts!of!prospect!of!Coasts,!Promontories,!Islands!and!Ports,! marking!the!Bearings!and!Distances,!as!neer!as!they!can.!5.!To!found!and!marke!the!Depths!of!Coasts!and! Ports,!and!such!other!places!nere!the!shoar,!as!they!shall!think!fit.!6.!To!take!notice!of!the!Nature!of!the! Ground!at!the!bottom!of!the!Sea,!in!all!Soundings,!whether!it!be!Clay,!Sand,!Rock,!&c.!7.!To!keep!a!Register! of!all!changes!of!Wind!and!Weather!at!all!houres,!by!night!and!by!day,!shewing!the!point!the!Wind!blows! from,!whether!strong!or!weak:!The!Rains,!Hail,!Snow!and!the!like,!the!precise!times!of!their!beginnings!and! continuance!especially!Hurricans!and!Spouts;!but!above!all!to!take!exact!care!to!observe!the!Trade@Wines,! about!what!degrees!of!Latitude!and!Longitude!they!first!begin,!where!and!when!they!cease,!or!change,!or!grow! stronger!or!weaker,!and!how!much;!as!near!and!exact!as!may!be.!8.!To!observe!and!record!all!Extraordinary! Meteors,!Lightnings,!Thunders,!Ignes*fatui,!Comets,!&c.!marking!still!the!places!and!times!of!their!appearing,! continuance,!&c.!9.!To!carry!with!them!good!Scales,!and!Glasse`Violls!of!a!Pint!or!so,!with!very!narrow! mouths,!which!are!to!be!fillld!with!Sea`water!in!different!degrees!of!Latitude,!as!often!as!they!please,!and!the! weight!of!the!Vial!full!of!water!taken!exactly!at!every!time,!and!recorded,!marking!withall!the!degree!of! Latitude,!and!the!day!of!the!Month:!And!that!as!well!of!water!near!the!Top;!as!at!a!greater!Depth.”! “Directions!for!Sea`Men,!Bound!for!far!Voyages,!drawn!up!by!Master!Rook,!late!Geometry!Professour!of! Gresham!Colledge,”!Philosophical*Transactions!1,!no.!8!(Oxford:!A:!&!L.!Lichfield,!1666),!140`143.! 44!Mitchell,!Dampier’s*Monkey,!8.! 113! ! by!the!R.*Society.”45!Although!Rooke’s!instructions!were!published!three!years!before!

Dampier!first!apprenticed!at!sea,!the!request!was!still!pertinent!in!1672!when!Dampier! joined!the!British!Navy,!and!later!when!he!took!up!with!the!buccaneers!on!board!

Captain!John!Cook’s!Revenge!(1683).!Officers!of!the!Royal!Navy,!British!politicians,!

Trinity!House,!and!the!philosophers!of!the!Royal!Society!hoped!that!the!information! gleaned!from!sailor!diaries!would!help!give!England!the!competitive!edge!it!so!badly! needed!against!its!political!rivals.!From!the!mid`17th!century!onward,!the!Royal!Society! encouraged!sailors!and!explorers!to!provide!them!with!knowledge!and!information! about!the!world!abroad,!and!they!willingly!appropriated!such!knowledge!to!imperial! and!scientific!ends.!!

Dampier!followed!Rooke’s!directions!to!the!letter,!keeping!a!detailed!diary!that! he!filled!with!all!manner!of!observations!about!the!people!and!places!he!encountered!on! his!journey’s.!He!noted!the!“slender,!straight,!active!and!industrious”!nature!of!the! native!inhabitants!of!Bencouli,!for!example,!an!Indian!village!on!the!West!Coast!of!

Sumatra!that!replaced!Bantam!as!a!British!source!for!spices,!particularly!pepper.!He! described!fruits!of!the!country,!which!included!“Bonanoes,!Coco`Nuts,!Jack,!Durians,!

Mangoes,!Mangastans;!Pomkins,!Pine`apples,!and!Pepper.”!He!wrote!of!the!island’s! land!animals!and!foul,!which!included!“Buffaloes,!Bullocks,!Deer,!Wild!Hogs,!Guanoes,!

Lizards,!Porcupines,!Ducks,!Parrots,!Dunghil!Fowls,!and!Turtle!Doves;”!and!observed!

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45!Philosophical*Transactions,!“Directions!for!Sea`Men,”!140! 114! ! the!wide!varieties!of!timber!and!soil!on!the!island!which!ranged!from!“swampy”!and!

“producing!nothing!but!Reeds,!or!Bamboes”!to!“fruitful”!depending!upon!the!elevation.!

He!also!recorded!the!weather,!which!in!this!case!was!“none!of!the!pleasantest”!based!on! the!frequency!of!“great!Rains,”!hard!winds,!and!“pretty!great!Heats.”!And!he!made! detailed!observations!such!as!these!everywhere!he!went.46!!

As!a!skilled!navigator,!however,!Dampier!paid!particular!attention!to!item! number!seven!of!Rooke’s!instructions,!which!instructed!sailors,!!

to!keep!a!Register!of!all!changes!of!Wind!and!Weather!at!all!houres,!by!night!and! by!day,!shewing!the!point!the!Wind!blows!from,!whether!strong!or!weak…!but! above!all!to!take!exact!care!to!observe!the!Trade@Windes,!about!what!degrees!of! Latitude!and!Longitude!they!first!begin,!where!and!when!they!cease,!or!change,!or! grow!stronger!or!weaker,!and!how!much;!as!near!and!exact!as!may!be.47! ! Dampier’s!notes!were!detailed!enough!that!he!was!able!to!publish!an!entire!treatise!on! the!wind!in!the!tropics,!and!his!observations!of!the!wind!became!an!intrinsic!part!of!his! travel!narratives.!Moreover,!the!map!of!oceanic!wind!currents!he!presented!at!Pepys’! dinner!party!would!become!the!prototype!for!the!wind`maps!that!later!followed,!owing! to!its!accuracy!on!a!number!of!counts:!most!significantly,!its!illustration!of!the!boundary! between!the!southeast!and!the!northeast!trade!winds!at!approximately!five!degrees! north!of!the!equator!(in!the!northern!hemisphere!rather!than!precisely!on!the!equator).48!!

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46!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!101`103! 47!Philosophical*Transactions,!“Directions!for!Sea`Men,”!143! 48!Eric,!Brenstrum,“Pirate!Weather:!Sir!William!Dampier,!Pioneer!Meteorologist,”!MetService!Blog.! Accessed!February!22,!2011,!http://blog.metservice.com/2011/02/pirate`weather/! 115! !

Figure!2:!“A!View!of!the!General!and!Coasting!TradeHWinds!in!the!Great! South!Ocean.”!

As!a!map!intended!to!illustrate!and!highlight!the!wind!currents!in!the!South!Sea,! the!land!masses!included!in!Dampier’s!map!were!almost!incidental:!the!continent!of!

Asia,!the!Philippine!Islands,!New!Guinea,!and!New!Holland!flanked!the!left!side!of!the! map,!while!the!North!and!South!American!continents!flanked!the!right.49!It!is!a! testament!to!the!precise!moment!at!which!this!map!was!developed!that!the!eastern! coasts!of!New!Holland!and!New!Guinea!remained!unfinished,!for!these!continents!were! still!largely!unexplored!by!the!western!world!at!that!time.50!The!Hawaiian!Islands!were!

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49!The!map!pictured!above,!entitled,!“A!View!of!the!General!and!Coasting!Trade`Winds!in!the! Great!South!Ocean,”!appeared!in!Dampier,!Dampier’s*Voyages,!243.! 50!While!serving!on!board!the!Cygnet,!under!Captain!Swan,!Dampier!became!among!the!first! westerners!to!set!foot!upon!the!island!of!Australia!(New!Holland).!! 116! ! also!noticeably!absent!from!this!map,!as!it!would!be!almost!another!hundred!years! before!another!famed!explorer,!James!Cook,!would!set!foot!on!this!tropical!archipelago.51!!

The!bulk!of!Dampier’s!map!focused!rather!on!the!sea!itself,!specifically!the! region!between!the!Tropic!of!Cancer!and!the!Tropic!of!Capricorn!(approximately!30! degrees!north!and!30!degrees!south!of!the!equator),!or!what!was!more!commonly! referred!to!as!the!Tropics,!and!which!delineated!the!boundaries!of!the!Northeast!and!

Southeast!Trade!Winds!at!approximately!five!degrees!north!of!the!equator.!Dampier! shaded!these!areas!grey!with!small!lines!and!slightly!larger!arrows!indicating!the! direction!of!the!wind`flow.!He!also!clearly!distinguished!the!wind!patterns!unique!to!the! coastline!of!the!North!and!South!American!continents,!valuable!information!in!light!of!

England’s!interest!in!thwarting!Spanish!possession!of!these!coasts.!Less!significant,!by! comparison!was!the!presence!of!variable!winds!beyond!the!boundaries!of!the!Trades!(at! latitudes!higher!and!lower!than!30!degrees!north!and!south!of!the!equator),!which!

Dampier!chose!not!to!draw!in!or!to!further!elaborate!upon!in!this!image.!This!distinction! alone!highlights!the!comparative!importance!of!the!trade!winds!at!the!turn!of!the!17th! century!and!likewise,!those!latitudes!where!the!majority!of!European!political!conflict!

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51!Captain!James!Cook’s!visit!to!the!Hawaiian!islands!in!1778!is!the!first!documented!contact! between!the!native!islanders!and!the!western!world,!(which!Cook!originally!named!Hawaii,!the!Sandwich! Islands!in!honor!of!his!sponsor!the!John!Montagu,!4th!Earl!of!Sandwich)!although!there!is!still!some!debate! as!to!whether!the!Spanish!explorer!Ruy!Lopez!de!Villalobos!in!fact!landed!on!the!archipelago!as!early!as! 1555.! 117! ! took!place!in!both!the!Mid/South!Atlantic!and!the!South!Pacific—regions!where!the! effective!application!of!wind!knowledge!was!at!a!premium.!

Apart!from!conveying!areas!of!political!and!economic!interest!and!a!clear!sense! of!the!winds!and!tropical!waters!Dampier!encountered!most!frequently,!Dampier’s!map! also!illustrated!the!regions!he!spent!the!majority!of!his!sailing!career!exploring.!We!see! for!example,!the!island!of!Jamaica!where!Dampier!first!served!as!a!manager!of!sorts!on! the!sugar!plantation!of!Sir!William!Heyler,!before!leaving!to!join!the!logwood!trade!in! the!Bay!of!Campeachy!and!Terminos!Lagoon,!in!the!Yucatan!Peninsula.!Here!then!is!the! first!moment!when!Dampier’s!ties!to!the!slave!trade!become!clearly!visible.!Visible!too!is! the!South!and!Central!American!Coast!where!he!traveled!under!the!leadership!of!

Captain!John!Cook!in!1684,!before!journeying!across!the!Pacific!to!the!Philippine!Islands! and!the!coasts!of!New!Holland!and!New!Guinea!on!board!the!Cygnet,!commanded!by!

Captain!Bartholomew!Swan.!These!locations!gesture!toward!Dampier’s!time!as!a! buccaneer!who!participated!in!the!raiding!and!pillaging!of!Spanish!coastal!settlements! under!the!auspices!of!the!British!crown,!and!exploring!hitherto!unchartered!territories.!

We!can!see!the!Nicobar!Islands!from!which!Dampier!and!a!small!cadre!of!deserters!fled! to!Achin!in!a!hollowed!out!canoe,!as!well!as!the!islands!of!Tonquin,!Madras,!and!finally!

118! !

Sumatra,!where!he!landed!before!his!eventual!return!to!England!in!1691,!with!a!tattooed!

African!prince!in!tow.52!!

The!winds!carried!Dampier!from!each!of!these!experiences!to!the!next.!They!not! only!transported!him!bodily,!but!they!also!provided!ample!fodder!for!his!philosophic! investigations.!They!lay!at!the!heart!of!his!life’s!work!both!physically!and!intellectually,! functioning!as!a!guiding!force!and!as!a!consistent!theme!throughout.!The!map!thus! highlights!the!role!that!Dampier’s!experiential!knowledge!and!life!experiences!played!in! shaping!the!wind!knowledge!duly!represented!here,!and!in!legitimizing!his!claims!to! scientific!authority!on!this!very!basis.!It!served!as!a!visual!counterpart!to!his!wind! treatise,!which!was!itself!a!map!of!sorts,!linguistic!rather!than!visual!in!nature,!and!one! of!the!few!of!its!kind!since!Bacon’s!publication!in!1620.53!In!keeping!with!Bacon’s! prescription,!Dampier!created!a!taxonomy!of!the!wind!that!descriptively!mapped!all! types!of!oceanic!wind!currents:!pinpointing!their!location,!directionality,!force,!

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52!For!first!hand!descriptions!of!all!these!events!see!William!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage*Around*the* World,!(1697,!repr.!!Warwick,!NY:!1500!Books,!2007),!as!well!as!editor!John!Masefield’s!version!of!Dampier’s! publication:!Dampier’s*Voyages:*Consisting*of*a*New*Voyage*Around*the*World,*A*Supplement*to*the*Voyage*Round* the*World,*Two*Voyages*to*Campeachy,*A*Discourse*of*Winds,*A*Voyage*to*New*Holland,*and*a*Vindication,*in* Answer*to*the*Chimerical*Relation*of*William*Funnell.*Part!two!of!this!text,!“The!Campeachy!Voyages,”!(p.107` 228),!is!of!particular!relevance!here.!See!the!opening!chapters!in!Gill,!The*Devil’s*Mariner,!for!further! descriptions!of!Dampier’s!time!on!Heyler’s!plantation.!See!A*Pirate*of*Exquisite*Mind,!for!second`hand! descriptions!of!Dampier’s!time!in!the!logwood!trade,!discussions!of!Joely!and!descriptions!of!Dampier’s! time!upon!the!Cygnet.!Preston,!A*Pirate*of*Exquisite*Mind!32`51;!203`112;!120`133!! 53!Between!Bacon’s!publication!and!Dampier’s!publication,!the!natural!philosopher!Edmond!Bohun! published,!A*Discourse*Concerning*the*Origine*and*Properties*of*Wind!(1671),!and!René!Descartes!published!his! scientific!treatise,!Discourses*on*Method!(1637),!that!included!a!substantial!discussion!of!the!science!of! meteorology!including!the!properties!and!motions!of!wind.!Bohn.!R.!A*discourse*concerning*the*origine*and* properties*of*vvind*with*an*historicall*account*of*hurricanes*and*other*tempestuous*winds*(Oxford!:!Printed!by!W.! Hall!for!Tho.!Bowman,!1671);!René!Descartes,!Discourses*on*Method,*Optics,*Geometry,*and*Meteorology,!trans.! Paul!Olscamp!(Indianapolis:!Hackett!Publishing,!2001).! 119! ! seasonality,!and!other!distinguishing!characteristics!that!enabled!their!identification!and! enhanced!their!practical!utility.!!

Dampier and the Trade Winds

The!strong,!steady,!eastern!winds!of!the!tropics!known!as!the!trade!winds! originally!derived!their!name!from!the!“early!fourteenth!century!late!middle!English! word!‘trade’”!which!was!synonymous!for!‘path’!or!‘track’.54!Columbus’!travels!to!the! new!world!in!the!late!15th!century!had!revealed!that!below!(or!south)!30!degrees!north! latitude,!steady!easterly!and!northeasterly!winds!replaced!the!variable!winds!found!on! the!European!mainland!and!along!the!European!coast.55!This!discovery!was!incredibly! important!for!exploration!and!travel.!It!meant!that!captains!making!westbound!voyages! could!expect!not!only!steady!winds,!but!expedited!voyages!as!well.56!The!rub!was!that! these!same!wind!currents!made!eastbound!voyages!(return!trips)!that!much!longer.!!

Triangle!trade!among!three!ports!or!regions,!along!the!arc!of!the!Atlantic’s! circular!wind!currents,!emerged!as!a!solution!to!the!problem!created!by!these!strong! headwinds.!The!Portuguese,!for!example,!pioneered!a!triangle!trade!route!(the!Volta!do!

Mar)!connecting!Portugal,!the!Canary!Islands,!and!Azores!in!response!to!this!challenge.!

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54!Random*House*Websterhs*College*Dictionary,!2nd!ed.!(New!York:!Random!House,!2000),!s.v.!“Trade! Winds.”! 55!Emanuel,!Divine*Wind,!41! 56!In!1492!the!5,400`mile!journey!from!the!Canary!Islands!to!the!Bahamas,!across!the!widest!point!of! the!Atlantic,!took!Columbus!thirty`six!days!to!complete.!“Trade!Wind’s!and!the!Hadley!Cell,”!Earth’s! Climate!Change:!Climate!Systems!and!Wind!Systems,!University!of!California,!San!Diego,!accessed! February!21,!2015,!http://earthguide.ucsd.edu/virtualmuseum/climatechange1/08_1.shtml! 120! !

They!are!additionally!credited!as!the!first!European!nation!to!venture!out!into!the!open! sea!utilizing!the!trade!winds.!As!the!story!goes,!in!1312!Lanzarotto!Malocelo!first! encountered!the!Canary!Islands!and!found!them!abundant!in!goods!such!as!sugar!cane,! wine,!and!cochineal!(red!dye).!The!islands!were!not!only!relatively!close!to!Portugal!but! also!extremely!easy!to!get!to!by!virtue!of!the!northeast!wind!and!water!currents.!For!this! same!reason,!however,!they!were!extremely!difficult!to!return!from.!In!fact,!the! northeast!currents!of!the!Mediterranean!Atlantic!made!the!prospect!of!returning!home! along!the!same!route!virtually!impossible!at!that!time.!Sailing!into!such!a!strong! headwind!left!a!crew!with!two!options:!rowing!or!tacking.!Both!required!an!enormous! amount!of!energy!in!exchange!for!limited!progress,!and!under!these!circumstances! many!ships!and!sailors!found!themselves!stranded!at!sea,!lacking!water!and!food,! battling!a!headwind.!The!Portuguese!pioneered!a!solution!to!this!perpetual!dilemma:! foregoing!an!outright!battle!with!the!headwind!by!avoiding!it!altogether;!i.e.!sailing! around!the!North`Eastern!Trade,!keeping!as!close!on!course!as!possible!until!the!they! encountered!the!Westerlies,!which!would!take!them!back!to!Portugal,!or!more!profitably! to!Azores!where!they!traded!and!refreshed!their!supplies!before!sailing!back!to!Portugal.!

However,!this!triangular!route!around!the!headwind!meant!foregoing!the!security!of!the! coast!for!the!risks!and!opportunities!of!the!wide`open!sea.!In!the!words!of!Alfred!

Crosby,!“these!sailors!had!to!become!true!marihenarios.”57!Other!European!nations!

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57!The!route!was!“the!trade!winds!on!the!outward!leg,!then!the!Volta!(the!crosswise!slide!off!to!the! 121! ! followed!suit.!Thus,!by!steady!degrees,!through!the!trial!and!error!of!Portuguese!sailors! and!others!who!utilized!both!the!wind!and!the!knowledge!commons!it!facilitated,! western!sailors!gained!confidence!in!their!ability!to!navigate!across!open!waters.!By!the!

17th!century!the!experiences!of!famed!European!explorers!such!as!Vasco!De!Gama,!

Bartholemeu!Dias,!and!John!Cabot!had!firmly!established!that!the!Tropics!were! characterized!by!strong!easterly!winds,!which!came!to!be!known!as!the!Trades.58!!

Dampier,!keenly!aware!of!the!profits!to!be!made—both!legal!and!illicit—utilizing! the!trade!winds!to!facilitate!international!commerce!and!imperial!colonization,!opened! his!wind!treatise!with!a!discussion!of!what!he!characterized!as!the!General!Trade`Winds! at!Sea.59!He!distinguished!the!General!Trade!Winds!from!all!other!Trade!Winds!(which! he!described!as!either!constant!or!shifting),!on!the!basis!of!four!criteria:!consistency,! location,!force,!and!direction.!The!unequivocal!steadiness!of!these!winds,!he!argued,!set! them!apart!from!all!other!winds:!“All!other!Trade`Winds,!whether!constant!or!shifting,! seem!to!have!their!Dependence!on!some!accidental!Cause’!whereas!the!Cause!of!these,!

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! northwest)!to!the!zone!of!the!westerlies,!and!then!swoop!home!with!the!westerlies!as!following!winds…and! this!pattern!of!voyaging!and!this!pattern!of!prevailing!winds,”!writes!environmental!historian!Alfred! Crosby*in!his!epic!monograph*Ecological*Imperialism:*The*Biological*Expansion*of*Europe*900@1900!(Cambridge;! New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2004),!111`113.! 58!For!a!broad!overview!of!the!way!in!which!the!trade!winds!facilitated!European!oversees! expansion!see!“Winds,”!Chapter!5,!in!Crosby,!Ecological*Imperialism,!104.! 59!Dampier’s!study!is!specific!to!the!winds!in!the!Torrid!Zone.!Geographically!the!Torrid!Zone! refers!to!the!equatorial!region!of!the!earth!commonly!known!as!the!Tropics.!It!lies!between!the!Tropic!of! Cancer!(north),!and!the!Tropic!of!Capricorn!(south),!or!23!degrees,!26’16’’N!and!23!degrees,!26’16’’S.!The! Torrid!Zone!thus!includes!all!regions!of!the!globe!where!the!sun!reaches!a!point!directly!overhead!at!least! once!during!the!solar!year.! 122! ! be!it!what!it!will,!seems!uniform!and!constant,”!he!writes.60!Public!consensus!supported! this!assertion,!and!Dampier!was!thus!not!the!only!one!to!focus!on!this!defining!quality.!

The!cultural!meanings!of!the!trade!winds,!as!metaphor,!took!on!a!life!of!their!own!by! virtue!of!the!epistemological!commons!that!characterized!the!field!of!wind!knowledge! more!generally,!and!which!allowed!people!to!create!and!deploy!wind!knowledge!for!a! variety!of!social!and!cultural!purposes!that!extended!well!beyond!the!pragmatic!day!to! day!applications!such!knowledge!served!at!sea.!Exploring!various!literary!applications! of!the!term,!as!indices!of!cultural!values!implicitly!articulated!at!this!time,!additionally! sheds!light!on!the!extent!to!which!Dampier’s!publications!can!be!conceptualized!as!a! bridge!connecting!the!pragmatic!scientific!and!maritime!applications!of!wind! knowledge!with!a!set!of!broader,!cultural!utilities!illustrated!within!the!realm!of!literary! technology.!!

The!term!“trade!winds”!carried!the!most!currency!among!members!of!the!sailing! community!whose!knowledge!and!relationship!with!these!winds!informed!their! experience!of!daily!life!on!board!a!ship.!However,!by!the!time!Dampier!published!his! travel!narratives!and!wind!treatise,!the!term!had!found!its!way!into!popular!expression! owing!largely!to!the!genre!he!helped!further!popularize.!Indeed,!the!overwhelming! majority!of!written!references!to!‘trade!winds’!at!the!turn!of!the!17th!century!appear!in! published!travel!narratives—as!opposed!to!other!types!of!written!documents!such!as!

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60!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!230! 123! ! scientific!discourses,!religious!treatises,!and!colonial!correspondence.61!In!this!literature,! references!to!the!trade!winds!overwhelmingly!refers!to!the!steady,!eastern!winds!found! in!the!tropics!known!for!their!unfailingly!presence!at!all!times!of!the!year.!The!term!was! bandied!about!with!the!presumption!that!the!reader!would!understand!the!location! conferred!by!such!a!reference,!and!the!fortuitous!quality!of!meeting!these!winds.!The! trades!were!something!a!sailor!could!count!on!when!compared!with!the!endless! unknown!variables!of!a!life!at!sea.!They!were!mankind’s!friend!and!partner!in!his! worldly!endeavors,!unlike!the!smaller!and!more!particular!winds,!known!for!their! otherwise!mysterious,!fickle,!and!uncontrollable!qualities.!Understandably!then,!the! trade!winds!came!to!function!more!generally!as!a!literary!metaphor!for!consistency!and! steadiness!as!evidenced!in!other!genres!of!writing.!!

Metaphoric!references!to!the!steadiness!of!the!trades,!and!to!the!changeable! quality!of!lesser!winds!made!their!ways!into!popular!publications!focused!on!love!and! intimacy,!for!example,!a!cultural!arena!in!which!comparisons!were!drawn!between!the! qualities!that!defined!nature!and!those!that!defined!the!character!of!women.!Over!the!

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61!Most!of!the!references!to!the!tem!that!appear!in!the!travel!narratives!refer!to!the!notion!of! catching!a!trade!wind,!and!thereby!confer!a!location!at!sea,!for!the!trades!were!more!or!less!conceptually! mapped!by!the!mid!17th!century.!For!example,!“…we!made!for!the!Coasts!of!Brasil,!and!got!there!another! Trade!Wind,!which!carried!us!towards!the!Cape!of!Good!Hope!with!indifferent!good!success…”!writes! Denis!Vairasse!dl!Allais,!in!his!History*of*the*Sevarites*or*Sevarambi!(London,!1675).!In!searches!in!Early! English!Books!Online,!and!the!Colonial!Correspondence!Papers!from!1669!to!1716,!which!is!the!time!period! corresponding!to!when!Dampier!first!apprenticed!on!a!ship!and!the!year!he!died)!the!term!“trade!wind”! and!“trade!winds”!appear!in!sixteen!different!travel!narratives—sixteen!out!of!the!forty`one!results!for!the! terms!that!appear!overall.!Two,!out!of!these!forty`one!search!results!dealt!with!trade!and!commerce,!five! related!to!issues!of!science,!and!eight!were!religiously!oriented!references,!the!remaining!eleven!results!fell! within!a!broad!spectrum!of!literature.!! 124! ! course!of!the!seventeenth!century,!mechanized!views!of!nature!gained!traction!and! began!to!displace!those!views!of!nature!in!which!the!feminine!element,!if!not!wholly! respected,!was!comparatively!revered!rather!than!dominated,!subjugated,!excavated,! and!anatomized.62!In!such!mechanized!models!of!the!cosmos!the!mysteries!of!nature! would!be!unveiled.!Nature’s!subtle!and!hidden!workings!would!be!revealed,!and!the! uncontrollable!qualities!of!nature!that!had!formerly!made!man!her!subject!would!be! brought!under!reign!through!the!methods!of!science.!Mastery!over!nature!was!mirrored! in!mastery!over!women.!Thus!while!references!to!the!fickle!quality!of!the!wind!in!prose! has!a!long!history,!instances!linking!this!quality!to!the!female!countenance!takes!on! added!significance!in!the!broader!context!of!changing!attitudes!toward!nature!and! women!taking!place!at!this!time.!In!Several*Discourses*and*Characters*addressed*to*Women*of* the*Age,!for!example,!Francis!Boyle!Shannon!offers!cautionary!advice!against!pursuing! the!love!of!vain!and!beautiful!women.!“Airy!ladies”!he!describes!as!“volatile,!and!fickle! in!their!Amours…so!addicted!to!change!and!variety…being!more!fickle!and!changeable! than!the!very!Wind!it!self.”63!And!these!qualities!are!accordingly!juxtaposed!with!the!

“Trade!Winds,!that!blow!still!certainly!one!way!all!the!Year,!without!ever!altering!from!

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62!For!a!detailed!discussion!on!the!changing!status!of!women,!nature,!and!science!please!see! Carolyn!Merchant,!The*Death*of*Nature!(New!York:!Harper!and!Row,!1989).! 63!Francis!Boyle!Shannon,!Several*Discourses*and*Characters*Addresshd*to*the*Ladies*of*the*Age*Wherein* the*Vanities*of*the*Modish*Women*are*Discovered!(London:!Printed!for!Christopher!Wilkinson,!and!are!to!be! sold!by!Thomas!Salusbury!...,!1689,!1696),!49.!! 125! ! the!same!Point!and!Place.”64!Men!dictated!what!qualities!they!valued!both!in!nature!and! in!women,!in!the!wind!and!in!a!mate.!In!doing!so,!however,!they!also!called!attention!to! the!fragility!of!men’s!assumptions!of!dominance!and!to!the!tenuous!quality!of!the! assumed!passivity!and!subjugation!of!feminine!subjects.!Consistency!and!steadiness! were!features!humans!valued!in!nature!because!they!rendered!nature!more!legible,!and! arguably!more!easily!manipulated,!controlled,!and!turned!to!human!purposes.!

However,!even!in!steadfastness,!control!over!women!and!control!over!the!wind!was!far! from!absolute.!!

Metaphoric!references!to!the!steadiness!of!the!trades!made!an!appearance!in! political!writings!as!well,!where!their!consistency!served!as!a!reminder!of!political! virtues.!In*The*Glories*and*Magnificent*Triumphs…of*Charles*II,!for!example,!James!Heath! narrates!the!process!in!which!“They!who!had!been!drivin!with!the…various!Gusts!of!

Usurption…were!now!led!by!the!fair!Gales!of!the!Trade!wind!of!Loyalty,”!toward!

Charles!II.!In!this!passage,!sudden!and!forceful!qualities!in!the!wind!are!likened!to!the! violent!thrusts!of!political!change!in!the!context!of!the!“many!variations!in!the!

Compasse!of!our!late!revolutions,”!while!the!constant!and!steady!trades!are,!by! comparison,!a!sweet!metaphor!for!political!loyalty!and!virtue,!respect!for!the!crown,!and!

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64!Shannon,!Several*Discourses,*49! 126! ! for!the!associated!hierarchy!and!social!order!entailed!thereby.65!The!stability!and!safety! popularly!associated!with!the!Trade!Winds!operated!as!a!powerful!natural!metaphor! within!the!hard`scrabble!political!battles!that!characterized!the!17th!century.!In!a! collection!of!early!modern!poetry,!poet!John!Crooke!writes,!“…from!dangers!free,!/!That! can!from!Storms,!or!Rocks,!or!Pirates!be:!/!And!there!the!equal!trade!winds!blow,!/!And!

Ships!nor!met,!nor!overtaken!go.”66!The!trades!offered!both!physical!and!metaphoric! refuge!from!the!world’s!uncertainties,!from!those!forces,!be!they!natural!or!political,!that! threatened!to!overturn!natural!and!social!order.!The!trade!winds!were!perceived!and! thus!characterized!as!exemplifying!a!set!of!qualities!both!valued!and!admired!in!early! modern!English!society,!a!society!that!was!intent!on!achieving!progressively!greater! degrees!of!mastery!over!nature!in!the!service!of!mankind,!as!a!parallel!to!achievements! of!political!order!and!mastery!both!at!home!and!abroad.67!!

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65!James!Heath,*The*glories*and*magnificent*triumphs*of*the*blessed*restitution*of*His*Sacred*Majesty*K.* Charles*II*from*his*arrival*in*Holland*1659!(London:!Printed!and!are!to!be!sold!by!N.G.,!R.H.!and!O.T.!...,!1662),! 115.! 66!Poems*by*Several*Persons!(Dublin:!printed!by!John!Crooke,!printer!to!the!Kings!Most!Excellent! Majesty,!for!Samuel!Dancer!next!door!to!the!Bear!and!Ragged`Staffe!in!Castle`street,!1663),!38.!! 67!There!are,!nevertheless,!occasional!instances!when!the!metaphor!of!steadiness!applied!to!the! trades!appears!in!a!more!questionable!context.!For!example,!in!describing!the!religious!politics!of!a!certain! Mr.!Dell,!who!published!a!sermon!lambasted!in!a!subsequent!pamphlet!entitled,!An*information*for*Mr.* William*Dell.!In!this!discourse!Mr.!Dell!is!accused!of!“following!the!Trade!wind!of!his!faction,”!and!his!party! accused!of!“never![gaining]!more!credit!than!by!crossing!Authority.”!Yet!even!in!this!context,!the! overwhelming!force!and!steadiness!of!the!trades!is!the!characterization!that!comes!forward,!and!even!in! such!critique!it!is!not!the!trades!that!are!characterized!negatively,!their!fixed!qualities!are!simply!applied!as! metaphors!in!a!more!heated!religious!and!political!context.!William!Umfrevile,!An*information*for*Mr.* William*Dell,*the*(right*reformer)*As*He*is*Pleased*to*Stile*Himself!(London:!Printed!for!the!better!edification!of! Mr.!Dels!selected!and!peculiar!people,!1646),!7.!! 127! !

In!an!ode!dedicated!to!the!political!achievements!of!explorer!Sir!Francis!Drake,! humorously!and!evocatively!titled,!“Sitting!and!drinking!in!a!Chair!made!out!of!the! reliques!of!Sr.!Francis!Drakes!Ship”!the!wind!emerges!as!a!powerful!metaphor!from!the! very!get!go.!In!the!opening!stanza!the!author!writes,!“Cheer!up!my!Mates!!The!wind! doth!fairly!blow/…In!the!wide!Sea!of!drink,!and!merrily!we!go/Blesse!me!’!tis!hot,! another!Bowl!of!Wine,!and!we!shall!cut!the!burning!Line.”68!In!these!verses,!the!fair! quality!of!the!wind!is!a!metaphor!for!to!the!joyful!quality!of!the!voyage!about!to!take! place:!that!of!the!reader!as!they!embark!upon!a!lyrical!journey,!and!the!voyage!of!the! author!himself,!who!likens!his!poetic!practice!cutting!“the!burning!line,”!so!to!speak,!to! the!travels!of!Drake,!as!he!crossed!the!line!of!the!equator!and!entered!the!South!Seas.!

The!wind!functions!here!as!an!auspicious!omen!signaling!the!good!feeling!of!this! voyage,!both!the!verse,!and!Drake’s!historic!political!achievement!for!the!nation!of!

England.!In!the!concluding!lines!of!the!poem!the!author!references!the!universal!and! unequivocal!goodness!of!the!trade!winds,!their!steadiness,!their!consistency,!their! wholly!beneficial!nature:!“The!breath!of!Fame,!like!an!auspicious!gale/(the!great!Trade! wind!which!ner’e!dos!fail)/Still!with!full!trimme,!and!swelling!Sail/Shall!drive!thee! round!the!world,!and!though!shalt!run/as!long!around!it!as!the!Sun…”69!The!trade! winds!may!have!been!a!mystery,!the!motion!of!which!natural!philosophers!labored!to!

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68!Choyce*Poems*Being*Songs,*Sonnets,*Satyrs*and*Elegies!(London:!Printed!for!Henry!Brome,!1661),13.!! 69!Choyce*Poems,*16! 128! ! explain,!but!within!the!cultural!commons!created!by!the!epistemological!instability!of! wind!knowledge,!they!were!also!popularly!perceived!as!a!blessing,!a!fixed!and!stable! phenomenon!in!the!face!of!an!unpredictably!changing!world,!a!world!that!was! expanding!wildly!and!rapidly,!a!world!that!the!most!savvy!individuals!and!the!most! eminent!nations!might!manipulate!to!their!advantage.70!!!

Dampier!explained!that!the!General!Trade!Winds,!not!to!be!confused!with!the!

Sea!and!Land!Breezes,!were!found!exclusively!in!the!Atlantic!Ocean,!the!East!Indian!

Ocean,!and!the!South`Sea,!otherwise!known!as!the!Pacific,!and!restricted!to!the!open! ocean!“at!least!30!or!40!Leagues!off!at!Sea,!clear!from!any!Land.”71!He!was!careful!to! point!out,!however,!that!while!30`40!leagues!may!have!been!the!general!rule,!the!exact! geography!of!the!General!Trades!differed!from!place!to!place.!For!example,!in!the! southern!latitudes!of!the!South!Sea!the!Eastern!Trade,!he!argued,!was!considerably! farther!out!to!sea:!150`200!leagues!from!the!coast;!whereas!in!the!northern!latitudes!of! the!South!Sea!this!same!wind!could!be!found!as!near!as!30!or!40!Leagues!from!the!shore.!

Around!the!coast!of!England!the!location!of!the!General!Trades!also!differed!slightly.!

For!example,!English!trading!ships!bound!for!the!East,!West`Indies,!or!Guinea!were! likely!to!encounter!the!Eastern!Trade!at!Latitudes!of!32!or!35!degrees;!indeed,!“between! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

70!The!trade!winds!were!a!force!that!sailors!and!merchants!alike!could!count!on.!They!were!a!safe! surety!in!an!otherwise!unpredictable!environment—be!it!the!ocean!or!the!economic!market—and!the! consistency!of!the!trade!winds!was!tied!directly!to!their!political!and!economic!utility.! 71!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!231! 129! !

32!and!28!I!did!never!know!nor!hear,!that!the!true!Trade`Wind!failed,”!asserted!

Dampier.72!Knowing!the!latitudes!of!the!General!Trades!was!a!key!component!in!making! trading!voyages!as!safe,!expeditious,!and!therefore!as!profitable!as!possible.!!

The!majority!of!English!overseas!trade!during!the!17th!century!required!vessels!to! navigate!across!the!Atlantic!and/or!to!cross!the!line!because!the!West!Indies!and!the!

American!colonies!supplied!the!nation!with!its!most!lucrative!overseas!markets,!and!the!

North!American!colonies!were!part!of!the!triangle!trade!system!involving!England!as! well!as!the!West`African!coast.!According!to!historian!Nuala!Zehedieh,!!“In!1686,!the!

English!in!America!were!shipping!commodities!worth!almost!900,000!pounds!to!London! alone.!The!West!Indies!accounted!for!almost!80!percent!of!the!total,!and!the!island! produce!was!heavily!dominated!by!sugar,”!sugar!produced!using!the!slave!labor! imported!from!Africa!on!Guinea!Ships,!to!which!Dampier!made!repeated!reference.73!

Chesapeake!tobacco!produced!by!its!southern!plantations!dominated!the!North!

American!import!market,!which!grew!exponentially!in!response!to!tobacco’s!rising! popularity!among!commoners.!Tobacco!imports!rose!from!a!declared!173,000!pounds!in!

1620!to!approximately!11!million!in!1676,!at!under!a!penny!a!pound.74!The!northern!

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72!Dampier,!Discourse!on!Wind,!231! 73!Nuala!Zahedieh,!“Overseas!Expansion!and!Trade!in!the!Seventeenth!Century,”!in!Oxford*History* of*the*British*Empire,*vol.!1,!Origins*of*Empire,!ed.!Nicholas!Canny!(Oxford!University!Press,!2001),!410.! 74!It!should!be!noted!however,!that!as!the!availability!and!popularity!of!tobacco!rose!it’s!price!fell.! Statistics!drawn!from!Nuala!Zahedieh,!“Overseas!Expansion!and!Trade!in!the!Seventeenth!Century,”!in! Oxford*History*of*the*British*Empire,*vol.!1,!Origins*of*Empire,!ed.!Nicholas!Canny!(Oxford!University!Press,! 2001),!411.!! 130! ! colonies!contributed!to!this!triangle!trade!by!furnishing!the!necessary!lumber,!ships,! victuals,!and!shipping!services.75!

According!to!Dampier,!ships!involved!in!this!triangle!trade!system!and!bound! from!England!to!the!Guinea!coast!could!sail!at!any!time!of!year,!for!the!outbound!route! did!not!require!them!to!cross!the!line.!As!a!result,!they!could!always!expect!to!find!a!

“fair!Westerly!Wind.”76!The!return!voyage!was!a!different!matter,!however.!This!leg!of! the!journey!demanded!a!more!skilled!navigational!sensibility!predicated!on!more! involved!knowledge!of!tropical!wind!currents.!Lacking!such!knowledge!captains!could! readily!steer!their!ship!into!the!deadly!doldrums!that!menaced!the!region!near!the! equator,!or!find!themselves!subject!to!the!violent!tornadoes!especially!common!from!

May!through!August.!The!most!informed!and!experienced!trans`Atlantic!navigators! were!familiar!with!these!threats.!They!routed!their!ships!at!the!correct!time!of!year,! along!a!specific!course!in!order!to!avert!such!disasters!(insofar!as!they!were!capable)!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

75!According!to!historian!Zahedieh,!“furs!were!sold!to!hatters;!cocoa,!ginger,!pimento,!drugs,!and! spices!to!grocers;!hides!to!leather`workers;!and!indigo!and!dye`woods!to!dry`salters,!simulating!England’s! infant!textile!industries.”!The!trans`Atlantic!market!referenced!here!by!Dampier!was!not!the!only!oversees! market!in!which!England!participated.!Asia!and!India!also!provided!a!lucrative!import!market!facilitated!by! the!trade!winds,!though!to!the!humiliation!of!England,!India!and!Asia!never!reciprocated!a!comparable! enthusiasm!for!English!goods.!The!East!India!trade!in!commodities,!which!included!products!such!as! pepper,!spices,!indigo,!dyestuff,!saltpeter,!raw!silk!and!tea,!was!overwhelming!dominated!by!the!popularity! of!cotton!textiles,!particularly!calicos!imported!from!the!region.!Zahedieh!writes!that!the!rapid!expansion!of! the!cotton!textile!import!market!grew!from!“an!annual!average!of!162,005!pieces!in!the!1660’s!to!an!annual! average!of!760,195!pieces!in!the!1680’s,!or!about!fourteen!yards!per!head!of!the!English!population.”! Domestic!English!textile!manufacturers!responded!to!their!consumers!growing!preference!for!lightweight,! washable!fabrics!by!producing!their!own!cotton!and!silk!products!within!this!well`established!market.!Their! endeavors!were!sustained!by!the!import!of!raw!materials!such!as!cotton!and!dyewoods!from!North!America! and!the!West!Indies,!and!raw!silk!from!Asia.!Dampier!gestured!toward!these!and!other!lucrative!regional! markets!in!the!various!examples!he!provided!throughout!his!text.!Zahedieh,!“Overseas!Trade,”!403,!411,!413! 76!Dampier,!Discourse!on!Wind,!235! 131! ! met!instead!the!“fair!Weather!and!fresh!Breezes”!that!characterized!the!winds!at!mid` promontory!(the!midline!between!the!large!land!masses!jutting!out!from!the!African!and!

American!continents,!respectively).!!

Both!our!English!and!Dutch!East`India!Ships,!when!outward`bound,!endeavor!to! cross!the!Line!as!near!as!they!can!in!the!mid`Channel,!between!both! Promontories;!and!although!they!meet!the!Winds!sometimes!as!S.S.E.!or!at!S.S.W.! or!farther!Easterly!or!Westerly;!yet!they!will!not!run!above!a!degree!to!the!East!or! a!Degree!to!the!West!of!the!mid`Channel,!before!they!tack!again,!for!fear!of! meeting!with!the!soaking!Current!on!the!West,!or!Calms!on!the!East!side;!either! of!which!would!be!alike!prejudicial!to!their!Course,!writes!Dampier.77!!! !

In!their!voyages!to!Brazil,!where!slave!labor!was!used!to!cultivate!crops!such!as! sugar,!tobacco,!coffee,!and!cotton,!much!like!it!was!in!North!America,!the!Portuguese! routed!their!ships!along!a!similar!course,!said!Dampier.78!By!comparison,!inexperienced!

Guinea!Masters!attempting!to!“gain!a!speedy!passage”!and!“obstinate!in!their! opinions,”!would,!he!argued,!often!make!the!grave!error!of!foregoing!the!mid` promontory!route,!attempting!instead!to!“steer!away!W.!by!N.!or!W.N.W.!it!being!the! directest!course!they!can!steer!for!Barbadoes.”!This!however,!was!a!mistake,!for! according!to!Dampier,!such!a!route!demanded!thereafter!that!they!“must!of!Necessity! keep!within!a!Degree!of!the!Line,!while!they!are!running!2!or!300!Leagues,!which!may! prove!to!be!a!long!time!in!doing,!because!of!the!Uncertainty!of!the!Winds!near!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

77!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!235! 78!“The!Portuguese!in!their!Voyages!to!Brazil,!take!the!same!method!and!get!to!the!South!of!the! Line!before!they!fall!in!with!the!Land,!for!fear!of!falling!to!leeward!of!Cape!St.!Augustine!(the!Brazil!current,! setting!to!the!SW.!At!the!rate!of!nearly!one!sea!mile!and!hour),!for!there!are!so!many!things!which!make!that! a!difficult!cape!to!pass,!that!hardly!any!man!try!to!do!it,!but!at!a!distance.”!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!236! 132! !

Equator,”!putting!themselves!at!risk!of!running!out!of!supplies,!and!compromising!the! safety!of!the!crew!and!the!success!of!their!voyage.79!!

Every!ship!captain,!even!the!obstinate!ones,!became!an!expert!to!some!degree!in! mapping!the!wind.!The!very!rank!of!captain!demanded!and!implied!as!much.80!As! captains!mastered!particular!routes!they!gained!command!of!what!might!be!described! as!local!knowledge—knowledge!of!the!winds!and!seas!associated!with!specific!regions! or!territories!corresponding!to!the!courses!chartered!by!their!ships.!Collectively,!these! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

79!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!237! 80!Dampier’s!rebuke!of!those!captains!whom!he!claimed!exhibited!poor!wind!knowledge!casts!in! sharp!relief!one!set!of!complications!arising!from!the!epistemological!commons!facilitated!by!the!wind’s! broad!unregulated!accessibility:!precisely!how!to!distinguish!an!expert!among!experts,!how!to!vet!wind! knowledge!in!such!a!context,!for!a!knowledge!commons!was!not!necessarily!a!conflict!free!zone.!British! authorities!seemed!to!recognize!that!every!ship!captain!was!to!some!extent!an!expert!in!making!maps!of!the! wind.!The!rank!of!captain!implied!as!much,!for!the!act!of!commanding!a!vessel!and!navigating!a!ship! through!the!sea!was!an!empirical!form!of!mapping!the!wind,!riding!its!currents!through!space—though!the! skill,!finesse,!and!success!with!which!each!captain!performed!this!duty!admittedly!varied.!Yet,!expert!as! they!all!may!have!been!by!virtue!of!their!role!as!ship!captains,!the!knowledge!that!informed!the!decision! making!of!each!particular!captain!was!not!created!equal—a!fact!Dampier!made!a!point!to!mention.!This!had! as!much!to!do!with!what!local!geographies!a!captain!was!in!a!position!to!access!as!it!did!with!his!capacity!to! learn!and!command!such!information.!On!the!one!hand,!wind!knowledge!was!inherently!available!to!any! and!all!who!came!into!contact!with!the!wind!through!first!hand!experience!and!observation.!On!the!other! hand,!however,!the!wind!operated!as!a!function!of!locality,!in!dialogue!with!specific!geographies!of!place.! Its!behavior!was!a!function!of!the!ecological!variables!of!a!given!location.!Access!to!place!was!therefore!a! key!component!of!access!to!wind!knowledge.!Expert!as!they!may!have!been,!most!ship!captains! commanded!what!might!best!be!described!as!a!kind!of!local!knowledge,!a!particular!knowledge,!based!on! the!regions!they!spent!the!most!time!sailing!and!the!particular!routes!they!carved!out!in!the!process.!Not!all! captains!had!the!resources—financial!and/or!political!support—let!alone!the!desire,!to!stray!widely!or!to! explore!far!afield.!Dampier’s!demonstration!of!familiarity!with!local!knowleges!spanning!the!globe—with! discrete!routes!in!all!seas—set!him!apart!as!an!expert!among!experts.!! Local!knowledge!were!limited!on!the!one!hand!to!a!set!of!specific!commercial!and!political! purposes!dictated!as!much!by!governments,!markets,!and!the!available!technology!as!by!nature!itself,! collectively,!the!sum!of!the!parts!was!greater!than!the!whole.!These!local!knowledges!served!a!grander! purpose,!delineating!both!the!aspirations!and!the!physical!course!of!empire.!Knowledge!of!the!seas!and!the! associated!sea!winds!allowed!the!British!nation!to!chart!both!metaphorically!and!literally!the!perimeters!of! its!ever!widening!commercial!and!political!reach.!Discrete!local!routes,!sets!of!relatively!narrow!delineated! territories,!such!as!those!described!here!by!Dampier,!connected!with!the!broader!aims!and!the!deeper,! longer,!and!ever!widening!routes!mapped!in!the!expanding!web!of!imperial!ambition—a!web!in!which! Dampier!was!but!one!of!many!players!and!proclaimed!experts.! 133! ! local!knowledges!served!a!grander!purpose,!delineating!both!the!aspirations!and!the! physical!course!of!empire,!allowing!the!British!nation!to!chart!both!metaphorically!and! literally!the!perimeters!of!its!ever!widening!commercial!and!political!reach.!Yet,!as!

Dampier!was!keen!to!point!out!in!his!rebuke,!skill!levels!differed,!even!among!captains.!

Commanders!who!keenly!studied!the!wind!and!who!exhibited!thorough!knowledge!of! its!courses!at!sea!enjoyed!success,!their!efforts!more!often!facilitated!rather!than! impeded!by!nature.!Dampier!noted,!for!example,!that!those!ships!whose!Captains!chose! to!cross!the!line!according!to!the!dictates!of!the!wind,!i.e.!at!the!midpoint!between!the! two!promontories!described,!“seldom!miss!of!a!Wind;!for!the!Wind!in!these!has!no!other!

Passage,!but!between!these!Promontories.”81!In!making!such!claims!Dampier! demonstrated!his!knowledge!and!authority!on!the!subject!and!positioned!himself!as!an! expert!among!experts,!while!simultaneously!suggesting!the!extent!to!which!success!in! navigating!and!utilizing!the!winds!as!sea!was!a!function!of!adapting!to!nature’s!patterns! rather!than!manipulating!nature!to!human!design.!!!

The!third!distinguishing!quality!of!the!General!Trades!noted!by!Dampier!was! their!force,!which!had!a!direct!impact!on!the!rate!at!which!ships!were!able!to!traverse!the! broad!stretches!across!the!sea.!The!Trade!Winds!blew!with!a!wind`force!that!Dampier! characterized!as!a!“moderate!Gale!from!our!first!meeting!them!in!30!or!28!d.”!and!which! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

81!“They!that!cross!it!near!the!Middle,!between!both!Promontories,!or!near!the!American!Coast,! when!they!are!minded!to!fall!away!to!the!Northward,!steer!away!N.W.!or!N.W.!by!N.!and!so!depress!or! raise!a!degree!in!running!28!Leagues!at!most;!therefore!(which!is!best)!they!are!but!a!short!time!near!the! Equator.”!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!237! 134! ! increased!in!intensity!toward!the!Tropic.!At!the!Tropic,!Dampier!noted!that!the!wind!

“commonly!blows!a!good!Top`sail!Gale,!as!we!sail!large:!And!if!we!were!to!sail!on!a!

Wind,!our!lower!Sails!would!be!enough.”82!The!faster!a!ship!could!successfully!complete! one!voyage!the!more!quickly!it!could!embark!on!another!and!the!more!money!there!was! to!be!made!and!as!Dampier!overtly!indicated,!the!routes!delineated!by!the!trade!winds! were!the!fastest!way!to!traverse!international!waters.!!

Fourth,!and!lastly,!Dampier!stated!that!as!a!general!rule,!the!General!Trades! tended!to!blow!E.N.E!in!Northern!Latitudes,!and!E.S.E!in!the!Southern!Latitudes.83!

Closer!to!the!equator,!however,!the!direction,!consistency,!and!force!of!the!winds! became!a!greater!function!of!season,!argued!Dampier.!In!the!peak!of!summer!(July!and!

August)!the!South`Winds!often!blew!to!11!d.!or!12!d.!of!North!latitude!“keeping! between!the!S.S.E.!and!the!S.S.W.!or!S.W,”!asserted!Dampier.!However,!six!months!later,! at!the!peak!of!winter!(December!and!January)!he!noted!that!the!true!trade!could!be!

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82!Although!it!would!be!another!eight!years!before!Daniel!Defoe’s!wind!force!scale!reached! publication!(1703),!we!see!reference!here!to!terms!that!later!appear!in!that!text.!Dampier!further! characterized!the!Trade!Wind!gales!that!blew!in!the!Atlantic!and!North!of!the!equator,!(“from!23!to!12! degrees!between!the!E.N.E.!and!the!E.”)!as!“brisk”![describe!what!this!actually!means!in!our!language].! Whereas,!the!trades!that!blew!between!10!to!12!degrees!from!the!equator!were!“not!so!fresh!nor!constant.”! Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!231`232!Here!Dampier!makes!explicit!reference!to!the!General!Trade!Wind’s! practical!utility—its!capacity!to!fill!the!sails!of!a!ship!and!to!transport!it!across!the!open!sea.!And!in!making! this!reference!he!reminds!his!readers!that!his!knowledge!of!the!wind!is!not!abstracted,!but!rather!the!result! of!first`hand!experience!on!board!such!a!ship.!He!presents!himself!as!a!specialist!versed!in!the!language!of! science!but!additionally!in!the!language!of!the!sea.!The!term!“top`sail!gale”!signals!his!inclusion!within!a! community!that!relied!upon!specialized!terminology!to!describe!the!wind!and!which!further!indicated!the! his!intimacy!and!familiarity!with!this!natural!force;!his!sensitivity!to!it,!and!his!reliance!upon!it.! 83!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!231! 135! ! found!significantly!closer!to!the!equator!(between!3!or!4!degrees).84!Thus,!“As!the!Sun! returns!again!to!the!Northward,!so!the!Southerly!Winds!do!increase!and!draw!more!to! the!Northward!of!the!Line,!till!July,!and!then!gradually!withdraw!back!again!towards! the!Line![i.e.!the!equator],”!he!argued.85!Good!captains!were!good!environmentalists!to! the!extent!that!knowledge!and!awareness!of!nature’s!seasonal!patterns!and!a!willingness! to!adapt!to!such!trends!was!necessary!to!become!a!truly!skilled!navigator.!In!an!era! marked!by!philosophic!trends!promoting!the!idea!that!in!a!mechanical!universe!the! mysteries!of!nature!could!be!unearthed!to!the!benefit!of!mankind,!the!mechanics!of!the! wind!nevertheless!reaffirmed!the!extent!to!which!mankind!was!subject!to!this!natural! force!rather!than!the!other!way!around.!

Dampier!included!detailed!descriptive!information!in!his!Discourse*on*Winds!that! extended!well!beyond!the!subject!of!the!Trade!Winds,!touching!on!all!winds!that!had! any!bearing!on!navigation!through!tropical!waters,!as!well!at!the!winds!pertinent!to!all! relevant!and!adjacent!coasts.!He!discussed!storms,!seasons,!tides,!and!currents!each!as! they!related!to!the!wind.!And!he!benefitted!both!professionally!and!financially!by! demonstrating!the!high!level!of!expertise!illustrated!in!his!wind!map!and!evident!in!his!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

84!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!233! 85!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!233.!Contemporary!scientific!studies!suggest!the!same.!The!Inter` tropical!Convergence!Zone!(ITCZ)!is!the!name!contemporary!scientists!assigned!to!the!region!near!the! equator!where!the!northeasterly!and!southeasterly!Trades!intersect,!creating!a!low!pressure!zone!of!still!air! and!virtually!no!wind,!known!historically!among!sailors!as!the!doldrums.!The!exact!location!of!this!weather! system!can!vary!by!as!much!as!45!degrees!north!or!south!of!the!equator,!and!thus!the!presence!of!the! Northeasterly!and!Southeasterly!trades!in!the!neighboring!regions!varies!accordingly.!See!Emmanuel,!Divine* Wind!for!more!discussion!of!the!ITCZ!zone.!! 136! ! written!treatise.!Though!never!admitted!as!a!fellow!of!the!Royal!Society,!soon!after! publishing!his!text!Dampier!was!nominated!and!later!appointed!to!the!British!Customs!

House.86!The!Customs!House!regulated!British!import!and!export!trade!and!collected! duties!on!imports.!Dampier’s!ample!knowledge!of!the!wind!currents!specific!to! particular!trade!routes,!and!his!overall!familiarity!with!ocean!commerce,!which!his! writing!aptly!demonstrated,!distinguished!him!as!a!qualified!candidate!for!such!a! position.!More!significantly,!by!courting!members!of!elite!society!Dampier!was!also!able! to!secure!sponsorship!for!a!voyage!of!discovery!to!the!South!Seas!and!New!Holland!

(Australia).!He!had!strategically!dedicated!his!Voyages*and*Discoveries!to!Edward!Russel,! the!Earl!of!Orford,!a!powerful!Whig!politician,!prominent!member!of!the!Royal!Society,! and!First!Lord!of!the!Admirality!and!according!to!Mitchell,!“Orford,!in!turn,! recommended![Dampier]!‘to!the!greatest!Encouragers!of!public`spirited!undertakings! that!the!age!produced.”87!Dampier’s!ability!to!market!himself!and!his!experience!and! expertise!yielded!personal!benefits.!!

However,!any!benefit!to!Dampier!merely!reflected!the!political!and!economic! significance!of!wind!knowledge!for!the!English!nation!more!generally.!In!his!“Discourse! on!the!Invention!of!Shipping”!published!in!1615,!Sir!Walter!Raleigh!had!keenly!noted:!

“whosoever!commands!the!seas,!commands!the!trade;!whosoever!commands!the!trade!

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86!Bonner,!Buccaneer@Author,!21! 87!Adrian!Mitchell.!Dampier’s*Monkey:*The*South*Sea’s*Voyages*of*William*Dampier,!(Wakefield!Press:! 2010),!148.!! 137! ! of!the!world,!commands!the!riches!of!the!world.”88!At!this!moment!in!history,!command! of!the!seas!necessitated!knowledge!of!the!wind!and!the!capacity!to!effectively!harness! the!wind’s!power.!Dampier!is!thus!an!unusual!and!exceptional!character!in!one!way,! and!typically!illustrative!in!another.!His!appeal!to!educated!members!of!the!Royal!

Society,!his!dedication!to!recording!his!observations!abroad,!and!his!efforts!to!produce!a! descriptive!compendium!of!his!extensive!knowledge!and!expertise!of!the!wind!sets!him! apart!from!other!buccaneers!of!his!time.!However!Dampier!deployed!wind!knowledge! for!personal!gain!given!the!opportunity,!which!was!prototypical!of!the!pirates!and! buccaneers!who!maintained!a!marauding!presence!in!the!South!Seas—a!parasitic! reaction!to!the!merchant!ships!who!sailed!in!the!region.!In!this!sense,!Dampier!typifies!a! broader!pattern!at!play.!

Pirates, Slaves, and the Trade Winds

In!1680,!a!buccaneer!crew!led!by!the!infamous!Captain!Bartholomew!Sharp,!from! which!Dampier!had!only!recently!absconded,!gave!chase!to,!and!seized!a!Spanish!ship! called!the!El*Santo!Rosario!off!the!coast!of!what!is!now!Chile.89!Sharp’s!crew!murdered!

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88!Sir!Walter!Raleigh,!A*Discourse*on*the*Invention*of*Shipping*(1615),!in!Brian!Lavery,!Ship:!The*Epic* Story*of*Maritime*Adventure!(London:!Dk!Publishing,!2004),!140.! 89!Dampier!kept!hard!company.!In!1680,!while!sailing!with!the!buccaneers!near!the!Juan!Fernandez! Islands!a!conflict!arose!among!the!crew!as!to!whether!they!should!proceed!an!attempt!round!Cape!Horn!(a! notoriously!difficult!route)!and!return!to!the!Caribbean,!or!stay!in!the!South!Pacific!and!continue!sacking!the! Spanish!settlements!along!the!coast!of!South!America.!After!the!crew’s!newly!elected!Captain,!John!Watling,! died!in!a!failed!raid!against!Arica,!Dampier!absconded!with!a!group!of!forty`two!of!his!shipmates!unwilling! to!sail!under!the!newly!elected!leadership!of!Bartholomew!Sharp!who,!according!to!Dampier,!had!“thrust! himself!Captain!again”!during!a!council!of!war!convened!to!remedy!the!leadership!crisis.!Diana!and! Michael!Preston,!A*Pirate*of*Exquisite*Mind!(United!States:!Walker!Publishing,!2004),!76`80.!Sharpe’s!crew!on! 138! ! the!Rosario’s!captain!Don!Diego!Lopez!and!plundered!the!ship’s!valuable!holdings,! which!included!over!6,000!pieces!of!eight,!wine!and!brandy,!“together!with!much!plate,! oil,!fruit.”90!As!it!turned!out,!the!Rosario*was!carrying!over!700!pieces!of!silver!plate! which!the!crew!unknowingly!dismissed!as!“pigs!of!tin”!and!subsequently!left!on!board! untouched.91!In!spite!of!this!blundering!mistake,!Captain!Sharpe!nevertheless!emerged! with!a!valuable!prize—gaining!possession!of!the!Rosario’s!derrotero,!which!he!presented! to!King!Charles!II!upon!his!return!to!England!and!which!would!prove!his!saving!grace.92!!

The!English!equivalent!of!a!derrotero*was!known!as!a!rutter*or*Waggoner.!A!rutter! was!a!pilot!guide!that!contained!detailed!information!on!“achorages,!harbours,!courses!! etc.,!and!were!continually!updated!by!their!owners,!often!being!passed!down!from! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! board!the!Trinity!totaled!sixty`five!men!and!included!John!Cox,!William!Dick,!Basil!Ringrose,!all!of!whom!if! not!already!notorious!buccaneer/pirates!at!that!time!would!earn!such!status!in!the!annals!of!history.! According!to!some!accounts!the!Spanish!instigated!the!altercation!between!the!Trinity!and!the!Rosario!by! firing!upon!Sharp,!but!whether!this!was!actually!the!case,!and!whether!such!shots!were!fired!aggressively!or! as!a!deterrent!against!a!threatening!rival!ship!is!unclear.!Basil!Ringrose,!A*Buccaneer’s*Atlas:*Basil*Ringrose’s* South*Sea*Waggoner:*A*Sea*Atlas*and*Sailing*Directions*of*the*Pacific*Coast*of*the*America’s*1682!(University!of! California!Press,!1992),!20`22.!! 90!Basil!Ringrose,!A*Buccaneer’s*Atlas,*22! 91!The!quantity!of!these!pieces!of!eight,!distributed!among!Sharpe’s!sixty`five!men,!amounted!to! ninety`four!pieces!per!man,!or!6,110!pieces!total;!and!the!brandy!amounted!to!somewhere!between!400`650! jars!according!to!conflicting!accounts.!The!journals!of!William!Dick,!quoted!in!Ringrose!describe!how!Sharpe! and!many!of!the!crew!mistakenly!believing!the!silver!plate!was!tin!refused!to!take!a!substantial!portion!of!it! on!board!their!ship—only!a!single!“Pig!of!Plate”!out!of!the!700!on!board!the!Rosario!was!seized,!in!fact.! “Thus!we!parted!with!the!richest!Booty!we!had!gotten!in!the!whole!Voyage,!through!our!own!ignorance!and! laziness.”!William!Dick,!quoted!in!Ringrose,!A*Buccaneer’s*Atlas,!22! 92!The!circumstances!surrounding!this!case!are!riddled!with!intrigue,!as!evident!from!the! description!of!the!trial!as!discussed!in!Ringrose’s!text:!Ringrose,*A*Buccaneer’s*Atlas,*Introduction;!27`28.! Ringrose’s!text!is!in!fact!a!printed!reproduction!of!the!derrotero!captured!by!Sharp’s!company.!It!is!also! worth!noting!that!Sharp!had!the!derrotero!translated!from!Spanish!to!English!and!went!so!far!as!to!dedicate! the!translated!text!to!the!King;!who!was!so!pleased!with!the!prize!that!he!went!out!on!a!limb!to!pardon! Sharp!despite!Sharp’s!conviction!by!an!Admiralty!Court!and!in!spite!of!Spanish!insistence!on!Sharp’s!death.!! 139! ! father!to!son.”93!They!functioned!as!a!precursor!to!the!modern!navigation!chart!and!the! wealth!of!information!they!contained!was!exquisitely!valuable,!particularly!for!military! intelligence.94!This!case!was!no!exception.!In!fact,!this!specific!set!of!documents!boasted,! among!other!things,!“a!very!accurate!and!exact!description!of!all!the!Ports,!Soundings,!

Creeks,!Rivers,!Capes,!and!Coasts!belonging!to!the!South!Sea,”!and!just!as!importantly,!

“all!the!Navigations!usually!performed!by!the!Spaniards!in!that!Ocean.”95!Sharp!had! effectively!gained!access!to!Spanish!intelligence!of!the!entire!South!American!Pacific! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

93!Terry!Breverton,!The*Pirate*Dictionary!(Gretna:!Pelican!Publishing,!2004),!47.!Some!other! interesting!terminological!notes!from!Breverton’s!book!include:!“Bear:!to*bear*with*the*wind!is!to!sail!towards! it;!to*bear*in!is!to!fall!with!a!wind!into!a!harbor!or!channel;!to!bear*up!is!an!order!to!sail!more!with!the!wind;! and!to!bear*up*round!is!to!put!the!ship!right!before!the!wind.!To!bear*down!is!to!sail!downwind!rapidly! toward!another!ship.!Beat:!Sail!against!the!wind,!usually!on!alternate!tacs,”!(p.13).!“Cun,!Cond:!From!Smiths! 1691!work,!we!read:!‘To!cond!or!cun!is!to!direct!or!guid,!and!to!cun!a!ship!is!to!direct!the!person!at!the!helm! how!to!steer!her.!If!the!ship!goes!before!the!wind,!then!he!who!cuns!the!ship!uses!these!terms!to!him!at!the! helm:!Starboard,!Leeward,!Port,!Helm!a!Midships.!Starboard!is!to!put!the!helm!to!the!starboard!(or!right)! side,!to!make!the!ship!go!to!the!larboard!(or!left)!side,!for!the!ship!always!sails!contrary!to!he!helm.!In! keeping!the!ship!near!the!wind,!these!terms!are!used:!Loof,!Keep!your!Loof,!Fall!not!off,!Veer!no!more,!Keep! her!to,!Touch!the!wind,!Have!a!care!of!the!lee`latch.!To!mad!her!go!more!large,!they!say!Keep!the!helm,!no! near,!bear!up.!To!keep!her!upon!the!same!point,!they!use!Steady,!or!as!you!go,!and!the!like.!The!ship!goes! Lasking,!Wuartering,!Veering!or!Large!are!terms!of!the!same!signification,!vis.!That!she!neither!goes!by!a! wind!nor!before!the!wind,!betwixt!both.!The!word!‘cunning’!comes!from!this!source,!the!art!of!directing!the! helmsman!to!guide!the!ship!in!her!proper!course,”!(p.!42).!“Head!Sea:!‘When!the!Storm!is!past,!though!the! wind!may!alter!three!or!four!points!of!the!Compass,!or!more,!yet!the!Sea!for!a!good!time!will!go!the!same! way;!then!if!your!course!be!right!against!it,!you!shall!meet!it!right!head,!so!we!call!it!a!Head!Sea.!Sometimes! when!there!is!but!little!wind,!there!will!come!a!contrary!sea,!and!presently!the!wind!after!it,!whereby!we! may!judge!that!from!whence!it!came!was!much!wind,!for!commonly!before!any!great!Storm!the!sea!will! come!that!way…!‘Captain!Smith,!1691,”!(p.76).!There!are!sixty!entries!for!wind`related!terms!in!Breverton’s! dictionary.!! 94!According!to!historian!Christopher!Lloyd,!during!Dampier’s!time,!“superbly!decorated!sea! atlases!published!by!the!Dutch!firms!of!Jansoon,!Blaeu!and!Van!Keulan”!were!already!in!circulation.!He! notes,“[these]!maps!were!based!on!manuscript!charts!made!by!seamen,!called!portulans,!with!additions! made!by!explorers…!The!first!such!printed!selection!of!charts,!which!were!translated!into!English!in!the! year!of!the!Armada,!was!called!The!Mariner’s!Mirror,!by!Lucius!Wagenaer,!the!popularity!of!which!was!so! great!that!any!sea!atlas!in!Dampier’s!day!was!called!a!‘wagoner’.!With!the!publication!in!1693!of!Captain! Greenville!Collin’s!English!Coasting!Pilot,!the!English!began!to!catch!up!with!the!Dutch!in!cartography…! [Dampier’s]!wind!map!of!the!Pacific![was]!the!first!of!it’s!kind”!Christopher,!Lloyd,!William*Dampier! (Hamden!Conn:!Archon!Books,!1966),!29`30.!! 95!William!Dick,!quoted!in!Ringrose,!A*Buccaneer’s*Atlas,!22! 140! ! coastline!and!sea.!In!the!interest!of!military!security!it!was!customary!for!a!crew!to! dispose!of!a!derrotero—to!weight!it!and!toss!it!overboard—in!the!event!of!piratical! attack.96!And!indeed,!according!to!sailor!William!Dick,!“the!Seaman,!who!at!first!laid! hold!on!it…told!us,!the!Spaniards!were!going!to!cast!this!Book!over`board,!but!that!he! prevented!them,!which!notwithstanding!we!scarce!did!give!entire!credit!unto,!as! knowing!in!what!confusion!they!all!were.”97!In!this!case,!the!Spanish!crew’s!intent!to! destroy!the!derrotero!failed.!The!Spanish,!outraged!by!the!seizure!of!their!ship!and!the! murder!of!its!captain!wanted!Sharp!tried!for!piracy.!However,!the!value!of!these!maps! was!enough!to!win!Sharp!not!only!a!pardon!by!the!King!of!England,!but!a!commission! in!the!Royal!Navy!to!boot.98!As!the!Sharp!story!reveals,!pragmatic!knowledge!of!the! winds!was!highly!prized—especially!by!the!Royal!Navy!and!the!Royal!Society,!who! endeavored!to!gain!wind!knowledge!through!military!and!philosophical!means!for! political!and!economic!ends.99!However,!the!tale!also!suggests!that!the!stakes!were!so! high!that!governments!and!natural!philosophers!were!not!the!only!population!intent!on! capitalizing!upon!wind!knowledge.!Buccaneers!and!Pirates!also!turned!the!wind!to!their! advantage!when!the!opportunity!presented!itself.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

96!The!fact!that!a!protocol!for!disposing!of!a!derrotero!existed!and!was!regularly!applied!is!a! testament!to!the!perceived!value!of!the!wind!knowledge!contained!in!such!a!text.! 97!William!Dick,!quoted!in!Ringrose,!A*Buccaneer’s*Atlas,!22! 98!Had!Sharp!been!more!inclined!to!walk!the!straight!and!narrow!he!may!have!stuck!with!this! position,!but!he!quickly!reverted!to!piracy,!and!came!to!a!bad!end.!According!to!Preston,!“He!was!last!heard! of!in!1698,!imprisoned!on!the!Danish!Caribbean!island!of!St.!Thomas,!partially!paralyzed!by!a!stroke.”! Preston,!A*Pirate,!79! 99!Dampier!had!left!Sharp’s!company!before!their!run`in!with!the!Rosario,!but!the!significance!of! such!a!prize!would!not!have!been!lost!on!him.!! 141! !

Buccaneers!and!pirates!operated!on!the!outermost!fringes!of!empire,!far!from!the! metropole,!and!there!was!only!a!fine!line!separating!the!practice!of!buccaneering!from! that!of!piracy—state!sanction.!Buccaneering!was!a!campaign!waged!by!the!English! government!against!the!prized!merchant!vessels!commanded!by!their!rivals,!namely!

Spain.!Within!the!context!of!empire!building!and!the!international!trade!that!facilitated! it,!the!seas!became!an!open!playing!field!in!which!English!privateering!vessels!targeted! merchant!and!treasure!ships!loaded!with!valuables,!such!as!those!pillaged!by!Sharp!and! his!crew,!be!they!textiles,!or!alcohol,!dyes,!precious!metals!such!as!gold!and!silver,!or! human!cargo!meant!for!sale!into!slavery.!Raiding!ships!with!such!precious!holdings! constituted!a!direct!attack!on!the!wealth!and!power!of!the!associated!nation!state.!

European!countries!established!and!reestablished!rules!and!treaties!in!accordance!with! the!political!climate!of!a!given!moment!specifying!who!was!legally!open!for!attack!and! under!what!circumstances.!However,!these!resolutions!often!had!more!teeth!on!paper! than!in!practice,!and!the!ships!of!ostensibly!friendly!nations!occasionally!emerged!as! either!victims!or!perpetrators!of!piracy—raids!without!state!sanction.!!

The!Spanish!may!have!been!the!principle!target!of!the!state,!but!out!on!the!open! seas!oversight!was!spotty!and!any!ship!was!potentially!a!victim.!The!boundary!between! legal!buccaneering!and!outright!piracy!was!thus!a!permeable!one,!easily!crossed,!and! with!marked!incentives,!particularly!when!one!takes!into!account!the!poverty,! restriction!and!hardship!engendered!by!the!life!at!sea!enjoyed!by!the!common!sailor.!A!

142! ! sailor’s!life!was!characterized!by!low!wages,!poor!diet,!hard!and!often!dangerous!labor,! sickness,!restricted!movement,!and!harsh!penalties!for!disobedience—circumstances! similar!in!a!matter!of!degree!to!the!circumstances!of!many!African!slaves.!Impressment! compounded!this!likeness,!as!suggested!by!Denver!Brunsman!in!The*Evil*Necessity:*

British*Naval*Impressment*in*the*Eighteenth@Century*Atlantic*World.100!It!should!thus!come! as!no!surprise!that!Africans!and!African!Americans,!both!free!and!formerly!enslaved,! made!up!a!considerable!proportion!of!the!pirate!population.!According!to!maritime! history!scholars!Peter!Linebaugh!and!Marcus!Redikker,!!

Black!pirates!sailed!with!Captain!Bellamy,!Taylro,!Williams,!Harris,!Winter,! Shipton,!Lyne,!Skyrm,!Robers,!Spriggs,!Bonnet,!Bellamy,!Phillips,!Baptist,! Cooper,!and!others.!In!1718,!sixty!out!of!Blackbeard’s!crew!of!one!hundred!were! black,!while!Captain!William!Lewis!boasted!‘40!able!Negroe!Sailors’!among!his! crew!of!eighty.!In!1719,!Oliver!La!Bouche’s!ship!was!‘half!French,!half!negroes.’! Black!pirates!were!so!common!as!to!move!one!newspaper!report!that!an!all` mulatto!band!of!sea!robbers!was!marauding!the!Caribbean!eating!the!hearts!of! captured!white!men.101!! ! The!rewards!of!piracy!promised!not!only!material!advantages!but!social!and!political! advantages!as!well.!Recognizing!the!applications!of!wind!knowledge!among!pirates!and! buccaneers!and!examining!how!slaves!were!at!once!subject!to!as!well!as!occasional! purveyors!of!wind!knowledge!thus!calls!attention!to!the!range!of!complex!incentives!for!

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100!See!Brunsman,!The*Evil*Necessity.*Marcus!Rediker!also!make!this!comparison!in!The*Slave*Ship:*A* Human*History!(London:!John!Murray,!2007).! 101!Peter!Linebaugh!and!Marcus!Rediker,!The*Many*Headed*Hydra:*Slaves,*Commoners,*and*the*Hidden* History*of*the*Revolutionary*Atlantic!(Boston,!Mass.:!Beacon!Press),!165`166.! 143! ! personal!gain!derived!from!what!is!best!described!as!the!intellectual!commons! facilitated!by!wind!knowledge.!

As!a!commons,!accessible!by!any!and!all,!wind!knowledge!overwhelmingly! resisted!privatization,!despite!human!attempts!to!the!contrary.!The!scholarly!debates! happening!in!London!centered!on!scientific!theories!postulating!“where!trade!winds! come!from,”!such!as!those!researched!and!presented!by!scholars!such!as!Halley!and!

Hadley,!represent!one!end!of!the!spectrum!within!this!intellectual!commons.!However,! the!value!of!such!knowledge!operated!as!a!function!of!context.!It!may!have!had!currency! among!England’s!educated!intellectual!class.!However,!such!knowledge!had!little!to! offer!a!sailor!out!at!sea!confronted!by!the!realities!of!the!wind!as!it!affected!his! immediate!day`to`day!life!on!board!a!ship.!Merchant!ships,!by!necessity,!were!run!by!a! crew,!who!along!with!the!captain!and!navigator,!learned!to!read!and!map!the!wind!as! skills!intrinsic!to!their!occupation!and!necessary!for!their!collective!survival.!The!wind! knowledge!of!the!common!sailor!therefore!represents!the!other!end!of!this!intellectual! continuum:!makers!knowledge—direct,!first!hand!experience!with!the!wind!and!the! empirical!knowledge!cultivated!thereby.!

Ship!captains,!governments,!and!intellectuals!may!have!attempted!to!control! wind!knowledge!by!confining!it!to!derrotero’s!and!scientific!treatises,!and!limiting!access! to!the!contents!of!these!books!and!documents.!However,!as!the!Sharp!incident!reveals,! such!attempts!were!not!foolproof.!Unintended!parties!gained!access!to!these!texts.!More!

144! ! to!the!point,!however,!knowledge!of!the!wind!by!its!very!nature,!could!not!be!contained! exclusively!within!books!or!ship!logs!or!in!meteorological!treatises;!nor!would!wind! knowledge!become!the!exclusive!property!of!any!particular!class,!population,!or! institution,!for!the!wind!could!not!and!would!not!be!bounded!or!contained.!Anyone! who!interacted!with!the!wind!was!in!a!position!to!read,!or!map,!or!theorize!its!qualities! and!movements!and!thus!to!deploy!wind!knowledge!to!their!advantage,!thereby! reinforcing,!complicating,!challenging,!or!even!compromising!the!integrity!of!the!social! and!political!structures!reliant!upon!this!natural!force.!The!very!existence!of!pirates,!and! all!expressions!of!mutiny!are!the!most!poignant!illustrations!of!this!fact!within!the! maritime!context.!!

Buccaneering!was!initiated!with!the!intention!of!strengthening!imperial!power! and!benefitting!the!upper!classes!of!England,!and!arguably!it!did!so.!However,!it!jointly! set!the!stage!for!a!culture!of!piracy!that!threatened!the!order!and!power!of!the!very! nation!state!that!sanctioned!it.!Pirate!culture,!as!an!extension!of!the!culture!that!emerged! among!the!buccaneers,!was!decidedly!egalitarian!compared!to!the!monarchical! governments!and!rigid!class!systems!in!place!both!on!land!and!at!sea!at!this!time.!Unlike! the!captains!of!merchant!or!navy!vessels,!the!captain!of!a!pirate!ship!enjoyed!limited! authority!over!what!Linebaugh!and!Rediker!describe!as!the!“multicultural,!multiracial,!

145! ! and!multinational!social!order”!that!characterized!the!typical!pirate!crew.102!Within!such! a!culture,!adherents!“drew!on!international!maritime!custom,!by!which!ancient!and! medieval!seafarers!had!divided!their!money!and!goods!into!shares,!consulted! collectively!and!democratically!on!matters!of!movement,!and!elected!consuls!to! adjudicate!differences!between!captain!and!crew,”!write!Linebaugh!and!Rediker.103!

When!it!came!to!prize!taking!through!mutiny!or!capture,!pirates!“seized!the!means!of! maritime!production!and!declared!it!to!be!the!common!property!of!those!who!did!its! work.”104!The!egalitarian!politics!and!material!rewards!of!piracy!thus!offered!a!welcome! alternative!to!the!limited!social!and!economic!options!presented!by!the!race!and!class! based!social!hierarchies!of!the!world!beyond.!For!many,!the!allure!of!piracy!was!the! promise!of!freedom!it!offered.105!The!sailors!and!slaves,!who!through!mutiny!or!capture! elected!to!join!the!ranks!of!pirates!were,!by!and!large,!drawn!from!the!lowest!tiers!of! society,!people!for!whom!a!social!system!such!as!this!exhibited!clear!benefits!in!spite!of!

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102!Linebaugh!and!Rediker,!The*Many*Headed*Hydra,!171.!For!elaboration!on!the!revolutionary! politics!of!piracy!and!pirate!culture!see!pirates!and!buccaneering!see!Linebaugh!and!Rediker,!The*Many* Headed*Hydra;!Peter!Leeson,!The*Invisible*Hook:*The*Hidden*Economics*of*Pirates!(Princeton,!NJ:!Princeton! University!Press,!2009);!“An—arrgh—chy:!The!Law!and!Economics!of!Pirate!Organization,”!Journal*of* Political*Economy!115,!no.!6!(2007):!1049`1094;!Clare!Anderson,!Niklas!Frykman,!Lex!Heerma!van!Voss,! Marcus!Rediker!eds.,!Mutiny*and*Maritime*Radicalism*in*the*Age*of*Revolution:*A*Global*Survey!(Cambridge;! New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2013);!Marcus!Rediker,!Outlaws*of*the*Atlantic:*Sailors,*Pirates,*and* Motley*Crews*in*the*Age*of*Sail*(Boston,!Massachusetts:!Beacon!Press,!2014);!Marcus!Rediker,!Villains*of*All* Nations:*Atlantic*Pirates*in*the*Golden*Age,!(Boston:!Beacon!Press,!2004);!Margarette!Lincoln,!British*Pirates*and* Society,*1680@1830!(Farnham,!Surrey:!Ashgate!Publishing!Limited,!2014).! 103!They!write!further!that!“captain!and!quartermaster!received!one!and!one!half!to!two!shares!of! plunder;!minor!officers!and!craftsmen!were!given!one!and!one!quarter!or!one!and!on!half;!all!others!got!one! share!each.”!Linebaugh!and!Rediker,!The*Many*Headed*Hydra,!158,!163!! 104!Linebaugh!and!Rediker,!The*Many*Headed*Hydra,!163! 105!Piracy!offered!men!participation!in!an!egalitarian!social!milieu!comprised!of!a!diverse!range!of! cultures,!nationalities,!and!races.! 146! ! the!increasingly!brutal!punishments!the!English!governments!instituted!to!thwart!such! criminal!activity.106!!

Buccaneering!and!piracy!were!two!sides!of!the!same!coin,!and!they!mirrored!the! same!benefits!and!challenges!to!empire!presented!by!the!wind.!The!state`sanctioned! buccaneering!campaign,!as!a!relatively!controllable!force,!benefitted!the!growth!and! power!of!the!English!nation,!while!piracy—its!wild!and!unwieldy!counterpart— undermined!the!rule!of!law!and!the!ambitions!of!empire.!Likewise,!the!steady!and! constant!trade!winds!were!a!force!that!the!English!government!and!merchant!class! harnessed!and!put!to!work!for!the!growth!of!empire!and!commerce,!while!the!wilder! manifestations!of!the!wind!such!as!hurricanes,!compromised!such!efforts!and!illustrated! the!fragility!of!imperial!power!and!control,!not!merely!over!nature,!but!over!the!social! order!of!the!nation.!As!a!commons,!wind!knowledge!was!openly!accessible!to!anyone! and!everyone!who!endeavored!to!learn!it,!and!it!could!be!readily!applied!for!any! purposes,!be!they!state!sanctioned!or!otherwise.!Pirates!put!their!wind!knowledge!to! work!exploiting!and!undermining!the!economic!and!social!systems!in!place.!“One!writer! estimated!in!1720!pirates!had!done!over!a!hundred!thousand!pounds’!worth!of!damage! on!the!coast!of!Africa.!An!anonymous!writer!to!the!Board!of!Trade!asserted!in!1724!that! pirates!had!taken!‘near!100!sail!of!Ships!in!the!space!of!two!years’!in!the!African!slave!

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106!For!more!on!the!history!of!piracy!in!this!era!see,!Rediker,!Villains*of*all*nations.*For!discussions!of! black!pirates!in!particular,!with!a!focus!on!the!19th!century!see,!W.!Jeffrey!Bolster,!Black*Jacks:*African* American*Seamen*in*the*Age*of*Sail!(Cambridge:!Harvard!University!Press,!1997).! 147! ! trade.!Other!estimates!ran!even!higher,”!write!Linebaugh!and!Redikker.107!Pirates!used! the!same!tools!as!their!victims,!merely!to!different!ends.!!

From!approximately!1715`1718,!the!famed!Edward!Teach,!more!commonly! known!as!Blackbeard,!for!example,!concentrated!his!piratical!operations!in!the!West!

Indies!and!along!the!south`eastern!seaboard!of!North!America,!as!did!the!“Gentlemen!

Pirate”!Stede!Bonnet.108!Teach,!like!Dampier,!gained!his!maritime!skill!set!in!the!service! of!the!crown,!serving!as!a!privateer!during!Queen!Anne’s!War.!When!the!war! concluded,!however,!he!turned!his!maritime!training!in!prize!taking!to!personal!ends.!

Teach!made!the!Carolina!coastline!his!home!base.!The!unique!topography!of!the!region! provided!ample!opportunities!for!him!to!deploy!superior!local!knowledge!of!the!winds! and!seas!in!this!area!to!he!and!his!crew’s!marked!advantage.109!Shallow!waters!replete! with!reefs,!coves,!and!inlets!along!the!outer!banks!of!the!Carolina’s!proved!difficult!to! navigate!for!many!merchant!vessels,!and!Teach!and!his!crew!were!able!to!effectively! exploit!this!weakness!and!to!capitalize!on!their!superior!and!local!wind!knowledge,! chasing!ships!into!reefs!or!shallow!waters!where!they!would!founder,!or!overtaking! them!by!harnessing!stronger!wind!currents.!Knowledge!of!the!trade!winds!did!not!stop! shipwrecks!here:!only!local!knowledge!of!recent!shoaling!and!experience!with!each!local!

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107!Linebaugh!and!Rediker,!The*Many*Headed*Hydra,!170! 108!Scholars!have!speculated!may!have!originally!honed!his!maritime!skills!while!serving!as!a! privateer!during!the!Queen!Anne’s!War!before!turning!to!piracy.! 109!Moreover,!the!Carolina’s!were!comparatively!poor!colonies!at!this!time,!and!the!commerce! provided!by!trade!with!pirates!worked!to!supplement!the!lagging!economy.! 148! ! wind!off!the!outer!banks!offered!help.!Giving!chase!to!and!capturing!a!ship!in!this! context!was!thus!a!matter!of!local!knowledge!and!strategic!navigation!more!so!than! superior!firepower,!though!the!latter!was!used!when!necessary.!Blackbeard’s!wild! success!as!a!pirate—taking!as!many!as!forty`one!ships!in!the!span!of!his!three!year!reign! of!terror—is!therefore!a!testament!first!and!foremost!to!his!prowess!as!a!sailor,!to!his! skill!as!a!strategic!navigator!and!purveyor!of!the!winds,!local!winds!in!particular.110!He! merely!turned!his!wind!knowledge!to!satisfy!a!different!set!of!aims,!one!at!odds!with,! rather!than!in!support!of!the!state!and!its!legalized!codes!of!trade.!

In!The*History*of*the*Pyrates,!Daniel!Defoe!describes!a!scene!in!in!which!the! captain!of!a!ship!usurped!by!the!dread!Pirate!Avery!was!woken!from!his!sleep!by!the! ship’s!motion!“or!the!Noise!of!working!the!Tackles.”!He!presumed!that!a!storm!had! wrestled!the!ship!from!her!anchors.!“No,!no,!answered!Avery,!“we’re!at!Sea,!with!a!fair!

Wind!and!good!Weather…and!I’ll!let!you!into!a!Secret:!You!must!know!that!I!am!

Captain!of!this!Ship!now…and!I!am!bound!to!Madagascar,!with!a!Design!of!making!my!

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110!Blackbeard!was!very!successful,!navigating!a!French!slaving!vessel!La*Concorde,!which!he! renamed!the!Queen*Anne’s*Revenge*and!outfitted!with!forty!cannons.!However,!other!pirates!such!as!such!as! Thomas!Tew,!“Black!Sam”!Bellamy,!and!Henry!Avery!were!far!more!financially!successful!than!Blackbeard! in!their!piratical!endeavors.!Henry!Avery,!for!example,!took!a!single!treasure!ship!worth!more!than!what! Blackbeard!acquired!over!the!course!of!his!entire!career.!In!terms!of!the!number!of!ships!seized!he!was!also! not!the!most!infamous.!Black!Bart!Roberts,!for!example,!captured!far!more!ships!than!Blackbeard—his! exploits!numbering!into!the!hundreds.!However,!Blackbeard!did!well,!and!his!methods!and!character! gained!him!a!lasting!legacy.!Christopher!Minster,!“Ten!Facts!About!Blackbeard!the!Pirate,”!About! Education,!accessed!February!21,!2015,!http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/Pirates/tp/Ten`Facts` About`Blackbeard`The`Pirate.htm!! 149! ! own!Fortune.m111!In!this!passage,!the!wind!and!weather!are!narrated!both!by!Avery!and! by!author!Defoe!as!conspirators!in!this!crime.!The!wind!just!as!readily!allied!itself!with! the!proclaimed!enemies!and!opponents!of!empire,!as!it!did!with!those!who!endeavored! to!undermine!the!order!of!the!nation!and!the!expansion!of!imperial!power!by! manipulating!state!power!to!their!personal!advantage.!Defensive!assertions!in! publications!such!as!The*Grand*Pyrate,!that!“…the!wind!that!fills!Pyrats!Sayls!does!in!no! case!justifie!their!actions,”!suggest!that!this!fact!was!popularly!acknowledged!and! considered!a!potential!threat!to!social!order!that!warranted!address.112!Ideologically,!the! wind!was!so!readily!conflated!with!the!hand!of!God!that!rationalizing!the!ease!with! which!pirates!were!able!to!benefit!from!this!divinely!manifest!natural!force!in!light!of! their!sinful,!criminal!behavior!proved!to!be!a!challenge.!If!God!was!at!work!in!the!winds! and!God!readily!supported!the!ambitions!of!Empire,!why!would!he!also!support!those!

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111!There!is!debate!over!whether!Defoe!is!in!fact!the!author!of!this!text.!Daniel!Defoe,!History*of*the* Pyrates!(London:!Noster!Row,!1724),!39.! 112!The*Grand*Pyrate:*Or*the*Life*and*Death*of*George*Cusack*the*Great*Sea@Robber!(London:!Jonathan! Edwin,!1675),!16,!Google!Books,!accessed!February!21,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=UupbAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Grand+Pyrate&hl=en &sa=X&ei=KC7qVLbWDI3ksAStn4K4Bg&ved=0CCEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=The%20Grand%20Pyrate&f =false.*The*Grand*Pyrate!provides!a!brief!account!of!the!life!and!death!of!Captain!G.!Cusack,!an!Irishman!who! joined!up!with!the!privateers!on!voyages!to!Guiney,!and!Barbados!before!turning!pirate.!Cusack!effectively! raised!a!mutiny!and!violently!seized!a!ship!he!was!employed!upon!as!a!gunner:!the!Hopewell*of*Tangier!a! 250`ton!vessel!bound!from!Tangier!to!Virginia,!“richly!laden,”!and!operating!under!the!command!of! Captain!Lambert!Bartholomew!Welters,!(p.!1`5).!After!disposing!of!Welters!and!claiming!the!title!of!captain! for!himself,!Cusack!altered!the!ships!course!and!set!sail!for!Guinney!where!he!hoped!to!sell!the!ships!goods! in!exchange!for!gold.!!However,!his!lack!of!wind`knowledge!and!navigational!expertise!meant!that!his! missed!the!Cape!Verde!Islands,!“and!being!ignorant!whether!he!was!to!Windward!or!Leeward!of!any!of! them!and!not!having!above!a!months!fresh!Water,!he!determined!to!Sayle!full!West,!in!hopes!either!of! falling!in!with!some!Islands,!or!at!worst!to!have!the!advantage!of!a!Trade!Wind!for!Barbadoes,”!(p.!8).! 150! ! who!worked!in!opposition!to!its!ambitions?113!Nature’s!fickle!allegiance!to!the!nation’s! imperial!agenda!and!its!concurrent!support!of!piratical!endeavors!thus!highlighted!the! fragility!of!empire!and!called!God’s!allegiance!to!the!English!nation!into!question.!!

The!social,!ideological!and!economic!threat!posed!by!piracy!was!thus!substantial,! particularly!within!the!Atlantic!where,!by!the!turn!of!the!17th`century,!the!most!lucrative!

English!markets!were!concentrated—most!notably,!the!African!slave!trade.!The! transatlantic!slave!trade,!the!most!profitable!and!notorious!triangle!trade!system! facilitated!by!the!Trade!Winds,!was!ultimately!an!expansion!of!the!triangle!route! originally!pioneered!by!the!Portuguese!as!they!sailed!the!Volta.!It!operated!from!the!late!

16th!century!until!it!was!outlawed!by!the!British!parliament!in!1807.!For!approximately!

400!years!leading!up!to!that!time,!triangle!trade!in!slaves,!cash!crops!and!manufactured! goods!among!West!Africa,!Europe,!and!the!Caribbean/American!colonies!constituted! one!of!the!most!lucrative!markets!in!the!world.!Manufactured!goods!produced!in!

Europe!and!purchased!with!the!profits!gleaned!from!the!sale!of!cash!crops!produced!in!

America!and!the!Caribbean!were!used!as!barter!for!West!African!slaves.!These!slaves! were!shipped!to!America!and!the!Caribbean!where!they!provided!the!labor!necessary!to!

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113!Pirates!were!popularly!characterized!as!enemies!of!the!nation,!but!more!emphatically!as!enemies! of!God!and!allies!of!Satan.!In!The*Grand*Pyrate,!for!example,!the!author,!(who!is!unknown),!writes!that! “[Cusack]!could!not!be!perswaded!to!save!a!great!large!Bible!that!constantly!lay!upon!the!great!Cabbin! Table,!from!the!mercy!of!the!Waves,!which!whiles!some!of!his!own!Crew,!endeavouring!to!perswade!him! to,!he!replied!You!Cowards,!what!do!you!think!to!go!to!Heaven!and!do!such!Actions!as!these?!No,!I!will! make!you!Officers!in!Hell!under!me;!and!with!that!threw!the!Bible!out!the!great!Cabbin!window,!saying,!Go! thou!thy!way!Divinity,!what!have!we!to!do!with!thee?”!The*Grand*Pyrate,!7`8! 151! ! raise!these!cash!crops,!which!were!then!sold!to!turn!a!profit!and!purchase!more! manufactured!goods,!which!could!be!bartered!for!more!slaves!and!so!on!and!so!forth.114!!

The!Dutch!West!India!Company!dominated!the!African!slave!market!from! approximately!1630`1650.115!England,!however,!followed!close!on!the!heels!of!the!Dutch,! and!British!merchants!established!long`term!African!trade!connections!of!their!own!and! built!fortifications!on!the!Gold!Coast!to!protect!these!markets,!though!their!primary! interest!was!initially!gold!rather!than!slaves.!Sugar!cultivation!rose!in!Barbados!after!

1640,!however,!creating!a!strong!demand!for!cheap!labor.!British!merchants!shifted!their! attention!accordingly,!and!began!to!focus!more!intently!on!the!slave!trade.!By!the!turn!of! the!17th!century,!and!thereafter!England!commanded!the!largest!share!of!the!African! slave!market.116!!

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114!Although!Dampier!did!not!participate!directly!in!the!slave!trade,!his!experience!at!sea!not!only! attuned!him!to!the!routes!used!by!these!ships,!but!additionally,!to!various!ways!in!which!knowledge!of!the! wind!might!be!used!to!benefit!this!market!and!others!most!advantageously.! 115!Herbert!Klein,!The*Atlantic*Slave*Trade!(Cambridge,!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,! 2010),!76`77! 116!Classic!scholarly!work!on!the!African!slave!trade!include!Herbert!Klein,!The*Middle*Passage:* Comparative*Studies*in*the*Atlantic*Slave*Trade!(Princeton,!Princeton!University!Press,!1978);!Herbert!Klein,! African*Slavery*in*Latin*America*and*the*Caribbean!(New!York,!Oxford!University!Press,!1986);!James!Rawley,! The*Transatlantic*Slave*Trade:*A*History!(New!York,!Norton,!1981);!Philip!Curtin,*The*Atlantic*Slave*Trade:*A* Census!(Madison:!University!of!Wisconsin!Press,!1972);!Elizabeth!Donnan.!Documents*Illustrative*of*the* History*of*the*Slave*Trade*to*America,!4!vols.!(Washington,!D.C.,!Carnegie!Institute,!1930`1935).!For!discussions! of!slavery!during!the!High!Renaissance*see!Hugh!Thomas.!The*Slave*trade:*The*Story*of*the*Atlantic*Slave*Trade:* 1440@1870!(New!York,!Simon!and!Shuster,!1997).!For!more!recent!work!on!the!slave!trade!see!Randy!J.! Sparks.!Where*the*Negroes*Are*Masters:*An*African*Port*in*the*Era*of*the*Slave*Trade,!(Cambridge,!Mass.:! Harvard!University!Press,!2014).!Key!primary!source!narratives!on!the!subject!include:!William!Snelgrave,!A* New*Account*of*Some*Part*of*Guinea,*and*the*Slave*Trade,!(London:!Printed!for!P.!Knapton,!1734);!John!Newton,! The*Journal*of*a*Slave*Trader!1750`1754,!eds.,!Bernard!Martin!and!Mark!Spurrell!(London:!Epworth!Press,! 1962);!James!Field!Stanfield,!Observations*on*a*Guinea*Voyage!(London:!printed!by!James!Phillips,!George` Yard,!Lombard`Street,!1788);!Thomas!Thompson,!Memoirs*of*an*English*Missionary*to*the*Coast*of*Guinea! (London:!printed!by!J.!Stevenson,!for!Shepperson!and!Reynolds,!1788).! 152! !

The!British!Royal!African!Company!(RAC),117!which!emerged!at!precisely!the! same!moment!that!Dampier!entered!the!sailing!world,!was!an!incorporated!joint!stock! company!that!dominated!both!the!English!slave!trade!and!the!English`African! commodity!market!during!the!last!quarter!of!the!17th!century!(1672`1698).118!The!RAC! was!responsible!for!transporting!over!350,000!slaves!to!English!colonies!of!the!West!

Indies!between!1672!and!1713.119!The!extent!to!which!the!Atlantic!wind!currents!

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117!The!British!Royal!Africa!Company!emerged!at!precisely!the!same!moment!that!Dampier!entered! the!sailing!world.!The!Royal!Africa!Company!was!an!incorporated!joint!stock!company!established! primarily!through!private!investment.!Founded!in!1672,!the!company!evolved/emerged!from!several! English!monopoly!companies!that!had!existed!previously:!The!Company!of!Royal!Adventurers!merged! with!the!Gambia!Merchantsl!Company!into!the!new!Royal!African!Company!and!the!company!received!a! royal!charter!to!set!up!forts,!factories,!troops!and!to!exercise!martial!law!in!West!Africa,!in!pursuit!of!trade!in! gold,!silver,!and!slaves.!For!approximately!twenty`five!years!from!the!time!it!was!established,!the!Africa! Company!successfully!dominated!both!the!English!slave!trade!and!the!English`African!commodity!market! (such!as!dye`woods,!and!ivory)!(1672`1698),!and!transported!over!350,000!slaves!to!English!colonies!of!the! West!Indies!between!1672!and!1713,!(Herbert!Klein,!The*Atlantic*Slave*Trade,!80).!Slavery!was!nothing!new.! Indeed,!societies!both!in!Europe!and!in!Africa!had!a!long!history!of!slave!labor!in!various!forms.!What! distinguished!the!slave!trade!at!this!moment!from!its!various!manifestations!in!the!past!was!its!growing! volume,!its!cash!crop!reliance!and!it’s!almost!exclusive!reliance!upon!African!laborers.!According!to!Klein! the!demands!and!pressures!of!the!European!labor!market!was!responsible!for!the!decision!to!utilize!slave! labor!as!the!primary!labor!system!in!developing!the!American!market!economy.!“Without!question! American!labor!market!conditions!most!influenced!the!growth!of!the!Atlantic!slave!trade,”!writes!Klein,! (p.15).!Klein!writes!further,!“By!the!end!of!the!17th`century!crisis!in!Europe,!and!especially!the!rapid!growth! of!the!English!economy!in!the!last!quarter!of!the!century,!brought!a!thriving!labor!market!in!Europe!and!a! consequent!increase!in!the!costs!of!indentured!laborers.!With!their!European!indentured!laborers!becoming! too!costly,!and!with!no!access!to!American!Indian!workers!or!slaves,!it!was!inevitable!that!the!English!and! the!French!would!also!turn!to!African!slaves,!especially!as!they!discovered!that!sugar!was!one!of!the!few! crops!that!could!profitably!be!exported!to!the!European!market!on!a!mass!scale,”!(p.!21).! 118!Although!fortifications!and!trading!factories!were!established!no!single!European!power!was! able!to!successfully!secure!monopolization!over!local!African!suppliers!because!the!fierce!competition! among!European!powers!gave!these!suppliers!options!and!leverage.!Rather,!each!nation!worked!at!securing! what!Klein!calls!“zones!of!influence.”!By!1660,!war!on!the!Gold!Coast!among!the!competing!European! nations!was!frequent!and!commonplace!as!European!powers!competed!for!control!of!the!coastal!region!and! its!markets.!Klein,!Slave*Trade,!77! 119!Klein,!Slave*Trade,!80.!Interestingly,!the!company’s!bookends!correspond!almost!precisely!with! Dampier’s!sailing!career,!which!began!in!1673!with!his!enlistment!in!the!Royal!Navy!and!which!ended!in! 1713!with!his!death.!The!significance!of!this!is!that!the!British!were!dominating!the!slave!market!at!the!same! time!that!Dampier!was!at!sea!and!gathering!his!information!about!the!wind.!Clearly,!any!economic!benefits! 153! ! facilitated!the!slave!market!monopolized!by!the!RAC!cannot!be!overstated.!The!wind! may!have!signified!freedom!to!many—freedom!of!movement,!freedom!to!explore,! freedom!in!trade!and!economic!opportunities;!but!these!same!winds!also!lay!at!the!crux! of!new!and!powerful!markets!oriented!around!captivity,!slavery!and!restriction.120!

Piracy!emerged!as!a!reaction!to!these!very!tensions,!functioning!as!a!radical! counterpoint!to!such!conditions!of!constraint,!and!utilizing!wind!knowledge!as!a!force!of! freedom!and!opposition.!Wind!knowledge—inherently!maker’s!knowledge—facilitated! these!political!instabilities.!It!made!them!possible!in!fact.!

Dampier’s!text!tacitly!gestured!toward!the!complex!triangulation!among! captivity,!freedom,!and!commerce!facilitated!by!the!winds!without!overtly!engaging! these!subjects.!The!regions!and!routes!central!to!an!overwhelming!proportion!of!

Dampier’s!discussions!about!winds—namely!the!West!African!Coast,!Brazil,!Jamaica,! and!the!West`Indies—were!chiefly!oriented!around!the!slave!trade.!In!spite!of!this!fact,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! he!could!have!envisioned!resulting!from!his!work!at!sea!would!have!included!some!relationship!to!the!slave! trade.!! 120!Why!was!England!so!anxious!to!participate!in!the!slave!trade?!Western!Europe!underwent!a! period!of!rapid!economic!expansion!coupled!with!a!comparatively!slow!rate!of!population!growth!in!the! late!fifteenth!and!early!16th!centuries.!According!to!Klein!“most!states!perceived!their!populations!were!still! too!few!to!develop!their!economies!and!rising!wages!reflected!the!increasing!tightness!of!local!labor! markets.”!New!economic!opportunities!brought!about!by!commercial!markets!in!the!Atlantic,!and!the! western!Mediterranean!contributed!to!a!rapidly!growing!economy!in!Western!Europe.!While!ongoing! conflict!both!between!Europe!and!the!Islamic!nations!in!the!Mediterranean!and!among!the!European! nations!themselves!states!spurred!the!establishment!of!large!professional!militaries!which!created!further! stress!on!already!tapped!local!labor!markets.!!Add!to!these!three!key!factors,!the!exorbitant!cost!of! transportation!to!the!New!World!and!the!risks!involved!in!such!venture!and!you!have!a!set!of!economic! circumstances!that!made!the!cheap!and!abundant!labor!provided!by!the!African!labor!market!a!particularly! appealing!solution.!Klein,!Slave*Trade,!15! 154! !

Dampier!conspicuously!avoided!making!any!direct!references!to!the!slave!trade!in!his! writing.121!The!irony!of!his!silence!becomes!more!acute!when!one!takes!into!account!the! fact!that,!aside!from!authoring!a!book!with!information!drawn!from!and!directly! applicable!to!the!trade,!Dampier’s!personal!experiences!repeatedly!linked!him!to!the! slave!trade!at!various!moments!and!to!varying!degrees!over!the!course!of!his!life.!122!Not! only!was!Dampier!employed!for!a!year!(1674`1675)!as!a!manager!on!Colonel!William!

Heyler’s!Jamaican!sugar!plantation,!a!profitable!business!supported!by!African!slave! labor,!but!much!later!in!life!(1690)!Dampier!briefly!owned!a!slave!of!his!own:!a!tattooed!

Filipino!prince!by!the!name!of!Joely!whom!he!inherited!through!a!fellow!trader!by!the! name!of!Moody!that!he!met!in!Mindanao.123!Dampier!took!Joely!to!England!with!the!

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121!Likewise,!for!all!of!the!discussion!about!trade!winds!among!Halley,!Hadley!and!other!members! of!the!Royal!society,!and!despite!the!importance!of!the!winds!to!the!Royal!Navy’s!oceanic!dominance!and!to! English!merchants!and!the!nation’s!transoceanic!commerce,!the!trade!winds!are!not!an!explicit!part!of!slave! trade!discussions!taking!place!at!this!time.!Not!until!the!18th!century!do!the!trade!winds!emerge!in!the! writings!and!general!discussions!among!people!involved!in!the!slave!trade—and!even!then!they!figure! much!less!significantly!than!might!be!expected!in!light!of!their!crucial!role!in!facilitating!this!distinct!market.! In!the!records!of!testimony!regarding!the!slave!trade!that!took!place!before!the!British!House!of!Commons! in!the!Colonial!State!Papers!Database,!as!few!as!four!references!to!wind!appear,!in!addition!to!only!two! references!to!trade!winds,!one!to!gale,!and!no!reference!to!the!terms!storm!or!hurricane.! 122!Dampier!is!noticeably!quiet!about!other!aspects!of!his!life!that!may!have!raised!controversy— such!as!the!various!acts!of!piracy!he!participated!in!during!his!time!as!a!buccaneer.!! 123!The!Colonel!had!inherited!the!estate!from!his!brother!Cary!Halyar!who!had!run!profitable! business!in!cocoa,!logwood,!sugar,!and!notably,!slaves.!For!more!information!on!Dampier’s!rather! unsuccessful!experience!on!the!Jamaican!plantation,!see!chapter!one!in!Gill,!The*Devil’s*Mariner.!According! to!Gill,!“Joely,!had!been!captured!by!Mindanaoans!with!his!father!and!mother,!and!sold!into!slavery!at! Mindanao,!where!he!had!languished!for!at!least!four!years…Moody!had!bought!him!for!sixty!dollars,!and!in! a!sense,!rescued!him,”!(p.!216).!However,!soon!after!the!family!was!traded!to!Dampier,!Joely!and!his!mother! became!ill!and!despite!Dampier’s!attempts!to!nurse!and!care!for!the!both!of!them!Joely’s!mother!died.!Gill! quotes!Dampier!on!the!subject!as!follows:!“I!did!what!I!could!to!comfort!Jeoly,!but!he!took!on!extremely,! insomuch!that!I!feared!him!also.!Therefore!I!caused!a!grave!to!be!made!presently,!to!hid!her!out!of!sight.!I! had!her!shrouded!decently!in!a!piece!of!new!calico,!but!Jeoly!was!not!so!satisfied!for!he!wrapped!all!her! clothes!about!her,!and!two!new!pieces!of!chintz!that!Mr.!Moody!gave!her,”!(p.!217).! 155! ! intention!of!displaying!the!tattooed!prince!for!money!while!simultaneously!seeking! investors!who!would!fund!a!trading!voyage!to!Mangis—Joely’s!home—and!its! neighboring!islands,!which!Joely!had!told!him!were!rich!in!gold!and!in!spices!such!as! cloves!and!nutmeg.!Dampier’s!plan!was!to!establish!a!prosperous!trading!fort!on!Joely’s! native!island!and!to!reap!the!economic!rewards.!It!was!not!to!be.!Much!to!his!dismay,! economic!hardship!compelled!Dampier!to!sell!Joely!soon!after!arriving!in!England.124!!

Dampier!may!not!have!been!a!slave!trader!himself,!nor!a!sailor!on!board!a!slave! ship,!but!his!extensive!time!at!sea!invariably!brought!him!into!contact!with!slaves,!slave! traders,!and!slave!ships!alike.125!In!November!1683,!for!example,!while!serving!as!a! buccaneer!under!the!leadership!of!Captain!James!Cook—most!likely!a!Creole,!and!

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124!Jeoly!was!publically!displayed!at!the!behest!of!his!new!owner!for!at!least!nine!months!in! England,!at!which!point!he!disappears!from!the!historical!record.!It!is!unclear!how!long!Joely!survived!in! England,!but!in!all!likelihood!it!wasn’t!long!as!he!had!been!sick!for!months!and!greeted!by!the!onset!of! winter!soon!after!landing!on!the!British!Isle.!According!to!Dampier,!Joely!died!of!smallpox!in!Oxford.!Anton! Gill!writes,!“There!is!no!evidence!that![Joely]!was!treated!badly,!but!he!must!have!felt!lonely!and! abandoned.!Had!Dampier!discussed!with!him!his!plans!to!return!to!Meangis?!If!so,!the!shattering!of!that! dream!must!have!been!frightful.!Once!Dampier!had!sold!his!share!of!him…he!did!not!see!him!again.!Now! he!was!surrounded!by!people!with!whom!he!could!not!even!communicate,”!(Dampier!spoke!Malay,!and! presumably,!had!been!able!to!reasonably!communicate!with!Joely).!Gill,!Devil’s*Mariner,!121`122! 125!During!a!brief!stint!in!Virginia,!for!example,!Dampier!paid!an!African!Slave!a!cockerel!to!cure! him!of!a!worm—as!much!as!five!or!six!yards!long—that!had!taken!roost!in!the!skin!near!his!ankle.!Dampier! wrote!that!he!had!succeeded!in!drawing!out!approximately!two!feet!of!the!worm!on!his!own!by!first!using!a! plaster!to!bring!the!cyst!to!a!head!releasing!one!end!of!the!worm!which!he!wrapped!around!a!stick!and!used! to!draw!out!the!remainder!of!the!worm!a!little!at!a!time,!every!day,!morning!and!night.!Sadly,!his!diligent! efforts!were!not!enough!to!cure!him—for!much!of!the!worm!still!lay!buried!under!his!skin—at!which!point! he!turned!to!an!African!slave!to!cure!him!using!the!application!of!some!powder!and!some!incantations.!In! Dampier’s!own!words!as!quoted!in!Anton!Gill:!“[after!applying!some!powder]!and!mumbling!some!words! to!himself,![the!slave]!blew!upon!the!part!three!times,!and!waving!his!hands!as!often!over!it,!said,!it!would! be!well!speedily…!He!bade!me!not!open!it!in!three!days;!but!I!did!not!stay!so!long;!for!the!next!morning,!the! cloth!being!rubbed!off,!I!unbound!it,!and!found!the!worm!broken!off,!and!the!hole!quite!healed!up.!I!was! afraid!the!remaining!part!would!have!given!some!trouble,!but!have!not!felt!any!pain!there!from!that!day!to! this.”!The!records!of!Dampier’s!time!in!Virginia!are!very!limited,!but!it!is!possible!that!he!may!have!been! employed!on!a!slave!plantation!during!his!stay!in!the!colony.!Gill,!Devils*Mariner,!141`142! 156! ! originally!from!St.!Kitts—Dampier!along!with!the!rest!of!Cook’s!crew!conspired!in!an! outright!act!of!piracy,!taking!a!Dutch!slave!ship!along!the!Guinea!coast!carrying!sixty! female!slaves!in!addition!to!food,!water,!and!victuals.126!While!no!records!exist! describing!precisely!what!happened!to!the!female!slaves!after!the!ship!was!captured!at! sea,!the!sardonically!rechristened!vessel,!The*Bachelor’s*Delight!conveys!dark! insinuations.127!!

Further!underscoring!the!relationship!between!wind`knowledge!and!the!slave! trade—though!implicitly!so—Dampier!included!in!his!treatise!several!letters!of! correspondence!with!Henry!Greenhill,!Commissioner!of!his!Majesty’s!Navy!at!

Portsmouth,!and!former!Agent`General!for!the!Royal!African!Company!stationed!on!the!

African!Coast.128!Greenhill,!like!Dampier,!was!a!specialist!in!his!line!of!work.!He!was!an!

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126!Cook’s!crew!had!recently!careened!their!ship!near!the!mouth!of!the!River!“Sherborough”!along! the!Guinea!coast!and!were!headed!south!toward!the!Straits!of!Magellan.!Gill!provides!an!apt!description!of! the!location!“Today!this!is!Sherbro!Island,!in!the!southern!province!of!Sierra!Leone.”!Gill,!Pirate*of*Exquisite* Mind,!148.!Anton!Gill,!The*Devil’s*Mariner,!148`153.!The!Dutch!were!politically!neutral!at!this!time!so!such! behavior!on!the!part!of!the!English!was!overtly!illegal.!Enforcement,!however,!was!problematic.!! 127!Sexual!insinuations!aside,!in!all!likelihood!the!slaves!were!probably!sold!to!another!trader.! Dampier!was!not!directly!involved!in!the!slave!trade!during!his!years!at!sea;!he!did!not!thrive!as!a!slave! plantation!manager,!and!his!relationship!to!Joely!certainly!did!not!typify!most!master`slave!relations,!but!it! is!undisputable!that!these!incidents!and!events!nevertheless!linked!Dampier!to!the!slavery!as!a!formidable! and!prevalent!institution!and!one!with!which!he!was!certainly!familiar.!It!is!reasonable!to!suppose!that! because!slavery!had!become!increasingly!subject!to!moral!scrutiny!and!a!subject!of!social!controversy!he!and! his!publisher!had!chosen!to!safely!avoid!the!subject!in!his!published!work,!at!the!risk!of!alienating!or! angering!particular!sectors!of!the!population.!!!! 128!“The!Greenhill’s!had!been!substantial!yeomen!at!Steeple!Ashton!in!Wiltshire!since!at!least!1561.! Greenhill’s!father!was!registrar!of!the!diocese!of!Salisbury!and!his!elder!brother,!John,!became!a!portrait! painter!and!a!pupil!of!Lely.!Greenhill!himself!entered!the!merchant!navy!and!rose!to!the!rank!of!captain.!He! made!many!trading!voyages!to!the!West!Indies,!and!on!one!occasion!in!1676!narrowly!escaped!with!his!life! from!a!French!colony!in!Hispaniola.!In!1680!he!left!the!merchant!navy!for!the!equally!hazardous!post!of! Royal!African!Company!agent!on!the!Gold!Coast,!remaining!there!until!at!least!1683.!He!was!back!in! England!by!1687!when!elected!a!brother!of!Trinity!House,!and!in!1689!was!appointed!to!the!newly! 157! ! experienced!man!employed!in!a!field!that!necessitated!knowledge!of!the!wind!currents! along!the!equator!near!the!coast!of!Africa.129!He!not!only!validated!Dampier’s! knowledge!of!the!winds!but!provided!his!own!exceedingly!specific!description!of!a! route!used!by!the!Guinea!commanders!to!navigate!the!coast!of!Africa,!beginning!near!

Liberia!(Cape!Mount):!!!

In!getting!on!the!Coast,!we!endeavour!to!fall!in!with!Cape!Mount!or!Cape! Miserada!which!is!about!18!Leagues!to!the!E.S.!Eastward!thereof;!and!after!that! we!double!cape!Palmas!(Whence!as!aforesaid,!the!land!trends!away!E.!by!N.)!the! Current!near!the!shore!sets!upon!that!Point!down!into!the!Bite.!But!in!getting!off,! we!as!much!attempt!(if!possible)!to!lay!hold!of!St.!Thomas;!and!thence!to!run!to! the!Southward!of!the!Line,!perhaps!3!or!4!Degrees;!for!the!further!Southerly!we! go,!the!stronger!we!find!the!Gales,!and!more!beneficial!for!getting!off!the!African! Coast;!but!those!who!keep!to!the!Northward!thereof,!generally!meet!with!more! Calms;!and!consequently!longer!voyages!ensue.!In!or!about!those!Latitudes!we! continue,!till!we!are!got!between!25!and!30!Degrees!to!the!Westward!of!Cape! Lopez!de!Gonsalvo,!and!then!we!cross!again!to!go!either!for!England!or!the! West`Indies.!But!by!the!way!let!me!observe!to!you,!that!when!once!we!are!to!the! Westward!of!the!said!Cape,!and!in!South!latitude,!the!Current!sets!Northerly,! and!the!Wind!to!20!Degrees!of!Latitude,!is!at!E.!S.!E.!as!(to!the!like!number!of! Degrees)!on!the!North`side!of!the!Line!it!blows!at!E.N.E.!Neither!did!I!every! observe!any!Mutation!of!the!Currents,!unless!in!the!Tornado`Season,!when! during!their!blowing,!they!commonly!set!to!Wind`ward.130!

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! established!transports!commission,!from!which!he!was!promoted!two!years!later!to!be!commissioner!of!the! navy,!first!at!Plymouth!and!then!at!Portsmouth.”!Paula!Watson,!“Henry!Greenhill,”!History!of!Parliament,! accessed!February!21,!2015,!http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1690` 1715/member/greenhill`henry`1646`1708!! 129!Incidentally,!Greenhill!mentioned!having!just!recovered!from!the!gout.! 130!Greenhill!goes!on!to!talk!briefly!about!the!Tornadoes:!“The!said!Tornadoes!usually!come!in!the! Beginning!of!April,!and!seldom!relinquish!the!Gold!Coast!till!July!commences,!and!with!frequent!Visits! make!us!sensible!of!their!Qualities…The!name!implies!a!Variety!of!Winds:!But!the!Strength!of!them!is! generally!at!S.E.!and!by!Ships!that!are!bound!of!the!Coast,!they!are!made!use!of!to!get!to!Windward.”! Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!272`273! 158! !

Greenhill!could!clearly!identify!the!best!sailing!route!for!ships!headed!to!either!

England!or!the!West!Indies!as!dictated!by!the!wind!currents!along!the!African!coast.!He! knew!to!sail!several!degrees!south!of!the!line!to!locate!optimal!winds!for!getting!off!the! coast;!and!likewise,!he!knew!to!avoid!the!calms!northward.!!He!could!specify!the! direction!of!the!wind!and!water!currents!Westward!of!the!Cape!in!the!Southern!latitude,! and!he!understood!the!way!in!which!seasonality!affected!the!currents.!Yet,!for!all!he! does!say!in!this!particular!letter,!it!is!striking!that!Greenhill!never!explicitly!mentions!the! slave!trade!itself,!nor!the!ship,!nor!the!unique!cargo!the!Guinea!ships!carried!across!the! sea.!In!his!writing,!as!in!Dampier’s,!the!slave!trade!remains!implicit,!simultaneously!as! present!and!as!invisible!as!the!wind.!

Dampier!was!a!spokesman!for!freedom!but!the!freedom!he!advocated!for!was! economic!in!nature,!corresponding!to!the!English!imperialist!and!mercantilist! sensibilities!of!the!late!17th`century.!He!was!a!proto`capitalist!invested!in!free!trade.!His! efforts!as!a!sailor,!explorer,!and!a!published!writer!were!all!centered!around!commerce,! and!aimed,!in!part,!at!expanding!trade!routes!and!increasing!both!personal!and!imperial! opportunities!for!increased!economic!wealth!and!for!those!opportunities!generated!by* economic!wealth.!The!fact!that!Dampier!intended!to!use!his!slave!Joely!to!open!up!a!new! spice!trade!route!in!the!Philippines!reveals!a!great!deal!about!Dampier’s!priorities!as! does!his!literary!approach!toward!the!topic!of!slavery.!!As!a!writer!aiming!for!a!broad! audience!Dampier’s!notable!omission!of!any!direct!reference!to!the!slave!trade!by!name!

159! ! suggests!although!some!people!were!neither!defensive!nor!even!troubled!by!the! contradictions!of!slavery!and!freedom,!some!degree!of!discomfort!around!the!subject! had!begun!to!emerge!among!the!general!English!population.!Dampier!thus!chose!the! most!neutral!position!he!could!in!discussing!markets!of!transoceanic!commerce,!and!he! did!so!ostensibly!so!as!not!to!offend!anyone!and!potentially!limit!his!popularity!and! sales!as!a!writer.!Yet,!without!naming!the!slave!trade,!the!content!of!his!wind!treatise! nevertheless!points!directly!at!it.!The!routes!described,!the!coastlines,!and!the!ships! themselves!all!center!on!a!transoceanic!trade!in!human!beings!facilitated!by!wind! knowledge.!This!was!a!market!that!over!the!course!of!the!following!century!would!grow! to!vast!proportions,!with!England!besting!its!Dutch!and!Portuguese!rivals!when!it!came! to!human!trafficking.131!!

In!The*Slave*Ship,!historian!Marcus!Rediker,!calls!attention!to!the!technology!of! the!slave!ship!itself,!as!a!mechanism,!a!factory!or!sorts,!responsible!for!the!largest!forced! migration!in!history.132!He!argues!that!“the!slave!ship!was…a!crucial!instrument!to!the! formation!of!empires,!plantations,!the!rise!of!capitalism!itself,!because!the!labour!power! that!was!brought!across!the!Atlantic!on!ships!like!this!literally!powered!the!world!

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131!A!question!that!might!be!raised!here!is!whether!and!to!what!extent!Dampier’s!maps—his! maker’s!knowledge!and!that!of!others—help!England!establish!a!monopoly!over!the!slave!trade?!Is!it! possible!that!the!British!Navy!was!especially!good!at!preserving!maker’s!knowledge!among!its!sailors!and! that!this,!in!part,!contributed!to!nation’s!extraordinary!success!in!dominating!this!particular!transoceanic! market?! 132!Marcus!Rediker,!The*Slave*Ship:*A*Human*History!(London:!John!Murray,!2007).! 160! ! economy!of!the!17th,!18th,!and!19th!centuries”!and!was!responsible!for!the!production!of! unimaginable!wealth.133!According!to!Redikker,!scholars!specializing!in!the!history!of! the!transatlantic!slave!trade!have!nevertheless!largely!overlooked!the!slave!ship!itself!as! an!object!worthy!of!scholarly!attention:!“There!exists!no!analysis!of!the!instrument!that! facilitated!Europe’s!‘commercial!revolution’…the!slave!ship!and!its!social!relations!have! shaped!the!modern!world,!but!their!history!remains!in!many!ways!unknown.”134!

Rediker’s!masterful!analysis!of!the!history!of!the!slave!ship!remedies!this!lacuna!and! contributes!a!necessary!chapter!to!the!larger!narrative!of!the!trans`Atlantic!slave!trade.!

However,!an!examination!of!the!way!in!which!this!particular!technology!operated!in! relation!to!nature,!and!specifically!in!relation!to!the!wind—the!raw!motive!force! responsible!for!powering!the!slave!ships,!a!force!without!which!the!trade!itself!would! could!not!have!assumed!its!recognizable!form—adds!further!dimension!to!the!telling.!

The!wind!was!absolutely!crucial!to!the!slave!ship.!In!the!14th!century!the!

Portuguese!had!developed!a!three`!or!four`masted!sailing!ship!called!the!carrack!or!nau,! highly!influential!in!design!and!widely!used!by!European!nations!up!through!the!17th!

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133!Marcus!Rediker,!“Transcript!of!the!Floating!Dungeon,”!National!Museums!Liverpool,!accessed! February!21,!2015,!http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/podcasts/transcripts/slave_ship.aspx.!According!to! Rediker,!“Between!1700!and!1808!British!and!American!merchants!sent!ships!to!gather!slaves!in!six!basic! regions!of!Africa:!Senegambiak!Sierra!Leone/the!Windward!Coast,!the!Gold!Coast,!the!Bight!of!Benin,!the! Bight!of!Biafra,!and!West!Central!Africa!(Kongo,!Angola).!Ships!carried!the!captives!primarily!to!the!British! sugar!islands!(where!more!than!70!percent!of!all!slaves!were!purchased,!almost!half!of!these!at!Jamaica),!but! sizable!numbers!were!also!sent!to!French!and!Spanish!buyers!as!a!result!of!special!treaty!arrangements! called!the!Asiento.!About!one!in!ten!was!shipped!to!North!American!destinations.”!Rediker,!The*Slave*Ship,! 6.! 134!Rediker,!Slave*Ship,!10! 161! ! century,!particularly!on!transoceanic!voyages!of!trade!and!exploration.!A!carrack!was!a! large!ship!designed!to!maintain!stability!in!heavy!seas,!with!enough!space!to!store!the! ample!quantity!of!provisions!necessary!for!long!voyages.!The!distinguishing! characteristics!of!this!vessel!included!square`rigged!sails!on!the!foremast!and!mainmast,! and!lateen!rigging!on!the!mizzenmast.!Additional!topsails!and!square!sails!were! sometimes!hung!on!the!mainmast,!foremast,!and!bowsprit!to!take!full!advantage!of!the! winds.!Larger!carracks,!which!could!measure!up!to!150!feet,!sometimes!boasted!a!fourth! mast!called!the!bonaventure,!positioned!to!the!rear!of!the!mainmast!and!foremast.!!The! rigging!that!characterized!the!carrack!was!mimicked!by!its!successor,!the!galleon—a! warship!with!“less!cumbersome!fore`!and!sterncastels!and!a!greater!length!to!the! beam.”135!Although!ships!became!increasingly!specialized!between!1500!and!1850,!an!era! known!as!the!Age!of!Sail,!the!basic!design!of!most!vessels,!derived!by!and!large!from!the!

Portuguese!carrack,!changed!little.136!!

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135!Encyclopedia*Britannica,!(2015),!s.v.!“Carrack,”!accessed!February!15,!2015,! http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/96864/carrack!! 136!Building!these!boats!was!no!small!task.!The!number!of!various!trades!involved!in!the! construction!of!a!single!ship!was!truly!remarkable.!The!master!shipwright!directed!the!activities!of!dozens! of!laborers!as!they!erected!the!keel,!attached!the!ribs,!and!fashioned!the!hull.!Caulkers,!joiners,!blacksmiths,! and!masons!attended!to!the!seams,!rails!and!interior,!anchors!and!ironwork,!and!bricklaying.!Sail!makers! and!coopers!stepped!in!as!well;!the!former!sewing!the!canvas!sails!that!harnessed!the!motive!force!of!the! ship,!and!the!later!furnishing!the!barrels!used!for!storing!cargo!and!for!storing!provisions!such!as!food!and! water.!Painters,!wood`carvers!and!finishers!charged!with!decorating!the!ship!provided!the!finishing!touches! before!the!ship!received!its!crew.!Shipbuilding!was!an!art!as!much!as!a!craft,!and!the!methods!specific!to!this! specialized!artisanal!trade!were!passed!down!from!master!to!apprentice,!and!scarcely!documented.! According!to!Rediker,!“For!most!of!the!eighteenth!century,!shipwrights!still!built!‘by!eye,’!or!from!models,”! (Rediker,!Slave*Ship,!55).!However,!shipwrights!moved!around,!from!city!to!city,!from!nation!to!nation,! much!like!the!ships!they!designed.!As!a!result,!the!knowledge,!craft,!and!technologies!associated!with!the! trade!was!easily!and!readily!transferred!among!competing!shipwrights!and!among!competing!nations.!This! 162! !

The!slave!ship!was!no!exception.!However,!the!human!cargo!transported!in!slave! ships!distinguished!these!trading!vessels!from!other!merchant!ships!and!uniquely! informed!their!architecture:!the!lower!deck!was!designed!to!accommodate!slaves!and! included,!among!other!things,!airports!just!above!the!waterline.137!This!singular!feature! set!these!ships!apart!from!other!merchant!vessels.!Without!the!fresh!breeze!provided!by! these,!albeit,!largely!ineffectual!air!vents,!the!human!cargo!below!would!have!died!of! asphyxiation,!and!many!slaves!did!die!according!to!the!records!left!by!numerous! physicians!on!board!such!ships.138!Some!of!the!larger!slave!ships!responded!to!this! concern!by!using!windsails!to!promote!ventilation!below!decks.139!The!windsail!was!a! long!funnel!tubes,!fashioned!out!of!canvas!and!attached!to!the!hatches!to!channel!fresh! air!into!the!hold.!They!were!originally!designed!to!promote!sailors’!health!on!men`of` war.!However,!asphyxiation!by!slaves!below!deck!was!enough!of!a!concern!that!by!the! late!1700s!approximately!one!in!twenty!slave!ships!used!windsails.140!!

The!windsails!may!have!helped!clear!some!of!the!foul!air!that!gave!the!ship!its! horribly!distinctive!smell.!However,!most!ships!did!not!use!this!technology!and!those! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! created!a!degree!of!uniformity!in!both!ship!design!and!production!despite!how!rarely!ship!design!and! construction!was!documented.!Thus!most!of!the!ships!sailing!the!open!seas!shared!resemblance.!The!ways! in!which!they!harnessed!the!wind!were!more!similar!than!different.!! 137!According!to!Rediker,!of!the!approximately!twelve!to!fifteen`million!people!loaded!onto!slave! ships!in!West!Africa,!approximately!15!percent!died!on!the!journey!from!West!Africa!across!the!Atlantic.! Rediker,!“The!Floating!Dungeon.”!! 138Rediker,!“Transcript!of!The!Floating!Dungeon.”!! 139!Rediker,!Slave*Ship,!71! 140!Rediker,!Slave*Ship,!71! 163! ! that!did!were!still!no!match!for!the!wretched!air!that!amassed!below!deck—a!noxious! mixture!of!sweat,!excrement,!sickness,!and!death!that!tainted!the!air!both!in!and!around! these!ships.!According!to!Rediker,!it!was!said!that!when!the!winds!were!blowing!in!the! right!direction,!people!in!port!on!land!could!smell!a!Guineaman!coming!weeks!before!it! arrived.!The!stench!of!the!wind!spoke!of!the!horrors!that!took!place!upon!these!dreaded! vessels.!The!fetor!conveyed!inland!reflected!the!death,!sickness,!and!brutality!that!was! part!and!parcel!of!the!Middle!Passage.141!!

Ironically!perhaps,!the!sea`wind!conferred!below!deck!by!windsails!and!airports,! so!essential!to!the!health!of!the!slaves,!also!threatened!to!undermine!that!health!another! way.!Slaves!were!kept!above!deck!for!as!much!of!the!day!as!possible!to!promote!their! vitality!chiefly!through!movement!and!exercise![footnote!about!forced!dancing!etc.]!In! his!testimony!before!the!British!House!of!Commons!in!1789,!for!example,!Captain!

William!Littleton,!who!had!sailed!to!Gambia!in!1762!and!remained!there!as!a!merchant! for!eleven!years,!testified!to!the!practice!of!bringing!slaves!upon!the!deck:!!!

From!Gambia!the!weather!is!generally!fair!and!pleasant!after![ships]!get!to! windward!of!the!Cape!de!Verde!islands,!when!they!fall!in!with!the!trade!winds.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

141!At!time,!these!winds!at!times!carried!these!abhorrent!scents!away!from!the!ship:!John!Riland,! who!sailed!on!board!a!slave!ship!bound!for!Jamaica!from!the!Windward!Coast!of!Africa!bedded!in!a!cot! located!above!the!sleeping!chambers!of!approximately!twenty!five!African!girls.!“The!caption!warned! [Riland]!his!cabinmate!that!‘the!smell!would!be!unpleasant!for!a!few!days,’!but!reassured!him!that!‘when!we! got!into!the!trade!winds!it!would!no!longer!be!perceived.’”!Under!the!right!circumstances!the!wind!was!just! as!capable!of!erasing!certain!traces!of!the!inhumanity!that!took!place!on!board!the!ship!as!it!was!of! conveying!it.!In!this!case,!according!to!Riland,!the!trade!winds!did!not!mitigate!the!smell:!“‘during!the!night,! he!wrote,!‘I!hung!over!a!crowd!of!slaves!together!on!the!floor,!whose!stench!at!times!was!almost!beyond! endurance.”!The!winds!that!carried!these!prison!factories!across!the!seas!narrated!the!horrors!of!these!ships! to!those!who!were!unfortunate!enough!to!inhale!that!uniquely!foul!breeze.!Rediker,!Slave*Ship,!69! 164! !

After!this,!the!slaves!are!very!seldom!prevented!by!the!weather!from!being!on! deck!daily.!They!have!some!heavy!but!short!squalls!of!rain,!when!they!spread! awnings!over!them.!But!it!is!a!general!rule!to!keep!them!on!deck!as!much!as!they! can!with!prudence.142!! !

The!sea!air!was!both!damp!and!cool,!however,!and!since!the!vast!majority!of! slaves!were!naked,!they!had!no!protection!against!the!sea!wind!above!deck!or!below.!

“Slaves!oftener!complain!of!cold!than!heat!in!Middle!Passage,!noted!Captain!Littleton!

“They!often!request!to!go!below,!when!it!blows!fresh,!and!they!happen!to!be!on!the! shady!side!of!the!deck.”143!Likewise,!he!also!observed!that!“there!are!air`ports!and! gratings!in!all!Guinea`men,!and!sometimes!so!much!air,!that![the!slaves]!beg!to!have! part!of!the!tarpaulins!laid!over!them.”144!Under!such!circumstances!many!slaves!caught! cold!from!exposure!and!died.!The!wind!and!air!so!necessary!for!the!slaves’!health!at!sea,! also!threatened!their!mortality!in!these!dire!circumstances.145!

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142!Littleton,!as!quoted!in!Great!Britain,!House!of!Parliament,!Abridgment*of*the*Minutes*of*the* Evidence*Taken*Before*a*Committee*of*the*Whole*House*to*Whom*it*was*Referred*to*Consider*of*the*Slave*Trade,*1789! House!of!Commons,!Abridgement*of*the*Minutes,!no.!1!(1789),!61,!accessed!March!15,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=U1cSAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&ca d=0#v=onepage&q&f=false!!! 143!Littleton!as!quoted!in!Abridgement*of*the*Minutes,!62! 144!Littleton!as!quoted!in!Abridgement*of*the*Minutes,!61! 145!Captain!Greenhill!was!familiar!with!cold!deadly!winds,!and!in!Dampier’s!text!he!wrote!of!his! experience!with!the!winds!off!the!Guinea!coast,!focusing!on!the!Harmatan!winds!in!particular:!land`winds! which!blow!off!the!coast!of!Guinea!(West!Africa)!between!E.!and!E.N.E.!to!the!Northward!from!late! December!to!the!beginning!of!February!and!are!exceedingly!cold.!Greenhill!writes,!“They!are!so!very!cold,! sharp!and!piercing!a!Nature,!that!the!Seams!of!the!floors!of!our!Chambers!and!the!Sides!and!decks!of!our! Ships!(as!far!as!they!are!above!Water)!will!open!so!wide,!as!that!with!Facility!you!may!put!a!Caulking`Iron!a! considerable!way!into!them;!in!which!Condition!they!continue!so!long!as!the!Harmatan!blows,!(which!is! sometimes!two!or!three,!and!very!rarely!five!Days…)and!when!they!are!gone,!they!close!again!and!are!as! tight!as!if!it!never!had!been.”!Dampier,!Discourse*on*Wind,!270.!According!to!Greenhill,!when!such!winds! blew,!the!locals,!by!necessity,!confined!themselves!inside!and!made!all!attempts!to!secure!their!habitations! 165! !

Just!as!the!winds!alternately!supported!and!threatened!the!slaves’!health!so!too! did!the!winds!jointly!facilitate!and!impede!various!logistical!aspects!of!the!slave!trade! such!as!landing,!anchoring,!and!departing!at!slave!ports,!and!travel!time!to!and!from! one!destination!to!another.!John!Barnes!esquire,!who!spent!thirteen!years!in!Africa!as!the! governor!of!Senegal!from!1763!to!1766,!testified!before!the!House!of!Commons!that! although!there!was!“a!great!deal!of!slave!trade!in!that!distance”!along!the!coast!between!

Sherbro!and!the!Bite!of!Benin,!the!region!was!not!fit!for!landing!a!ship!“without!great! danger.”146!!In!Barnes’!estimation,!however,!the!wind!and!weather!along!the!Gold!Coast,! however,!extending!approximately!400!miles!from!Cape!La!Hou!to!the!River!Volta,! greatly!facilitated!slave!trade!by!providing!safe!landing!places!as!well!as!safe!anchorage! and!safe!departure!from!the!coast.!Barnes!testified!that!he!had!“never!heard!of!ships! being!lost!by!stress!of!weather!on!the!Gold!Coast;!because!the!wind!is!always!along,!or!

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! from!penetration!by!this!cold!wind.!The!Harmatans!took!their!toll!on!the!Cattle!as!well,!and!if!their! masters/proprietors!neglected!to!provide!suitable!shelter!for!them!when!these!winds!were!blowing!the! Harmatans!would!claim!the!life!of!the!livestock,!“…for!it!most!certainly!destroys!them,!and!that!in!a!very! short!time,”!he!noted,!(p.!271).!Greenhill!experienced!such!a!loss!firsthand!by!negligently!exposing!several! goats!to!“the!Asperity!thereof”!only!to!find!them!dead!in!approximately!four!hours,!(p.!271).!He!described! these!winds!as!the!most!“steady!(but!fresh)!Gales!I!ever!observed;!coming!without!Thunder,!Lightning!or! Rain;!but!close!gloomy!Weather;!the!Sun!not!shining!all!the!time:!And!when!they!expire,!the!Trade`wind,! (which!constantly!blows!on!that!Coast!at!W.S.W.!and!S.W.),!returns!with!the!accustomary!seasonableness!of! weather,”!(p.271).!Although!the!Harmatan’s!were!principally!a!land`wind!the!winds!at!sea!could!be!just!as! bitter!and!threatening!to!the!health!of!slaves!and!sailors!alike.!! 146!Barnes!as!quoted!in!Abridgement*of*the*Minutes,!6.!In!addition,!Richard!Miles!esquire!who!worked! for!over!18!years!on!the!Gold!Coast!!(which!extends!from!Cape!La!Hou!to!the!River!Volta,!approximately! 400!miles)!had!this!to!say:!“when!a!ship!happened!to!sail!at!night!it!was!to!take!the!benefit!of!an!early!land` wind;!but!most!ships!sail!from!5!to!11!A.M.”!Richard!Miles!Esquire!as!quoted!in!Abridgement!of!the! Minutes,!16! 166! ! off!shore.!For!the!same!reason!ships!can!put!to!sea!at!pleasure.”147!The!extent!to!which! nature!facilitated!and!inadvertently!privileged!the!development!of!particular!slave! markets!over!others!cannot!be!overstated.!Wind!currents,!and!local!topography!played!a! key!role!in!the!uneven!development!of!transoceanic!commerce!along!the!coasts!and! between!continents,!and!logistically,!shaped!the!evolution!of!the!slave!trade!to!an! enormous!degree.!

The!same!natural!force!facilitating!the!slave!trade!also!functioned!to!undermine!it! as!well,!however,!for!the!wind!had!no!allegiance.!As!duel!commons,!both!the!wind!and! knowledge!of!the!wind!could!be!utilized!by!anyone!for!any!set!of!purposes,!be!they! political,!economic,!or!personal!in!nature.!The!threat!of!mutiny!on!board!a!slave!ship! was!a!constant!and!a!given.!And!in!those!instances!when!a!mutiny!proved!successful,! the!wind!became!a!collaborator!in!the!slaves’!emancipatory!efforts.148!!In!Documents*

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147!Richard!Miles!esquire!who!worked!for!over!18!years!on!the!Gold!Coast!!(which!extends!from! Cape!La!Hou!to!the!River!Volta,!approximately!400!miles)!had!this!to!say:!“when!a!ship!happened!to!sail!at! night!it!was!to!take!the!benefit!of!an!early!land`wind;!but!most!ships!sail!from!5!to!11!A.M.”!Richard!Miles! Esquire!as!quoted!in!Abridgement*of*the*Minutes,!16! 148!For!a!comprehensive!database!on!ship!board!revolts!see!David!Eltis,!Stephen!d.!Behrendt,!David! Richardson!and!Herbert!S.!The*trans@Atlantic*Slave*Trade:*A*Database*on*CD@ROM!(Cambridge,!1999).!For! focused!treatment!on!slave!mutinies!see!Eric!Robert!Taylor,*If*We*Must*Die:*Shipboard*Insurrections*in*the*Era* of*the*Atlantic*Slave*Trade!(Baton!Rouge:!Louisiana!State!University!Press,!2006).!Taylor!includes!a!useful! Appendix:!“Chronology!of!Shipboard!Slave!Revolts,!1509`1865,!(p.!179`213).!For!historical!accounts!of!the! slave!trade,!including!but!not!limited!to!information!on!slave!ship!mutiny!please!see:!Roger!T.!Anstey,!The* Atlantic*Slave*Trade*and*British*Abolition,*1760@1810!(Atlantic!Highlands,!N.!J:!Humanities!press,!1975);!Jay! Coughtry,!The*Notorious*Triangle:*Rhode*Island*and*the*African*Slave*Trade,*1700@1607!(Philadelphia:!Temple! University!Press,!1981);!Basil!Davidson,!The*African*Slave*Trade:*Revised*and*Expanded*Edition*(Boston:!Little,! Brown,!1980);!Elizabeth!Donnan,!ed.,!Documents*Illustrative*of*the*History*of*the*Slave*Trade.!2!vols.!(New!York,! Octagon,!1965);!George!Dow,!Frances*Slave*Ships*and*Slavings!(Salem,!Mass:!Marine!Research!Society,!1927);! Klein,!The*Atlantic*Slave*Trade;!Klein,!The*Middle*Passage:*Comparative*Studies*in*the*Atlantic*Slave*Trade! (Princeton,!NJ:!Princeton!University!Press,!1978);!Paul!Lovejoy,!Africans*in*Bondage:*Studies*in*Slavery*and*the* 167! ! illustrative*of*the*History*of*the*Slave*Trade,*for!example,!George!Scott,!Master!of!the!Sloop! the!Little*George!describes!a!mutiny!on!board!his!ship!as!it!sailed!from!the!Bonnana!

Islands!on!the!Coast!of!Guinea!in!the!year!1730.149!Approximately!100!leagues!from!the! coast!the!male!slaves!“got!off!their!irons”!and!after!killing!the!posted!watchmen! managed!to!overpower!the!captain!and!the!remaining!hands!on!deck,!and!barricade! them!in!the!cabin.150!“Then!they!made!Sail!(as!they!thought)!towards!Land…the!same! land!we!departed!from”!writes!Scott.151!In!another!four!or!five!days!more!the!ship!

“struck!upon!the!bar!of!Serrilone!River”!around!midnight,!where!the!slaves,!assisted!by! local!Natives!with!guns,!made!their!way!ashore,!leaving!the!captain!and!the!remaining! crew!forced!to!take!flight!in!their!rowboat!down!river!to!avoid!being!shot!and!killed.152!!

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Slave*Trade,!(Madison:!University!of!Wisconsin!Press,!1986);!Patrick!Manning,!Slavery*and*African*Life:* Occidental,*Oriental,*and*African*Slave*Trades!(New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1990);!Hugh!Thomas,! The*Slave*Trade:*The*Story*of*the*Atlantic*Slave*Trade,*1440@1870!(New!York:!Simon!&!Schuster,!1997);!John! Thornton,!Africa*and*Africans*in*the*Making*of*the*Atlantic*World,*1400@1800,!2d!ed.!(New!York:!Cambridge! University!Press,!1998);!John!Vogt,!Portuguese*Rule*on*the*Gold*Coast,*1469@1682!(Athens:!University!of! Georgia!Press,!1979);!James!Walvin,!Making*the*Black*Atlantic:*Britain*and*the*African*Diaspora!(New!York:! Cassell,!2000).! 149!Donnan,!Slave*Trade,!119`121! 150!The!ship!was!carrying!ninety`six!slaves!total,!thirty`five!of!which!were!male.!“Making!way!thro’! the!bulkhead!of!the!Deck,![these!slaves]!killed!the!Watch!consisting!of!John!Harris!Doctor,!Jonathan!Ebens! Cooper,!and!Thomas!Ham!Sailor;!who!were,!tis!thought,!all!asleep,”!writes!Scott.!Barricaded!in!the!cabin,! Scott!and!his!men!made!repeated,!unsuccessful!attempts!to!blow!up!the!ship!using!the!powder!available!to! them!in!the!cabin!quarters,!and!when!this!failed!they!resolved!to!“cut!away!the!Ceiling!and!bore!some!Holes! thro’!the!Vessels!Bottom…and!let!in!about!three!feet!of!water”!with!the!intention!of!sinking!the!ship.!Their! attempts!proved!unsuccessful,!however.!Donnan,!Slave*Trade,!119! 151!Four!days!after!the!insurgency!they!were!within!sight!of!land,!“the!same!Land!we!departed! from,”!and!four!or!five!days!later!they!struck!the!shore!of!the!Serrilone!River.!Donnan,!Slave*Trade,!119`120! 152!After!rowing!down!river!for!approximately!two!leagues,!Scott!and!his!men!encountered!a!sloop! under!the!command!of!James!Collingwood,!which!proved!their!saving!grace,!and!“where!we!refreshed!our! 168! !

It!is!unclear!from!Scott’s!account!whether!any!of!the!slaves!on!board!the!Little*

George!had!prior!experience!at!sea!or!knowledge!of!the!wind!and!water!currents!in!the! region.!What!is!clear,!however,!is!that!regardless!of!how!they!came!by!their!wind! knowledge,!whether!from!past!experience!or!by!educating!themselves!in!the!moment!as! necessity!demanded,!the!slaves!in!this!instance!were!able!to!harness!the!wind!and! effectively!navigate!the!ship!to!serve!their!own!purposes—freedom.!They!were!able!to! do!this,!in!part,!owing!to!the!empirical!nature!of!wind!knowledge.!And!in!doing!so!they! subverted!not!only!the!aims!of!the!merchants!who!endeavored!to!control!them!and!the! markets!that!facilitated!such!trade!in!human!beings,!but!the!grander!aims!of!empire! insofar!as!commerce!was!linked!to!state!power,!and!power!to!politics!and!imperial! design.153!The!wind!just!as!readily!became!a!tool!for!subversion!when!circumstances! allowed.!!

The!slave!mutiny!on!board!the!Little*George!was!not!exceptional!as!an!incident,! though!its!successful!outcome!for!the!slaves!may!have!been.154!More!common!than!tales! of!triumph!in!which!slaves!successfully!navigated!the!wind!to!freedom,!are!stories!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! selves,!being!all!of!us!in!a!weak!and!miserable!condition,!having!had!nothing!to!subsist!upon,!during!the! Nine!Days!we!were!under!this!Affliction!but!Raw!Rice.”!Donnan,!Slave*Trade,*121! 153!The!slave!mutiny!on!board!the!Little!George!was!not!exceptional!as!an!incident,!though!its! successful!outcome!for!the!slaves!may!have!been.!! 154!For!examples!of!other!successful!slave!mutinies!see:!Eric!R.!Taylor,!If*We*Must*Die:*Shipboard* Insurrections*in*the*Era*of*the*Atlantic*Slave*Trade*(Baton!Rouge:!Louisiana!State!University!Press,!2006);!and! Joseph!E.!Holloway,!“African!Slave!Insurrections!on!Board!Slave!Ships,”!The!Slave!Rebellion!Website,! accessed!February!21,!2015,!http://slaverebellion.org/index.php?page=african`insurrections.!Holloway! includes!a!substantial!and!well`researched!chronological!list!of!shipboard!slave!rebellions!from!1509!to!1865.! 169! ! slave!ship!mutinies!in!which!the!slaves’!seizure!and!navigation!of!the!slave!ship! ultimately!resulted!in!its!recapture!by!another!vessel,!and!the!slaves’!recapture!by! extension.!An!account!by!the!Philadelphia!surgeon!William!Chancellor,!for!example,! who!served!as!surgeon!on!board!the!slave!ship!Wolf*from!1749`1751,!described!such!an! incident!in!the!diary!of!his!travels.!While!sailing!along!the!West!African!coast!between!

Annamabo!and!Lagos!an!uprising!took!place!which,!(by!the!account!given!to!Chancellor! by!the!slaves),!was!initiated!by!the!ship’s!second!mate.!The!second!mate,!who!had! grown!angry!with!the!captain!for!perpetually!abusing!him,!convinced!the!slaves!they! would!be!eaten!in!Europe!and!promised!them!their!freedom!to!incite!mutiny!against!his! agitator.155!While!the!details!of!the!mutiny!are!lost,!the!record!suggests!it!was!a!violent! affair,!which!led!to!some!portion!of!the!slaves!fleeing!in!the!yawl!along!with!the!alleged! ringleader!of!the!plot,!though!they!were!recaptured!and!their!collective!efforts! ultimately!proved!unsuccessful.!“We!rec’d!an!acct.!that!the!Slaves!that!got!away!in!the! yawl!were!taken!so!that!we!may!everyday!with!the!vile!man!before!mentioned!(&!

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155!Harold!D.!Wax,!A!Philadelphia!Surgeon!on!a!Slaving!Voyage!to!Africa,!1749`1751,”!The* Pennsylvania*Magazine*of*History*and*Biography!92,!no.!4!(1968):!465`493.!Wax!writes:!“having!some! conversation!with!the!rebel!negroes!last!night!they!unfolded!the!whole!mystery!of!the!insurrection!which! was!contrive’d!by!the!second!mate!in!revenge!to!the!usage!he!rec’d!from!the!Capt…as!he!told!them,!a!notion! of!their!being!eat!in!Europe…part!by!his!promise!and!part!by!thr!fear!of!being!eat!in!Europe!he!prevail’d,”! (p.485).!“I!went!to!Cape!Coast!and!return’d!the!next!with!the!white!man!that!went!away!in!the!yawl…[who]! discovered!me!an!acct.!of!the!whole!affair!whose!deposition!I!took.!The!second!mates!intention!was!to! procure!the!Gold!dust!to!himself,!and!then!by!putting!got!death!the!white!me,!turn!pirate!with!the!Vessel,! and!was!the!very!person!that!gave!the!Cutlass!they!had!got!to!them!face!to!face!they!were!brought!but!he! denied!every!circumstance!they!upon!oath!positively!declared!to!his!face,!How!this!unhappy!affair!will!end,! Heav’n!&!the!Sovereign!director!can!only!tell,”!(p.486).!! 170! ! concerned!in!the!plot)!expect!them,”!he!writes.156!Tensions!among!competing!uses!of! wind!knowledge!and!the!wind!commons!are!highlighted!in!instances!of!successful! uprising!followed!by!subsequent!recapture!Such!cases!clearly!illustrate!just!how!readily! the!wind!could!be!employed!for!cross`purposes—freedom!on!the!one!hand,!versus!the! perpetuation!of!captivity!on!the!other.157!!

A!similar!event!was!reported!in!The*New*York*Gazette!on!January!23,!1749.!The!

Gazette!printed!an!account!of!a!mutiny!on!the!sloop!Polly!bound!from!St.!Domingo!to!the!

West!Indies,!under!the!leadership!of!William!Johnson,!as!described!in!the!private!letters! of!a!Captain!Witter.158!According!to!the!news!report,!the!ship!was!taken!over!by!“four!

Spanish!Negroes”!who!“rose!upon!the!English!in!their!Passage!and!murder’d!them!all…!

Their!Plea!for!doing!it,!is!that!they!were!born!Freemen,!and!made!Slaves!by!the!English! during!the!War,!and!how!no!other!Way!of!getting!their!liberty.”159!These!once!free!men,! having!been!enslaved!and!forced!upon!the!ship,!commandeered!the!tools!of!their! subjugators—namely!the!ship!and!the!wind—in!an!attempt!to!procure!their!freedom,! steering!toward!Santo!Domingo!before!being!recaptured.!Their!bid!for!freedom!entailed!

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156!Chancellor!and!presumably!others!sustained!life`threatening!injuries.!He!writes,!“I!cannot!help! mentioning!that!during!the!time!of!this!action!one!of!the!little!boys!to!whom!I!had!taken!a!liking!and!he!to! me,!attended!me!with!Balls!and!Cutlass!&!during!the!time!that!I!was!fainting!from!the!loss!of!blood!got!me! some!water!to!wch.!I!attribute!my!being!able!to!keep!myself!up.!Wax,!“A!Philadelphia!Surgeon,”!485! 157!A!similar!instance!was!reported!in!the!Pennsylvania!Gazette,!in!reference!to!an!uprising!in!1749! on!board!the!slave!ship!Polly!under!the!leadership!of!Captain!William!Johnson,!Pennsylvania*Gazette.!“West! Indies![intra`American!slave!transport].!All!crewmen!killed;!revolt!successful.!Africans!recaptured!and! jailed.”!Jan.!31,!1749;!July!27,!1749.!American!Historical!Newspapers.!! 158!New@York*Gazette,*or*Weekly*Post@Boy!(New!York,!New!York),!January!23,!1749,!Issue!314,!p.!3.!! 159!The*New*York*Gazette,!Jan!23,!1749! 171! ! utilizing!wind!knowledge!for!personal!gain,!in!the!same!manner!as!those!who!used!the! wind!currents!to!effectively!capture!them!again.!!

The!previous!examples!call!attention!to!the!ways!in!which!slaves!were! occasionally!able!to!harness!the!winds!in!pursuit!of!and!in!the!occasional!realization!of! freedom.!Some!cases,!however,!were!more!complex.!In!1764,!for!example,!a!case! involving!mutiny!and!slave!insurrection!went!before!a!Boston!Court.!Chief!mate!

William!Preest!was!charged!with!revolting!and!murdering!Captain!Goold,!commander! of!the!slave!ship!Hope*while!the!vessel!lay!anchored!in!the!Senegal!River.!According!to!

Preest’s!testimony,!which!appeared!in!the!Massachusetts*Gazette*and*the*Boston*News@

Letter,!“It!is!said!Preest!confesses!that!he!assisted!in!throwing!the!Captain!over`board! after!he!was!dead!but!that!one!Huntington,!second!Mate,!and!one!Miller,!a!Foremast!

Man,!Knocked!the!said!Capt.!Goold!in!the!Head!with!a!musket,!while!he!lay!asleep,! which!was!on!the!15the!of!May!last.”160!!After!the!captain!had!been!disposed!of,!the! second!mate!assumed!command!of!the!vessel!and!brought!on!another!cargo!of!slaves.!

As!the!ship!made!its!way!from!the!coast!of!Africa!to!St.!Thomas,!(located!in!the!West!

Indies),!however,!the!Africans!themselves!mutinied.!And!though!their!efforts!ultimately! proved!unsuccessful,!they!still!did!damage.!The!newspaper!reported!that!one!or!two! crew!members,!and!seven!or!eight!slaves!were!killed!in!the!conflict.!This!episode!thus!

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160!The*Massachusetts*Gazette,*and*Boston*News*Letter!(Boston,!Massachusetts),!January!7,!1765,!Issue! 3815,!p.!3.!! ! 172! ! involved!two!interrelated!sets!of!mutinies—one!against!the!original!captain,!and!one! against!the!subsequent!order!that!replaced!his!authority.!In!an!interesting!twist!of!fate,! when!the!ship!landed!in!Puerto!Rico,!“the!Spaniards!seized!the!Vessel!and!Slaves.”161!!

This!particular!case!thus!cuts!several!ways:!the!crew!mutinied!against!the!captain! and!worked!to!capitalize!on!their!wind!knowledge!at!the!expense!of!an!African! population!sold!into!slavery.!However,!these!slaves!then!rallied!against!the!piratical! crew!in!the!hope!of!seizing!the!ship!to!procure!their!own!freedom.!The!subsequent! intervention!of!the!Spanish!state—as!an!arbiter!and!enforcer!of!the!legal!uses!of!the!wind! commons!and!the!legal!applications!of!wind!knowledge—is!the!third!player!of!this! triangulation!of!power!plays.!Governments!worked!hard!to!control!the!routes!and!the! commerce!dependent!upon!the!international!wind!and!water!currents!that!moved!across! the!Atlantic!and!beyond,!and!this!case!is!illustrative!of!an!instance!in!which!the!state! ultimately!succeeded,!by!luck!more!than!strategy.!However,!the!scenario!is!an!equal! reminder!that!anyone—be!they!common!men,!sailors,!or!slaves—on!board!any!ship,!was! in!a!position!to!challenge!and!subvert!the!authority!of!the!captain!and!to!deploy!their! own!wind!knowledge!for!their!own!aims!if!they!were!willing!to!take!the!risk.!This!was!a! fact!not!lost!on!the!state.!The!empirical!quality!of!wind!knowledge!facilitated!such! efforts,!and!the!very!presence!of!pirates!and!the!constant!threat!of!mutiny!on!board!all!

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161!The*Massachusetts*Gazette,*and*Boston*News*Letter!(Boston,!Massachusetts),!January!7,!1765,!Issue! 3815,!p.!3;!also!The*Massachusetts*Gazette,*and*Boston*News*Letter!or*The*New*Hampshire*Gazette*and*Historical* Chronicle*(Portsmouth,!New!Hampshire),!April!4,!1765,!Vol.!4,!Issue!443,!p.3.!!! 173! ! ships!confirms!that!the!state!was!never!wholly!successful!at!privatizing!wind!knowledge! and!well!aware!of!the!threat!and!instability!this!posed.!!

In!“A!true!Account!of!George!Pattison’s!being!Taken!by!the!Turks,”!Quaker!and! sailor!Thomas!Lurting!gives!an!detailed!account!of!an!affair!that,!like!the!previous! example,!highlights!competing!and!entwined!bids!for!power!among!rival!parties,!the! manifestations!of!which!were!tied!to!the!commons!and!to!the!empirical!quality!of!wind! knowledge.162!Lurting!was!a!Quaker!and!a!pacifist!impressed!into!the!Royal!Navy.!In!

1663,!a!Turkish!vessel—a!Man!of!War,!“called!a!Patach,”!gave!chase!to!and!sized!the! ship!Lurting!was!stationed!upon.163!The!Turks!boarded!the!ship!and!Lurting!and!his! crew,!now!captives,!feared!being!taken!to!Algiers!and!sold!into!slavery.164!Through!a! guise!of!passivity!and!cooperation,!however,!Lurting!and!the!crew!set!the!stage!for!a! mutiny!against!their!captors!that!involved!locking!the!Turks!below!deck!and!taking! control!of!the!vessel!so!that!the!ship!sailed!for!the!Spanish`controlled!isle!of!May!York,! rather!than!Algiers.!In!a!twist!of!fate,!the!Turkish!captors!had!become!English!captives.!

“They…fell!all!to!Crying,!writes!Lurting,!“for!their!Courage!was!taken!from!them,!and! they!desired!that!they!might!not!be!Sold.”165!When!the!ship!landed!in!May!York,!Lurting! hid!the!captives!to!ensure!that!they!would!not!be!seen!and!seized!by!the!Spanish.!

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162!Thomas!Lurting,!The*Fighting*Sailor*Turn’d*Peaceable*Christian!(London:!J.!Sowle,!1710).! 163!Lurting,!Peaceable*Christian,!30! 164!With!the!blessings!of!the!Captain,!Lurting!ordered!the!crew!to!behave!passively!and! cooperatively!in!order!to!gain!the!trust!of!their!Turkish!captors:!“The!Turks!seeing!our!Dilligence,!made! them!Careless!of!us,”!writes!Lurting.!Lurting,!Peaceable*Christian,!36! 165!Lurting,!Peaceable*Christian,!38! 174! !

Despite!these!measures,!however,!the!Spanish!learned!of!their!presence.166!Thus!to! prevent!the!Turks’!seizure!by!the!Spanish,!Lurting!chose!to!temporarily!free!them!so! they!might!help!steer!the!ship!to!safety.!The!two!opposing!parties!thus!united!in! protection!against!their!common!enemy,!combining!their!maritime!skills!and!wind! knowledge!to!navigate!the!ship!safely!out!of!harms!way:!“we!put!our!selves!to!the! hazard!of!the!Turks,!to!save!them,”!writes!Lurting.167!Lurting!and!the!English!crew! planned!to!sail!for!London,!but!as!a!religious!and!compassionate!man,!as!well!as!a! pacifist,!the!thought!of!the!Turks!being!taken!captive!in!England!disturbed!him.!Lurting! thus!made!the!surprising!decision!to!reroute!the!ship!and!sail!all!the!way!back!to!Algeria! to!free!their!Turkish!captives!before!returning!to!England.168!It!is!clear!that!he!did!so!to! prevent!conflict,!for!the!threat!of!an!uprising!among!the!Turkish!captives!was!serious,! but!more!pointedly,!Lurting!based!his!decision!to!sail!back!to!Algeria!and!free!the!Turks! on!moral!grounds.!He!was,!out!of!religious!principle,!opposed!to!violence!and!opposed! to!slavery.!He!therefore,!used!his!wind!knowledge!in!political!opposition!to!market!force! and!political!force,!subverting!the!associated!conventions!out!of!moral!and!religious! conviction.!When!he!and!his!crew!finally!returned!to!England,!the!King!chastised!him!

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166!While!docked,!an!English!master!came!on!board!the!ship,!being!an!acquaintance,!and!learning!of! the!Turkish!captives!on!board!said!“They!are!worth!2!or!300!Pieces!of!Eight!each;!whereat!both!the!Master! and!I!told!him,!That!if!they!would!give!many!Thousands,!they!should!not!have!one,!for!we!hoped!to!send! them!home!again.!So!he!look’d!upon!us!as!Fools,!because!we!would!not!sell!them…[and]!contrary!to!our! Expectation!he!told!the!Spaniards,!who!threatened!to!take!‘em!from!us.m!Lurting,!Peaceable*Christian,!38!!! 167!The!Turks!were!permitted!a!limited!degree!of!Freedom!until!the!ship!had!cleared!the!Spanish! coast.!Lurting,!Peaceable*Christian,!39!! 168!The!Turks!would!have!been!sold!into!slavery!in!England!as!well.!! 175! ! for!releasing!the!prisoners!rather!than!delivering!them!to!the!Crown!as!his!Majesty’s! rightful!property.!As!a!sailor,!Lurting!applied!his!maker’s!knowledge!not!only!for!the! sake!of!his!personal!safety!and!security,!and!thus!in!his!personal!interest,!but!more! significantly!as!an!act!of!political!protest!and!subversion.!!

In!1735!a!surgeon!by!the!name!of!John!Atkins!published!a!travel!narrative! entitled!A*Voyage*to*Guinea,*Brasil*and*West*Indies,!oriented!explicitly!around!the!slave! trade,!its!form!and!content!clearly!modeled!after!Dampier’s!writing.169!Atkins!describes! in!vivid!detail!his!voyages!to!the!various!continents,!and!to!the!slave!ports!they!hosted;! he!discusses!the!people!he!encountered!and!the!appearances!and!customs!of!the!locals,! as!well!as!the!intricacies!of!the!slave!trade!he!observed!during!the!course!of!his!travels.!

More!significantly!perhaps,!he!included!a!chapter!in!his!narrative!dedicated!solely!to! descriptions!of!the!oceanic!wind!currents!relevant!to!the!slave!trade.!He!makes!explicit! what!Dampier!would!not:!that!the!winds!were!integral!not!just!to!trade!in!general,!but!to! the!slave!trade!specifically.!!

When!Francis!Bacon!authored!his!History*of*the*Winds!in!1624!he!spoke!of!the! wind’s!utility!and!suggested!the!numerous!ways!in!which!wind!knowledge!might! benefit!humanity.!For!Bacon,!the!winds!were!a!mysterious!and!preeminent!natural!force! whose!power,!if!better!understood,!might!be!utilized!for!the!good!of!mankind,!in!the!

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169!John!Atkins.!A*Voyage*to*Guinea,*Brasil*and*West*Indies!(London,!1735).! 176! ! interest!of!material!and!intellectual!progress!and!development.!Bacon!outlined!a! philosophical!framework!asserting!that!natural!knowledge!was!best!gained!from! directly!interacting!with!the!natural!world.!Thus,!knowing!the!wind!would!optimally! result!from!working!directly!with!this!otherwise!mysterious!natural!force!so!that!it! might!be!applied!practically!for!the!benefit!of!mankind.!Dampier!embodied!and! actualized!these!very!principles,!so!fundamental!to!Bacon’s!vision!of!human!intellectual! development!and!toward!the!realization!of!wind`knowledge!in!particular.!He!spent!his! life!at!sea,!navigating!the!winds,!learning!the!patterns!of!their!behavior!firsthand,!and! how!to!most!profitably!utilize!them.!Moreover,!he!documented!his!findings!and!shared! them!with!the!world,!because!Dampier,!like!Bacon,!recognized!the!varied!ways!in!which! humanity—and!England!in!particular—might!benefit!from!wind!knowledge,! particularly!in!terms!of!commerce.!He!was!correct.!!

Yet,!a!history!of!wind`knowledge!in!the!17th!century!reveals!that!not!all! populations!stood!to!benefit!equally.!In!fact,!for!all!the!economic!benefits!wind! knowledge!conferred!upon!the!British!government!and!navy,!and!despite!the!prestige! that!investigations!of!the!Trade!Winds!brought!to!natural!philosophers!such!as!Halley,!

Hadley,!and!even!Dampier,!wind!knowledge!was!ultimately!applied!toward!pursuits! that!had!grave!consequences!for!enormous!populations!as!well.!The!horrors!of!colonial! expansion,!imperialism,!and!the!slave!trade!were!as!much!the!legacy!of!wind!knowledge! as!the!economic,!and!political!victories!it!jointly!enabled.!Bacon!may!have!suggested!that!

177! ! wind!knowledge!could!greatly!benefit!humanity,!but!he!failed!to!acknowledge!that!not! all!populations!necessarily!stood!to!benefit!from!its!applications!equally.!!!

Just!as!importantly,!however,!this!story!also!reveals!the!wind!as!a!commons,!one! which!all!populations,!both!high!and!low!might!access.!The!practical!advantages!of! knowing!the!wind!through!first!hand!experience!and!observation,!and!the!difficulties! presented!by!attempts!to!control!and!privatize!wind!knowledge!meant!that!while!not! everyone!stood!to!benefit!equally!from!the!markets!facilitated!by!the!Trade!Winds,! virtually!everyone!was!in!a!position!to!use!the!same!empirical!tool!box!to!potentially! exploit!and!undermine!the!political!and!economic!structures!they!relied!upon.!

Knowledge!of!the!wind!could!and!was!applied!toward!any!number!of!purposes,!by!any! number!of!people,!at!any!given!moment.!While!London’s!scientists!mapped!the!winds! rhetorically,!sailors,!buccaneers,!entrepreneurs,!and!even!slaves!mapped!the!winds!in! practical!experiential!ways,!for!reasons!that!were!often!as!personal!in!the!nature!of!their! benefits!as!they!were!political!and!economic!in!their!implications.!!!

178! !

Chapter 3. Blowing Out the Candle of Reason: England and the Great Storm of 1703!

Figure!3:!“England’s!Great!Storm”!(Artist!unknown).!

“The*Lord*has*his*way*in*the*Whirlwind,*and*in*the*Storm,*and*the*Clouds*are*the*dust*of*his* feet.”1** * “How*easie*a*matter*is*it*for*Him*to*blow*a*Hurricane*in*a*Moment?*He*can*at*once*put*Nature* into*a*Ruffle.”2** !

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1!Daniel!Defoe.!The*Storm*or,*a*Collection*of*the*Most*Remarkable*Casualties*and*Disasters*which* Happen’d*in*the*Late*Dreadful*Tempest,*both*by*Sea*and*Land!(London,!1704),!title!page.!The!image!above!is!a! period!engraving!by!an!unknown!author,!attributed!to!the!English!School,!entitled:!England’s*Great*Storm,! with!a!caption!below!the!original!image!that!reads:!The!Great!Storm,!Nov!29,!1703.! http://www.magnoliabox.com/art/662521/englands`great`storm`engraving`bw`photo!! 2!Thomas!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*Consider’d*in*a*Sermon*on*the*Fast@Day,*January*19,* 1703/4!(London:!Jonathan!Robinson,!1704),!16.! 179! !

On!27!November!1703,!a!monumental!tempest!known!as!the!Great!Storm!struck!

England,!with!devastating!results.!On!the!mainland,!entire!villages!were!laid!waste,! houses!shattered,!farms!flooded,!steeples!toppled,!people!immured!beneath!the!rubble,! buried!alive.3!Those!at!sea!fared!even!worse:!!

Guns!firing!from!one!Ship!or!other!all!the!Night!for!help,!tho’!‘twas!impossible!to! assist!each!other,!the!Sea!was!so!high!and!the!Darkness!of!the!night!such,!that!we! could!not!see!where!anyone!was,!but!by!the!Flashes!of!the!Guns,!when!day!light! apper’d!it!was!a!dismal!sight!to!behold!the!Ships!driving!up!and!down!one!foul! of!another,!without!Masts,!some!sunk,!and!others!upon!the!Rocks.4! ! This!was!a!tempest!unrivaled!in!strength!and!violence,!claiming!the!lives!of!nearly!eight` thousand!men!at!sea:!“the!wind!blowing!so!hard!that!on!the!Deck!a!Man!could!not!stand! without!holding.”5!The!sea!was!thrown!into!a!rage!and!the!rivers!rose!beyond!the!

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3!Defoe,!Storm,!191.*The!varied!accounts!of!the!storm!printed!in!Defoe’s!text!attest!to!as!much.!For! example:!“…In!this!Road!was!blown!out!on!Latchford!of!Sandwhc!bound!hom!from!London,!with!divers! Men!and!Women!passengers!all!totally!lost…”!writes!P.H.!from!Margate!and!the!Island!of!Thanet!in!Kent,! (p.191).“[The!storm!continued!with!very!little!intermission!for!the!space!of!6!hours,!in!which!time!it!very! much!shattered!the!buildings,!both!publick!and!private,!by!uncovering!the!Houses,!throwing!down!the! Chimney’s!breaking!the!Glass!Windows,!overthrowing!the!Pinnacles!and!Battlements!of!the!Churches!and! blowing!off!the!Leads:!The!Churches!in!particular!felt!the!felt!the!fury!of!the!storm…in!the!Country!it!blew! down!and!scattered!abundance!of!Hay!and!Corn!Mows,!besides!almost!Leveling!many!Orchards!and! Groves!of!stout!Trees.!But!the!greatest!damage!to!the!city![Bristol]!was,!the!violent!over`flowing!of!the!Tide,! occasion’d!by!the!force!of!the!Wind,!which!flowed!an!extraordinary!height,!and!did!abundance!of!damage! to!the!Merchants!Cellers.!It!broke!in!with!great!fury!over!the!Marsh!Country!forcing!down!the!Banks!or!Sea! Walls,!drowning!abundance!of!Sheep,!and!other!Cattle,!washing!some!houses!clear!away,!and!breaking! down!part!of!others,!in!which!many!persons!lost!there!Lives…”!writes!Daniel!James,!(p.175`176).!“Our! Church!likewise,!was!almost!all!untiled,!the!neighbouring!Churches!also!received!much!Damage:!The! Houses!of!our!Town![Minehead!in!Somersetshire!and!Swanzy!in!Wales],!and!all!the!Country!round!about,! were!most!of!them!damaged;!some…blown!down,!and!several!in!a!great!Measure!uncovered:!Trees!also!of!a! very!great!Bigness!were!broken!off!in!the!middle,!and!vast!Numbers!blown!down;!one!Gentlemen,!as!he! told!me!himself,!having!2,500!Trees!blown!down,”!noted!Chave!Swanzy!(p.180).!! 4!J.!Soanes,!as!quoted!in!Defoe,!Storm,!168`169! 5!“Some!drove!from!Dale,!where!they!were!shelter’d!under!the!Land,!and!split!in!pieces,!the!Men! all!drowned;!two!others!drove!out!of!a!Creek,!one!on!the!Shoar!so!high!up!was!saved,!the!other!on!the!Rocks! in!another!Creek!and!Bulg’d,”!noted!J.!Soanes,!(Defoe,!Storm,!168`169)!“The!Wind!was!exceedingly! 180! ! confines!of!their!banks.!The!city!of!London!was!covered!in!rubble!and!ruin!by!the!time! the!storm!had!passed!and!the!nation!as!a!whole!was!left!in!a!similar!state,!reeling!from! the!force!of!this!natural!disaster.6!In!one!of!the!first!and!finest!early!examples!of! journalistic!reporting,!Daniel!Defoe,!still!in!the!nascent!stages!of!his!writing!career,! solicited!eyewitness!accounts!and!compiled!them!to!create!an!historical!account!of!the! storm!as!experienced!first`hand!by!the!people!of!England.!He!crafted!a!book!to! commemorate!both!the!destruction!and!the!deliverance!that!took!place!that!fateful!night! when!the!wind!turned!the!world!upside!down.!!

If!Francis!Bacon’s!wind!treatise!exemplifies!a!logical,!regimented,!and!organized! approach!to!wind`knowledge,!an!ideal!if!you!will,!then!the!Great!Storm!and!the!

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Boisterous,”!wrote!Stephen!Gawen!of!Hastings!in!Suffex,!(Defoe,!Storm,!185).!A!contemporary!report!on!the! storm!produced!by!the!Meteorological!Institute!of!the!Netherlands!noted,!“although!the!storm!in!England! occurred!entirely!at!night,!when!casualty!rates!are!around!a!quarter!of!daytime,!123!people!were!killed!on! land!in!England!and!Wales,!due!to!the!collapse!of!roofs!and!chimneys.!Twenty`one!people!were!killed!by! falling!stacks!of!chimneys!in!London,!with!200!severely!wounded!and!maimed.!At!least!another!20!died!in! damage!in!continental!Europe.!Around!80!people!are!known!to!have!drowned!in!their!cottages!in!the! marshland!along!the!Severn!estuary,!with!tens!of!thousands!of!sheep!and!cattle.!Even!these!totals!are! dwarfed!by!the!estimated!8,000!killed!in!more!than!100!shipwrecks!at!sea.”!Ricardo!García`Herrera,!Dennis! Wheeler,!Günther!Können,!Frits!Koek,!and!Luis!Prieto,!CLIWOC*Multilingual*Meteorological*Dictionary:*An* English@Spanish@Dutch@French*Dictionary*of*Wind*Force*Terms*Used*by*Mariners*from*1750*to*1850*(De!Bilt,! Netherlands:!KNMI,!2003)!3.!Accessed,!March!18,!2015,! http://www.knmi.nl/publications/fulltexts/hisklim5_copy1.pdf! 6!Daniel!James!of!Bristol!described!this!meteorological!even!as!the!“most!prodigious!Storm!of! Wind,”!(Defoe,!Storm!175).!!“At!Bristol,!the!total!losses!were!estimated!to!be!£100,000,!equivalent!to!£3!per! person!in!the!city,!or!about!£10!per!property,!which!was!the!equivalent!to!15!to!20!weeks!average!wages.! Total!losses!in!London!were!estimated!to!be!£2!million.!Average!property!values!and!roofing!costs!were! lower!outside!the!principal!cities!so!that!the!average!building!repairs!over!the!whole!of!the!affected!area! were!£5`£6!per!property:!representing!around!£6!million!as!the!total!direct!damage!in!the!storm:!more!than! the!£4!million!losses!in!the!Great!Fire!of!London!when!14,000!properties!and!domestic!and!merchant! property!were!destroyed.”!CLIWOC,!6! 181! ! narrations!produced!in!response!represent!the!antithesis:!the!actual!state!of!affairs,! people’s!chaotic!experiences!with!the!wind!and!the!hysterical!conversations!and! narrations!taking!place!in!the!storm’s!aftermath.!Bacon’s!text!and!his!approach!to!the! problem!of!wind!knowledge!was!mediated!and!orderly.!The!Great!Storm,!by! comparison,!drops!us!into!the!mess!and!confusion,!into!the!competing!ideas!and!voices! fighting!to!be!heard!following!this!natural!disaster.!The!storm!is!thus!a!great!metaphor! for!that!which!threatens!to!undermine!existing!structure!and!order,!both!physical!and! ideological.!At!the!same!time,!it!exemplifies!nature’s!breadth!and!dimension!and! provides!a!window!into!discourses!about!the!wind!that!are!far!from!discrete,! conversations!representing!a!broad!cross!section!of!society!and!a!collective!struggle!to! make!sense!of!both!real!and!imagined!worlds.!!

Defoe!is!best!remembered!for!his!works!of!fiction.7!His!most!famous!and!popular! book,!Robinson*Crusoe—credited!as!the!first!English!novel—narrates!the!experiences!of!a! man!stranded!alone!on!a!tropical!desert!island.!Drawing!upon!the!journals!of!historical! figures!such!as!Alexander!Selkirk!and!Captain!James!Cook,!and!the!published!travel! narratives!of!William!Dampier,!Defoe!created!one!of!the!greatest!adventure!stories!of!all! time,!a!work!now!recognized!as!a!turning!point!in!the!evolution!of!English!literature.8!

The!power!and!persuasion!of!his!fiction!stemmed!largely!from!its!basis!in!the!real!life! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

7!Paula!R.!Backscheider.!Daniel*Defoe:*His*Life!(Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins!University!Press,!1989).! 8!See!Bonner,!Captain*William*Dampier,!for!a!discussion!of!the!broad!literary!influence!of!Dampier’s! published!work.!Chapter!2,!“The!Strange!Surprising!Adventures!of!a!York!Mariner”!is!particularly!relevant! to!Dampier’s!influence!on!Defoe.!! 182! ! experiences!of!these!17th`century!sailors!and!adventurers.!Defoe’s!capacity!to!recognize! the!most!exciting,!significant,!and!evocative!details!in!their!first`hand!accounts,!and!his! willingness!to!incorporate!this!material!into!his!own!writing!made!him!an!author!whose! stories!inspired!the!imagination!owing!to!their!firm!grounding!in!reality.!!

Robinson*Crusoe!immortalized!Defoe!as!a!significant!author!within!the!canon!of! fictional!adventure!narratives.!However,!the!truthful!elements!woven!into!that! particular!tale!were!not!explicitly!identified!and!only!served!to!enhance!the!tale’s! imaginative!components.!In!The*Storm,!by!comparison,!truth!was!a!central!and!explicitly! articulated!theme!for!Defoe;!it!became!an!organizing!principle!that!informed!his! portrayal!of!the!Great!Storm!and!his!commitment!to!helping!the!public!narrate!the!event! they!had!personally!experienced.!This!claim!to!truth!also!colored!Defoe’s!discussion!of! the!storm’s!causes!and!consequences!and!his!explication!of!the!wind!in!general.!

However,!Defoe!was!only!one!among!a!chorus!of!British!commentators!on!the!Great!

Storm.!Scientific!reports!and!religious!oral!missives!that!eventually!made!their!way!to! print!were!among!the!powerful!texts!that!also!emerged!in!response!to!this!catastrophic! event.!Defoe!was!merely!one!among!scientists,!ministers,!and!a!chorus!of!commoners! who!described,!investigated,!moralized,!and!philosophized!about!the!Great!Storm.!Each! endeavored!to!understand!and!to!make!meaning!of!this!unprecedented!and!terrifying! incident,!to!rationalize!its!cause!and!to!uncover!the!wisdom!and!the!lessons!ostensibly! contained!in!nature’s!fury!and!in!the!colossal!devastation!that!resulted.!Taken!as!a!

183! ! whole,!these!musings!and!the!range!of!popular!voices!represented!in!Defoe’s!book!offer! insight!into!key!aspects!of!the!cultural!conversation!about!wind!taking!place!at!this! moment—its!causes!and!consequences,!particularly!in!relation!to!human!morality,!and! accordingly,!humanity’s!relationship!to!nature!as!an!overridingly!powerful!phenomena! to!which!people!were!routinely!subject.!Defoe’s!text!raises!powerful!questions!regarding! the!epistemology!of!knowledge!about!the!wind.!It!raises!questions!about!the!derivation! of!truth!with!respect!to!subjective!experience,!such!as!a!personal!encounter!with!a!storm;! it!begs!consideration!of!the!processes!by!which!an!experience,!a!theory,!or!a!moral!are! articulated!and!validated,!and!of!the!relationship!between!narrative!authority!and! empirical!fact.!His!text!is!a!complex!mixture!of!ideas!grounded!in!history,!science,!and! religion,!drawing!on!Greek!and!Roman!mythology,!reflecting!shifting!bases!of! knowledge!and!that!Enlightenment!conundrum:!“truth.”!!

We!begin!therefore,!by!examining!Defoe’s!discussion!of!the!importance!of! truthful!historical!reporting,!which!he!perceived!as!intrinsic!to!the!value!of!his!text.!

Defoe!contended!that!the!storm!of!1703!was!the!most!powerful!event!of!its!kind! experienced!by!the!English!nation.!He!offered!evidence!in!support!of!his!argument,! which!included,!in!part,!situating!the!content!of!his!work!in!stark!contrast!to!the!writings! of!ancient!Greek!authors!whom!he!charged!with!grossly!exaggerating!their!depictions!of! past!meteorological!events.!The!second!part!of!our!discussion!examines!therefore,!the! long!lineage!of!narratives!put!forth!by!the!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!authors!that!Defoe!

184! ! oriented!his!work!in!relation!to,!and!then!moves!on!to!consider!descriptions!of!the!storm! recorded!in!Defoe’s!work—scientific!studies!as!well!as!detailed!first!hand!accounts!by! commoners.!Defoe!aimed!in!this!anthology!to!not!only!describe!the!storm’s!effects,!but! to!identify!the!storm’s!fundamental!cause,!which!he!believed!was!divine!in!nature.!The! final!portion!of!the!chapter!thus!examines!religious!interpretations!of!the!storm! contained!in!Defoe’s!text!as!well!as!the!explosion!of!moralizing!sermons!elicited!by!the! storm!which!exhibited!surprising!similarities!to!the!ancient!Greek!depictions!of!the!wind! which!Defoe!so!ardently!derided.!The!various!ways!in!which!authors!of!the!ancient!past! and!those!of!the!17th!century!described!the!wind!begs!the!question:!precisely!what! would!a!truthful!narration!of!the!wind!and!storm!consist!of?!How!would!we!recognize! such!an!account?!And!what!is!it!about!the!wind!that!so!readily!lends!itself!to!thematic! narrative!continuities?!!

Daniel!Foe,!who!later!modified!his!name!to!the!more!refined!sounding!Defoe,! was!born!around!1660!to!a!family!of!Presbyterian!Dissenters.9!His!writing,!which!

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9!Defoe’s!upbringing!within!this!unpopular!minority!group!(who!refused!to!accept!the!Church!of! England)!led!to!an!early!dalliance!with!a!church!career.!He!received!religious!training!at!Morton’s!Academy,! in!Newington!Green!but!ultimately!decided!against!a!life!as!a!minister,!opting!instead!to!become!a! merchant.!Although!he!achieved!some!degree!of!success!in!his!field,!trading!principally!in!hosiery,!woolen! textiles,!and!wine,!Defoe!like!many!merchants!struggled!continually!against!financial!debt,!a!struggle!that! ultimately!led!to!his!arrest!in!1692!on!grounds!of!bankruptcy.!!Defoe!shifted!the!trajectory!of!his!business! efforts!following!his!arrest,!and!by!1697!had!become!in!involved!in!tile!and!brick!manufacturing!in!Essex.! This!era!marks!the!beginning!of!his!writing!career!as!he!released!his!first!pamphlet!entitled!“An!Essay!upon! Projects,”!in!1697,!in!which!he!lobbied!vigorously!for!social!and!economic!improvement.!From!then!on! 185! ! ultimately!brought!him!enormous!and!lasting!renown,!initially!made!him!the!object!of! political!scrutiny,!owing!to!his!critical!stance!toward!the!church!and!the!state.!His!most! successful!poem,!for!example,!The*True@Born*Englishman!(1701)!exhibited!Defoe’s! penchant!for!satire!as!he!poked!fun!at!the!British!citizenry’s!preoccupation!with!racial! purity,!particularly!when!it!came!to!occupancy!of!the!throne.!A!later!pamphlet!entitled,!

The*Shortest@Way*with*the*Dissenters,!and!released!in!1703,!deeply!offended!the! establishment!whom!he!portrayed!as!religious!intolerants.!The!government!accordingly! made!an!example!out!of!him!and!pressed!charges!of!seditious!libel!that!landed!Defoe!in! the!pillory!for!several!days,!after!which!he!was!imprisoned!and!fined.!Defoe,!however,! had!both!friends!and!enemies!in!high!places,!for!his!political!writing!had!gained!him! some!degree!of!public!recognition,!if!not!notoriety.!Thus,!Robert!Harley,!the!1st!Earl!of!

Oxford!and!Earl!Mortimer,!believing,!ostensibly,!that!Defoe’s!writing!talent!might!be! employed!in!support!the!Tory!party,!arranged!for!the!prisoner’s!release!and!agreed!to! pay!a!portion!of!Defoe’s!outstanding!debts!on!the!condition!that!Defoe!work!as!a! political!informant!for!the!party.!Defoe!consented.!!!

Within!a!week!of!his!conditional!release!from!prison!the!Great!Storm!struck!

England.!Defoe!was!fortunate!enough!to!survive.!Desperate!for!money!and!hoping!that!

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Defoe!wrote!prodigiously,!releasing!over!500!books,!pamphlets,!and!journals!by!the!time!he!died!in!1731.! See!Backscheider,!Daniel*Defoe:*His*Life,!for!general!background!information!on!Defoe.!! 186! ! his!pen!might!help!his!pocketbook,!he!solicited!eyewitness!accounts!of!the!disaster!in! local!newspapers:!

To!preserve!the!Remembrance!of!the!late!Dreadful!Tempest,!an!exact!and!faithful! Collection!is!preparing!of!the!most!remarkable!Disasters!which!happened!on!that! Occasion,!with!the!places!where!and!Persons!concern’d,!whether!at!Sea!or!on! Shore.!For!the!perfecting!so!good!a!Work!‘tis!humbly!recommended!by!the! Author!to!all!Gentlemen!of!the!Clergy,!or!others,!who!have!made!any! observation!of!this!Calamity,!that!they!would!transmit!as!exact!an!Account!as! possible,!of!what!they!observed,!to!the!Undertakers…All!Gentlemen!that!are! pleased!to!send!any!such!Accounts,!are!desired!to!write!no!Particulars!but!that! they!are!well!satisfied!to!be!true,!and!to!set!their!Names!to!the!Observations!they! send,!which!the!Undertakers!of!this!Work!promise!shall!be!faithfully!recorded,! and!the!favour!publickly!acknowledged.10!! !

Defoe!compiled!the!letters!and!reports!he!received,!and!further!supplemented!these!with! his!own!metaphysical!musings!on!the!subject.!In!spring!of!the!following!year,!he! released!The*Storm,!which!included!approximately!60!accounts!of!the!disaster!culled! from!witnesses!across!the!country.!!Although!the!book!was!not!a!best!seller,!Defoe’s!text! remains!one!of!the!most!comprehensive!records!of!the!storm’s!damage!and!of!the! perceptions!and!narrations!of!those!who!lived!to!experience!its!wrath.11!!

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10!Defoe!as!quoted!in!Martin!Brayne,*The!Greatest*Storm!(Stroud,!Gloucestershire:!The!History!Press,! 2002),!26`27.!! 11!Defoe!divided!the!text!into!several!chapters:!the!first!of!which!was!devoted!to!a!lengthy! discussion!of!“The!Natural!Causes!and!Original!of!the!Wind,”!in!which!he!attempted!to!undermine!rational! scientific!explanations!for!the!storm!in!favor!or!religious!explanations.!Next,!he!offered!a!series!of!first`hand! accounts!of!the!storm!focused!on!the!damage!sustained!by!the!city!of!London!and!its!neighboring!provinces,! followed!by!a!series!of!letters!that!described!the!storm’s!impact!on!inhabitants!residing!in!the!countryside.! After!addressing!the!damage!on!land!Defoe!turned!his!attention!to!conveying!and!assessing!the!damage!that! took!place!at!sea—both!to!the!Royal!Navy,!and!to!merchant!ships.!He!supplemented!these!accounts!with! descriptions!of!the!disastrous!effects!resulting!from!the!accompanying!earthquake!and!High!Tides,!and! concluded!the!text!with!riveting!stories!of!deliverance!in!the!face!of!certain!death,!as!well!as!some!statistics! 187! !

Defoe!positioned!his!work!in!relation!to!three!principal!lexicons:!ancient!history,! the!field!of!natural!philosophy,!and!the!religious!sermon.!He!distinguished!his!work! from!the!sermon,!not!on!the!basis!of!content!or!spiritual!orientation,!but!rather!on!the! basis!of!form.!He!argued!that!as!an!aural!form!of!communication!aimed!at!an!immediate! audience!at!a!specific!moment!in!time,!a!sermon!was!limited!in!both!its!positive!and! negative!effects:!the!fact!that!the!information!conveyed!in!a!sermon!was!transmitted! through!sound—spoken!from!one!person!to!another—meant!that!its!benefits!or!flaws! were!limited!to!the!“strength!of!Memory.”12!Defoe!believed!that!the!printed!word,!by! contrast,!had!the!capacity!to!reach!all!kinds!of!people,!well!into!the!future:!“A!Book!

Printed!is!a!Record,!remaining!in!every!Man’s!Possession,!always!ready!to!renew!its!

Acquaintance!with!his!Memory,!and!always!ready!to!be!produc’d!as!an!Authority!or!

Voucher!to!any!Reports!he!makes!out!of!it,!and!conveys!its!Contents!for!Ages!to!come,!to! the!Eternity!of!mortal!Time,!when!the!Author!is!forgotten!in!his!Grave.”13!!

Defoe!presumed!that!printed!works!would!remain!in!circulation!and!maintain! relevance!for!future!generations.!This!would!be!worthwhile,!he!argued,!so!long!as!the! message!conveyed!in!a!text!were!true.!For!whereas!the!damage!caused!by!a!flawed! sermon!was!inherently!mitigated!by!its!temporal!format,!the!printed!word,!whether!full! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! relating!to!the!composite!damage!wreaked!by!the!storm.!All!in!all,!his!coverage!was!remarkably! comprehensive.! 12!Defoe,!Storm,!2! 13!Defoe,!Storm,!2! 188! ! of!truth!or!lies,!maintained!the!potential!to!influence!people!by!virtue!of!its!very! presence!in!the!world.!“If!a!Sermon!be!ill!grounded,!if!the!Preacher!imposes!upon!us,!he! trespasses!on!a!few,!but!if!a!Book!Printed!obtrudes!a!Falshood,!if!a!Man!tells!a!Lye!in!

Print,!he!abuses!Mankind,!and!imposes!upon!the!whole!World,!he!causes!our!Children! to!tell!Lyes!after!us,!and!their!Children!after!them,!to!the!End!of!the!World.”14!

Falsehoods!in!print!stuck!around,!circulating!indefinitely.!Defoe!thus!concluded!that! whereas!Preachers!orating!from!the!pulpit!should!hold!fast!to!the!truth!and!choose!their! words!carefully!so!as!not!to!mislead!people,!“he!that!Prints!and!Publishes!to!all!the!

World,!has!a!tenfold!Obligation.”15!The!author!of!the!written!word!had!a!responsibility! not!only!to!himself!and!to!his!contemporary!audience,!but!also!to!posterity.16!!

Defoe!was!not!alone!in!his!preoccupation!with!honest!accurate!reporting,!nor!in! his!consideration!of!the!moral!implications!arising!from!the!capacity!of!the!printed!word! to!transmit!information.!From!the!mid`16thcentury!onward,!an!increasingly!literate! population!coupled!with!innovations!in!printing!technology!meant!that!printed! literature!enjoyed!rising!popularity!in!England.!New!forms!of!print!material!emerged!

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14!Defoe,!Storm,!2! 15!Defoe,!Storm,!1! 16!Defoe’s!devotion!to!truthful!reporting!was!both!a!moral!and!a!spiritual!obligation!for!him.!In! reference!to!some!of!the!first`hand!accounts!included!in!his!text,!he!writes!in!the!introduction:!“The! Plainness!and!Honesty!of!the!Story!will!plead!for!the!Meanness!of!the!Stile!in!many!of!the!Letters,!and!the! Reader!cannot!want!Eyes!to!see!what!sort!of!People!some!of!them!come!from…These!come!dressed!in!their! own!Words!because!I!ought!not,!and!those!because!I!could!not!mend’em.!I!am!perswaded,!they!are!all! dress’d!in!the!desirable,!though!unfashionable!Garb!of!Truth,!and!I!doubt!not!but!Posterity!will!read!them! with!Pleasure.”!Defoe,!Storm,!12! 189! ! such!as!corantos!or!broadsheets,!and!newsbooks,!as!did!new!genres!of!writing!that! emphasized!coverage!of!current!events.17!!The!proliferation!of!printed!material!and!a! reading!public!hungry!for!the!knowledge!and!entertainment!provided!by!this!literature! contributed!to!the!destabilization!of!aristocratic!control!over!particular!types!of! knowledge!and!information.18!Controlling!the!timing!and!content!of!the!information!that! made!its!way!to!the!general!public!was!thus!a!principle!strategy!for!consolidating!and! protecting!class!hierarchy!and!political!power,!though!these!efforts!were!never!wholly!

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17!For!an!historical!account!of!the!development!of!news!pamphlets!and!press,!print!culture!and! emergent!journalism!in!Early!Modern!England!please!see,!Paul!J.!Voss,!Elizabethan*News*Pamphlets:* Shakespeare,*Spenser,*Marlowe,*and*the*Birth*of*Journalism!(Pittsburgh,!2001);!The*Politics*of*Information*in*Early* Modern*Europe,!Brendan!Dooley!and!Sabrina!Baron,!eds.,!(London!and!New!York,!2001);!Jason!Peacey,! Politicians*and*Pamphleteers:*Propaganda*during*the*English*Civil*Wars*and*Interregnum!(Aldershot,!U.K.,!2004);! Peter!Beal,!In*Praise*of*Scribes:*Manuscripts*and*Their*Makers*in*Seventeenth@Century*England!(Oxford:!Claredon! Press;!New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!1998);!Martin!Conboy,*Journalism:*A*Critical*History*(London:! Thousand!Oaks!California:!Sage!Publishing,!2015);!Joad!Raymond,!The*Invention*of*the*Newspaper:*English* Newsbooks,*1641@1649!(Oxford,!1996);!Joad!Raymond,!Pamphlets*and*Pamphleteering*in*Early*Modern*Britain,! (Cambridge!University!Press,!2003);!Dagmar!Freist,!Governed*by*Opinion:*Politics,*Religion*and*the*Dynamics*of* Communication*in*Stuart*London,*1637@1645!(London,!1997);!on!the!mingling!of!popular!and!elite!literary! culture!see!Timothy!Raylor,!Cavaliers,*Clubs*and*Literary*Culture:*Sir*John*Mennes,*James*Smith,*and*the*Order*of* the*Fancy!(Newark:!University!of!Delaware!Press,!1994).!In!the!early!17th!century,!publishers!began!releasing! corantos,!on!a!weekly!basis!depending!upon!the!quantity!of!relevant!news!available.!Initially,!these! publications!relayed!exclusively!foreign!news,!pertaining!specifically!to!the!“religious!wars!that!had!broken! out!in!mainland!Europe,”!(Conboy,*Journalism,!21).!Reporting!on!domestic!affairs!was!still!prohibited!at!this! time.!Nevertheless!the!corantos!provided!the!public!with!a!way!of!engaging!with!foreign!events,!the! political!and!commercial!ramifications!of!which!had!the!potential!to!affect!the!daily!lives!and!fortunes!of! Englishman.!Over!time!newsbooks!became!the!principle!source!for!domestic!political!reports;!eventually! giving!way!to!the!polemical!and!satirical!mercuries,!and!eventually!the!newspaper.!According!to!Conboy,! “The!newsbooks!were!defined!by!being!relatively!inexpensive,!weekly,!and!containing!reports!of! parliamentary!proceedings!and!debate.!At!the!start!they!eschewed!both!the!vicious!prose!of!the!pamphlet! and!the!satirical!approach!of!the!ballad,”!(p.!30).!By!the!time!the!Great!Storm!struck!England!in!1703,! journalistic!writing!had!experienced!many!phases!of!government!lapse!and!restriction.! 18!Conboy,!Journalism,!22.!For!more!on!the!history!of!18th`century!journalism!and!print!culture!see! Jonathan!Brody!Kramnick,!Making*the*English*Canon:*Print@Capitalism*and*the*Cultural*Past,*1700@1770,! (Cambridge;!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2003).!!! 190! ! effective!at!curbing!the!dissemination!of!ideas!or!the!seeds!of!dissent,!as!Defoe’s!political! writing!aptly!demonstrates.!!

As!the!emergent!field!of!journalism!increasingly!called!attention!to!distinctions! between!fact!and!fiction,!one!of!the!dominant!discourses!to!emerge!from!the!growth!of! journalism!centered!on!the!epistemology!of!knowledge—a!subject!overwhelmingly! evident!in!the!preface!to!Defoe’s!Storm.!According!to!Conboy:!!

The!contents!of!the!newsbooks,!and!before!them,!the!corantos!were!distinguished! from!previous!literary!forms!in!that!they!claimed!to!be!composed!of! facts…Ballads,!poems!and!pamphlets!were!allowed!great!latitude!which!was!a! reflection!of!their!more!entertaining!and!provocative!purpose.!This!new!factual! discourse!was!one!rooted!not!in!the!eternal!truths!and!symbols!of!religion!but! one!rooted!in!the!‘Absolute!Present’!of!discrete,!closed!narratives,!fixed!in! specific!times!and!places!and!having!a!claim!to!authenticity!and!reliability.19! ! A!claim!to!truth!both!distinguished!this!new!literary!form,!and!made!it!and!its!authors! and!publishers!the!object!of!political!scrutiny,!for!this!claim!to!truth!jointly!constituted!a! claim!to!power!as!the!public!increasingly!exercised!their!capacity!to!inform!themselves,! to!interpret!current!events,!and!to!determine!the!meaning!and!relevance!of!the! information!they!now!had!access!to.!According!to!Conboy,!“The!development!of! journalism!as!printed!public!reporting!and!debate!was!the!logical!consequence!of!the! critical!impulses!of!the!Renaissance!which!have!been!described!as!aiming:!‘to!subject!the! power!of!rhetoric!and!the!rhetoric!of!power!to!critical!scrutiny…to!draw!authority!itself!

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19!Conboy,!Journalism,!21`22! 191! ! from!the!shadows!of!divine!mystery!into!the!full!glare!of!utilitarian!rationalism.’”20!In! short,!the!developments!in!public!discourse!that!took!place!during!this!era!laid!the! foundation!for!the!emergence!of!the!public!sphere!as!a!space!in!which!power,!ideas,!and! claims!to!truth!were!aired!and!contested.21!

Daniel!Defoe’s!contribution!to!the!evolution!of!journalism!and!public!reporting! cannot!be!underestimated.!In!fact!he!is!commonly!credited!as!being!the!first!to!display! what!Conboy!describes!as!“the!political!acumen!and!versatility!of!the!modern!political! journalist.”22!While!serving!time!in!Newgate!Prison!for!his!satirical!pamphlet!The*

Shortest*Way*with*Dissenters,!Defoe!began!work!on!a!periodical!called!the*Review,!which! ran!from!1704!to!1713,!setting!a!new!standard!for!the!content!and!quality!of!journalistic! reporting.23!In!fact,!Defoe’s!editorial!claim!to!have!“‘purged’!all!his!reports!of!errors!and!

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20!Conboy,!Journalism,!28! 21!In!its!simplest!form!the!public!sphere,!according!to!Jürgen!Habermas,!is!“a!society!engaged!in! critical!public!debate.”!Public!opinion,!which!is!itself!a!condition!of!the!public!sphere,!is!facilitated!by!access! to!information!as!well!as!the!opportunity!to!associate!freely!and!to!discuss!information,!politics,!and!rules!of! governance!without!economic!or!political!restraint!or!penalty.!Jürgen!Habermas,!The*Structural* Transformation*of*the*Public*Sphere:*An*Inquiry*into*a*Category*of*Bourgeois*Society,!ed.,!Thomas!Burger! (Cambridge!Massachusetts,!MIT!Press!1989)!52.!For!more!reading!pertaining!to!the!public!sphere!please!see! Craig!Calhoun!ed.,!Habermas!and!the!Public!Sphere!(Cambridge!Mass.:!The!MIT,!1993);!Hannah!Arendt,! The*Human*Condition!(Chicago,!Illinois:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1952);!Nancy!Fraser,!mRethinking!the! Public!Sphere:!A!Contribution!to!the!Critique!of!Actually!Existing!Democracym,!Social*Text!25,!no.!26,!(1990):! 56`80;!David!Zaret,!Origins*of*Democratic*Culture:*Printing,*Petitions,*and*the*Public*Sphere*in*Early@Modern* England!(Princeton:!New!Jersey,!2000).! 22!Conboy,!Journalism,!61! 23!“Defoe!penned!at!most!seven!or!eight!novels!late!in!his!life,!all!published!between!1719!and!1724,! whereas!he!most!assuredly!wrote!nearly!three,!and!sometimes!as!many!as!five!essays!of!2,000!to!2,5000! words!every!week!for!nine!years!straight!with!only!a!few!minor!interruptions,!for!his!periodical!The!Review! (1704`1713)…By!the!time!Defoe!had!composed!his!last!essay!for!the!Review!in!June!1713,!he!had!managed!to! produce!approximately…5,6000!pages!of!print,”!writes!Brian!Cowan.!Brian!Cowan,!“Daniel!Defoe’s!Review! and!the!Transformations!of!the!English!Periodical”!Huntington*Library*Quarterly!77,!No.1!(Spring!2014),!80.! 192! ! bias”!is!one!of!the!key!features!that!“distinguished!the!Review!as!a!milestone!in!political! journalism.”24!It!should!be!noted,!however,!that!Defoe’s!Storm!(released!in!1704)!shared! this!same!defining!characteristic.!In!the!introduction!to!the!Storm!Defoe!writes,!!“I!have! not!undertaken!this!Work!without!the!serious!Consideration!of!what!I!owe!to!Truth,!and! to!Posterity;!nor!without!a!Sense!of!the!extraordinary!Variety!and!Novelty!of!the!

Relation.”25!

Defoe!characterized!The*Storm!as!a!piece!of!historical!writing!and!he!maintained! very!clear!conceptions!of!precisely!how!one!ought!to!go!about!representing!the!past.!

According!to!Defoe,!the!historian!had!the!duty!to!“let!every!thing!in!its!own!Light,!and! to!convey!matter!of!fact!upon!its!legitimate!Authority,!and!no!other.”26!The!authors!of! ancient!history,!he!argued,!had!embellished!historical!events!to!such!an!extent!that! contemporary!audiences!regarded!their!historical!work!as!more!fiction!than!fact.!!

I!am!sensible,!he!writes:!that!the!want!of!this!Caution!is!the!Foundation!of!that! great!Misfortune!we!have!in!matters!of!ancient!History;!in!which!the!Impudence,! the!Ribaldry,!the!empty!Flourishes,!the!little!Regard!to!Truth,!and!the!Fondness! of!telling!a!strange!Story!has!dwindled!a!great!many!valuable!Pieces!of!ancient! History!into!mere!Romance.!How!are!the!Lives!of!some!of!our!most!famous!Men,! nay!the!Actions!of!whole!Ages,!drowned!in!Fable?!Not!that!there!wanted!Pen` men!to!write,!but!that!their!Writings!were!continually!mixt!with!such! Rhodomontades!of!the!Authors!that!Posterity!rejected!them!as!fabulous.27! !

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24!Conboy,!Journalism,!61! 25!Defoe,!Storm,!A4! 26!Defoe,!Storm,!4! 27!Defoe,!Storm,!5! 193! !

Defoe!cited!several!key!consequences!of!such!a!lenient!approach!toward! historical!narration.!The!first!was!that!lying!injured!a!person’s!reputation.28!In!the!17th! century,!reputation!and!honor!were!not!only!markers!of!a!true!gentleman,!but!were! considered!qualities!worth!defending!to!the!death.29!As!aristocratic!hierarchy!became! increasingly!permeable!owing!to!new!opportunities!among!the!merchant!classes!to! expand!their!wealth!and!power!through!overseas!trade!and!exploration,!the!standards! that!defined!the!status!of!the!gentleman!began!to!increasingly!emphasize!qualities!of! character!over!wealth!alone.!As!an!author!attempting!to!appeal!to!a!broad!swath!of! society!and!as!a!social!climber!attempting!to!align!himself!with!the!upper!classes!(to!the! extent!that!it!was!possible)!Defoe,!out!of!interest!and!necessity,!had!to!consider!the! stakes!of!personal!reputation!very!seriously.!He!framed!it!as!a!broad!social!concern,! rather!than!one!of!personal!interest,!but!it!resonated!on!both!levels.!Furthermore,!an! honest!character!accorded!with!the!spiritual!tenants!of!Christianity!and!was!further!

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28!“That!where!a!Story!is!vouch’d!to!him!with!sufficient!Authority,!he!ought!to!give!the!World!the! Special!Testimonial!of!its!proper!Voucher,!or!else!he!is!not!just!to!the!Story;!and!where!it!comes!without! such!sufficient!Authority,!he!ought!to!say!so;!otherwise!he!is!not!just!to!himself.!In!the!first!case!he!injures! History…in!the!last!he!injures!his!own!Reputation.”!Defoe,!Storm,!Preface,!4!! 29!For!detailed!discussions!of!conventions!of!truth!telling!as!they!relate!to!the!honor!and!reputation! of!a!gentleman!within!the!context!of!early!modern!science!please!see!Steven!Shapin’s,!A*Social*History*of* Truth:*Civility*and*Science*in*17th*Century*England*(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1994),!and!chapters!5! and!7!in!particular!for!treatment!related!to!discourse.!See!too!Steven!Shapin,!“’A!Scholar!and!a!Gentleman’! The!Problematic!Identity!of!the!Scientific!Practitioner!in!Early!Modern!England,”!History*of*Science!29!(1991):! 279`327.!For!discussions!of!honor!among!the!gentleman’s!class!see,!Mervyn!James,!“English!Politics!and!the! Concept!of!Honour,”!in!Society,*Politics*and*Culture:*Studies*in*Early*Modern*England,!(Cambridge:!Cambridge! University!Press,!1986);!Philip!Mason,!The*English*Gentleman:*the*Rise*and*Fall*of*an*Ideal!(New!York:!Morrow,! 1982).!For!studies!related!to!honor!and!dueling!see!Markku!Peitonen,!The*Duel*in*Early*Modern*England:* Civility,*Politeness,*and*Honour!(Cambridge;!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2003);!Jennifer!Low,! Manhood*and*the*Duel:*Masculinity*in*Early*Modern*Drama*and*Culture!(New!York:!Palgrave!Macmillan,!2003).! 194! ! emphasized!on!this!count!as!a!general!code!to!live!by!in!a!religiously!oriented!Christian! nation.!!

Second,!and!related,!was!the!fact!that!Defoe!interpreted!the!storm!as!a!sign!from!

God!illustrating!His!dissatisfaction!with!humanity!and!His!demand!for!repentance.!This! notion,!which!was!extremely!popular!at!the!time,!rested!on!a!premise!of!correlation! between!the!course!of!nature—as!a!reflection!of!God’s!will!and!judgment—and!the! behavior!or!actions!of!mankind.!According!to!this!line!of!reasoning,!the!natural!world! offered!a!means!of!assessing!the!quality!of!the!relationship!between!humanity!and!the! divine!at!both!an!individual!level!and!collectively—functioning!as!a!benchmark,!so!to! speak.!Natural!disasters!thus!reflected!humanity’s!moral!failings.!By!“conveying!hereby! to!the!Ages!to!come!the!Memory!of!the!dreadfulest!and!most!universal!Judgment!that! ever!Almighty!Power!thought!fit!to!bring!upon!this!Part!of!the!World”!Defoe!suggested! that!as!a!rule!people!should!study!the!events!of!the!past,!and!the!Great!Storm!in! particular,!in!order!to!avoid!harsher!judgments!in!the!future.!A!true!account!of!the!past! was!therefore!necessary!if!there!was!any!hope!of!it!reliably!serving!as!a!guide!to!right! action.!!

Likewise,!if!the!storm!and!the!destruction!it!caused!was!divine!punishment!for! human!sin,!then!deceit—a!sin!in!itself—was!not!the!way!to!remedy!the!situation.!Defoe! writes,!“I!should!stand!convicted!of!a!double!Imposture,!to!forge!a!Story,!and!then! preach!Repentance!to!the!Reader!from!a!Crime!greater!than!that!I!would!have!him!

195! ! repent!of:!endeavoring!by!a!Lye!to!correct!the!Reader’s!Vices,!and!sin!against!Truth!to! bring!the!Reader!off!from!sinning!against!Sense.”30!Defoe!aimed!to!model!the!kind!of! righteous!behavior!he!hoped!to!inspire!in!his!audience.!

Lastly,!Defoe!argued!that!the!power!of!the!storm!and!the!innumerable!miracles! that!occurred!in!its!wake!required!no!embellishment!and!pointed!only!toward!the!“more! wonderful!Extreme,!which!was!the!immediate!Cause.”31!The!storm!was!such!a!mighty! and!compelling!event!that!imaginative!elaboration!was!not!only!unnecessary,!but!an! affront!to!God.!Attempts!to!make!more!of!the!miracles!God!thought!fit!to!demonstrate! during!the!storm!would!only!provoke!rather!than!placate!Him.32!People!should!apply,! rather,!the!lessons!of!the!storm!toward!self`improvement!and!orient!themselves!toward! the!Lord,!argued!Defoe.33!!

By!doing!his!utmost!to!“keep!exactly!within!the!bounds!of!Truth,”!and!thereby! distinguish!himself!and!his!historical!work!from!the!writers!of!antiquity,!Defoe!not!only! established!a!standard!for!truthful!accounts!of!nature!and!of!the!wind,!but!of!the!past! more!generally.!He,!like!Bacon,!recognized!history!as!an!effective!means!of!seeing!and! conveying!truthful!wind!knowledge.!At!the!same!time,!he!challenged!the!content!and! style!of!the!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!historical!legacy!manifest!in!the!myths!and!fables!

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30!Defoe,!Storm,!Preface! 31!Defoe,!Storm,!Preface! 32!We!shall!no!where!so!Trespass!upon!Fact,!as!to!oblige!Infinate!Power!to!the!shewing!more! Miracles!than!it!intended.”!Defoe,!Storm,!Preface.! 33!Defoe!also!included!a!lengthy!discussion!about!Atheism!in!the!preface!of!this!text.!! 196! ! resulting!from!!“the!prodigious!Loosness!of!the!Pen,![which]!had!confounded!History! and!Fable!from!the!beginning!of!both.”34!He!writes:!

From!hence!it!comes!to!pass!that!Matter!of!Fact!are!handed!down!to!Posterity! with!so!little!Certainty,!that!nothing!is!to!be!depended!upon;!from!hence!the! uncertain!Account!of!Things!and!Actions!in!the!remoter!Ages!of!the!World,!the! confounding!the!Geneologies!as!well!as!Achievements!of!Belus,!Nimrod,!and! Nimrus,!and!their!Successors,!the!Histories!and!Originals!of!Saturn,!Jupiter,!and! the!rest!of!the!Celestial!Rabble,!who!Mankind!would!have!been!asham’d!to!have! call’d!Gods,!had!they!had!the!true!Account!of!their!dissolute,!exorbitant,!and! inhumane!Lives.35!! ! Defoe’s!references!to!the!Roman!Gods!Saturn!and!Jupiter—otherwise!known!as!Kronos! and!Zeus!to!the!Ancient!Greeks—were!not!coincidental.!Just!as!Sir!Francis!Bacon!was! forced!to!confront!the!Greek!legacy!in!his!work,!so!too!was!Daniel!Defoe,!for!the!winds! factored!even!more!heavily!in!Greek!and!Roman!mythology!than!they!did!in!Greek!

Natural!Philosophy.!

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34!Defoe,!Storm,!Preface! 35!Defoe,!Storm,!A4.5.!Defoe!writes!further,!“Thus!the!great!Flood!in!Deucalion’s!Time,!is!made!to! pass!for!the!Universal!Deluge:!the!Ingenuity!of!Dedalus,!who!by!a!Clue!of!Thread!got!out!of!the!Egyptian! Maze,!which!was!thought!impossible,!is!grown!into!a!Fable!of!making!himself!a!pair!of!Wings,!and!flying! through!the!Air:!—the!Great!Drought!and!violent!Heat!of!Summer!though!to!be!the!Time!when!the!Great! Famine!was!in!Samarie,!fable’d!by!the!Poets!and!Historians!into!the!Story!of!Pheton!borrowing!the!Chariot! of!the!Sun,!and!giving!the!Horses!their!Heads,!they!run!so!near!the!Earth!as!burnt!up!all!the!nearest!Parts,! and!scortch’d!the!inhabitants,!so!that!they!have!been!black!in!those!Parts!ever!since.!These,!and!such!like! ridiculous!Stuff,!have!been!the!Effects!of!the!Pageantry!of!Historians!in!former!Ages:!and!I!might!descend! nearer!home,!to!the!Legends!of!Fabulous!History!which!have!been!swallow’d!up!the!Actions!of!our!a!vient! Predecessors,!King!Arthur,!the!Gyant!Gogmagog,!and!the!Britain,!the!Stories!of!St.!George!and!the!Dragon,! Guy!Earl!of!Warwick,!Bevis!of!Southhampton,!and!the!like.!I’ll!account!for!better!Conduct!in!the!ensuing! history.”!Defoe,!Storm!Preface!! 197! !

Wind in Ancient Greek Mythology

Aristotle!and!a!cadre!of!ancient!Greek!philosophers!left!such!a!powerful!and! pervasive!intellectual!legacy!about!the!wind!that!over!two!thousand!years!later!natural! philosophers!were!still!wrestling!with!their!ideas.!Greek!and!Roman!efforts!to!record!the! winds!behavior!and!characteristics,!and!to!understand!the!cause!of!this!invisible! phenomenon!influenced!society!for!generations,!and!this!influence!extended!well! beyond!the!field!of!natural!history.!Homer!and!Hesiod,!for!example,!who!authored!the! most!famous!and!ancient!of!the!Greek!epics,!and!the!Roman!poets!such!as!Ovid!and!

Virgil!who!followed!in!their!footsteps!produced!storied!narratives!that!made!generous! references!to!the!wind.!These!references!were!more!than!fictional!characterizations.!They! were!the!product!of!a!culture!where!mythology,!history,!and!religion!converged!in!a! manner!similar!to!the!entwinement!among!folklore,!science!and!religion!that! characterized!17th`century!English!culture.!Likewise,!themes!prominent!in!Greek!myths! about!the!wind,!themes!such!as!the!overwhelming!power!of!the!divine,!the!relationship! between!divine!will!and!the!course!of!nature,!and!the!degree!to!which!humanity!was! unequivocally!subject!to!these!higher!forces,!were!loudly!echoed!in!the!religious!rhetoric! that!appeared!in!the!aftermath!of!the!Great!Storm.!Defoe!endeavored!to!distance!himself! and!his!work!from!this!ancient!legacy,!but!in!fact,!the!similarities!between!these!two! cultural!interpretations!of!the!wind!were!plentiful.!!

198! !

Homer’s!epic!poems,!the!Iliad,!and!the!Odyssey,!along!with!Hesiod’s!Theogony,! form!the!literary!basis!for!much!of!what!is!known!about!the!belief!system!of!the!Ancient!

Greeks.!In!addition!to!providing!contemporary!scholars!with!valuable!anthropological! information—cultural,!historic,!and!otherwise—the!written!versions!of!Homer’s!epic! poems,!dating!back!to!approximately!700!BC!are!widely!considered!the!oldest!works!of!

Western!literature.36!While!Hesiod’s!Theogony!details!the!origins!of!creation!and!the! lineage!of!the!Gods,!the!events!featured!in!Homer’s!works,!by!contrast,!center!largely!on! circumstances!surrounding!the!Trojan!War.37!Hundreds!of!years!later,!Roman!authors! such!as!Ovid!and!Virgil!built!on!similar!themes!using!many!of!the!same!characters,! thereby!extending!the!relevance!of!Greek!mythology!to!Roman!culture!and!civilization! well!into!the!first!century!AD.38!

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36!Homer,!The*Iliad,!trans.!Robert!Fagles!(New!York,!N.Y.:!Viking,!1990),!19.!!Scholar!Bernard!Knox! suggests!that!the!Iliad!was!composed!between!725!and!675!B.C.!This!time!period!corresponds!with!the! earliest!dated!examples!of!Greek!alphabetic!writing.!! 37!The!true!origins!of!the!content!chronicled!in!these!works—Homer’s!in!particular—remain! controversial,!however,!and!scholars!have!debated!extensively!over!the!details!surrounding!their!authorship! For!a!time!it!was!postulated!that!the*Iliad!and!the!Odyssey!were!the!product!of!not!one,!but!many!authors,! even!hundreds.!However,!this!view!has!been!largely!discredited,!owing!to!stylistic!consistency!throughout! the!poems.!More!recent!and!widely!accepted!theories!on!the!subject,!spearheaded!by!the!scholarship!of! Harvard!professor!Milman!Parry,!now!suggest!that!these!works!may!be!better!understood!as!the! culmination!of!a!long!tradition!of!improvised!oral!poetry,!a!form!of!expression!to!which!Homer!was!a! prodigious!heir.!See!Bernard!Knox’s!fascinating!discussion!on!the!controversy!surrounding!the!authorship! and!composition!of!the!Odyssey!and!the!Iliad!in!the!introduction!to!Robert!Fagles’!translation!of!these!texts.! Homer,!Iliad,!pp.!3`22! 38!For!more!on!Greek!mythology!see!Morford!and!Lenardon,!Classical*Mythology;!Roger!D.!Woodard,!ed.,!The* Cambridge*Companion*to*Greek*Mythology!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2007);!Ken!Dowden!and! Niall!Livingstone!eds.,*A*Companion*to*Greek*Mythology*(Chichester,!West!Sussex!;!Malden,!MA:!Wiley` Blackwell,!2011);!Claude!Calame,!Greek*Mythology:*Poetics,*Pragmatics,*and*Fiction,!trans.!Janet!Lloyd! (Cambridge,!UK;!New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2009).!! 199! !

In!the!years!that!followed,!Christianity!gradually!overtook!the!belief!system! handed!down!by!the!Greeks.!Yet,!Greek!myths,!in!spite!of!their!gradual!relegation!to!the! realm!of!the!fabulous!and!fatuous,!maintained!strong!literary!relevance!and!popularity.!

Throughout!the!Middle!Ages!and!well!into!the!Renaissance,!fluency!in!Latin!among!the! literate!classes!and!the!overwhelming!popularity!of!Latin!literature!throughout!Europe! meant!that!Roman!interpretations!of!ancient!Greek!mythology!were!enormously! influential,!more!influential!in!fact!than!the!original!Greek!texts!themselves.!Thus,!while! citizens!of!Early!Modern!England!may!not!have!related!to!these!myths!and!characters!in! the!same!manner!as!the!ancient!Greeks,!these!stories!nevertheless!informed!their! cultural!tableau.!Indeed,!throughout!the!seventeenth!and!eighteenth!centuries,!scholars,! authors,!and!intellectuals!attempting!to!research!and!write!about!nature,!as!Defoe!did,! could!not!readily!afford!to!ignore!the!legacy!of!the!Greeks.!How!then!was!the!wind! represented!in!these!ancient!texts?!

Greek!culture!personified!the!wind!as!an!array!of!individual!deities,!each!imbued! with!a!distinct!disposition,!directionality,!and!unique!personal!history.!This!approach! was!consistent!with!the!polytheism!of!the!ancient!Greeks!who!conceived!of!a!pantheon! of!gods,!each!of!whom!they!associated!with!various!natural!phenomena!of!the!earth,!and! with!the!array!of!cultural!phenomena!present!in!human!society.!Zeus,!who!was! considered!King!of!the!God’s,!for!example,!was!thought!to!rule!the!sky!and!was!thereby! associated!with!the!sun,!while!his!brother,!Poseidon!exercised!dominion!over!the!waters!

200! ! and!the!seas.!Athena,!whom!the!Greeks!associated!with!the!olive!tree,!was!the!goddess! of!war,!defense,!and!wise!council.!The!mighty!Aphrodite,!born!from!the!sea!foam,!was! the!goddess!of!love;!and!Apollo!was!the!god!of!light,!poetry,!and!music.!The!list!goes!on.!

There!was!a!god!or!goddess!associated!with!virtually!every!aspect!of!human!society!and! the!natural!world.39!!

According!to!Hesiod’s!Theogony,!the!three!principle!winds:!Zephyros!(West),!

Boreas!(North),!and!Notos!(South),!were!the!children!of!the!Great!Titans,!Eros!and!

Astraios—the!God!of!dawn!and!the!God!of!the!stars!and!planets,!respectively.40!

Although!the!cardinal!winds!had!the!potential!to!wreak!great!destruction,!the!Greeks!by! and!large!revered!and!honored!them!as!beneficent!deities.!The!storm!winds,!by!contrast,! were!greatly!feared!and!the!product!of!a!violent!birth.!They!were!born!when!Zeus! battled!and!conquered!the!terrible!and!mighty!Typhoeus!(the!typhoon!giant),!and!cast! him!into!Tartaros,!the!pit!below!Hades.!In!the!Theogony,!Hesiod!writes:!!

And!from!Typhoeus!come!boisterous!Winds!(Anemoi)!which!blow!damply,! except!Notos!(South!Wind)!and!Boreas!(North!Wind)!and!clear!Zephyros!(West! Wind).!These!are!a!god`sent!kind,!and!a!great!blessing!to!men;!but!the!others! blow!fitfully!upon!the!seas.!Some!rush!upon!the!misty!sea!and!work!great!havoc! among!men!with!their!evil,!raging!blasts;!for!varying!with!the!season!they!blow,!

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39!Zeus!was!associated!with!the!principles!of!law,!order,!and!fate,!whereas!Hera,!Zeus’s!wife,!was! associated!with!women!and!marriage.!Hades,!the!god!of!death!and!the!dead,!and!brother!of!Zeus!and! Poseidon,!was!thought!to!rule!the!underworld.!Demeter!was!the!goddess!of!sustenance,!grain,!and! agriculture,!and!Hephaestus,!the!god!of!fire!was!also!the!god!of!metal!and!stonemasonry,!art!and!sculpture.! Mark!Morford!and!Robert!J.!Lenardon,!Classical*Mythology,!7th!ed.!(New!York;!Oxford:!Oxford!University! Press,!2003).! 40!Hesiod,!Theogony,!in!The*Homeric*Hymns*and*Homerica,!trans.!Hugh!G.!Evelyn`White!(Cambridge,! MA,!Harvard!University!Press;!London,!William!Heinemann!Ltd.!1914),!378.! 201! !

scattering!ships!and!destroying!sailors.!And!men!who!meet!these!upon!the!sea! have!no!help!against!the!mischief.!Others!again!over!the!boundless,!flowering! earth!spoil!the!fair!fields!of!men!who!dwell!below,!filling!them!with!dust!and! cruel!uproar.41!! ! Despite!Hesiod’s!clear!distinction!in!this!passage!between!the!good!winds!and!the!bad,! the!Roman!authors!who!later!emerged!often!blurred!the!lines!between!the!benevolent! cardinal!winds!and!the!dangerous!storm!winds!that!wreaked!havoc!on!civilization.!All! winds,!they!suggested,!worked!violence!under!the!right!circumstances.!!

Physically,! the! winds! were! understood! to! assume! one! of! two! visages:! they! appeared! as! either! men`shaped! God’s! blowing! wind! from! their! mouths! or! as! horse` shaped!spirits.42!Aeolus,!the!ruler!of!the!winds,!thus!came!to!be!known!as!Hippotades— he! who! keeps! the! horses! rained! in! tightly.43! On! the! floating! Aeolian! Islands,! in! the! vicinity!of!the!Tyrrhenian!Sea!he!kept!the!winds!locked!and!chained!within!the!confines! of!a!mountain,!ruling!them!with!a!fierce!and!heavy!hand.44!Writes!Virgil:!

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41!Hesiod,!Theogony,!55`56! 42!As!seen!in!the!following!passage!from!Flaccus’!Argonauts:!“Forth!rush!exultant!the!horses!of!the! North,!and!after!them!the!North`West!wind,!and!next!the!South!wind!with!his!wings!as!black!as!night,!his! progeny!of!rain`clouds!in!his!wake:!and!last!of!all!the!East!wind,!his!streamers!flying!in!the!breeze,!his! shaggy!locks!embrowned!with!many!a!storm!of!gust!and!sand.!With!one!consent!they!raised!a!gale.”!Gaius! Valerius!Flaccus,!Argonautica,!vol.!1,!trans.!H.G.!Blomfield!(Oxford:!B.H.!Blackwell,!1916)!112`113.! 43!Defoe!would!likely!have!disputed!such!fantastic!depictions!as!having!any!factual!basis.!Yet,!these! ancient!characterizations!of!the!winds!as!wild,!long`haired!beast`men!became!firmly!implanted!in!popular! consciousness,!as!evidenced!in!the!decorative!illustrations!that!appeared!on!maps!up!through!the!18th! century.!Visual!representations!of!the!cardinal!winds!portrayed!as!male!gods!blowing!wind!from!their! mouths!should!be!familiar!to!most!readers!based!on!their!common!appearance!on!maps,!both!ancient!and! contemporary.! 44Aeolus!is!a!controversial!figure.!His!very!status!as!a!God!is!subject!to!debate.!The!reason!for!this!is! that!the!name!Aeolus!appears!in!varying!and!inconsistent!contexts!in!different!stories.!According!to! http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Aiolos.html,!drawing!from!William!Smith’s!Dictionary*of*Greek*and*Roman* Biography*and*Mythology,!“there!are!three!personages!of!this!name!who!are!spoken!of!by!ancient!writers!as! 202! !

Here!in!a!vast!cave!King!Aeolus!rules!the!winds,!brawling!to!break!free,!howling! in!full!gale!force!as!he!chains!them!down!in!their!dungeon,!shackled!fast.!They! bluster!in!protest,!roaring!round!their!prison!bars!with!a!mountain!above!them! all,!booming!with!their!rage.!But!high!in!his!stronghold!Aeolus!wields!his! scepter,!soothing!their!passions,!tempering!their!fury.!Should!he!fail,!surely! they’d!blow!the!world!away,!hurling!the!land!and!sea!and!deep!sky!through! space.!Fearing!this,!the!almighty!Father![Zeus]!banished!the!winds!to!that!black! cavern,!piled!above!them!a!mountain!mass!and!imposed!on!all!a!king! empowered,!by!binding!pact,!to!rein!them!back!on!command!or!let!them!gallop! free.45! ! Virgil!characterized!the!winds!as!extraordinarily!dangerous,!likening!them!to!violent! imprisoned!criminals,!or!to!vicious!wild!animals!“howling,”!“raging,”!and!“roaring”!in! their!confinement,!“shackled!fast”!in!their!dungeon.46!In!portraying!the!winds’!awesome! power,!their!potential!to!tear!the!world!apart,!he!suggested!that!the!unrestrained!quality!

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! connected!with!one!another,!but!this!connection!is!so!confused,!that!it!is!impossible!to!gain!a!clear!view!of! them.”!!The!three!main!personages!of!Aeolus!are!as!follows:!On!the!one!hand!he!is!characterized!as!the! monarch!of!Thessaly,!and!considered!“the!founder!of!the!Aeolic!branch!of!the!Greek!nation.”!On!the!other! hand,!the!name!appears!in!reference!to!the!King!Aeolus’!various!male!offspring!who!bore!his!namesake.! Lastly,!Aeolus!appears!in!some!accounts!as!the!son!of!Arne,!the!lover!of!Poseidon.!After!forcibly!taking! control!of!the!Island!of!Metapontum,!he!and!his!brother!slayed!their!foster`mother!over!a!dispute!she!had! with!Arne,!and!the!two!brothers!then!fled!with!their!mother!to!an!archipelago!of!islands!located!in!the! Tyrrhenian!sea,!which!he!subsequently!came!to!rule,!along!with!winds.!These!islands!came!to!be!known!as! the!Aeolian!Islands,!and!it!was!these!islands,!which!Odysseus!visited!during!his!wanderings!at!sea.!The! writings!of!later!poets!illustrate!that!over!time!Aeolus!was!elevated!to!the!status!of!a!God.!For!a!detailed! etymology!please!see!Charles!Anthon,!A*New*Classical*Dictionary*of*Greek*and*Roman*Biography,*Mythology,* and*Geography,!(Harper!and!Bros.,!1850)!21.! 45!Virgil,!The*Aeneid,!trans.!Robert!Fagles!(New!York,!N.Y.:!Viking!Press,!2006),!49,!64`76.! 46!In!the!Argonautica,!Flaccus!provides!a!comparable!description!of!the!winds!breaking!from!their! confine:!“And!now!the!rocky!prisons!of!Aeolia!are!smitten!and!groan,!and!the!coming!storm!threatens!with! hoarse!bellowing:!the!Venti![winds]!loud!and!clamouring!meet!in!conflicting!currents,!and!fling!loose! heaven’s!vault!from!its!fastened!hinges,!while!each!strives!for!mastery!of!the!sky;!but!Auster![south`wind]! most!violent!thickens!gloom!on!gloom!with!whirling!eddies!of!darkness,!and!pours!down!rain!which!keen! Boreas![north`wind]!with!his!freezing!breath!hardens!into!hail;!quivering!lightning’s!gleam,!and!from! colliding!air!bursts!sudden!fire.”!Flaccus,!Argonautica!1.!346!&!574!&!640!ff!(trans.!Mozley),!Anemoi,!Greek! God’s!of!the!Winds,!accessed!February!27,!2015,!http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Anemoi.html.! 203! ! of!their!power!necessitated!that!something!or!someone!supersede!and!bridle!that!power.!

The!very!existence!of!mankind!and!the!well!being!of!the!world!man!inhabited!ostensibly! relied!upon!such!restraint.47!!Thus,!while!readily!acknowledging!the!winds!as!an! extraordinarily!fierce!force!of!nature!with!the!potential!to!complicate!and!destroy!not! only!the!efforts!but!the!very!existence!of!mankind,!the!Greeks!and!their!Roman! successors!also!acknowledged!a!hierarchical!order!that!governed!nature’s!immense! powers!and!the!power!of!the!winds!in!turn.!!

Though!bidden!to!keep!them!under!rein,!Aeolus!could!release!the!winds!at!will,! resulting!in!devastating!torrential!storms!or!violent!sea!tempests,!which!stand!out!as!the! most!vivid!indication!of!the!immense!power!exhibited!by!and!ascribed!to!the!wind!gods.!

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47!A!notable!passage!from!Flaccus’!Argonautica!refers!again!to!the!time!before!Aeolus’!rule,!when! the!winds!ran!rampant,!creating!devastating!storms!on!land!and!sea,!spurring!Zeus!to!appoint!a!ruler!above! them:!“Amid!the!perilous!straits!of!the!Sicilian!sea!there!stands!a!rocky!island!over!against!the!retreating! promontory!of!Pelorum…close!by!is!another!island…whose!crags!and!caverns!are!full!as!vast…the!latter!is! the!home!of!wind!and!rain,!abode!of!storm!and!tempest;!hence!they!went!forth!unto!all!lands,!and! destruction!and!shipwreck!are!about!their!paths!amid!the!great!waters;!and!from!hence!they!were!wont,!in! olden!time,!to!mingle!sea!and!sky!in!one!wild!welter;!for!of!a!truth!there!was!then!no!Aeolus!to!hold!them!in! check…!Then!at!last!the!Almighty!thundered!from!heaven!so!that!the!winds!quaked,!and!he!gave!that! unruly!crew!a!king!whom!he!commanded!them!to!obey.!Now!the!East!wind!is!imprisoned!in!a!rocky!cave! amid!the!mountains,!and!iron!bars!and!stone!walls!of!double!thickness!encase!the!North`East!Wind.!When! he!can!no!longer!curb!their!noisy!murmurings,!then!their!king!himself!of!his!own!accord!unbars!the!portals! of!their!prison!and!graciously!gives!an!outlet!to!the!tumult!of!their!wrath,”!(Gaius!Valerius!Flaccus,! Argonautica,!vol.!1,!trans.!H.G.!Blomfield!(Oxford:!B.H.!Blackwell,!1916),!109`111).!A!further!passage!from! Statius,*Silvae!illustrates!that!the!west!wind!was!generally!considered!the!most!benevolent,!and!that!people! relied!upon!the!strength!of!Aeolus!to!keep!the!more!troublesome!winds!under!control:!mAnd!may!the!father! [Aeolus]!whose!Aeolian!prison!constrains!the!Winds,!whom!the!various!blasts!obey,!and!every!air!that!stirs! on!the!world’s!seas,!and!storms!and!cloudy!tempests,!keep!Boreas!(the!North`Wind)!and!Notos!(South)!and! Eurus!(East)!in!closer!custody!behind!his!wall!of!mountain;!but!may!Zephyros!(the!West)!alone!have!the! freedom!of!the!sky,!alone!drive!vessels!onward!and!skim!unceasingly!o’er!the!crests!of!the!billows,!until!he! bring!without!a!storm!thy!glad!sail!safe!to!the!Paraetonian!haven.m!Statius,*Silvae*3.*2*(trans.*Mozley)*(Roman* poetry*C1st*A.D.),*Anemoi,!Greek!God’s!of!the!Winds,!accessed!February!27,!2015,! http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Anemoi.html.!! 204! !

48!In!the!opening!passages!of!the!Aeneid,!for!example,!Virgil!describes!how!Zeus’s!wife!

Juno!petitioned!Aeolus!to!assist!she!and!her!beloved!city!of!Carthage!by!releasing!the! winds’!fury!upon!the!Trojan!fleet!sailing!for!Italy.49!Aeolus!responded!to!Juno’s!

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48!In!a!poignant!example!from!the!Argonautica,!Flaccus!writes:!“With!one!consent!they!raised!a!gale! and!with!their!raging!blast!drove!the!curved!billows!on!the!shore.!Nor!did!they!stir!the!sea`kings!realms! alone,!but!in!the!welkin!also!the!fire!was!kindled!and!the!heavens!dropped!and!thunder!roared,!and!the! heavy!veil!of!night!descended!from!the!sky.!The!oars!were!wrested!from!the!rowers!hands;!round!spun!the! vessel,!and!as!the!prow!was!turned!about,!a!crashing!broadside!smote!her!amidships,!and!a!sudden! whirlwind!caught!up!the!flying!sails!above!the!tottering!mast.!What!terror!then!seized!the!hearts!of!the! trembling!crew,!when!gleaming!through!the!inky!sky!the!vivid!flames!fell!athwart!the!affrighted!barque,! and!the!left!arm!of!the!sail`yards,!now!disabled,!kept!dipping!into!the!yawning!trough!beneath,!and!the! water!ran!off!it!as!the!ship!heeled!over!to!the!other!side!...So!spake!they!among!themselves,!bewailing!their! fate!so!ignoble!a!death…when!suddenly!each!several!plank!seems!to!spring!a!leak!at!once,!and!the!good! ship!greedily!drinks!in!the!water!through!the!gaping!rents.!And!now!the!East!wind!drives!her!this!way!and! that,!lashing!her!furiously,!and!now!the!South`West!wind!bears!her!off!on!its!raging!blasts,!while!all!around! the!waters!race!and!boil,”!(Flaccus,!Argonautica,!(trans.!Blomfield),!113`114,!116,117).!Other!God’s!or! Goddesses!occasionally!commanded!the!winds’!obedience!or!requested!their!assistance!and!it!was!not!only! the!Gods!and!Goddesses!who!requested!help!from!the!winds.!On!occasion!mankind!also!entreated!the! winds!for!assistance.!In!book!twenty`three!of!The*Iliad,!for!example,!the!brave!warrior!Achilles!prays!to!the! wind!gods!to!help!him!light!the!funeral!pyre!of!his!dear!friend!Patroclus.!The!ghost!of!Patroclus!had!visited! Achilles!and!beseeched!him!to!cremate!his!cadaver!so!he!might!enter!Hades.!Achilles!built!a!funeral!pyre! upon!which!to!burn!Patroclus’!body,!but!the!pyre!would!not!light.!In!a!poignant!passage!illustrating!the! power!of!the!winds,!Homer!writes:!“But!the!pyre!of!dead!Patroclus!was!not!burning—and!the!swift!runner! Achilles!thought!of!what!to!do.!Stepping!back!from!the!pyre!he!prayed!to!the!two!winds—Zephyr!and! Boreas,!West!and!North—promised!splendid!victims!and!pouring!generous,!brimming!cups!from!a!golden! goblet,!begged!them!to!come!so!the!wood!might!burst!in!flame!and!the!dead!burn!down!to!ask!with!all!good! speed.!And!Iris,!hearing!his!prayers,!rushed!the!message!on!to!the!winds!that!gathered!now!in!stormy! Zephyr’s!halls!to!share!his!brawling!banquet.!Iris!swept!to!a!stop!and!once!they!saw!her!poised!at!the!stone! threshold!all!sprang!up,!each!urged!her!to!sit!beside!him!but!she!refused…I!bring!Achilles!prayers!!He!begs! you!to!come!at!once,!Boreas,!blustering!Zephyr,!he!promises!splendid!victims—come!with!a!strong!blast! and!light!the!pyre!where!Patroclus!lies!in!state!and!all!the!Argive!armies!mourn!around!him!!Message! delivered,!off!she!sped!as!the!winds!rose!with!a!superhuman!roar,!stampeding!clouds!before!them.! Suddenly!reaching!the!open!sea!in!gale!force,!whipping!whitecaps!under!a!shrilling!killer`squall!they!raised! the!good!rich!soil!of!Troy!and!struck!the!pyre!and!a!huge!inhuman!blaze!went!howling!up!the!skies.”! Homer,!The!Iliad,!565`566! 49!“With!such!anger!seething!inside!her!fiery!heart!the!goddess!reached!Aeolia,!breeding`ground!of! storms,!their!home!swarming!with!raging!gusts!from!the!South…Now!Juno!made!this!plea!to!the!Lord!of! the!Winds…‘A!race!I!loathe!is!crossing!the!Tuscan!sea,!transporting!Troy!to!Italy,!bearing!their!conquered! household!gods—thrash!you!winds!to!fury,!sink!their!warships,!overwhelm!them!or!break!them!apart,! scatter!their!crews,!drown!them!all!’”!Virgil,!Aeneid,!(trans.!Fagles),!49!! 205! ! command!(in!accordance!with!his!duty)!and!unleashed!a!terrible!tempest!upon!the!

Trojans:!

Swinging!his!spear!around!he!(Aeolus)!strikes!home!at!the!mountain’s!hollow! flank!and!out!charge!the!winds!through!the!breach!he’d!made,!like!armies!on! attack!in!a!blasting!whirlwind!tearing!through!the!earth.!Down!they!crash!on!the! sea,!the!Eastwind,!Southwind,!all!as!one!with!the!Southwest’s!squalls!in!hot! pursuit,!heaving!up!from!the!ocean!depths!huge!killer`breakers!rolling!toward! the!beaches.!The!crews!are!shouting,!cables!screeching—sudden!cloudbanks! blotting!out!the!sky,!the!light!of!day!from!the!Trojans’!sight!as!pitch`black!night! comes!brooding!down!on!the!sea!with!thunder!crashing!pole!to!pole,!bolt!on!bolt! blazing!across!the!heavens—death,!everywhere!men!facing!instant! death…Flinging!cries!as!a!screaming!gust!of!the!Northwind!pounds!against!his! sail,!raising!waves!sky`high.!The!oars!shatter,!prow!twist!round,!taking!the! breakers!broadside!on!and!over!Aeneas’!decks!a!mountain!of!water!towers,! massive,!steep.50! ! The!theme!of!utter!helplessness!in!the!face!of!violent!windstorms,!so!aptly!illustrated!in! this!passage,!and!the!futility!of!mankind’s!attempts!to!rebuff!or!challenge!the!power!and! will!of!the!winds,!so!popular!in!the!Greek!epics,!maintained!literary!fluency!well!into!the!

Roman!period!and!for!centuries!to!follow.!Though!authored!in!19!B.C.,!for!example,!and! arguably!rooted!in!fiction!more!than!in!fact,!according!to!Defoe,!this!particular!passage! of!Virgil’s!nevertheless!bears!an!uncanny!resemblance!to!descriptions!of!the!death!and! utter!chaos!that!took!place!at!sea!during!England’s!Great!Storm,!published!over!fifteen` !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

50!Virgil,!Aeneid!(trans.!Fagles),!50`51.!It!is!worth!mentioning!that!Poseidon!ends!this!dreadful! tempest!and!thus!acquits!the!sailors!of!their!travail!by!banishing!the!winds!back!to!their!dungeon,! commanding!that!they!cease!their!blustering!and!reminding!them!that!he!rules!the!sea!and!that!the!winds! may!not!churn!and!rouse!the!waves!without!his!consent:!“You!winds,!you!dare!make!heaven!and!earth!a! chaos,!raising!such!a!riot!of!waves!without!my!blessings…Next!time!trust!me,!you!will!pay!for!your!crimes! with!more!than!just!a!scolding.!Away!with!you,!quick!!And!give!your!king!this!message:!Power!over!the!sea! and!ruthless!trident!is!mine,!not!his—its!mine!by!lot,!by!destiny.!His!place,!Eastwind,!is!the!rough!rocks! where!you!are!all!at!home.!Let!him!bluster!there!and!play!the!king!at!his!own!court,!let!Aeolus!rule!his! bolted!dungeon!of!the!winds!”!(p.51`52).! 206! ! hundred!years!later.!A!preoccupation!with!truth!may!have!characterized!Defoe’s! approach!toward!describing!England’s!most!ferocious!tempest,!but!the!language,! imagery,!and!themes!that!characterized!depictions!of!violent!wind!storms!remained! largely!unchanged!over!the!course!of!centuries.!

In!the!Dionysiaca,!which!was!authored!as!late!as!the!5th!century!A.D.!by!the!last!of! the!great!epic!poets,!Nonnus!recounts!a!tragic!incident!in!which!a!Libyan!king,!angered! by!the!actions!of!Notos!(the!South!Wind),!attempted!to!take!revenge!upon!the!wind!to! no!avail:!!

Psyllos!the!harebrained…!was!the!gods’!enemy.!Notos,!that!hot!wind,!once!burnt! his!crops!with!parching!breath;!whereupon!he!fitted!out!a!fleet!and!gathered!a! naval!swarm!of!helmeted!warriors,!to!stir!up!strife!against!the!Aetai!(Winds)!of! the!south!with!avenging!doom,!eager!to!kill!fiery!Notos!(the!South!Wind).!To!the! island!of!Aeolus!sailed!the!shieldbearing!fleet;!but!the!Aetai!(Winds)!armed! themselves!and!flogged!the!madman’s!vessel,!volleying!with!tempestuous! tumult!in!a!whirlwind!throng!of!concerted!confederate!blasts,!and!sank!Psyllos! and!armament!in!water!grave.51!! !! By!the!5th!century,!when!this!particular!tale!was!published,!the!belief!system!of!the! ancient!Greeks!had!largely!fallen!to!the!wayside!as!the!Roman!Empire!embraced!

Christianity!as!its!principle!faith.!Yet,!the!moral!of!the!story!conveyed!in!this!passage! remains!largely!consistent!with!the!ancient!Greek!ideologies:!mankind!was!subject!to!the! winds’!power,!the!winds!were!not!inherently!subject!to!the!will!or!whim!of!man.52!And!

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51!Nonnus,*Dionysiaca,*13.!381!ff!(trans.!Rouse)!(Greek!epic!C5th!A.D.),*Anemoi,!Greek!God’s!of!the! Winds,!accessed!February!27,!2015,!http://www.theoi.com/Titan/Anemoi.html!! 52!Only!a!mad!man,!it!appears,!would!consider!avenging!the!winds;!they!were!simply!too!powerful! a!force.!Death!was!the!fitting!outcome!of!such!a!maniacal!endeavor.! 207! ! the!temperament!of!the!wind!indicated!how!favorably!the!divine!regarded!the!mortal.!

These!themes!persisted!within!Christian!rhetoric!about!the!wind!that!emerged!in!the! centuries!that!followed,!and!in!reference!to!the!Great!Storm!as!well.53!!

Further!illustration!of!the!wind’s!overwhelming!power,!and!perceptions!of!its! temperament!as!a!moral!index!emerge!in!one!of!the!most!famous!passages!related!to!

Aeolus,!for!example,!where!Homer!describes!the!plight!of!Odysseus!as!he!petitioned!the! ruler!of!the!winds!for!assistance!on!his!journey!home!to!Troy.!The!mighty!and! benevolent!ruler!of!the!winds!hosted!Odysseus!and!his!crew!for!a!month!and!did!his! best!to!ensure!that!they!would!return!safely!home!across!the!sea!by!providing!Odysseus! with!a!leather!sack!made!of!ox!hide,!“binding!inside!the!winds!that!howl!from!every! quarter,”!with!the!exception!of!the!benevolent!west!wind,!which!he!unleashed!to!blow! their!ship!home.54!!

Aeolus’!generosity!was!vanquished,!however,!by!the!selfish!ignorance!of!the! very!sailors!he!attempted!to!assist.!On!the!ninth!day!of!their!voyage!and!in!sight!of!land,!

Odysseus’!crew!opened!the!sack!entrusted!to!Odysseus!with!the!intention!of!plundering! the!treasure!they!wrongly!believed!it!contained.!“All!the!winds!burst!out!and!a!sudden!

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53!Despite!their!occasional!penchant!for!destruction,!however,!the!winds!were!not!exclusively!a! source!of!strife.!Numerous!instances,!particularly!in!the!earliest!of!the!Greek!epics,!suggest!the!wind’s! power!to!assist!mankind’s!efforts,!or!the!efforts!and!agendas!of!other!Gods!and!Goddesses!under!certain! circumstances.! 54!Homer,!The*Odyssey,!trans.!Robert!Fagles!(New!York,!Viking!Press,!1996),!230`233.! 208! ! squall!struck!and!swept!us!back!to!sea,!ailing,!in!tears,!far!from!our!own!native!land.”55!

Aeolus!had!bound!the!violent!wind’s!to!protect!Odysseus!and!his!crew,!but!their!greed! had!undone!his!generous!blessing.!Odysseus!returned!to!the!Aeolian!island!and!begged! further!assistance,!but!Aeolus!refused:!“‘Away!from!my!island—fast—most!cursed!man! alive!!It’s!a!crime!to!host!a!man!or!speed!him!on!his!way!when!the!blessed!deathless! gods!despise!him!so.!Crawling!back!like!this—it!proves!the!immortals!hate!you!!Out— get!out!’”!The!greed!and!thievery!of!Odysseus’!crew!resulted!in!a!punishment!of!further! exile.!Odysseus!found!that!without!the!God’s!support,!the!efforts!of!any!who!attempted! to!assist!him!would!fall!short.!Divine!blessing!was!the!difference!between!success!and! failure,!between!suffering!and!contentment,!between!salvation!and!hell,!and!the! disposition!of!the!winds!indicated!whether!God!was!for!or!against!you.!!

Defoe!openly!disagreed!with!the!narrative!techniques!of!the!Ancient!Greeks!on! the!basis!of!his!interpretation!of!their!tales!as!fiction!rather!than!fact,!and!on!the!grounds! that!fabrication!undermined!the!power!and!miraculousness!of!the!divine,!power!that!he! believed!was!more!than!adequately!demonstrated!through!real!events.!!

We!shall!no!where!so!Trespass!upon!Fact,!as!to!oblige!Infinate!Power!to!the! shewing!more!Miracles!than!it!intended.!It!must!be!allow’d,!That!when!Nature! was!put!into!so!much!Confusion,!and!the!Surface!of!the!Earth!and!Sea!felt!such! extraordinary!a!Disorder,!innumerable!Accidents!would!fall!out!that!till!the!like! Occasion!happen!may!never!more!be!seen,!and!unless!a!like!Occasion!had! happen’d!could!never!before!be!heard!of:!wherefore!the!particular!

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55!Homer,!The*Odyssey,!230`233! 209! !

Circumstances!being!so!wonderful,!serve!but!to!remember!Posterity!of!the!more! wonderful!Extreme,!which!was!the!immediate!Cause.56! ! Despite!these!ideological!differences!with!regard!to!method,!however,!Defoe’s!aims! were!more!in!accordance!with!those!of!the!Greek!authors!he!criticized!than!he!may!have! liked!to!admit.!In!their!storied!accounts!of!the!wind!both!Defoe!and!the!ancients! emphasized!the!overwhelming!power!of!the!divine,!the!relationship!between!divine!will! and!the!course!of!nature,!and!degree!to!which!humanity!was!unequivocally!subject!to! both.!

The Great Storm

According!to!Defoe,!the!Great!Storm!of!1703!was!the!most!extreme!event!of!its! kind!in!the!history!of!the!English!nation.57!“We!have!often!very!high!Winds,!and! sometimes!violent!Tempests,”!he!argued,!but!“such!a!Tempest!never!happen’d!before!as! that!which!is!the!Subject!of!these!Sheets.”58!However,!historical!accounts!of!ferocious! storms!native!to!the!region!called!Defoe’s!claim!into!question,!specifically!the! descriptions!of!wind`storms!evident!in!the!mythological!lore!of!ancient!Rome!and!

Greece!and!in!the!writings!of!ancient!philosophers!such!as!Camden!who!asserted!that!

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56!Defoe,!Storm,!Preface!A5! 57!Defoe!was!nevertheless!aware!of!storms!in!the!past!whose!strength!rivaled!that!of!1703.!In! February,!1661!a!“dreadful”!wind!storm!had!struck!Europe,!and!Defoe!included!several!letters!that! provided!detailed!accounts!of!the!event!and!the!damage!wrought!by!it.!See!p.50`68!in!Defoe,!Storm,!for!these! descriptions.! 58!The!larger!quote!reads!as!follows:!“Histories!are!full!of!the!Particulars,!that!we!have!often!very! high!Winds,!and!sometimes!violent!Tempests!in!these!Northern!parts!of!the!World;!but!I!am!still!of!opinion,! such!a!Tempest!never!happen’d!before!as!that!which!is!the!Subject!of!these!sheets.”!Defoe,!Storm,!24! 210! ! the!Northern!winds!made!the!English!Isle!and!its!surrounding!seas!subject!to!the!most! fierce!and!terrible!storms!of!anywhere!in!the!world.!On!this!basis!Defoe!felt!compelled!to! directly!address!historical!characterizations!of!English!wind!and!weather!in!order!to! prove!his!claim!and!to!generate!not!only!a!sense!of!importance,!but!‘visible’!truth!about! this!event!that!might!have!been!absent!without!it.59!!

Defoe!offered!two!theories!to!explain!the!opinions!of!the!ancients!regarding!the! violence!and!power!of!English!wind!and!weather,!and!their!assertions!of!the!primacy!of! past!storms.60!The!more!rational!of!the!two!theories,!he!observed,!was!that!the!English!

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59!“Some!are!for!placing!the!Nativity!of!the!Winds!hereabouts,!as!if!they!had!been!all!generated! here,!and!the!Confluence!of!Matter!had!made!this!Island!its!General!Rendezvouz,”!writes!Defoe.!writes.! Defoe!disagreed!with!this!characterization!of!England,!however.!He!believed!the!climate!and!topography!of! other!locations!throughout!the!world!made!them!“far!better!adapted!to!be!the!General!Receptacle!or!Centre! of!Vapours,!to!supply!a!Fund!of!Tempestuous!Matter!than!England,”!and!cited!the!Great!Lakes!of!North! America!as!a!prime!example!in!support!of!his!argument.!Defoe,!Storm,!14!! 60!Contemporary!climatologists!and!historical!meteorologists!have!likewise!researched!weather! records!in!order!to!assess!and!compare!conditions!in!the!past!with!those!of!the!present.!However,!the! meaning!people!made!of!meteorological!events,!and!the!cultural!dialectic!involving!nature,!weather,!and! English!society!has!received!comparatively!less!attention,!exempting!the!contribution!of!historians!of!science! such!as!Katherine!Anderson!and!Vladimir!Jancovic,!who!have!focused!on!this!dimension!largely!through! studies!devoted!to!the!evolution!of!scientific!meteorology.!Anderson,!for!example,!explores!how!the! challenges!of!accurate!weather!forecasting!during!the!Victorian!era!called!scientific!authority,!utility,!and! progress!into!question.!Over!the!course!of!the!19th!century,!England’s!scientific!community,!working!in! tandem!with!the!British!government,!created!sophisticated!institutional!networks!to!gather!the!range!and! quantity!of!data!deemed!necessary!for!accurate!weather!prediction.!However,!the!vagaries!of!British! weather,!she!argues,!confounded!even!these!diligent,!coordinated,!scientific!efforts,!thereby!opening!up!the! scientific!field!to!criticism!and!magnifying!its!limitations.!Katherine!Anderson,!Predicting*the*Weather:* Victorian’s*and*the*Science*of*Meteorology!(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!2005).!In!a!similar!vein,!but! focusing!instead!on!reports!and!discourse!highlighting!the!English!nation’s!preoccupation!with!unusual! weather!phenomena!such!as!northern!lights,!waterspouts,!storms!and!earthquakes,!all!commonly!referred!to! at!this!time!as!“meteors,”!Vladimir!Jancovic!makes!a!compelling!case!that!“ancient!conceptions!of! meteorology!remained!unchallenged”!in!England!until!the!close!of!the!18th!century.!Vladimir!Jancovic,! Reading*the*Skies:*A*Cultural*History*of*English*Weather,*1650@18206!(Chicago:!Chicago!University!Press,!2000),! 6.!Rather!than!emphasizing!the!ruptures!often!associated!with!the!scientific!revolution,!Jancovic’s!study! instead!focuses!on!continuity,!while!his!“stress!on!qualitative!and!narrative!framing!of!‘important’! weather…provides!a!challenge!to!the!often!held!view!that!instrumental!recording!represented!the! 211! !

Isle!was!once!a!vast!marshland!covered!with!water,!and!that!these!marshes,!ponds,!and! lakes!must!have!produced!enormous!quantities!of!vapors,!thereby!inciting!storms!and! showers!in!great!abundance.!Since!that!time,!he!observed,!human!industry!had! dramatically!transformed!the!landscape.!Cities!and!villages!now!stood!where! marshlands!and!lakes!had!previously!lay,!and!these!topographical!developments!had!a! real!effect!on!the!weather:!!

Imagine!the!vast!Tract!of!Marsh`Lands!on!both!sides!the!River!Thames,!to! Harwich!on!the!Essex!side,!and!to!Whitstable!on!the!Kentish!side,!the!Levels!of! Marshes!up!the!Stour!from!Sandwich!to!Canterbury,!the!whole!Extent!of!Low` grounds!commonly!call’d!Rumney`Marsh,!from!Hythe!to!Winchelsea,!and!up!the! Banks!of!the!Rother;!all!which!put!together!and!allowed!to!be!in!one!place! covere’d!with!Water,!what!a!Lake!wou’d!!it!be!supposed!to!make?!61! !

Defoe!calculated!that!the!area!of!former!marshlands!now!cleared!and!inhabited! amounted!to!approximately!500,000!acres.!Indeed,!ancient!histories!stated!that!long!ago,!

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! cornerstone!of!modern!meteorology,”!(Jancovic,!Reading*the*Skies,!9).!Supplementing!these!excellent! meteorological!studies!in!the!history!of!science!is!the!singular!work!of!Jan!Golinski,!who!shares!with! Anderson!and!Jancovic!an!emphasis!on!discourse`based!analysis,!but!whose!cultural!history!of!British! weather!is!distinct!in!its!lack!of!scientific!teleology!and!in!its!broader!cultural!contextualization!of!ideas! about!British!weather!insofar!as!they!reflected!the!general!contours!of!Enlightenment!thinking!as!well!as!the! movement’s!intrinsic!limits.!Jan!Golinski,!British*Weather*and*the*Climate*of*Enlightenment!(Chicago:! University!of!Chicago!Press,!2007).!“Investigations!of!the!weather!and!climate!testified!in!some!respects!to! the!advance!of!science!and!reason,!in!others!to!the!continuing!hold!of!tradition!and!the!passions,!he!writes,! “Studies!of!the!air!and!its!effects!echoed!both!the!success!and!the!failure!of!enlightenment!and!thus!its! uneven!progress!in!eighteenth!century!society.!It!is!this!which!makes!attitudes!toward!the!weather!an!index! of!the!often!conflicting!tendencies!of!cultural!change.”!(Golinski,!Climate*of*Enlightenment,!5).! 61!Defoe,!Storm,!16.!He!writes!further,!“While!this!nation!was!thus!full!of!standing!Lakes,!stagnated! Waters,!and!moist!Places,!the!multitude!of!Exhalations!must!furnish!the!Air!with!a!quantity!of!Matter!for! Showers!and!Storms!infinitely!more!than!it!can!be!now!supply’d!withal,!those!vast!Tracts!of!Land!being! now!fenc’d!off,!laid!dry,!and!turn’d!into!wholesome!and!profitable!Provinces,”!(p.17).! 212! ! the!Danish!fleet!was!able!to!sail!nearly!to!Hartford.!Thus,!“all!that!Range!of!fresh!

Marshes!which!reach!for!twenty!five!Miles!in!length,!from!Ware!to!the!River!Thames,! must![have!been]!a!Sea,”!claimed!Defoe.62!He!compared!the!effect!to!the!weather!still! observable!in!Ireland!where!the!“Lakes,!Bogs,!and!moist!Places,”!create!an!enormous! amount!of!humidity!and!rain!“and!make!it!be!call’d!The*Piss@pot*of*the*World.”63!An! abundance!of!moisture!in!the!air,!exceeding!the!levels!present!in!1700,!argued!Defoe,! would!have!dramatically!increased!wind!and!precipitation!in!the!atmosphere.!!

Topographical!change!may!have!accounted!for!changes!in!the!weather!over!time! in!Defoe’s!estimation.!However,!Defoe!had!a!second!theory!about!the!origins!of!

England’s!reputation!among!the!ancients!as!a!region!prone!to!terrible!winds!and!storms:! the!Greeks’!perceptions!were!skewed.!Their!maritime!technology!and!navigation!skills! were!not!sophisticated!enough!to!handle!the!weather!of!the!British!Isles,!he!argued.!

“Such!horrid!Apprehensions!those!Ages!had!of!these!Parts,!which!by!our!Experience,! and!the!Prodigy!to!which!Navigation!in!particular,!and!Sciential!Knowledge!in!general,! is!since!grown,!appear!very!ridiculous.”64!Advances!in!navigation!and!shipbuilding!over! the!course!of!time,!argued!Defoe,!had!rendered!the!English!seas!both!traversable!and! unthreatening.!“The!Gulfs!which!frightened!those!early!Sons!of!Neptune!are!search’d! out!by!our!Seamen,!and!made!useful!Bays,!Roads,!and!Harobours!of!Safety.!The!

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62!Defoe,!Storm,!16! 63!Defoe,!Storm,!18! 64!Defoe,!Storm,!19! 213! !

Promontories!which!running!out!into!the!Sea!gave!them!terrible!Apprehensions!of!

Danger…![now]!make!the!Sailors!Hearts!glad.”65!Seas!and!storms!that!at!one!time! intimidated!sailors!and!challenged!their!vessels!were!no!longer!cause!for!concern.!!

In!making!this!claim,!Defoe!called!attention!to!the!subjective!quality!of!personal! experience!with!the!weather,!and!to!the!relativistic!quality!of!historic!characterizations! of!the!winds!and!storms!indigenous!to!the!region.!He!suggested!that!if!vessels!formerly! used!to!traverse!the!seas!were!less!equipped!to!handle!rough!weather,!and!if!the!sailors! of!ancient!times!were!also!less!adept!on!this!count,!that!correspondingly,!perceptions! and!depictions!of!weather!encountered!by!maritime!travelers!at!that!time!would!have! been!considerably!more!dramatic!by!their!standards!and!considerably!less!dramatic!by! contemporary!standards.!

From!hence!it!comes!to!pass,!that!such!Winds!as!in!those!Days!wou’d!have! pass’d!for!Storms,!are!called!only!a!Fresh@gale,!or!Blowing@hard…“And!that!our! Sailors!call!a!Top`sail!Gale!would!have!drove!the!Navigators!of!those!Ages!into! Harbours:!when!our!Sailors!reis!a!Top`sail,!they!would!have!handed!all!their! Sails;!and!when!we!go!under!a!main!Course,!they!would!have!run!afore*it!for!Life! to!the!next!Port!they!could!make:!when!our!Hard*Gale!blows!they!would!have! cried!a!Tempest;!and!about!the!Fret*of*Wind!they!would!be!all!at!their!Prayers.66!! !

Defoe!asserted!that!historic!claims!about!the!violence!of!the!British!winds!and!weather! must!be!understood!in!their!historic!context,!at!a!time!when!shipbuilding!and!navigation! skills!were!not!comparable!the!present!(1700s).!This!was!not!to!say!that!the!weather!in!

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65!Defoe,!Storm,!20! 66!Defoe,!Storm,!21`22! 214! !

England!was!not!challenging,!but!rather,!that!the!rubric!for!measuring!the!weather!was! not!fixed,!and!shifted!over!time!relative!to!technological!and!epistemological! developments.!!Thus!Defoe!writes,!“I!make!no!question!but!our!Ships!ride!out!many!a! worse!Storm!than!that!terrible!Tempest!which!scatter’d!Julius!Caesar’s!Fleet,!or!the!same! that!drove!Aeneas!on!the!Coast!of!Carthage.”67!The!power!of!this!historicizing!method! lay!in!the!fact!that!it!not!only!allowed!Defoe!to!relativize!events,!but!to!claim!the!storm’s! singular!importance—and!to!assert!his!own!as!its!historian.!!

Defoe!also!suggested!that!foreign!waters!and!a!lack!of!familiarity!with!the!coast! itself!would!have!put!the!ancient!(Greek!and!Roman)!sailors!at!a!marked!disadvantage! relative!to!the!English!sailor!of!the!eighteenth!century.!Traversing!a!foreign!region!of!the! sea,!particularly!those!waters!controlled!by!enemies,!would!have!further!amplified!an! overall!impression!of!hostility:!“so!that!upon!the!whole!it!seems!plain!to!me,!that!all!the! dismal!things!the!Ancients!told!us!of!Britain,!and!her!terrible!Shores,!arose!from!the!

Infancy!of!Marine!Knowledge,!and!the!Weakness!of!the!Sailors!Courage.”68!The!wind! and!weather!may!have!changed!over!time!in!response!to!changes!to!the!landscape,!but! further!complicating!matters!was!that!fact!that!impressions!about!the!weather!were! largely!subjective.!The!Greeks!had!simply!“raised!those!Apprehensions!up!to!Fable.”69!

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67!Defoe,!Storm,!23! 68!Defoe,!Storm,!21! 69!“The!skill!of!those!Ages!in!the!Art!of!Navigation;!which!being!far!short!of!what!it!is!since!arrived! to,!made!these!vast!Northern!Seas!too!terrible!for!them!to!venture!in:!and!accordingly!they!raised!those! Apprehensions!up!to!Fable.”!Defoe,!Storm,!18! 215! !

Defoe!defended!his!claim!about!the!Great!Storm’s!unprecedented!ferocity!by! illustrating!the!subjectivity!of!historic!characterizations!of!the!wind!and!weather.!Yet,!he! did!so!within!a!context!defined!by!an!overriding!commitment!to!factual!reporting.70!This! begs!the!question,!if!Defoe!presumed!to!accurately!and!honestly!describe!the!Great!

Storm,!precisely!what!rubrics!was!he!using!to!gauge!its!features?!A!universal!scale!for! measuring!wind!force!did!yet!not!exist,!yet!everyone!who!experienced!the!storm!made! some!assessment!regarding!the!wind’s!strength!and!the!storm’s!defining!characteristics.!

Were!these!assessments!uniform!in!some!regard?!Was!there!a!type!of!common! knowledge!that,!while!lacking!formal!institutionalization,!nevertheless!created!a!shared! language!and!standard!by!which!to!describe!and!measure!this!storm’s!features?!Or!were!

Defoe’s!claims,!and!the!observations!submitted!to!Defoe!all!purely!subjective?!!

As!we!saw!in!the!first!chapter,!Francis!Bacon!went!to!great!lengths!to!name!and! categorize!the!winds!on!the!basis!of!directionality,!seasonality,!region,!and!history.!In! doing!so,!he!drew!upon!the!history,!knowledge,!and!culture!of!the!maritime!community! for!whom!winds!were!of!paramount!importance,!a!community!whose!labor!both! fostered!and!relied!upon!intimate!knowledge!of!the!wind.!Terms!such!as!Cardinal*Winds! and!Median*Winds!are!rooted!in!this!lexicon,!as!are!terms!such!as!Trade*Winds!and!

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70!He!did!so!even!as!he!raised!the!question!of!subjectivity!regarding!historic!characterizations!about! the!wind!and!weather.! 216! !

Serving*Winds.!Although!the!definitions!Bacon!associated!with!these!terms!took!a! number!of!characteristics!into!account,!wind!force!was!not!one!of!them.!In!fact,!Bacon!did! not!discuss!wind!force!in!his!Treatise.!And!yet,!accurately!gauging!wind!force!and! knowing!how!to!accordingly!maneuver!sails!in!order!to!optimally!harness!the!wind’s! power!was!clearly!of!great!importance!to!both!rural!inhabitants!whose!livelihoods! depended!upon!milling,!and!to!a!maritime!community!oriented!around!wind`powered! sailing!ships.!We!can!therefore!presume!that!a!scale!for!measuring!wind!force!was! around!during!Defoe’s!time,!during!Bacon’s!time,!and!probably!long!before.!Medieval!

Arab!sailors,!for!example,!had!almost!certainly!devised!their!own!scale!for!measuring! wind!force!by!the!close!of!the!15th!century,!because!they!had!by!this!time!created!a! taxonomy!for!virtually!all!meteorological!phenomena!that!had!any!bearing!on!nautical! affairs.71!Likewise,!western!mariners!must!have!also!devised!a!system.!What!did!this! system!look!like?!!

Naval!logbooks!and!logbooks!from!joint`stock!companies!such!as!the!English!

East!India!Company!remain!the!richest!sources!for!consistent!information!on!the!subject,! however,!all!ships!maintained!logbooks.!They!did!so!for!two!important!reasons:!first,! logbooks!functioned!as!an!official!record!attesting!to!the!captain’s!management!of!his!

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71!For!the!discussion!and!application!of!ship!logs!as!a!crucial!resource!for!assessing!historic! atmospheric!patterns!and!sea!level!pressure!as!it!pertains!to!climate!change!and!anomalies!see!M.!Küttel!et! al.,!“The!Importance!of!Ship!Log!Data:!Reconstructing!the!North!Atlantic,!European!and!Mediterranean!Sea! Level!Pressure!Fields!Back!to!1750”!Climate*Dynamics!34,!no.!7`8!(2010):!1115`1128,!(DOI!10.1007/s00382`009` 0577`9).!! 217! ! ship;!and!second,!they!served!as!navigational!documents!which!were!used!to!record!a! ship’s!location,!speed,!direction,!and!general!progress.!Logbooks!generally!included! general!weather!observations,!and!notes!on!wind!force!and!wind!direction!because!of! their!central!importance!to!navigation.72!These!notes!were!written!in!what!Geographer!

Dennis!Wheeler!has!described!as!a!“highly!narrative!style,”!using!a!“common,!but!by!no! means!universal!vocabulary.73”!Although!sailors!drew!upon!a!rich!and!varied!set!of! descriptors!to!characterize!the!wind,!which!included!terms!such!as!calm,!fine*gale,!and! blowing*hard,!studies!suggest!that!the!most!common!phrases!used!at!the!turn!of!the!17th!

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72!At!the!turn!of!the!18th!century,!ships!were!not!generally!furnished!with!meteorological! instruments!such!as!the!anemometer;!nor!were!their!crews!routinely!educated!in!their!workings.!The!term! anemometer!comes!from!the!Greek!anemos,!meaning!wind—yet!another!testament!to!the!Greek!influence.! There!are!two!basic!types!of!anemometer’s,!those!used!principally!to!measure!wind!pressure,!and!those! used!principally!to!measure!wind!speed.!!However,!because!wind!speed!is!informed!by!wind!pressure!and! vice!versa!most!anemometers!provide!information!about!either!characteristic.!Although!the!first!mechanical! anemometer!(on!record)!was!invented!in!1450!by!Leon!Battista!Alberti,!Robert!Hooke!developed!one!in!1664! using!a!similar!design!and!is!often!mistakenly!credited!as!the!devices!original!inventor.!James!Lind!created! one!most!effective!and!efficient!anemometer’s!for!measuring!wind!pressure!in!1775.!And!in!1846!Dr.!John! Thomas!Romney!Robinson!invented!an!anemometer!for!measuring!wind!speed!comprised!of!four!cups! mounted!on!four!horizontal!arms—similar!in!design!to!a!horizontal!windmill.!The!wind,!he!calculated,! moved!2/3!faster!than!the!cups!it!rotated,!regardless!of!cup!size!or!the!length!of!the!arms!on!which!the!cups! were!mounted.!This!formula!proved!incorrect,!however,!as!later!scientists!demonstrated!that!the!ratio!of! wind!speed!to!cup!rotation!speed!was!in!fact!a!function!of!the!cup!size!and!arm!length.!For!more! information!on!Aneometers!please!see!William!Henry!Dines,!Encyclopædia*Britannica,!(1911),!s.v.! “Anemometer.”!See!too!W.E.!Knowles!Middleton!and!Athelstan!F.!Spilhaus,!Meteorological*Instruments! (University!of!Toronto!Press,!Toronto,!1953);!W.E.!Knowles!Middleton,*Invention*of*the*Meteorological* Instruments!(The!Johns!Hopkins!Press,!Baltimore,!1969).! 73!Dennis!Wheeler,!“The!Great!Storm!of!1703:!A!New!Look!at!the!Seamen’s!Records”!Weather!58! (2003):!410`427.!Wheeler’s!research!coupled!the!4000!wind!force!terms!identified!in!a!study!on!17th`century! logbooks!by!Dominguez!(2002)!with!960!wind!force!terms!gleaned!from!18th!century!logbooks!to!identify!the! most!commonly!used!phrases!to!describe!wind!force!at!the!turn!of!the!17th!century.!Although!the!findings! identified!over!seventy!words!and/or!phrases!to!describe!wind!force!at!this!time,!of!these,!“the!12!most! widely!used!terms!cover!nearly!95%!of!all!entries,!and!four!terms!(‘little!wind,!‘moderate!gale’,!‘fresh!gale’! and!‘hard!gale’!account!for!over!70%!of!wind`force!entries—statistics!which!suggest!a!high!degree!of! uniformity!of!use,”!(p.421`422).!! 218! ! century!to!describe!wind!force!were!little*wind,*moderate*gale,*fresh*gale,*and*hard*gale.74!

Commons!knowledge!and!“data”!about!the!winds!took!the!form!of!history— descriptions!and!observations!grounded!in!events.!!

Between!1750!and!1850,!wind!force!terminology!underwent!some!particularly! dramatic!changes!that!enabled!greater!specificity!and!institutional!uniformity.!These! changes!reflected,!in!part,!the!linguistic!influence!of!sailors!from!other!sea!fairing!nations! with!whom!the!British!regularly!interacted.!For!example,!Spanish!and!Portuguese! mariners!introduced!the!term!breeze!to!the!British!vocabulary.!It!was!used!sparingly!at! first:!before!1750!the!term!referred!almost!exclusively!to!diurnal!coastal!winds!for,! according!to!Wheeler,!“almost!all!winds!greater!than!calm!were!described!as!a!gale,!and! given!more!precision!by!a!range!of!adjectival!qualities!such!as!‘fair,!‘small’,!‘fresh’,!

‘strong’”75!By!the!mid`18th!century,!however,!this!practice!had!shifted!and!the!term! breeze!was!adapted!to!refer!to!lower!force!winds,!the!meaning!of!which!is!familiar!to!us! today.76!!

In!1838,!well!over!a!century!after!the!Great!Storm!struck!England,!the!Royal!

Navy!officially!adopted!the!wind!force!scale!developed!by!Royal!Navy!Admiral!Francis!

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74!Wheeler,!“The!Great!Storm,”!423.!For!further!information!on!seaman’s!grammar!see!Dennis! Wheeler,!“The!Weather!Vocabulary!of!an!Eighteenth`Century!Mariner:!The!Log`Books!of!Nicholas!Pocock,! 1740`1821,!Weather!50,!(1995):!298`304.!See!too!John!Smith’s!historic!work,!A*Sea@Man’s*Grammar*and* Dictionary:*Explaining*all*the*Difficult*Terms*in*Navigation:*and*the*Practical*Navigator*and*Gunner!(London,! Randal!Taylor,!1671).!! 75!Wheeler,!“The!Great!Storm,”!423! 76!Wheeler,!“The!Great!Storm,”!422! 219! !

Beaufort.77!In!doing!so,!the!British!Government!formally!established!a!uniform!standard! for!measuring!and!describing!wind!force.!Beaufort!was!a!Royal!Navy!officer!of!Irish! descent!who!spent!the!greater!part!of!his!life!at!sea.!He!originally!developed!his!scale!in!

1806!while!serving!as!captain!of!the!HMS!Woolrich,!but!modified!the!scale!over!the! course!of!the!next!year!to!reflect!a!new!set!of!criteria.78!Beaufort’s!thirteen`point!scale!

(zero!to!twelve)!related!the!degree!of!wind!force!(above!scale!five)!to!the!type!and! number!of!sails!a!frigate!could!safely!hoist!under!a!given!set!of!wind!conditions.79!For! example,!at!force!zero!the!wind!was!completely!calm!and!all!sails!were!up;!at!force!six!a! strong!breeze!was!present!and!half!the!sails!were!down;!and!force!twelve!constituted!

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77!The!Royal!Navy!formally!instituted!the!Beaufort!Scale!of!Wind!Force!as!the!formal!standard!to!be! used!in!all!ship!logs.!The!memorandum!issued!on!December!28th!1838!to!all!Royal!Navy!Officers!read!as! follows:!“The!Lords!of!Commissioners!of!the!Admiralty!having!had!under!consideration!the!general!utility! of!recording!with!clearness!and!precision,!in!the!Log!Books!of!all!her!Majesty’s!Ships!and!Vessels!of!War,!the! actual!State!of!the!Winds!and!Weather,!have!thought!fit!to!order!that!henceforward!in!each!page!of!the!Log! Book!two!columns!should!be!introduced,!wherein!the!force!of!the!Wind!and!the!Appearance!of!the! Atmosphere!shall!be!very!hour!registered!according!to!the!annexed!scheme,!a!copy!of!which!shall!be!pasted! into!each!book!and!painted!on!the!back!of!every!Log!Board!or!Loge!Slate!and!two!more!columns!shall! likewise!be!given!for!the!purpose!of!entering!the!heights!of!the!Barometer!or!Sympiesometer,!and! Thermometer,!when!such!instruments!may!be!on!board,”!“Beaufort,”!National*Meteorological*Library*and* Archive*Fact*Sheet*6—Beaufort*Scale*(version*01),!accessed!March!4,!2015,! http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/b/7/Fact_sheet_No._6.pdf!! 78!Beaufort’s!scale!initially!resembled!the!scale!developed!by!Alexander!Dalrymple!(hydrographer! to!the!English!East!India!Company).!By!September!1807,!however,!Beaufort!had!modified!the!scale!to!reflect! a!new!set!of!criteria:!zero!to!force!four!was!gauged!according!to!the!knots!traveled!by!a!Man!of!War,!and! above!force!five!gauged!it!according!to!the!number!of!sails!safely!hoisted!by!a!Man!of!War.!For!a!graph!of! this!particular!scale!see,!García`Herrera!et!al.,!CLIWOC,!43.! 79!Dennis!Wheeler,!“British!Naval!Logbooks!from!the!Late!Seventeenth!Century:!New!Climatic! Information!From!Old!Sources,”!History*of*Meteorology!2!(2005):!133`146;!7.!This!information!is!further! validated!on!the!following!website:!“Weather:!Beaufort!Scale,”!BBC,!last!modified!Friday!October!15,!2010,! accessed!February!21,!2015,! http://web.archive.org/web/20101015004110/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/beaufor t_scale.shtml!!! 220! ! hurricane!force!winds!in!which!all!the!sails!were!down.80!Over!time,!as!sailing!ships! gave!way!to!steam!powered!vessels,!this!rubric!was!adapted!by!meteorologist!George!

Clark!Simpson!so!that!the!effect!of!the!wind!upon!the!face!of!the!ocean,!as!opposed!to!its! effect!upon!ship!sails,!became!the!basis!for!measuring!wind!force.81!Further! modifications!created!a!scale!applicable!to!windy!conditions!on!land.!What!is! particularly!remarkable!about!this!scale,!however,!is!that!it!essentially!codified! qualitative!assessments!of!wind!force!rooted!in!trade!knowledge!and!labor.!!!

Beaufort!is!credited!as!having!invented!this!scale.!However,!it!is!clear!that!the!

Admiral!merely!standardized!a!method!long!utilized!by!sailors!for!gauging!wind!and! weather!conditions!at!sea.!Ship!logs!from!the!mid`16th!century!onward!suggest!as!much.!

Further!supporting!evidence!comes!from!the!wind!force!scale!published!in!Defoe’s!

Storm.!!When!Defoe!published!The*Storm,!he!included!in!it!a!twelve!point!scale!of!“bald! terms”!used!by!sailors!to!describe!wind!force:!“Stark*Calm,*Calm*Weather,*Little*Wind,*

Fine*Breeze,*Small*Gale,*a*fresh*Gale,*a*Top@sail*Gale,*Blows*Fresh,*Hard*Gale*of*Wind,*Fret*of*

Wind,*Storm,*Tempest.82!In!doing!so!he!drew!upon!a!deep!history!of!trade!knowledge!

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80!To!be!even!more!specific,!by!force!11,!which!constituted!a!storm!proper,!Beaufort!calculated!that! the!wind!force!would!“blow!away!any!sails!made!in!the!usual!way,”!and!a!Hurricane!was!even!more! severe—force!12.!For!further!reference!to!the!Beaufort!Wind!Force!Scale!see!García`Herrera,!et!al.,!CLIWOC,! 2.! 81!García`Hererra!et!al.,!CLIWOC,!7! 82!Defoe,!Storm,!22.!It!should!be!noted!however,!that!although!Defoe’s!wind!force!scale!has!since! been!translated!so!as!to!equate!its!terms!to!the!Beaufort!scale!it!remains!unclear!precisely!how!the!sailors! employing!these!terms!and!similar!ones!in!their!log!books!were!in!fact!gauging!wind!force!or!what!standard! they!were!using!to!measure!it.! 221! ! previously!unpublished!at!that!time.!His!listing!of!this!scale!constituted!its!first! appearance!in!print,!and!in!this!manner!laid!a!foundation!that!scientists!and!mariners! such!as!Admiral!Francis!Beaufort!would!later!take!into!account!in!devising!a!uniform! wind!scale.!In!describing!the!weather!during!the!week!of!the!Great!Storm!Defoe!writes,! for!example,!“…it!might!be!called!one!continued!Storm!from!Wednesday!Noon!to!

Wednesday!Noon![a!week!straight]:!in!all!which!time,!there!was!not!one!Interval!of!

Time!in!which!a!Sailor!would!not!have!acknowledged!it!blew!a!Storm…Thus!ended!the!

Greatest!and!the!Longest!Storm!that!ever!the!World!saw.”83!Defoe!validated!his!assertion! of!the!Great!Storm’s!unprecedented!fury,!in!part,!through!a!claim!to!and!a!familiarity! with!the!trade!knowledge!and!rhetoric!related!to!such!assessments.84!In!contrast!to!the! ancients,!Defoe!delineated!the!standards!by!which!he!assessed!the!storm’s!force.!He! made!it!clear!that!he!had!a!firm!grasp!of!precisely!what!constituted!a!tempest!within!a! clearly!articulated!epistemological!context!that!allowed!the!public!to!assess!his!

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83!Defoe,!Storm,!21`22.!Defoe!writes!that!he!had!taken!note!of!the!weather!the!day!the!storm!began! and!for!the!week!ensuing.!He!writes,!“Wednesday,!Nov.!the!42the!was!a!calm!fine!Day!as!at!that!time!of! Year!shall!be!seen;!‘till!above!Four!a!Cock,!when!it!began!to!be!Cloudy,!and!the!Wind!rose!of!a!sudden,!and! in!half!an!Hours!Time!it!blew!a!Storm.!Wednesday,!Dec.!the!2d.!it!was!very!tempestuous!all!the!Morning;!at! One!a!Clock!the!Wind!abated,!the!Sky!clear’d,!and!by!Four!a!Clock!there!was!not!a!Breath!of!Wind,”!(p.41).! 84!Defoe!asserted!that!the!maritime!community!was!in!agreement!regarding!how!to!characterize! this!calamity!and!the!wind!force!that!defined!it.!However,!this!assessment!was!not!limited!to!the!maritime! community.!The!general!consensus!among!those!who!wrote!to!Defoe!was!that!a!storm!had!struck,!and!a! “Dreadful!Storm”!at!that.!See!Defoe,!Storm,!95`96,!196.!A!number!of!colorful!variations!on!this!theme! emerged!as!well.!The!event!was!referred!to!in!Defoe’s!text!as!the!“great!storm,”!(p.190),!the!“late!Violent! Storm,”!(pp.!97,!192),!the!“late!great!Storm”!(p.190),!the!“late!dismal!Storm”!(p.174),!!“the!late!Tempestuous! Winds,”!(p.!134),!“late!great!Winds”!(p.143),!the!“late!dreadful!Tempest,”!(pp.175,!182,!186,!254).!One!man! referred!to!it!as!a!“hurricane”!(p.189),!and!two!men!called!it!the!“late!dreadful!Tempest!of!Wind,”!(p.249).!It! was!considered!dreadful!on!all!accounts.! 222! ! characterization!of!the!wind!according!to!the!wind`force!standards!of!the!day— standards!informally!developed!and!applied!by!those!who!worked!most!intimately!with! the!winds!on!a!daily!basis:!the!maritime!community.!

Science and the Great Storm

An!appeal!to!trade!knowledge!and!to!history!may!have!been!one!set!of!tactics!

Defoe!used!to!assert!narrative!authority!about!the!wind,!but!it!was!certainly!not!the!only! body!of!knowledge!his!text!gestured!toward.!The!voice!of!the!scientific!community! represented!itself!in!Defoe’s!Storm!as!well,!and!the!trend!evident!in!the!developing!field! of!journalism,!with!its!emphasis!on!individual!experience!and!eye!witness!reporting,! which!Defoe!so!openly!embraced,!mirrored!in!many!respects!the!methods!of!observation! and!experimentation!exemplified!by!the!Royal!Society!during!the!last!quarter!of!the!17th! century.85!Another!trend!evident!within!the!field!of!natural!philosophy!at!this!time!was! an!increasing!alliance!between!math!and!science,!specifically,!a!newfound!emphasis!on! the!value!of!empirical!data!and!on!the!development!of!and!reliance!upon!instruments!

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85!Examples!of!key!scholarship!focused!on!the!relationship!between!experience!and!experiment! include!Peter!Dear,!Discipline*and*Experience:*the*Mathematical*Way*in*the*Scientific*Revolution!(Chicago:! University!of!Chicago!Press,!1995);!Leviathan*and*the*Air*Pump:*Hobbes,*Boyle*and*the*Experimental*Life! (Princeton!NJ:!Princeton!University!Press,!1989);!Steven!Shapin,!“The!House!of!Experiment!in!Seventeenth` Century!England”!Isis!79,!no.!3,!A!Special!Issue!on!Artifact!and!Experiment!(1988):!373`404;!Charles!B.! Schmitt,!“Experience!and!Experiment:!A!Comparison!of!Zabarella’s!View!With!Galileo’s!in!De!Motu,”! Studies!in!the!Renaissance!16!(1969):!80`138;!Daniel!Garber,!“Descartes!and!Experiment!in!the!Discourse!and! the!Essays,”!in!Essays*on*the*Philosophy*and*Science*of*René*Descartes,!ed.!Stephen!Voss!(Oxford:!Clarendon! Press,!1993).!! 223! ! capable!of!collecting!it.86!Records!of!barometric!pressure,!wind!direction!and!speed,! monthly!rainfall!estimates,!and!maps!of!wind!currents!all!contributed!to!a!growing!pool! of!operational!knowledge!within!the!emerging!field!of!meteorology.!Supplementing!his! own!pragmatic!assessments!of!the!wind!and!storm,!Defoe!thus!chose!to!include!the! report!of!clergyman!and!natural!philosopher!William!Derham,!and!the!data!collected!by!

Derham’s!“Ingenious!and!Inquisitive!Friend!Richard!Townely!Esq.”!who!furnished! rainfall!measurements!for!the!preceding!summer!and!fall,!as!well!as!observations!of!the! late!great!storm!from!his!residence!in!Upminster.87!!!

Derham!joined!the!Royal!Society!in!1703,!and!is!best!remembered!for!having! been!the!first!man!to!closely!approximate!the!speed!of!sound.!As!a!cleric!he!also! expressed!a!pointed!agenda!for!his!philosophic!work.!“Having!the!honour!to!be!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

86!For!a!masterful!treatment!of!the!evolving!role!of!mathematics!within!the!field!of!natural!history! specifically!as!it!functioned!to!validate!truth!claims!see!Dear,!Discipline*and*Experience;!J.A.!Bennett,!‘The! Mechanics’!Philosophy!and!the!Mechanical!Philosophy,”!History!of!Science!24!(1986):!1`28;!J.A.!Bennett,! “The!Challenge!of!Practical!Mathematics,”!in!Science!Culture,!and!Popular!Belief!in!Renaissance!Europe,! eds.!Stephen!Pumfrey,!Paolo!L.!Rossi!and!Maurice!Slawinski!(Manchester:!Manchester!University!Press,! 1991),!176`190.!For!a!discussion!centered!on!the!relationship!between!scientific!instruments!and! epistemology!see!Bennett!as!well.!On!relationships!between!science!and!technology!in!Early!Modern!Europe! see!essays!by!Marie!Boas!Hall,!A!Rupert!Hall,!Richard!S.!Westfall,!Albert!Van!Helden,!and!David!W!Waters! in!The*Uses*of*Science*in*the*Age*of*Newton,!ed.!John!G!Burke!(Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1983);! Paolo!Rossi,!Philosophy,*Technology*and*the*Arts*in*the*Early*Modern*Era,!trans.!Salvator!Attanasio,!ed.! Benjamin!Nelson!(1962!repr.,!New!York:!Harper!and!Row,!1970);!Larry!Stewart,!The*Rise*of*Public*Science:* Rhetoric,*Technology,*and*Natural*Philosophy*in*Newtonian*Britain,!1660`1750!(Cambridge:!Cambridge! University!Press,!1992).!Key!discussions!of!the!influence!of!specific!scientific!instruments!and!their!broader! implications!see!Catherine!Wilson,!The*Invisible*World:*Early*Modern*Philosophy*and*the*Invention*of*the* Microscope!(Princeton,!N.J.:!Princeton!University!Press,!1995);!W.E.!Knowles!Middleton,!The*History*of*the* Barometer!(Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins!University!Press,!1964);!Vasco!Ronchi,!“The!General!Influence!of!the! Development!of!Optics!in!the!Seventeenth!Century!on!Science!and!Technology,”!in!Vista’s*in*Astronomy,!ed.! Arthur!Beer!(Oxford:!Pergamon,!1968);!Simon!Shaffer!“Glass!Works;!Newton’s!Prisms!and!the!Uses!of! Experiment!in!The!uses!of!Experiment:!Studies!in!the!Natural!Sciences,!ed.!David!Gooding,!Trevor!Pinch,! and!Simon!Schaffer!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1989),!67`104.!! 87!Defoe,!Storm,!26! 224! ! member!of!the!Royal!Society,!as!well!as!a!Divine,!he!writes,!“I!was!minded!to!try!what!I! could!do!towards!the!improvement!of!philosophical!matters!to!theological!uses.”!88!His! most!well!known!publication,!Physico@Theology:*or,*A*Demonstration*of*the*Being*and*

Attributes*of*God,*from*His*Works*of*Creation,!contained!therefore,!the!scientific!work!he! had!presented!in!a!series!of!sixteen!public!lectures!on!topics!such!as!meteorology,! geography,!vision,!sound,!feeling,!respiration,!and!animals,!under!the!posthumous! endowment!of!Robert!Boyle.!In!accordance!with!the!dictates!of!the!endowment,!these! lectures!were!aimed!at!strengthening!the!relationship!between!natural!philosophy!and! religion.89!Derham!made!a!case!for!the!existence!of!God,!therefore,!on!the!basis!of! physical!evidence!gleaned!from!the!study!and!observation!of!nature.!In!doing!so,!he! grounded!his!philosophic!pursuits!in!observational!evidence!and!history,!and! legitimized!and!justified!them!on!the!basis!of!religion.!Derham’s!opinions!about!the! religious!ends!of!natural!philosophy!may!have!been!the!factor!that!induced!Defoe!to! include!Derham!and!Towneley’s!meteorological!findings!in!his!publication!on!the!Great!

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88!William!Derham,!“Dedication!To!the!Most!Reverend!Father!in!God,!Thomas!Lord!Archbishop!of! Canterbury,”!in!Physico@Theology:*or,*A*Demonstration*of*the*Being*and*Attributes*of*God,*from*His*Works*of* Creation!(London:!printed!for!A!Strahan;!T.!Cadell!jun.!and!W.!Davies;!and!W.!Creech,!Edinburgh,!1798).! 89!In!1692!Richard!Bentley!presented!the!first!lecture!under!the!Boyle!Lecture!endowment.!Other! presenters!at!the!turn!of!the!17th!century!included!John!Williams,!John!Harriss,!Samuel!Bradford,!George! Stanhope,!Samuel!Clarke,!John!Hancock,!and!William!Winston.!As!an!institution,!the!Boyle!lectures! continue!into!the!present.!In!2014!Alister!McGrath!presented!the!lecture!“New!Atheism`!New!Apologetics:! The!Use!of!Science!in!Recent!Christian!Apologetic!Writings”!with!a!response!by!Richard!Harries.!For!recent! lectures!in!the!series,!see!Michael!Byrne!and!Russell!Manning,!eds.,!Science*and*Religion*in*the*Twenty@First* Century:*the*Boyle*Lectures*at*ST.*Mary@Le@Bow,*2004@1013!(London:!SCM!Press,!2013).! 225! !

Storm—even!though!their!reports!made!no!overt!reference!to!God—in!spite!of!Defoe’s! critical!stance!toward!natural!philosophy!as!a!fundamental!explanatory!method.!!

Towneley,!like!Derham,!was!another!important!figure!within!the!scientific! community!and!his!contributions!had!a!great!impact!on!the!evolution!of!meteorological! research.!In!the!years!following!the!development!of!the!barometer,!for!example,!

Towneley!made!regular!barometric!readings!and!diligently!recorded!his!findings.!His! subsequent!research!insights!in!atmospheric!pressure!prompted!his!acquaintance!the! illustrious!natural!philosopher!Robert!Boyle!to!take!up!a!line!of!inquiry!that!according!to!

Brayne,!“led,!in!the!following!year,!to!the!formulation!of![Boyle’s]!famous!Law,”!for! which!Boyle!credited!him.!In!addition!to!pursuing!research!in!atmospheric!pressure,!

Towneley!also!developed!a!rain!gauge!that!allowed!him!to!record!rainfall! measurements.!Scholars!would!later!conclude!that!his!device!consistently!under` recorded!actual!precipitation!levels.!However,!his!records!nevertheless!“constitute!the! first!continuous!rainfall!record!known!to!survive.”90!

Towneley’s!precipitation!measurements!factored!heavily!into!William!Derham’s! conjectures!about!the!physical!causes!that!may!have!accounted!for!the!high!winds! present!during!the!Great!Storm!and!for!the!advent!of!the!storm!in!general.!Derham! noted!that!over!the!course!of!the!past!year!the!southern!part!of!the!nation!had! experienced!higher!levels!of!precipitation!than!usual:!“In!May!there!fell!more!than!in!

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90!Brayne,*Greatest*Storm,!29! 226! ! any!Month!of!any!Year!since!the!Year!of!1696,!viz.!20,77l.*…June!likewise!was!a!dripping!

Month!…and!July,!although!it!had!considerable!Intermissions.”91!The!fall!and!early! winter,!he!stated,!had!not!been!remarkably!wet,!but!unusually!warm:!“My!Thermometer!

(whose!freezing!Point!is!about!84)!hath!been!very!seldom!below!100!all!this!Winter,!and! especially!in!November.”92!These!observations!led!Derham!to!conclude!that!the!high! winds!and!abundant!rain!characteristic!of!the!Great!Storm!were!caused!by!the!unusually! wet!and!warm!weather!that!year.!He!argued!that!these!conditions!were!responsible!not! only!for!“causing!a!Repletion!of!Vapours!in!the!Atmosphere,!but!also!in!raising!such!

Nitro`sulphureous!or!other!heterogeneous!matter,!which!when!mix’d!together!might! make!a!sort!of!Explosion!(like!fired!Gun`Powder)!in!the!Atmosphere.”93!Despite!his!joint! status!as!both!a!clergyman!and!a!natural!philosopher,!Derham!offered!a!purely!physical! explanation!for!the!storm,!which!took!into!account!long`term!observations!of!the! weather,!the!physical!properties!of!matter,!and!the!chemistry!of!material!interaction.!He! made!no!attempt!to!identify!or!to!reconcile!any!apparent!tension!between!religious!and! scientific!interpretations!of!the!storm,!and!chose!to!locate!his!discussion!exclusively! within!the!perimeters!of!mechanical!philosophy.94!

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91!Defoe,!Storm,!27! 92!Defoe,!Storm,!28! 93!Defoe,!Storm,!28! 94!Thereby!underscoring!the!extent!to!which,!for!Defoe,!a!religious!explanation!was!ultimately!the! only!explanation!for!the!composition!and!constitution!of!the!wind!and!storm.!! 227! !

Derham!chose!to!narrate!his!own!personal!experience!with!the!storm!in! comparably!scientific!terms,!noting!weather!conditions,!wind!direction,!rainfall!quantity,! and!barometric!pressure.!He!stated!that!the!day!before!the!storm!struck!winds!were! high,!blowing!South!by!East!and!South!in!the!afternoon,!and!picking!up!at!night.!In!the! evening,!“A!short!Storm!of!Wind,!and!much!Rain!at!Upminster;!and!of!Hail!in!some! other!Places!which!did!some!Damage.”!The!following!day,!26!November,!he!noted!that! the!Wind!was!S.S.W.!and!“high!all!Day.”95!The!winds!steadily!increased!until!the! evening!and!continued!to!grow!in!intensity!until!the!storm!reached!its!peak!at! approximately!3am.!It!blew!at!this!level!for!the!next!three!hours,!at!which!point!the!force! began!to!diminish,!and!“the!Mercury!to!rise!swiftly,”!which!he!demonstrated!by!virtue! of!a!table!“shewing!the!Height!of!the!Mercury!in!the!Barometer.”96!The!details!and! figures!presented!in!his!description!give!an!impression!of!factual!reporting.!Yet!Derham! was!the!first!to!acknowledge!the!delicacy!of!his!assessments.!The!storm!was!so!fierce!it! destroyed!Derham’s!weather!vane,!and!because!the!wind!reached!its!peak!in!the!dead!of! night!the!excessive!darkness!made!it!difficult!for!him!to!“positively!say”!just!“how!the!

Wind!sat.”97!The!best!he!could!do!was!approximate.!Thus,!according!to!information!he! gleaned!from!local!millers!(who!worked!intimately!and!professionally!with!the!wind!on!

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95!Defoe,!Storm,!29! 96!Derham!writes,!“The!Barometer!I!found!at!12!h.!½!P.M.!at!28,72,!where!it!continued!till!about!6! the!next!Morning,!or!6.5,!and!then!hastily!rose;!so!that!it!was!gotten!to!82!about!8!of!the!Clock.”!Defoe,! Storm,!29`31!! 97!“How!the!Wind!sat!during!the!late!Storm!I!cannot!positively!say.”!Defoe,!Storm,!29!! 228! ! a!daily!basis),!people!forced!out!of!doors!during!the!gale,!and!“by!my!own!guess,”!

Derham!estimated!that!the!wind!was!blowing!about!“S!W.!by!S.!or!nearer!to!the!S.!in!the! beginning,!and!to!veer!about!towards!the!West!towards!the!End!of!the!Storm,!as!far!as!

W.!S.!W.”98!Yet!he!presented!the!information!in!a!formalized!manner!that!lent!credibility! to!his!rude!estimates.!!

Lastly,!Derham!noted!that!the!Great!Storm’s!wind!force!was!“not!measureable!

(that!I!know!of,!though!talk’d!of)!but!by!guess.”!He!nevertheless!did!his!best!to! approximate!it!relative!to!the!wind!force!successfully!recorded!by!fellow!natural! philosophers!during!other!mighty!storms.!He!writes,!for!example,!that!“on!Feb!7.!I69,! was!a!terrible!Storm!that!did!much!damage.!This!I!number!10!degrees;!the!Wind!then!

W.N.W.!…Another!remarkable!Storm!was!Feb.3.170.!at!which!time!was!the!greatest! descent!of!the!ever!known.!This!I!number!9!degrees.!But!this!last!of!November,!I!number! at!least!15!degrees.”99!Although!it!is!unclear!precisely!what!scale!he!was!using!in!rating! these!storms,!his!belief!that!the!wind!force!present!during!the!Great!Storm!was! exceptionally!stronger!than!that!of!any!storm!previously!recorded!comes!across!loud! and!clear.100!In!this!respect!his!opinion!accorded!with!that!of!Defoe,!and!his!scientific!

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98!Defoe,!Storm,!29! 99!Defoe,!Storm,!30! 100!According!to!contemporary!meteorological!studies!on!the!Great!Storm:!“Available!synoptic! meteorological!information!reveals!that!this!was!a!large!deep!and!fast!moving!‘daughter’!depression,!with!a! central!pressure!falling!to!around!950!mb,!embedded!along!the!southern!flank!of!an!enormous!and!deep! depression!centered!to!the!northeast!of!Scotland,!and!flanked!by!a!band!of!high!pressure!over!France.!The! track!of!the!storm!centre!passed!over!the!English!Midlands!across!the!North!Sea!into!northern!Denmark,! 229! ! methods!of!arriving!at!this!conclusion!corroborated!the!trade!knowledge!upon!which!

Defoe!drew!in!making!his!assessment.101!!

In!some!portions!of!his!text!Defoe!mimicked!the!empirical,!scientific!language! demonstrated!by!Derham.!He!observed,!for!example,!!!

The!points!from!whence!the!Wind!blew,!are!variously!reported!from!various! Hands:!‘Tis!certain,!it!blew!all!the!Day!before!at!S.W.!and!I!thought!it!continued! so!till!about!Two!a!Clock;!when,!as!near!as!I!could!judge!by!the!Impressions!it! made!on!the!House,!for!we!durst!not!look!out,!it!veer’d!to!the!S.S.W.!then!to!the! W.!and!about!Six!a!Clock!to!W.!by!N.!and!still!the!more!Northward!it!shifted,!the!

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! moving!at!a!steady!45!mph:!with!the!highest!winds!hitting!southwest!Wales!at!3!am,!London!at!6!am!and! Copenhagen!around!11!am!(on!December!8).!The!preconditions!out!in!the!Atlantic!during!December!7!must! have!been!similar!to!the!225!mph!windspeeds!in!the!jet`stream!that!pointed!towards!northern!France!on! Christmas!Day!1999,!but!the!jet`stream!on!December!7,!1703!pointed!east`north`east!at!the!coast!of!Wales,! and!in!place!of!the!two!separate!daughter!depressions!‘Lothar’!and!‘Martin’,!this!was!the!equivalent!of!the! energy!of!the!two!storms!rolled!into!one,”!(García`Herrera!et!al.,!CLIWOC,!2).!“Based!on!studies!to!relate! windspeeds!in!the!October!1987!and!December!1999!windstorms!to!damage!levels!of!comparable!buildings! such!as!Medieval!churches,!17th!Century!barns!and!houses!as!well!as!trees,!RMS!has!reconstructed!the! windfield!footprint!of!the!1703!storm.!This!reconstruction!shows!that!in!a!series!of!bands!20`30!km!wide!and! extending!over!London!and!Bristol!and!some!surrounding!areas,!peak!windspeeds!reached!45`50!m/s!(100` 110!mph),!comparable!to!those!of!a!Category!2!hurricane.!The!area!in!which!windspeeds!were!consistently! above!40!m/s!(90!mph)!was!approximately!180!km!wide:!almost!twice!the!equivalent!width!of!the!October! 15`16,!1987!and!December!26,!1999!Lothar!windfields.!The!edge!of!this!zone!of!intense!winds!just!clipped!the! southern!coast!of!SE!England,!with!damage!levels!reflecting!windspeeds!of!around!70`80!mph!across!the!Isle! of!Wight!and!at!the!town!of!Hastings,”!(García`Herrera!et!al.,!CLIWOC,!4).! 101!Derham!concluded!his!report!with!several!more!general!notes!on!the!wind!and!weather!and! with!the!table!provided!by!Towneley!showing!the!height!of!the!Mercury!in!the!Barometer!in!Upminster,! before,!during,!and!after!the!storm.!What!comes!across!most!poignantly!throughout!this!description!is! indeed!the!factual!and!seemingly!empirical!nature!of!the!data!Derham!relays.!Moreover,!in!spite!of!drawing! a!relationship!between!the!high!precipitation!levels!in!the!months!leading!up!to!the!storm,!he!makes!no! attempt!to!arrive!at!any!general!theories!on!the!subject;!he!makes!no!leap!from!the!particular!to!the!general.! Instead,!he!confines!his!observations!to!the!immediate!event!at!hand!and!the!facts!directly!pertinent!to!this! event!alone.!! 230! !

harder!it!blew,!till!it!shifted!again!Southerly!about!Seven!a!Clock;!and!as!it!did! so,!it!gradually!abated.102!! ! Yet!despite!Defoe’s!preoccupation!with!factual!reporting!and!his!apparent!sympathies! toward!science!in!this!respect,!Defoe!ultimately!rejected!attempts!by!natural! philosophers!to!explain!the!true!nature!of!the!winds!according!to!physical!properties! alone.!Defoe!was!a!spiritual!man,!and!though!pragmatic!in!his!approach!toward! journalistic!reporting,!he!was!nevertheless!skeptical!of!the!scientific!explanations!of!the! wind!put!forth!by!the!advocates!and!practitioners!of!natural!philosophy.!Thus,!Defoe! devoted!the!opening!chapter!of!the!Storm!to!an!exegesis!on!the!limits!of!scientific!inquiry! about!the!wind!and!asserted!his!own!spiritual!interpretation!as!an!alternative.!“The! deepest!Search!into!the!Region!of!Cause!and!Consequence!has!found!out!just!enough!to! leave!the!wisest!Philosopher!in!the!dark,!to!bewilder!his!Head,!and!drown!his!

Understanding.!You!raise!a!Storm!in!Nature!by!the!very!Inquiry;!and!at!last,!to!be!rid!of! you,!she!confesses!the!Truth,!and!tells!you,!It*is*not*in*Me,*you*must*go*Home*and*ask*my*

Father,”!he!writes.103!!

The!popular!consensus!among!natural!philosophers!such!as!Francis!Bacon!and! his!successors!such!as!Ralph!Bohun,!was!that!wind!was!caused!principally!by!processes! of!rarefaction!or!repletion—that!is,!the!expansion!or!contraction!of!air/water!vapor!in! response!to!temperature.!Although!widely!accepted!among!members!of!the!scientific!

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102!Defoe,!Storm,!37`38! 103!Defoe,!Storm,!3! 231! ! and!scholarly!communities,!this!theory!nevertheless!had!its!fair!share!of!critics,!Defoe! among!them:!

The!Winds,!says*the*Learned*Mr.*Bohun,!are!generated!in!the!intermediate!Space! between!the!Earth!and!the!Clouds,!either!by!Rarefaction!or!Repletion,!and! sometimes!haply!by!pressure!of!Clouds!Elastical!Virtue!of!the!Air,!&etc.!from!the! Earth!or!Seas,!as!by!Submarine!or!Subterraneal!Eruption!or!Descension!or! Resilition!from!the!middle!Region…yet!to!the!Demonstration!of!the!thing,! amounts!to!no!more!than!what!we!had!before!and!still!leaves!it!as!Abstruse!and! Cloudy!to!our!Understanding!as!ever.104! ! The!notion!that!vapor!expanded!when!exposed!to!heat!and!contracted!when!that!heat! source!disappeared!did!not,!in!Defoe’s!opinion,!thoroughly!explain!the!origins!and! behavior!of!the!winds!at!the!most!fundamental!level.!He!conceded!that!experiments! demonstrating!this!phenomenon!were!“extraordinary”!but!Defoe!did!not!find!them! persuasive.!He!writes,!

That!all!the!Causes!of!Wind!are!from!the!Influences!of!the!Sun!upon!vaporous! Matter!first!Exhal’d,!which!being!Dilated!are!oblig’d!to!posess!themselves!of! more!space!than!before,!and!consequently!make!the!Particles!fly!before!them;! this!does!not!seem!to!be!a!sufficient!Demonstration!of!Wind:!for!this,!to!my!weak! Apprehension,!would!rather!make!a!Blow!like!Gun`Powder!than!a!rushing! forward.105!! !

Defoe!suggested!that!this!hypothesis!was!at!best!a!probable!conjecture,!and!one!that! failed!to!offer!an!explanation!on!par!with!more!definitive!demonstrations!of!cause! evident!in!explanations!of!other!natural!phenomena.!!

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104!Defoe,!Storm,!8`9! 105!Defoe,!Storm,!9! 232! !

The!reason!philosophers!had!been!unable!to!discover!a!primary!cause!for!the! wind,!argued!Defoe,!was!because!they!sought!a!physical!rather!than!a!divine! explanation!for!this!phenomenon.!“Tis!apparent,!he!writes,!“that!God!Almighty,!whom! the!Philosophers!care!as!little!as!possible!to!have!anything!to!do!with,!seems!to!have! reserv’d![the!winds],!as!one!of!those!Secrets!in!Nature!which!should!more!directly!guide! them!to!himself.”106!By!this!Defoe!did!not!mean!to!suggest!that!philosophers!were!not!

Christians!per!se,!for!many!of!them!were,!(and!he!was!keen!to!note!them,!i.e.!Boyle,!

Raleigh,!Bacon,!Harvey!etcetera),!but!rather,!that!pursuing!a!rational,!mechanistic,! material!causality!for!this!phenomenon!blinded!Philosophers!to!the!greater!underlying! cause,!and!thus!yielded!unsatisfactory!results.107!He!believed!that!the!mysterious!nature! of!the!wind!pointed!toward!religious!rather!than!philosophic!contemplation.!!

Religion!was!a!powerful!and!overriding!force!that!colored!virtually!all!aspects!of!

British!life!at!this!time,!including!the!field!of!natural!philosophy—with!its!emphasis!on! fact!gathering!and!analysis.!Scientific!pursuits!were!viewed!as!yet!another!affirmation!of! religious!conceptions!of!divine!order,!and!virtually!all!the!leading!scientists!of!the!day! expressed!the!ways!in!which!their!scientific!endeavors!validated!their!religious! interpretations!of!the!world!and!confirmed!their!faith,!if!for!no!other!reason!than!in!the!

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106!Defoe,!Storm,!4! 107!Thus,!Defoe!keenly!notes,!“The!Christian!begins!just!where!the!Philosopher!ends;!and!when!the! Enquirer!turns!his!Eyes!up!to!Heaven,!Farewell!Philosopher;!‘tis!a!Sign!he!can!make!nothing!of!it!here.”! Defoe,!Storm,!6! 233! ! interest!of!protecting!their!personal!safety.108!!Francis!Bacon,!!for!example,!argued!that! the!world!was!yet!another!book!written!by!the!creator!that!begged!for!contemplation! and!study.!109!Newton!believed,!“there!exists!an!infinite!and!omnipresent!spirit!in!which!

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108!William!Derham,!vicar!of!Upminster!in!Essex!writes,!“Man!was!made!as!‘twere!on!purpose!to! observe,!and!survey,!and!set!forth!the!Glory!of!the!infinite!Creator,!manifested!in!his!Works,”!(Brayne,! Greatest*Storm,!31).!On!the!relationship!between!science!and!religion,!and!the!notion!of!science!as!religion’s! handmaid,!in!particular,!see!Richard!S.!Westfall’s!classic,!Science*and*Religion*in*Seventeenth@Century*England! (New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,!1958);!also,!Reijer!Hooykaas,!Religion*and*the*Rise*of*Modern*Science! (Edinburgh:!Scottish!Academic!Press,!1972);!John!Hedley!Brooke,*Science*and*Religion:*Some*Historical* Perspectives!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1991);!Margaret!Osler,!Divine*Will*and*the*Mechanical* Philosophy:*Gassendi*and*Descartes*on*Contingency*and*Necessity*in*the*Created*World!(Cambridge:!Cambridge! University!Press,!1994).!! 109!Bacon!was!troubled!by!arguments!presented!by!religious!factions!who!argued!that!the!kind!of! intellectual!and!philosophical!pursuits!he!participated!in!and!promoted!went!against!the!Scripture.!These! critics!of!natural!philosophy!commonly!evoked!the!argument!that!man’s!fall!from!grace!was!the! consequence!Eden’s!partaking!from!the!tree!of!knowledge!in!the!Garden!of!Eden.!According!to!this!line!of! reasoning!the!pursuit!of!knowledge!could!only!lead!mankind!away!from!God.!Bacon!had!to!defend!his! intellectual!inquiries!against!such!attack,!for!attacks!of!this!kind!were!not!only!personally!dangerous,!but! threatened!to!undermine!or!halt!his!entire!project,!a!project!he!recognized!as!a!benefit!to!humanity.!He! responded!to!such!criticism!by!arguing!ideas!of!this!nature!were!based!on!a!misreading!of!the!Bible!and!of! the!Genesis!story!in!particular,!and!that!natural!philosophy!was!not!only!compatible!with!the!tenants!of! religion!but!religiously!sanctioned!as!well.!See,!Francis!Bacon,!Selected*Philosophical*Works,!ed.,!Rose`Mary! Sargent!(Hackett!Publishing,!Indianapolis,!1999),!xii.!Bacon!put!forth!a!number!of!arguments!in!defense!of! natural!philosophy,!many!of!which!echoed!arguments!popularly!and!widely!employed!by!his! contemporaries!in!regard!to!the!subject.!Of!these,!the!most!popular!were!first,!that!religious!and!scientific! study!should!be!approached!separately!and!independently!to!prevent!conflict.!According!to!scholar!Rose` Mary!Sargent,!for!example,!“In!the!New!Organon,![Bacon]!warned!against!an!‘unwholesome!mixture!of! things!human!and!divine’!because!it!would!produce!‘not!only!a!fantastic!philosophy!but!also!a!heretical! religion,’”!(p.!xii).!Second,!he!argued!that!God’s!creation!demanded!study.!By!exploring!the!world!and!gods! creations!people!in!fact!fulfilled!a!religious!duty,!for!the!world!was!yet!another!book!written!by!the!creator,! which!begged!for!study.!Sargent!cites!the!following!in!support!of!this!argument:!“In!his!Advancement!of! Learning,!for!example,![Bacon]!argued!that!philosophy!could!be!‘an!effectual!inducement!to!the!exaltation!of! the!glory!of!God’!who!gave!us!‘two!books!or!volumes!to!study…first!the!Scriptures!revealing!the!will!of! God,!and!then!the!creatures!expressing!his!power,!(p.!xi,!34).”!Bacon!argued!that!the!Christian!duty!of! charity!meant!that!natural!philosophers!should!direct!the!field!to!purposes!that!would!benefit!all!of! mankind.!According!to!Peter!Dear,!Bacon’s!attitude!and!reasoning!in!this!respect!reflected!the!debates!of! Christian!moralists!over!the!virtues!of!a!solitary!contemplative!life!(“vita!contemplative”)!versus!that!of!the! active!life!(“vita!active,”);!a!debate!in!which!the!benefits!and!morality!of!a!life!devoted!to!improving!an! individual!soul!“through!solitary!meditation!and!reflection”!were!weighed!against!the!benefits!and!virtues! of!immersing!oneself!in!civic!duties!and!social!affairs!that!would!benefit!the!masses.!It!wasn’t!a!great!leap!to! implicate!the!practical!applications!of!nature!in!such!arguments.!The!question!thus!became!whether!the!task! of!natural!philosophy!should!be!to!understand!nature!or!to!command!it!to!serve!human!purposes!and! 234! ! matter!is!moved!according!to!mathematical!laws.”110!And!Robert!Boyle!professed!that!

“the!two!great!advantages!which!a!real!acquaintance!with!nature!brings!to!our!minds! are,!first,!by!instructing!our!understandings!and!gratifying!our!curiosities,!and!next,!by! exciting!and!cherishing!our!devotion.111!From!this!perspective,!the!field!of!natural! philosophy,!which!aimed!to!honestly!and!accurately!describe!the!workings!of!the! physical!world,!also!allowed!people!to!revel!in!God’s!divine!machinations!and!to! appreciate!his!power!and!mastery!all!the!more.!Nature!was!an!object!of!inquiry!and!an! avenue!of!exploration!in!which!God’s!glory!was!revealed!to!those!who!endeavored!to! know!Him.!!

Defoe!echoed!these!sentiments.!He!argued!that!those!aspects!of!nature!whose! causes!and!consequences!were!designed!to!be!materially!understood!yielded!readily!to! philosophic/scientific!investigation.!“…Where!Nature!is!plain!to!be!search’d!into,!and!

Demonstration!easy,!the!Philosopher!is!allow’d!to!seek!for!it…”!he!writes.112!On!the! other!hand,!those!aspects!of!the!natural!world!that!remained!impervious!to!mankind’s! attempts!at!rationalization!pointed!in!a!much!different!direction—toward!Divine!causes!

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! needs,!Peter!Dear,!Revolutionizing*The*Sciences:!European!Knowledge!and!its!Ambitions,!1500`1700! (Princeton!University!Press,!2001),!60`61.! 110!Brayne,!Greatest*Storm,!30! 111!Robert!Boyle,!excerpt!from!“Usefulness!of!Natural!Philosophy”!in!Edward!Archibald!Allen,! William!Schuyler!eds.,!The*World’s*Best*Essay’s,*From*the*Earliest*Period*to*the*Present*Time,!vol.2!(F.P.!Kaiser,! 1900),!538.!! 112!Defoe,!Storm,!8! 235! ! and!Divine!mystery.!“…Where!God!has,!as!it!were,!laid!his!Hand!upon!any!Place,!and!

Nature!presents!us!with!an!universal!Blank,!we!are!therein!led!as!naturally!to!recognize! the!Infinate!Wisdom!and!Power!of!the!God!of!Nature.”113!Defoe!believed!that!there!were! preordained!limits!to!humanity’s!quest!for!worldly!knowledge.!Rather!than!viewing! these!limits!negatively,!however,!Defoe!interpreted!them!as!an!opportunity!for! philosophic!redirection.114!Therefore,!while!critical!of!natural!history!and!of!scientific! investigation!Defoe!was!not!altogether!opposed!to!the!field!or!its!practices.!115!!He!merely! believed!that!some!aspects!of!nature,!such!as!the!wind,!defied!rational!explanation!and! were!thereby!intended!to!serve!a!more!spiritual!purpose!by!inciting!religious! contemplation.!!

But!how!could!he!be!certain!that!the!winds!were!among!those!aspects!of!nature! intended!to!confound!philosophers!and!guide!humanity!to!higher!forms!of! contemplation?!According!to!Defoe,!the!inability!of!both!contemporary!and!ancient! philosophers!to!arrive!at!a!consensus!regarding!the!nature!and!composition!of!the!wind!

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113!Defoe,!Storm,!8! 114!Failure!to!discover!a!sustainable!theory!of!causality!indicated!divine!reprobation!according!to! Defoe,!who!presumed!that!some!properties!of!nature!warranted!investigation!while!others!aspects!of!the! natural!world!were!meant!to!remain!inscrutable.!“…the!Winds!are!some!of!those!Inscrutables!of!Nature,!in! which!humane!Search!has!not!yet!been!able!to!arrive!at!any!Demonstration,”!(Defoe,!Storm,!8).! 115!“Not!that!I!think!myself!bound!in!Duty!to!Science!in!General,!to!pay!a!just!Debt!to!the! Excellency!of!Philosophical!Study,!in!which!I!am!a!meer!Junior,!and!hardly!any!more!than!an!Admirorer,! and!therefore!I!cannot!but!allow!that!the!demonstrations!made!of!Rarefaction!and!Dilatation!are! extraordinary;!and!that!by!Fire!and!Water!Wind!may!be!rais’d!in!a!close!Room,!as!the!Lord!Verulam!made! Experiment!in!the!Case!of!his!Feathers.!But!that!therefore!all!the!Causes!of!Wind!are!from!the!Influences!of! the!Sun!upons!vaporous!Matter!first!Exha’d,!which!being!Dilated!are!oblig’d!to!possess!themselves!of!more! Space!than!before,!and!consequently!made!the!Particles!fly!before!them;!this!does!not!seem!to!be!a!sufficient! Demonstration!of!Wind.”!Defoe,!Storm,!9! 236! ! suggested!that!the!wind!more*than*any*other*aspect*of*nature!aptly!embodied!the! mysterious,!powerful,!and!inscrutable!qualities!of!God:!“the!Difference!in!the!Opinions! of!the!Ancients,!about!the!Nature!and!Original!of!winds,!he!writes!“is!a!Leading!step!to! one!Assertion!which!I!have!advanc’d!in!all!that!I!have!said!with!Relation!to!the!Winds,! viz.!That!there!seems!to!be!more!of!God!in!the!whole!Appearance,!than!in!any!other!Part! of!Operating!Nature.”116!Philosophers!had!long!endeavored!to!understand!the!nature!of! the!wind,!and!their!failure!to!agree!on!the!wind’s!causality,!argued!Defoe,!despite! centuries!of!meditation!on!the!subject!constituted!proof!of!a!misguided!course!of! inquiry.!!

The!Winds!are!a!Part!of!the!Works!of!God!by!Nature,!in!which!he!has!been! pleased!to!communicate!less!of!Demonstration!to!us!than!in!other!Cases;!that!the! Particulars!more!directly!lead!us!to!Speculations,!and!refer!us!to!Infinite!Power! more!than!the!other!Parts!of!Nature!does…!Among!these!Arcana!of!the! Sovereign![Oeconomy],!the!Winds!are!laid!back!as!far!as!any.!Those!Ancient!Men! of!Genius!who!rifled!Nature!by!the!Torch`Light!of!Reason!even!to!her!very! Nudities,!have!been!run!a`ground!in!this!unknown!Channel;!the!Wind!has!blown! out!the!Candle!of!Reason,!and!left!them!all!in!the!Dark.117!! ! From!this!perspective!some!mysteries!should!remain!so,!were!meant!to!remain!so:!“To! search!after!what!God!has!in!his!Sovereignty!thought!fit!to!conceal!may!be!criminal,!and! doubtless!is!so;!and!the!Fruitlessness!of!the!Enquiry!is!generally!Part!of!the!Punishment! to!a!vain!Curiosity,”!he!writes.118!More!poignantly,!Defoe’s!critique!points!toward!the! sociological!element!of!science,!whereby!truth!is!constituted!through!consensus.!And! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

116!Defoe,!Storm,!1! 117!Defoe,!Storm,!11,!2! 118!Defoe,!Storm,!7`8! 237! ! yet,!what!Defoe!failed!to!note,!but!which!his!critique!so!aptly!calls!attention!to,!is!that! this!socialized!element!of!fact!construction!occurred!not!just!within!the!scientific! community,!but!in!other!social!sectors!as!well:!within!the!religious!community,!the! maritime!community,!the!farming!community!etcetera.!That!English!society!as!a!whole! could!not!consensually!agree!upon!what!constituted!the!wind,!or!about!much!of! anything!having!to!do!with!the!wind,!points!toward!the!various!ideologies!competing! for!hegemony!at!this!time,!and!thus!says!as!much!about!the!way!in!which!the! epistemology!of!truth!operated!in!the!17th!century!as!it!does!about!the!wind!per!se.!

Defoe!ascribed!to!the!religious!community’s!consensus!about!the!meaning!of!the! wind,!and!thus!argued!that!the!wind’s!mysterious!and!divine!qualities!distinguished!it! from!other!aspects!of!nature,!and!in!particular!from!the!more!intellectually!transparent! elements!of!the!natural!world.!!

Other!things!are!left!to!the!Common!Discoveries!of!Natural!Inquiry,!but!this!is!a! thing!he!holds!in!his!own!Hand,!and!has!conceal’d!it!from!the!Search!of!the!most! Diligent!and!Piercing!Understanding:!This!is!further!confirm’d!by!the!Words!of! our!Savior,!The!Wind!blows!where!it!lifteth,!and!thou!hearest!the!sound!thereof,! but!knowest!not!whence!it!cometh;!‘tis!plainly!express’d!to!signify!that!the! Causes!of!the!Wind!are!not!equally!discover’d!by!Natural!Enquiry!as!the!rest!of! Nature!is.119!! ! The!nature!of!the!wind!lay!beyond!reason,!beyond!the!rational!material!realm,!and!thus! defied! human! attempts! to! bound! it! in! this! manner.120! The! wind’s! physical! properties!

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119!Defoe,!Storm,!10! 120!“The!deepest!Search!into!the!Region!of!Cause!and!Consequence,!has!found!out!just!enough!to! leave!the!wisest!Philosopher!in!the!dark,!to!bewilder!his!Head,!and!drown!his!Understanding.!You!raise!a! 238! ! were!uniquely!suited!to!the!expression!of!divine!will!and!pointed!toward!the!presence! of!a!higher!power.!“That!the!Wind!is!more!expressive!AND!adapted!to!his!Immediate!

Power,!as!he!is!please’d!to!exert!it!in!extraordinary!Cases!in!the!World.!That!‘tis!more! frequently! made! use! of! as! the! Executioner! of! his! Judgments! in! the! World,! and! extraordinary!Events!are!brought!to!pass!by!it,”!writes!Defoe.121! When!God!evaluated! the!mortal!world,!it!was!the!wind!that!executed!his!judgments.!And!more!often!than!not,! these! judgments! manifested! in! the! form! of! fearful! natural! disasters! such! as! the! Great!

Storm.!!

Religion and the Great Storm

Defoe!was!not!the!only!one!who!published!material!in!the!aftermath!of!the!Great!

Storm!who!attempted!explain!its!cause!in!religious/spiritual!terms.!In!a!world!where! uncertainty,!suffering,!death,!and!disaster!were!all!too!common,!people’s!incentive!to! ascribe!some!meaning!to!the!forces!seemingly!responsible!for!these!troubling!events! were!proportionally!amplified.!The!notion!that!human!morality!informed!the!operations! and!behavior!of!the!natural!world!offered!people!a!limited!sense!of!control!over!a!set!of! circumstances!in!which!they!might!otherwise!feel!entirely!subject!to!nature’s!power!and! indifference,!victimized!even.!Viewed!as!part!of!a!vast!spiritual!dialectic!the!wind!

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Storm!in!Nature!by!the!very!Inquiry;!and!at!last,!to!be!rid!of!you,!she!confesses!the!Truth,!and!tells!you,!It*is* not*in*Me,*you*must*go*Home*and*ask*my*Father.”!Defoe,!Storm,!3!! 121!Defoe,!Storm,!11! 239! ! became!the!hand!of!God!and!the!manifestation!of!His!will.!It!became!an!aspect!of!nature! that!functioned!as!a!divine!response!to!human!activity,!and!thus!offered!people!the!hope! that!through!self!improvement!and!adherence!to!consensually!instituted!religious!laws! of!conduct!they!might!protect!themselves!from!nature!by!pacifying!the!God!who! controlled!its!mighty!forces.!Given!the!social!and!political!power!of!religion!at!this!time,! and!its!emotionally!ameliorative!effects,!it!is!therefore!unsurprising!that!many!of!those! who!presumably!wrote!to!Defoe!and!narrated!their!experience!with!the!Great!Storm! ascribed!a!spiritual!significance!to!the!storm!and!to!their!salvation!in!particular.122!!

The!circumstances!surrounding!these!reports!nevertheless!raise!an!important! question:!precisely!whose!views!are!in!this!text?!Defoe!publically!solicited!in! newspapers!for!first!hand!accounts!of!the!storm.!However,!details!about!precisely!what! he!received!in!response,!and!how!he!vetted!what!reports!may!have!come!in,!remains!a! mystery.!Were!there!descriptions,!views,!and!opinions!about!the!subject!that!he!chose! not!to!include,!for!example?!On!what!grounds?!We!can!only!speculate.!What!is!clear,!is! that!Defoe!had!strong!opinions!about!the!correct!way!to!interpret!the!wind!and!thus!the! meaning!of!this!catastrophic!event,!and!that!the!accounts!included!in!his!text!served!to! reinforce!his!stated!opinion!on!the!matter.!

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122!Defoe!notes:!“these!accounts!of!like!Nature![deliverance!and!what!not],!are!particularly!attested! by!Persons!of!known!Reputation!and!Integrity,”!(Defoe,!Storm,!248).!! 240! !

John,!Gripps,!for!example,!whose!family!narrowly!escaped!being!crushed!to! death!when!their!chimney!collapsed,!(bringing!the!roof!of!the!house!down!with!it),! believed!that!God!had!chosen!to!spare!he!and!his!family:!“it!is!owing!wholly!to!that! watchful!Providence!to!whom!we!are!all!indebted!for!every!Minute!of!our!Lives,!that! any!of!us!escaped.”123!Gripps!was!not!alone!in!his!belief!that!God!had!directly! intervened!to!save!him.!Others!expressed!similar!interpretations!of!their!success!in! making!it!through!the!storm!alive!and!well.!James!King,!for!example,!recognized!the! physical!realities!that!saved!he!and!his!family,!but!nevertheless!made!note!of!God’s! work!in!it!all.!He!writes,!!

The!Preservation!of!my!self,!and!the!rest!of!my!Family,!about!Elevne!in!Number,! was,!next!to!the!Providence!of!God,!occasion’d!by!our!running!into!a!Vault! almost!level!with!the!Kitchen!upon!the!Noise!and!Alarm!of!the!Falling!of!the! Chimney’s!which!breaking!through!three!Floors,!and!about!two!Minutes!in! passing,!gave!us!the!Opportunities!of!that!Retreat.124!! ! According!to!this!line!of!reasoning,!any!success!people!had!in!withstanding!the!multiple! dangers!present!during!the!storm!was!the!result!of!divine!intervention.!!

In!Providence*in*Early*Modern*England,!Alexandra!Walsham!argues!that!religious! interpretations!of!natural!disasters!both!united!divided!communities!and!further! exacerbated!existing!clefts!among!them.!“The!Providential!significance!of!what!we!now! call!‘natural’!disasters!was!a!perennial!homiletic!theme,!she!writes.!“No!Protestant!

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123!Defoe,!Storm,!242! 124!Defoe,!Storm,!238! 241! ! minister!could!pass!up!the!opportunity!afforded!by!a!major!conflagration,!blizzard,! drought,!inundation,!or!epidemic!to!deliver!a!thundering!diatribe!on!the!doctrine!of! divine!judgments.”!Citing!Welch!clergyman!Hugh!Roberts’!1568!lecture:!!

Everie!plague,!everie!calamitie,!sudden!death,!burning!with!fire,!murther,! strange!sicknesses,!famine,!everie!flood!of!waters,!ruine!of!buildings,! unseasonable!weather;!everie!one!of!these!and!of!the!like!adversities,!as!oft!as! they!happen!in!the!world,!are!a!sermon!of!repentance!to!all!that!see!them,!or! heare!therof…a!memento!to!every!one!of!us!to!looke!to!our!selves,!and!to!call!to! remembrance!our!owne!sinns,!knowing!that!it!is!the!same!God!that!will!take! vengeance!of!everie!sinne,!and!transgression!of!men,!&!that!he!will!strike!with!a! more!heavie!hand,!if!his!warning,!and!example!of!his!justice!be!not!regarded.125! !

Just!as!common,!therefore,!as!the!tales!of!deliverance!that!appeared!in!Defoe’s! text!were!the!many!warnings!issued!by!those!who!believed!that!winds!and!storm!were!a! form!of!Divine!Judgment!executed!upon!the!wicked.!Believing!that!the!storm!was!a!sign! from!God,!one!man!from!Minehead!in!Somersetshire,!writes:!“I!pray!God!that!this!late! great!Calamity,!which!was!sent!upon!us!as!a!punishment!for!our!Sins,!may!be!a!warning! to!the!whole!Nation!in!general!and!engage!everyone!of!us!to!a!hearty!and!sincere!

Repentance;!otherwise,!I’m!afraid!we!must!expect!greater!Evils!than!this!was!to!fall! upon!us.”126!Likewise,!many!believed!Defoe!had!undertaken!a!righteous!task,!

“perpetuating!the!Memory!of!God’s!final!Judgment!on!this!Nation,!by!the!late!dreadful!

Tempest!of!Wind,!which!has!hurl’d!so!many!Souls!into!Eternity;!and!likewise!his! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

125!Hugh!Roberts!as!quoted!in!Alexandra!Walsham,!Providence*in*Early*Modern*England!(Oxford:! Oxford!University!Press,!1999),!116.!The!third!chapter!of!Walsham’s!text,!“Visible!Sermons:!Divine! Providence!and!Public!Calamities,”!is!particularly!relevant!to!the!themes!of!the!present!chapter.!! 126!Defoe,!Storm,!180! 242! !

Providence!in!the!miraculous!Preservation!of!several!Persons!Lives,!who!were!expos’d! to!the!utmost!Hazards!in!that!Hurricane.”127!!!

Some!believed!that!Defoe’s!book!about!the!Storm!might!induce!people!who!were! not!otherwise!inclined!toward!spiritual!practice,!to!reflect!upon!this!act!of!divine! judgment!and!repent!accordingly.!Gripps,!for!example,!concluded!his!narrative!of! deliverance!by!appealing!to!the!public!to!take!to!heart!the!overriding!moral!of!this!event.!

He!writes,!!

I!beseech!Almighty!God!to!give!us!all!that!due!Sense!as!we!ought!to!have!of!so! great!and!so!general!Calamity;!that!we!truly!repent!us!of!those!Sins!that!have!so! long!provoked!his!Wrath!against!us,!and!brought!down!so!heavy!a!Judgment!as! this!upon!us.!O!that!we!were!so!wise!as!to!consider!it,!and!to!sin!no!more!lest!a! worse!thing!come!upon!us!!That!it!may!have!this!happy!Effect!upon!all!the!sinful! Inhabitants!of!this!Land!is,!and!shall!be,!the!Dayly!Prayer.128! !

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127!Defoe,!Storm,!249.!As!an!aside,!R.!O.!Banks!apologized!for!not!responding!sooner!to!Defoe’s! request.!He!applauded!Defoe’s!efforts,!noting!that,!“…A!design!so!generous,!as!to!undertake!to!transmit!to! Posterity,!a!Memorial!of!the!dreadful!Effects!of!the!late!terrible!Tempest!(that!when!God’s!Judgments!are!in! the!World!they!may!be!made!so!publick,!as!to!engage!the!Inhabitants!of!the!Earth!to!learn!Righteousness)! ought!to!receive!all!possible!Encouragement.”!Defoe,!Storm,!227! 128!John!Gripps,!whose!family!narrowly!escaped!being!crushed!to!death!when!their!chimney! collapsed!and!brought!down!the!house!beneath!it!writes:!“Prayers!and!Tears,!the!Primitive!Christians! Weapons,!we!had!great!Plenty!of!to!defend!us!withal,”!(Defoe,!Storm,!242).!Likewise,!Jacob!Cole,!Rector!of! Swyre!in!Dorfet!county!writes:!“…I!think!myself!oblig’d!to!let!you!know,!that!there!was!a!great!Mixture!of! Mercy!with!it![the!storm].!For!though!the!Hurricane!was!frightful,!and!very!mischievous,!yet!God’s!gracious! Providence!was!therein!very!remarkable!in!restraining!its!Violence!from!an!universal!Destruction:!for!then! there!was!a!Commotion!of!the!Elements!of!Air,!Earth!and!Water,!which!then!seemed!to!outvie!each!other!in! Mischief;!for!(in!David’s!Expression,!2!Sam.22.8)!The!Earth!trembled!and!quak’d,!the!Foundations!of!the! Heavens!mov’d!and!shook,!because!God!was!angry:!and!yet,!when!all!was!given!over!for!lost,!we!found! ourselves!more!scar’d!than!than!hurt;!for!our!Lives!was!given!us!for!a!Prey,!and!the!Tempest!did!us!only!so! much!Damage,!as!to!make!us!sensible!that!it!might!have!done!us!a!great!deal!more,!had!it!not!been!rebuk’d! by!the!God!of!Mercy;!the!Care!of!whose!Providence!has!been!visibly!seen!in!our!wonderful!Preservations.! My!Self!and!Three!more!of!this!Parish!were!then!strangely!rescued!from!the!Grave.”!Defoe,!Storm,!243* 243! !

These!same!sentiments!were!echoed!in!the!religious!sermons!that!poured!forth! following!the!Great!Storm!and!in!the!official!interpretation!of!this!event!as!dictated!by!

Queen!Ann!herself.!In!a!public!proclamation!issued!on!the!12th!of!December,!the!Queen! recognized!the!immense!damages,!the!significant!loss!of!life,!and!the!general!destruction! to!the!nation’s!well!being!wrought!by!this!“Dreadful!and!Astonishing”!natural!disaster.!

She!issued!a!command!for!a!general!public!fast!as!penance,!and!declared!that!the!storm!

“loudly!calls!for!the!deepest!and!most!solemn!Humiliation!of!us!and!our!People,”! further!emphasizing!that!it!was!by!“the!infinite!Mercy!of!God!that!we!and!our!People! were!not!thereby!wholly!destroy’d.”129!!

Preachers!reiterated!this!point!and!further!elaborated!on!the!causes!and! consequences!of!the!storm!in!spiritual!terms.!Emphasizing!God’s!power!in!the!wind!and! the!correlation!between!human!morality!and!feats!of!nature,!their!sermons!reinforced! the!notion!that!natural!disasters,!and!this!storm!in!particular,!reflected!human!failings.!

On!the!appointed!day!of!fasting,!for!example,!Richard!Chapman!Vicar!of!Cheshunt,! preached!a!sermon!whose!very!title,!The*Necessity*of*Repentance,*suggested!that!humanity! was!to!blame!for!the!misfortune!caused!by!the!wind!and!storm.130!The!historic!and!

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129!“The!Queen’s!Proclamation”!December!12,!1703,!was!reprinted!in!Benjamin!Stinton,!Benjamin,!A* sermon*preachhd*the*27th*of*November,*1713.*In*commemoration*of*the*great*and*dreadful*storm*in*November,*1703,* 3rd#ed.#(London:&J.&Darby,&and&sold&by&A.&Bell,&J.&Baker,&J.&Browne&and&A.&Dodd ," 1714),#21`22."! 130!Richard!Chapman,!The*Necessity*of*Repentance*asserted:*in*order*to*avert*those*judgements*which*the* present*war,*and*strange*unseasonableness*of*the*weather*at*present,*seem*to*threaten*this*nation*with.*In*a*sermon* preached*on*...*the*26th*of*May,*1703.*being*the*Fast@Day*appointed*by*Her*Majestyhs*Proclamation,*etc.!(London:!M.! Wotton,!1703).* 244! ! religious!significance!of!the!event!was!further!highlighted!by!the!steady!stream!of! sermons!published!on!the!storm!over!the!course!of!the!century,!many!of!which!retained! their!popularity!and!salience!for!years!to!come.!The!Little!Wild!Congregational!Church! in!London,!for!example,!was!said!to!have!commemorated!the!storm!with!an!annual! sermon!well!into!the!19th!century.131!!

The!prominent!themes!that!emerged!in!these!religious!tracts—themes!such!as! power,!morality,!humility,!helplessness,!and!redemption—harkened!back!to!themes!and! archetypes!evoked!by!the!authors!of!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!mythology!in!relation!to! the!wind.!London!congregational!minister!and!dissenter!Thomas!Bradbury,!for!example,! recognized!a!dynamic!relationship!between!God!and!nature,!similar!to!that!expressed!by! the!ancient!Greeks:!“It’s!God,!that!Rules!the!whole!Armory!of!Nature…!The!Creation! received!a!Being!from!him,!and!must!pay!a!Compleat!Deference!to!his!Will.”132!When!

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131!In!E.!H.!Plumptre,!The*Life*of*Bishop*Ken,!(1888)!as!quoted!in!Brayne,!The*Greatest*Storm,!2002,!it!is!stated! that!a!lStorml!sermon!endowed!by!a!Mr.!Taylor!was!still!being!preached!at!Little!Wild!Street!Congregational! Church,!London!well!into!the!nineteenth!century.!! 132!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*3.!Unlike!the!other!sermons!published!in!reference!to!the! Great!Storm,!Bradbury!included!an!“Epistle!to!the!Reader”!in!which!he!commented!on!the!relationship! between!factual!reporting!and!the!printed!word,!noting!that,!“this!Sermon!was!designed!for!no!other!Sense! than!the!Ear,!and!no!further!a!spread!than!among!a!single!Congregation;!and!therefore!it’s!easie!to!observe,! with!how!little!Guard!either!of!Accuracy!or!Language!it!comes!out,”!(p.2).!Bradbury,!like!Defoe,!was!clearly! aware!of!the!importance!of!truthful!words!when!those!words!were!preserved!in!printed!format,!and!the! stylistic!differences!between!works!designed!for!oration!and!those!designed!to!be!read.!Bradbury!claimed!he! was!rushed!to!publish!the!sermon!and!did!not!have!time!to!“prepare!it!for!the!Publick!Tast,”!by!which!he! seems!to!suggest!that!it!stands!just!as!it!did!when!it!was!first!presented!orally!to!his!parish!in! commemoration!of!the!storm.!Moreover,!he!noted!that!the!Tempest!that!occasioned!his!sermon,!“blew!no! softness!of!Rhetorick,!but!a!plain!Indignation.!That!long!Roar!of!Wind…which!tumbled!down!Houses!upon! their!Inhabitants,!and!lodged!the!Ships,!with!their!unhappy!Contents,!in!the!Gaping!Ocean,!this!is!too! Solemn!for!an!Airy!Flaunt!of!Words,”!(p.3).!For!an!additional!example!of!a!Great!Storm`related!sermon!not! discussed!here!please!see!Joseph!Hussey,!Pastor!of!the!Congregation!Church!at!Cambridge,!A*Warning*From* 245! ! humanity!sinned,!nature!was!the!tool!through!which!God!expressed!his!displeasure:!

“…Nature!Groans!under!the!Weight!of!a!single!Frown.”133!Likewise,!God!had!only!to! open!his!hand!and!“the!Tempest!flies!upon!its!Master’s!Errand:!His!Comission!is!fulfill’d! with!all!the!Dispatch!and!Integrity!of!Nature.”134!!

English!preachers!asserted!that!stormy!winds!demonstrated!God’s!

“uncontrollable!power,”!and!“infinite!goodness.”135!Evoking!images!of!Aeolus’!stringent! rule,!Baptist!minister!Andrew!Gifford!claimed!that!the!winds!“rise!and!blow!with!an! impetuous,!irresistible!fury!when![God]!gives!the!word!of!command;!and!when!he! chides!them!they!hush!and!are!still:!peace!returns,!and!all!is!clam;!silence!regains!its!soft! and!peaceful!quiet!scepter,!and!reigns!with!an!unusual!sway;!by*the*same*power*that*he* brought*in*the*south*wind,*he*stays*his*rough*wind,!from!sweeping!us!away.”136!God! possessed!the!power!to!raise!a!storm!or!to!ease!a!tempest!according!to!his!will.!The! wind,!like!the!other!meteorological!forces—snow!rain,!lightening!and!hail—were!all!

“Treasures!of!the!God!of!Nature”!and!used!to!demonstrate!God’s!power,!to!defend!his!

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! the*Winds.*A*Sermon*preach’d*upon*Wednesday,*January*XIX,*1703/4.*Being*the*Day*of*Public*Humiliation*for*the* Late*Terrible*and*Awakening*Storm*of*Wind,*sent*in*Great*Rebuke*upon*this*Kingdom*(London:!William!and! Joseph!Marchal,!1704).!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*10! 133!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*11!! 134!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*14! 135!Andrew!Gifford.!!A*Sermon*in*Commemoration*of*the*Great*Storm:*commonly*called*the*High*Wind…! (London,!1734),14.! 136!Gifford,!Commemoration*of*the*Great*Storm,!14! 246! ! people,!and!to!exact!his!judgment!upon!his!enemies.137!Just!as!Juno!availed!herself!of!the! cardinal!winds!to!thwart!the!enemies!of!her!beloved!Carthage,!so!too!did!God! powerfully!employ!the!wind!to!smite!those!who!opposed!him.138!“It!is!the!determin’d! doom!of!the!enemies!of!Christ’s!church,!that!the!Lord!will!send!a!blast!upon!them;!a! dreadful!sound!shall!be!in!their!ears,!and!the!whirlwind!of!the!south!shall!carry!them! away,”!argued!Gifford.139!!

As!a!further!illustration!of!God’s!power!in!the!wind,!Reverend!Bradbury! described!how!the!Assyrian!army!had!set!out!to!take!siege!of!Jerusalem,!with!an!army! large!and!powerful!enough!to!overwhelm!the!city.!Yet,!when!God!stepped!in!he!made! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

137!William!Canton,!The*Seamen’s*Invitation,!14.!Bradbury!concurred,!arguing!that!“Snow,*and* Vapour,*and*Stormy*Wind*fulfil*his*Word,”!(Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*12).!!Andrew!Gifford.!!A*Sermon* in*Commemoration,!9.!In!more!practical!terms,!the!preachers!also!noted!humanity’s!reliance!on!the!wind!for! health!and!survival.!Stinton!argued!that!the!wind!was!a!manifestation!of!breath!itself,!and!as!such!was!vital! to!life!and!to!humanity’s!very!existence.!“We!live!in!the!Air,!and!must!be!continually!taking!it!in!to!moisten! and!nourish!the!Lungs.!If!it!were!not!kept!in!a!perpetual!agitation!by!Winds!it!would!not!be!fit!for! Respiration…But!the!wise!and!powerful!God!of!Nature!keeps!it!in!a!continual!Motion,!why!which!means!it! affords!both!Health!and!Pleasure!to!his!Creatures!that!live!in!it,”!(Stinton,!Benjamin.!A*sermon*preachhd*the* 27th*of*November,*1713.*In*commemoration*of*the*great*and*dreadful*storm*in*November,*1703*(London:!printed!by! J.!Darby,!and!sold!by!A.!Bell,!J.!Baker,!J.!Browne!and!A.!Dodd),!1714),!18.!Along!these!lines,!Gifford!noted! that!the!winds!provided!a!service!to!mankind!by!keeping!the!clouds!in!rotation,!thereby!facilitating!the! “fruitfulness”!of!the!landscape.!A!Gifford,!A*Sermon*in*Commemoration*of*the*Great*Storm,*Commonly*Called*the* High*Wind,*in*the*Year*1703!(London:!Aaron!Ward,!1734),!2.!The!wind!contributed!to!humanity’s!survival! and!wellbeing!and!functioned!as!the!hand!of!God.! 138!According!to!Gifford,!stormy!winds!fulfilled!God’s!word!in!the!following!ways:!they!fulfilled! his!word!of!“command!to!duty!and!obedience;!of!threatening!upon!the!rebellious;!and!of!comfort!to!his!own! afflicted!people,”!(Gifford,*A*Sermon*in*Commemoration,!1).!The!winds!were!a!tool!that!God!used!to!temper!or! thwart!wicked!actions!and!wicked!people:! 139!Gifford,!A*Sermon*in*Commemoration,*14.!Quoting!the!Bible!Gifford!writes!further:!“He!hath!his! way!in!the!whirlwind!and!the!storm,!to!avenge!his!quarrel!upon!them,!who,!by!despising!his!goodness,! treasure!up!to!themselves!wrath!against!the!day!of!wrath,!and!revelation!of!his!righteous!judgment…!he! visits!them!with*thunder*and*with*earthquake,*and*great*noise,*with*storm*and*tempest,*and*with*devouring*fire,”! (p.6).!This!interpretation!was!consistent!with!that!of!Reverend!Stinton!who,!like!Canton,!argued!that!the! wind!was!one!of!those!“treasures”!which!God!held!close!to!himself!and!only!used!when!the!circumstances! demanded!it;!to!assert!his!greatness!and!power!and!“to!execute!Vengeance!upon!his!Enemies,!and!strike! with!Terror!all!those!who!harden!their!Hearts!against!him.”!Stinton!A*Sermon*Preach’d,*18! 247! ! short!order!of!that!army:!“The*Angel*of*the*Lord*went*out,*and*smote*an*hundred*fourscore* and*five*thousand,*and*in*the*morning*they*were*all*dead*Corps,!2King.19.35.”!This,!Bradbury! argued,!should!be!a!lesson!to!people,!for!“the!same!may!He!do!with!His!Wind:!He!has!a!

Tempest!within!Call,!which!He!may,!at!any!Time,!unloose!upon!a!Stubborn!People,”! cautioned!the!minister.140!God!was!the!ultimate!arbitrator!of!events!on!earth!and!nature! his!most!powerful!agent.!!

The!wind’s!fell!exclusively!under!God’s!command,!similar!to!Aeolus’!exclusive! dominion!over!the!same.!“No!Creature!has!a!Breath!of!Wind!to!Dispose!of,!it’s!all!

Collected!into!the!Divine!Hand.!This!God!takes!to!himself!as!his!own!Prerogative.!He*has* his*way*in*the*Whirlwind,*and*in*the*Storm,*and*the*Clouds*are*the*Dust*of*his*Feet.”141!

Reverend!Benjamin!Stinton!suggested!that!although!Satan!was!described!as!“the!Prince! of!the!Power!of!the!Air”!this!title!referred!only!to!Satan’s!power!over!the!lower!regions:!

“Satan!cannot!send!or!stop!one!Breath!of!Air!without!a!Divine!Permission.”142!He!also! dismissed!“the!pretended!Power!of!Conjurers!and!Witches,!to!raise!or!lay!the!Winds,”! which!he!argued!was!“all!Cheat!and!Delusion.”143!Dominion!over!the!winds!resided! with!God!alone!asserted!the!minister.!!

Reverend!Bradbury!concurred,!and!suggested!that!humanity!should!be!grateful! for!this!arrangement,!for!Satan,!unlike!God!would!show!no!mercy!on!humanity!were!he! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

140!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*17! 141!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*11! 142!Stinton!A*Sermon*Preach’d,*18! 143!Stinton!A*Sermon*Preach’d,*18! 248! ! the!master!of!the!winds.!Likewise,!if!enemies!had!the!power!of!the!winds!at!their! disposal!the!earth!would!be!rife!with!confusion!and!chaos.!God!alone!was!fit!to!rule!the! wind!because!“He!alone!can!Check!its!Violence.”!In!the!hands!of!anyone!other!than!

God,!the!power!of!the!wind!would!result!in!the!“Continual!Havock!of!Nature,”!for!the! wind!wears!“no!Bridle!but!his!Command;!It’s!above!all!other!Controul.”!The!four!raging! stallions!were!too!powerful!for!anyone’s!reign!other!than!that!of!the!supreme!ruler.!

Therefore,!according!to!Bradbury,!humanity!should!take!heart!knowing!that!the!wind! was!“Heaven’s!own!Artillery;…the!Tolls!of!God’s!Supremacy.”144!!

Preachers!employed!powerful!rhetorical!devices!to!appeal!to!both!the!hearts!and! minds!of!their!congregations,!hoping!to!incite!spiritual!change!through!the!art!of! persuasion.!Some!formulated!seemingly!rational!arguments!about!the!divine!origins!of! the!storm!and!made!a!logical!case!for!the!necessity!of!repentance,!while!others!drew! upon!powerful!imagery!and!painted!terrifying!pictures!of!judgment!day!with!the!intent! of!frightening!their!followers!into!reform.!!Reverend!Pead!adopted!the!former!approach.!

He!set!out!much!like!a!logistician!to!rationally!prove!that!the!storm!was!a!divine!

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144!“He!gives!it!all!it’s!Breath,!and!disposeth!of!it!to!the!Service!of!his!Will.!It’s!the!Vassal!of!his! Authority:!This!is!Three!Times!asserted!in!the!same!Words,!‘When!he!utters!his!Voice,!there!is!a!Multitude! of!Waters!in!the!Heavens,!and!he!causeth!the!Vapours!to!ascend!from!the!Ends!of!the!Earth,!he!maketh! Lightenings!with!Rain,!and!bringeth!forth!the!Wind!out!of!his!Treasuries,”!(Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over* Wind!16).!God!ruled!the!wind,!argued!Bradbury,!and!in!God’s!hand!the!wind!was!secure,!contained!and! controlled;!it!has!a!“secure!Abode!there.”!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*13`14! 249! ! judgment!rendered!upon!humanity.145!Pead!argued!that!the!swiftness!with!which!the! storm!struck!was!the!first!indicator!of!its!being!a!divine!judgment,!as!was!the!lack!of! warning!with!which!it!struck.!!He!noted!that!although!winds!were!“naturally!swift,”!

God!rode!upon!the!wings!of!the!wind!and!“commands!and!governs!those!Wings,!so! then!when!they!are!permitted!to!come!hastily,!it!must!be!admitted!for!a!Judgment.”146!!

Second,!Pead!observed,!“God!spake!to!us!from!on!high,!his!Voice!was!heard!in!the! blustering!of!the!Wind!like!Thunder.”147!The!sounds!of!the!storm,!so!ferocious,!and!loud,! signified!that!divine!judgment!was!at!hand.!Third,!he!asserted!a!storm!of!such! magnitude!could!only!be!elicited!by!evil!of!great!proportions:!“so!terrible!a!Storm! having!never!been!heard!of!in!our!Land!before,!we!may!well!believe!Divine!Vengeance! was!riding!upon!the!Wings!of!the!Wind!in!pursuit!of!some!greater!Rebels!than! ordinary.”148!Fourth,!the!“Strength!and!Violence!of!that!Angry!Wind,”!the!“fury”!and!

“rage”!with!which!it!blew!made!all!who!encountered!it!certain!that!it!was!a!judgment! from!God.!Lastly,!Pead!suggested!that!when!one!considered!the!wicked!behavior!and! manners!of!the!British!people!it!was!impossible!to!interpret!the!storm!as!anything!other! than!a!message!from!God!urging!mankind!to!repent!and!mend!its!wicked!ways.!

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145!Quoting!the!book!of!Romans!1.18!Pead!writes:!“to!Sword!or!Famine,!to!Fire!or!Tempest,! whereby!God!is!pleased!to!punish!any;!they!are!the!Wrath!of!God!revealed!from!Heaven!against!the! ungodliness!and!unrighteousness!of!men.”!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!15`16! 146!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!16! 147!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!16`17! 148!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!18! 250! !

If!Pead!was!correct!and!the!wind!was!in!fact!the!hand!of!God,!and!a!force!that!He! used!to!punish!people!for!their!sins,!precisely!what!sins!were!the!English!guilty!of! committing!and!what!sins!was!the!nation!as!a!whole!was!accountable!for?!Edward!

Barlow!was!a!seasoned!sailor!sixty`one!years!of!age,!serving!on!board!the!Kingfisher,! which!was!anchored!at!the!Buoy!of!Nore!when!the!storm!hit.149!The!storm!struck!at!the! end!of!his!last!sailing!voyage!and!thus!marked!the!conclusion!of!his!sailing!career.!His! characterization!of!the!moral!imparted!by!this!treacherous!event!is!particularly! significant!because!his!voice!comes!from!a!stratum!of!society!for!which!few!records! exist—the!common!sailor,!rather!than!the!officer.!Barlow,!though!not!a!priest,!believed! that!the!storm!was!indeed!a!sign!given!by!God!signifying!his!displeasure!with! humanity’s!moral!conduct.!He!writes,!!

I!pray!God!we!may!all!repent,!for!doubtless!this!was!a!warning!of!God’s!anger! against!us,!for!a!worse!generation!can!scarce!be!in!all!wickedness:!for!no!man! values!his!word!or!promise,!or!matters!what!he!doth!or!saith:!so!that!he!can!but! gain!and!defraud!his!neighbor.!All!commanders!and!masters!are!grown!up!with! pride!and!oppression!and!tyranny.!I!want!words!to!lay!out!the!business!and! unworthy!dealings!of!many!men!I!have!met!not!acting!like!Christians.150!! ! Barlow’s!references!to!the!misconduct!not!only!among!his!peers!but!also!among!his! ranking!superiors!points!toward!a!class!analysis!of!this!event!otherwise!unrepresented.!

In!Barlow’s!account!it!was!not!merely!the!sins!of!the!lowly!sailor!that!brought!on!this! catastrophic!event,!but!the!sins!of!the!ruling!class!Englishmen!as!well.!Unsurprisingly,!

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149!Brayne,!Greatest*Storm,!155! 150!Brayne,!Greatest*Storm,!157! 251! ! perhaps,!preachers!had!even!more!to!say!regarding!the!human!causes!and!the!potential! consequences!of!wind!in!general,!and!of!this!storm!in!particular.!!

Cursing,!lying,!cheating,!and!infidelity!were!among!the!many!sins!noted!in!the! sermons,!as!was!a!lack!of!gratitude!for!God’s!gifts!and!benevolence.!Pead!noted,!for! example,!that!many!Protestants!looked!like!Christians!and!identified!as!such,!but!that! their!behavior!was!not!concordant!with!the!principles!of!the!faith,!for!many!took!the!

Lords!name!in!vain,!failed!to!observe!the!Sabbath,!and!did!not!adhere!to!the!Ten!

Commandments.151!He!also!noted!that!pride!had!become!symptomatic!among!the! nation’s!inhabitants,!and!that!although!“Truth,!Sincerity,!Honour!and!Honest,!were!once! the!just!Character!of!the!English…since!our!unhappy!Familiarity!with!the!French,!we!are! become!Artists!in!the!contrary!Vices.”152!In!Pead’s!assessment,!neighboring!countries! had!exacted!a!negative!influence!upon!the!British!character.!He!went!on!to!note!that!the! people!of!the!England!were!too!often!unjust!and!unrighteous!to!their!neighbors!and!to! themselves,!exhibiting!qualities!of!“Oppression,!Covetousness,!Deceit,!and!

Uncharitableness…!Prodigality…Whoredom,!Drunkenness,!and!Selfishness…”!He! reminded!his!audience!and!readers!that!!“God!sent!a!mighty!strong!West!Wind!which! carried!away!the!Locusts!out!of!Egypt,!the!Wind!God!lately!sent!among!us,!was!from!the! same!Corner...we!only!want!that!it!may!blow!away!from!us!worser!Locusts;!our!Sins.”153!

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151!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!21! 152!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!24! 153!Pead,!Englandhs*Present*Duty,!27! 252! !

The!storm!should!serve!as!reminder!of!what!spiritual!obligations!the!nation!was!under,! he!argued.!!

Reverend!Bradbury!suggested!that!although!debauchery,!lewdness,!and! swearing,!were!certainly!punishable!sins,!there!were!much!greater!sins!than!these!to! address,!namely!“Our!Contempt!of!the!Divine!Ordinance,!the!Ravage!that!we!make!of!

Christian!Love,!the!Sloth!and!Dulness!of!our!Zeal!for!God.”154!These!sins,!he!argued,! were!powerful!enough!to!elicit!God’s!wrath,!“these!are!Things!that!have!their!cry!for!

Vengeance.”155!Stinton!concurred,!and!suggested!that!the!public!needed!to!consider!their! spiritual!responsibilities!given!this!act!of!divine!deliverance,!given!the!fact!that!God! mercifully!preserved!them!through!the!storm.!God’s!decision!not!to!completely! obliterate!humanity,!he!argued,!should!give!all!pause!for!reflection!and!provide!people! with!further!incentive!to!live!up!to!their!religious!duties.!He!described!one!sailor!who! was!the!only!man!spared!out!of!three!entire!crews—the!rest!drown!at!sea.!Within!two! hours!of!his!safe!rescue!this!(sinful)!man!was!at!the!bar!“drinking,!and!swearing,!and! playing!at!Cards!with!his!profane!Companions.”!Stinton!was!appalled!by!this!behavior:!

“O!!monstrous!Ingratitude,!and!uparallel’d!!Wickedness!”!he!writes.156!Those!spared! from!death,!he!argued,!were!under!obligation!to!raise!themselves!up,!to!demonstrate!

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154!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*29! 155!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!29! 156!Stinton,!A*Sermon*Preach’d,!29! 253! ! gratitude!for!their!lives!and!their!creator!by!adhering!to!religious!principles!and!codes!of! good!conduct.!!

Bradbury!directed!this!critique!to!the!maritime!community!in!particular,!whose! baseness!and!blasphemous!ways,!he!argued,!were!largely!responsible!for!the!“National!

Stroke”!the!nation!currently!lamented.!Bradbury!described!the!naval!and!merchant! fleets!as!“the!very!Picture!of!Hell.”!He!asserted!that!“they!scarce!breath!any!thing!but!

Blasphemy!against!God,”!and!reminded!the!public!“We!have!dreadful!tastes!of!their!

Vileness!ashore.”157!God,!he!suggested,!was!so!offended!by!this!particular!population! that!he!took!it!upon!himself!to!send!a!strong!message!to!this!segment!of!society:!“Such! as!you!would!not!rebuke,!he!has!drown’d.”158!The!population!most!readily!attuned!to! the!power!and!disposition!of!the!wind,!the!people!whose!very!occupation!relied!upon! this!powerful!force!of!nature,!were!disproportionally!responsible!for!offending!God!and! raising!such!a!storm.!By!this!line!of!reasoning!sailors!had!paid!the!price!with!their!lives,! in!numbers!exceeding!by!thousands!the!loss!of!life!experienced!on!land.!Not!only!that,! but!sin!had!its!consequences,!both!in!this!life!and!in!the!afterlife.!For!this!reason,!

Bradbury!“especially!recommend[ed]…as!the!Lesson!of!this!Providence,”!that!people! exhibit!a!“Zeal!for!the!REFORMATION!of!MANNERS.”159!!!

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157!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*31! 158!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*32! 159!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,*31! 254! !

Mocking!God’s!power!through!entertainment!and!ribaldry!was!another!sin!that! the!preachers!believed!angered!God!and!invoked!his!wrath.!Reverend!Samuel!Stennet,! whose!sermon!was!published!on!the!centennial!commemoration!of!the!storm,!found! fault!with!the!dramatic!theatre!performances!that!ran!in!the!aftermath!of!the!Storm,!for! example.!He,!like!Stinton,!noted!that,!“a!few!nights!after!this!alarming!providence,!a! play!was!acted!in!one!of!our!Theatres,!called!The*Tempest.!Such!was!the!wretched!levity! of!the!times!!How!is!the!patience!of!God!to!be!admired,!and!the!folly!and!impiety!of!men! to!be!lamented!”160!Indeed,!in!the!immediate!aftermath!of!the!storm,!English!theatre! troupes!performed!Shakespeare’s!The*Tempest!and!Macbeth!to!large!audiences.!Stinton! argued!that!this!crime!made!a!mockery!of!the!public’s!deliverance:!!

They!mimick’d!this!dreadful!Judgment;!and!at!the!representing!of!Thunder!and! Lightening,!the!falling!of!Houses!and!Chimney’s!and!the!breaking!of!Legs!and! Arms,!the!profane!audience!were!pleas’d!to!clap!to!an!unusual!length.!The! Representation!of!that,!which!but!a!little!before!had!made!their!faces!pale,!and! their!Hearts!tremble,!is!not!make!the!Subject!of!their!Sport!and!Laughter.!Lord!! What!Folly!and!Ingratitude!is!wrapt!up!in!the!Heart!of!Man?161!! ! Stinton!did!not!believe!that!preservation!in!the!face!of!near!death!was!a!laughing!matter.!!

He!considered!the!storm!a!warning,!or!a!forerunner!to!harsher!judgments!if!society!did! not!mend!their!wicked!ways.!“It!has!been!God’s!usual!Method!to!begin!with!smaller!

Judgments!first;!and!if!these!don’t!succeed,!to!proceed!to!greater,”!he!cautioned.162!The!

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160!Stennett,!A*Sermon*in*Commemoration,!14`15! 161!Stennett,!A*Sermon*in*Commemoration,!26! 162!Stinton,!A*Sermon*Preachhd,!27.!Along!these!lines,!Bradbury!likewise!relayed!how!when!the! nation!of!Israel!was!full!of!Idolatry!God!warned!the!prophet!Elijah!of!the!destruction!he!planned!for!the! 255! ! religious!community’s!anger!with!the!London!theatre!calls!attention!their!level!of! investment!in!controlling!discursive!and!spiritual!interpretations!of!this!event,!while!the! presence!and!popularity!of!these!plays!illustrate!moments!of!rupture!in!attempts!to! achieve!hegemony!on!this!count.!!

Stinton!was!not!the!only!preacher!disturbed!by!theatrical!representations!of!the! storm!that!challenged!the!religious!community’s!narrative!interpretations!of!the!event.!

Reverend!Bradbury!echoed!the!same!sentiments.!More!troubling!to!Bradbury!was!the! rapidity!with!which!the!religious!lessons!occasioned!by!the!storm!were!forgotten.!He!

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! nation!as!penance:!“The!Lord!passed!by,!and!behold,!a!great!and!strong!Wind!rent!the!Mountains,!and! brake!in!pieces!the!Rocks!and!after!the!WIND!an!EARTHQUAKE?”!Bradbury!beseeched!the!public!to! prevent!such!a!harsh!“Succession!of!Judgments,”!(Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!32).!Representations!of! the!storm!rooted!in!religion!were!intended!to!inspire!redemption!ostensibly!aimed!at!reformation,!while! theatrical!representation!was!geared!toward!pleasure!and!entertainment,!and!the!theatre!was!immensely! popular!at!this!time!and!targeted!all!sectors!of!society,!from!gentry,!to!craftsmen,!to!common!laborers.!Thus,! like!the!theatre!troupe,!Stinton!narratively!recreated!the!storm!in!his!own!way,!consistent!with!his!particular! objectives.!If!theatre,!in!the!words!of!Haynes,!is!“part!of!society’s!ideological!apparatus,!of!the!means!by! which!it!understands!and!reproduces!itself!symbolically’!then!the!tension!between!the!religious! interpretations!of!the!wind!versus!those!depicted!in!theatrical!representations!of!the!even!call!attention!to! the!similar!roles!each!form!of!discourse!fulfilled.!Jonathan!Haynes,!The*Social*Relations*of*Jonson’s*Theatre! (Cambridge;!New!York,!NY:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1992),!12.!For!further!discussion!on!the!business! and!commercial!politics!of!the!theatre!in!Early!Modern!Europe!please!see*James!H.!Forse,!Art*imitates* Business:!Commercial*and*Political*Influences*in*Elizabethan*Theatre!(Bowling!Green,!OH:!Bowling!State! University!Press,!1983);!William!Ingram,*The*Business*of*Playing:*The*Beginnings*of*the*Adult*Professional* Theatre*in*Elizabethan*London!(Ithaca:!Cornell!University!Press,!1992);!Douglas!Bruster,!Drama*and*the*Market* in*the*Age*of*Shakespeare!(Cambridge;!New!York,!NY:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1992).!Licenses!and! patronage!increasingly!became!ways!in!which!those!in!power!regulated!the!politics!expressed!through! theatrical!production,!but!their!control!over!it!nevertheless!remained!tenuous!and!partial.!Indeed,!James!the! First’s!decision!to!limit!theatrical!patronage!to!members!of!the!royal!family!may!be!interpreted!as!an! expression!of!such!political!regulation.!Please!see!Forse,!Art*Imitates*Business,!chapter!9,!for!a!discussion!of! theatre!regulation,!reciprocity,!and!patronage.!For!some!detailed!statistics!on!the!popularity!of!the!theatre! see!Kevin!Sharpe’s!historiographical!review:!“Representations!and!Negotiations:!Texts,!Images,!and! Authority!in!Early!Modern!England,”!The*Historical*Journal!42,!no.!3!(1999):!856`857.! 256! ! observed,!for!instance,!that!most!of!the!congregations!in!London!and!its!nearby! provinces!enjoyed!a!good!turn`out!on!the!Fast`Day!ordered!by!the!queen,!and!that!not! only!were!the!congregations!crowded!that!day,!but!that!those!in!attendance!seemed! clear!about!why!they!had!come!and!what!their!purpose!was!in!being!there.163!However,!

Bradbury!also!noted!with!extreme!agitation!that!as!quickly!as!people!were!driven!to! faith!during!the!height!of!the!storm,!they!just!as!readily!abandoned!their!religious! conviction!soon!thereafter:!“the!People,!that!could!not!but!tremble!at!the!sound!of!this!

Judgment,!have!prophanely!mockt!it!since.”164!Bradbury,!like!Stinton,!(and!later!

Stennet),!railed!against!the!theatrical!performances!whose!antics!and!blasphemy!he! claimed!not!only!undermined!religious!efforts!aimed!at!redemption!but!made!a!mockery! of!God!himself:!!

It’s!dismal!to!think,!that!so!sweeping!a!Calamity!as!this,!should!ever!become!the! Entertainment*of*the*Stage.!That!Men!should!take!the!Mimick!so!far,!as!to!make! Ruin!a!Diversion,!by!dressing!it!up!with!Atheism!and!Foppery.!The!Banter!of!this! Ungodliness!is!so!extreme,!that!the!Right!Reverend!the!Lord!Bishop!of!Oxford! tho’t!fit!to!arraign!it!that!Day!in!a!Sermon!before!the!House!of!Peers…”!and!here! he!quotes!the!Bishop:!who!cannot!mention!without!“Horror”!the!“late!Affront!to! God,!unparralle’d!by!the!Jewish!or!any!civilized!nation,!which!looks!like!a! defying,!if!not!a!ridiculing,!of!His!Judgments;!I!mean!that!impudent! Representation!of!a!Mock`Tempest!on!the!Stage…!whilst!these!Nurseries!of! Lewdness!are!suffer’d!to!corrupt!the!Age,!‘tis!in!vain!to!hope!to!see!it! Reformed.165!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

163!“It!was!some!Ground!of!Encouragement!on!the!Fast`Day,!to!find!most!Congregations…!not!only! crowded,!but!with!such!Persons!as!declare’d!a!good!Sense!of!their!Business!there.”!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire* Over*Wind,!4.! 164!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!4! 165!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!5! 257! !

Bradbury!argued!that!if!there!were!more!of!the!“Noble!Spirit”!among!the!general! population,!such!as!that!exhibited!by!the!Lord!Bishop,!the!nation!would!be!both!more! happy,!and!more!secure,!and!he!emphasized!that!it!was!with!this!intent!that!he! presented!his!sermon:!“to!stir!up!a!Courage*against!the!Wickedness!that!makes!God!our!

Enemy.”166!!

That!these!theatrical!performances!would!come!up!in!a!sermon!before!the!House! of!Peers!suggests!the!extent!to!which!discursive!control!over!the!meaning!of!the!wind!in! this!instance!was!viewed!not!merely!as!an!opportunity!by!religious!leaders,!but! additionally!as!an!issue!of!national!security.!The!wind!had!demonstrated!just!how! readily!it!could!undo!the!power!and!stability!and!wealth!of!the!English!nation.!The! potential!threat!it!posed!to!political!and!social!order!resonated!among!all!social!classes! from!low!to!high.!Those!in!positions!of!authority—the!queen,!politicians!natural! philosophers,!and!members!of!the!religious!elite—therefore!deployed!what!control!they! had!over!the!meaning!of!this!event!to!further!buttress!their!claims!to!power,!to!harness! this!event!in!the!interest!of!reinforcing,!rather!than!upending,!political,!intellectual,!and! social!order.!!

Nature!and!human!morality!were!viewed!as!a!deeply!entwined!dialectic,!and!the! perception!of!this!relationship!jointly!informed!popular!interpretations!of!political! activity.!For!example,!meteorological!events!were!often!interpreted!as!signs!of!God’s!

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166!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!7! 258! ! support!for!or!dissatisfaction!with!the!actions!of!a!particular!ruler!(such!as!a!marriage!or! a!war),!or!associated!with!a!ruler’s!death!or!ascent!to!the!throne,!or!with!a!particular! political!party.!For!this!reason,!God!and!nature!often!made!their!way!into!political! rhetoric!and!propaganda.!For!example,!people!often!spoke!of!the!Protestant!Wind,! which!ushered!in!an!era!of!religious!reformation.!Along!these!lines,!Reverend!Stennet’s! sermon,!published!in!1788!(almost!a!century!after!the!Great!Storm)!drew!a!metaphorical! comparison!between!the!divine!forces!at!work!during!the!Great!Storm!of!1703,!and!the! political!storm!that!transformed!the!government!of!England!from!a!monarchy!to!a! parliamentary!government!in!1688.!Under!the!rule!of!Henry!VIII,!England!broke!from! the!Catholic!Church!and!was!formally!established!as!a!Protestant!nation!under!the! newly!formed!Church!of!England,!and!in!1688!the!nation!became!subject!to! parliamentary!rather!than!monarchical!rule.!Stennet!writes,!“We!have!just!felt!the! horrors!of!the!dark!and!dismal!night!that!preceded!the!27th!of!November!1703,!when!the! winds!blew,!the!skies!blackened,!the!earth!shook,!and!the!hearts!of!men!failed!them!with! dismay…Let!us!now!feel!the!horrors!of!that!more!dreadful!tempest,!which!was! impending!on!this!country!in!the!year!1688.”167!For!Stennett,!God!was!at!work!not!only! in!the!Great!Storm,!but!in!the!Glorious!Revolution!that!preceded!it!as!well:!“It!was!God! who!inspired!their!counsels!with!wisdom,!unanimity,!and!firmness.!It!was!God!who! sent!us!the!great,!the!good,!King!William,!commanding!the!winds!to!be!obedient!to!his!

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167!Stennett,!A*Sermon*in*Commemoration,!17! 259! ! wishes.”168!The!power!of!the!winds!was,!in!this!instance!as!in!others,!rhetorically! appropriated!in!the!interest!of!legitimizing!political!power.!By!linking!nature’s!power!to! a!ruler’s!political!entitlement,!the!rhetorician!blurred!the!lines!between!divine!right!and! human!opportunity.!!

If!God!alone!controlled!the!wind!and!if,!like!other!aspects!of!nature!such!as!the! rain!and!snow,!the!wind!functioned!solely!to!execute!God’s!will,!what!were!the! applications!of!this!knowledge!and!what!comfort!and!hope!could!be!gleaned!from!this! truth?169!Bradbury!offered!some!reflections!on!this!subject,!noting!that!“if*the*Wind*is*in*

God’s*Hand…Let!us!Learn!to!Adore*his*Power,!which!is!Wonderfully!expres’d!this!way:!

Bow!before!Him;!Serve*him*acceptably*with*Reverence*and*Godly*Fear.”170!According!to!

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168!Furthermore,!in!his!footnotes!he!discusses!one!instance!of!particular!importance!which!he! believes!suggests!God’s!divine!intercedence:!“The!great!storm!that!blew!from!the!West,!immediately!upon! the!Prince’s!landing![where?],!which!prevented!the!King’s!fleet!from!continuing!their!pursuit,!and!so! shattered!them!that!they!were!no!more!fit!for!service!that!year;!was!a!providential!circumstance,!in!favour!of! the!Revolution,!much!regarded!at!that!time.!‘I!never!found,’!says!Bishop!Burnet,!‘a!superstition!in!my! temper:!I!was!rather!inclined!to!be!philosophical!upon!all!occasions.!Yet,!I!must!confess,!that!this!strange! ordering!of!the!winds!and!seasons,!just!to!change!as!our!affairs!required!it,!could!not!but!make!deep! impressions!on!me,!as!well!as!on!all!that!observed!it.!Those!famous!verses!of!Claudian!seemed!to!be!more! applicable!to!the!Prince!than!to!him!they!were!made!on:..Heaven’s!favourite,!for!whom!the!skies!do!fight,! And!all!the!winds!conspire!to!guide!thee!right,’”!(Burnet’s*History*of*His*Own*Times,!quoted!in!Stennet,!A* Sermon*in*Commemoration!31`32).! 169!Bradbury!proposes!to!describe!first,!the!general!uses!of!this!knowledge;!second,!the!application! of!this!knowledge,!(“How!the!Consideration!of!God’s!Rule!over!the!Winds!should!Influence!us,!when!we! are!Humbling!ourselves!before!him,”),!and!lastly,!what!comfort!and!hope!can!be!gleaned!from!this! knowledge!and!truth.!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!18! 170!Bradbury,!God’s*Empire*Over*Wind,!18.!According!to!Bradbury,!each!and!every!person!had! contributed!their!part!to!the!“common!Miseries”!of!this!public!calamity,!and!for!this!reason!each!person! must!take!a!good!long!look!at!themselves!and!consider!what!role!they!played!in!this!disaster:!“In!a!time!of! publick!Judgment!every!one!is!to!know!the!Plague*of*his*own*Heart,”!(p.28).!He!urged!people!beg!for!mercy! and!pardon.!He!claimed!it!was!not!only!a!necessity,!but!humanity’s!“Duty!to!beg!off!His!Wrath,”!for!“Christ! is!call’d!an!Hiding`place!from!the!Wind,!and!a!Covert!from!the!Tempest,”!(p.!33,!42).!The!faithful!and! upright!soul,!he!argued,!could!rest!assured!knowing!that!“No!wind!can!blow!away!your!Inheritance.!Christ! 260! !

Stinton,!the!moral!of!the!Great!Storm!was!that!“God!is!the!best!Friend!or!worst!Enemy,! that!our!Life!and!all!our!Happiness!is!in!his!Power.!If!he!be!fore!us,!who!can!be!against! us…but!if!he!be!against!us,!what!Power!can!protect!us?”!For!this!reason,!Stinton! believed!that!the!storm!should!incite!the!public!to!repent!for!their!sins,!because!it!was! sin!that!brought!forth!this!calamity.!“It!will!do!us!but!little!good!to!revive!the!Memory!of! this!dreadful!Storm!in!our!Minds,!if!that!don’t!lead!us!to!remember!with!Shame!and!

Humility!those!Iniquities!by!which!we!thus!provoked!God!to!Anger!most!bitterly.”171!

Commemorating!and!remembering!the!Great!Storm!functioned!not!only!as!a!gesture!of! gratitude!but!as!an!opportunity!for!reflection!and!repentance.!Stinton!concluded!his! sermon!by!painting!a!terrifying!picture!of!judgment!day:!

[It!will]!infinitely!exceed!anything!that!was!seen!or!felt!in!the!Storm,!of!which!I! have!been!speaking.!Then!the!Angels,!that!stand!at!the!four!Corners!of!the!Earth! to!hold!in!the!four!Winds,!shall!let!them!loose!with!all!their!Rage!and!Violence:! Then!the!guilty!Sinner!shall!not!only!hear!the!Noise!of!his!Chariot`Wheels,!but! shall!see!the!Son!of!God!himself!coming!down!from!heaven!in!Flames!of!Fire,! with!all!his!mighty!Angels,!to!take!Vengeance!on!the!Disobedient!and! Unbelieving;!and!this!Appearance!will!be!with!such!Majesty!and!Terror!to!the! Wicked,!that!they!shall!call!to!the!Rocks!and!Mountains!to!fall!upon!them,!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! has!compared!you!to!“an!House!built!upon!a!Rock,!which!fell!not,!tho’!the!Rain!descended,!and!the!Floods! came,!and!the!Winds!blew,!and!beat!upon!it,”!(p.!36)!In!heaven!there!would!be!no!calamities!such!as!this,! “The!Rufffle!and!Distraction!that!this!World!is!liable!to,!have!no!Place!in!those!glorious!Regions!where!your! Saviour!lives,”!(p.37).!See!to!whom!you!must!direct!yourselves!for!the!blessing!of!the!Winds,”!he!writes.! Bradbury!urged!people!to!orient!themselves!toward!God,!and!to!take!these!tragic!events!as!an!incentive!for! increased!devotion,!and!to!submit!to!his!will!with!“a!Religious!Patience,”!as!in!the!case!of!Job:!“There*came*a* great*Wind*from*the*Wilderness,*and*smote*the*four*Corners*of*the*House,*and*it*fell*upon*the*Young*Men,*[Job’s*sons]* and*they*are*dead.*Then*Job*arose,*and*fell*upon*the*Ground*and*worshipped,*and*said,*the*Lord*gave,*and*the*Lord*has* taken*away,*blessed*be*the*Name*of*the*Lord,*Job.*I.19.20,”!(p.28).! 171!Stinton,!A*Sermon*Preachhd,!24! 261! !

hide!them!from!the!Face!of!him!that!fitteth!upon!the!Throne,!and!from!the!Wrath! of!the!Lamb:!Then!the!Sun!shall!be!darken’d,!and!the!Moon!turn’d!into!Blood;! the!Sea!and!the!Waves!shall!roar,!and!Men’s!Hearts!fail!them!for!Fear….[he! continues]!If!this!storm!was!so!dreadful,!what!will!that!be!when!the!Vials!of!the! Wrath!of!God!shall!be!pour’d!out!upon!the!World?...If!God’s!voice!in!the!Storm! and!the!Whirlwind!was!so!terrible!to!the!Sinner,!and!begun!such!Horror!and! Confusion!in!his!guilty!Mind;!what!will!the!last!Sentence!produce!in!him,!when! the!universal!Judge!shall!say,!Depart*from*me*ye*Cursed*into*everlasting*Fire,* prepar’d*for*the*Devil*and*his*Angles?172!! ! Stinton!embedded!his!dramatic!description!of!this!apocalyptic!storm!within!a!more! general!picture!of!nature:!referencing!the!notion!of!the!four!directions,!and!the!cardinal! winds!they!housed—a!brief!nod!to!the!legacy!of!the!ancient!Greeks.!He!spoke!of!the!sun! and!the!moon,!the!rocks!and!the!mountains,!the!sea!and!the!waves,!and!like!the!Greeks! he!drew!a!correlation!between!the!manifestation!and!effects!of!such!natural!forces!as! they!stood!in!proportion!to!human!morality.!He!was!not!unique!in!this!regard.!

Preachers!identified!a!connection!between!the!material!world!and!the!spiritual!world,! between!the!personal!experience!of!a!common!man!such!as!John!Gripps!who!found! himself!confronted!by!the!full!force!and!overwhelming!power!of!the!wind!and!those! who!recognized!the!divine!within!that!earthy!manifestation.!The!intermingling! traditions!of!ancient!Greek!mythology!and!17th!century!religion!both!framed!the!wind!in! such!terms:!as!a!collaboration!between!God!and!Nature!as!a!measure!of!human! morality.!!

! !

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172!Stinton,!A*Sermon*Preachhd,!28! 262! !

For!Defoe!and!the!many!Londoners!he!directly!quoted,!the!wind!and!storm! underscored!the!limits!of!both!human!control!and!in!Defoe’s!estimation,!the!limits!and! parameters!of!the!new!science.!Almost!one!hundred!years!prior,!Francis!Bacon!had! championed!the!seemingly!infinite!possibilities!for!extending!the!boundaries!of!human! knowledge!and!understanding!through!the!application!of!scientific!methods!and! reasoning.!The!methods!he!advocated!for!privileged!first!hand!experience!and! observation!of!the!natural!world,!thereby!elevating!the!status!of!makers!knowledge—the! knowledge!of!the!everyday!worker.!In!doing!so,!Bacon!redefined!what!kind!of! knowledge!qualified!as!properly!scientific,!what!kind!of!knowledge!constituted!science.!

He!thus!expanded!the!boundaries!of!the!field,!and!he!leveled!it!to!some!extent.!!

As!this!newfound!emphasis!on!first!hand!experience!and!observation!gained! ground,!a!simultaneous!shift!took!place!in!the!relationship!between!particular! experiences!and!universal!truths,!specifically!as!these!concepts!related!to!notions!of! experiment,!reliable!witnessing,!and!the!sociology!of!knowledge!and!truth.!!Whereas!in! the!past,!natural!philosophers!took!conventionally!accepted!universal!truths!as!their! premises!and!derived!meaning!and!natural!laws!from!them,!the!new!science!privileged! the!particular!as!its!starting!point.!The!value!of!individual!eyewitness!accounts!likewise! assumed!newfound!importance,!and!gentlemanly!codes!of!conduct!around!honor!and! truth!telling!thus!took!on!added!import!insofar!as!dictating!conventions!of!reliable! witnessing!at!this!time.!!

263! !

Defoe’s!text!simultaneously!exemplified!and!challenged!such!conventions!to!the! extent!that!it!made!visible!not!only!the!voices!of!the!elite!in!attesting!to!their!experience! with!the!wind!and!storm,!but!the!voices!and!narrations!of!the!general!population!as!they! experienced!and!interpreted!the!wind!and!storm!as!well.!In!Defoe’s!publication!the!two! were!set!side!by!side,!existing!within!the!same!plane,!further!underscoring!the! knowledge!commons—the!first!hand!experiences,!observations,!and!interpretations!of! the!wind!by!any!and!all,!that!constituted!this!particular!commons.!Defoe’s!published! account!integrated!both!high!and!low!interpretations!of!the!wind!into!a!broader!public! assessment!and!lesson!in!how!to!read!the!wind,!how!the!Great!Storm!should!be!properly! interpreted,!and!whose!voices!and!experiences!ultimately!mattered!in!making!such! assessments.!His!text!further!asserted!the!spiritual!meaning!of!this!event,!supported!by! popular!religious!discourse,!thereby!highlighting!the!limits!of!elite!knowledge!vested!in! the!methods!and!practices!of!natural!philosophy.!The!storm!was!thus!the!great!leveler!in! more!ways!than!one.!

Defoe’s!narrative!account!of!the!Great!Storm!represented!a!break!from!past! conventions!by!incorporating!the!experiences!of!the!commoner!into!authoritative!public! records!of!this!historic!event.!However,!the!discourse!that!emerged!in!response!to!the!

Great!Storm!simultaneously!reinforced!a!different!set!of!continuities!rooted!in! characterizations!of!the!wind!that!transcended!the!17th!century!and!which!connected! wind!narrations!present!in!early!modern!England!to!narrations!of!the!winds!articulated!

264! ! in!the!ancient!past.!That!Defoe!refused!to!acknowledge!the!continuities!between!the! content!of!his!history!and!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!historical!accounts!of!wind!and! storms!does!not!make!the!connections!between!them!any!less!present!or!poignant,!quite! the!opposite!in!fact.!What!such!continuities!suggest!is!that!the!wind!itself!uniquely! facilitated!particular!and!enduring!ways!of!knowing!and!narrating!human!experiences! with!this!natural!force!that!seemed!to!defy!temporal!categorization,!and!which!reinforce! the!experiential!quality!of!wind!knowledge—its!basis!first!and!foremost!in!maker’s! knowledge!and!its!associated!histories!and!narrations.!!

265! !

Chapter 4. Wind, Narrative, and Discourse

In!1666!Margaret!Cavendish,!Duchess!of!Newcastle,!published!A*Description*of*a*

New*World,*Called*the*Blazing*World.!The!story!centers!on!the!forcible!abduction!of!a! women!taken!to!a!foreign!land!where!animals!such!as!bears,!foxes,!birds,!and!spiders! walked!upright!like!humans!and!spoke!and!behaved!as!such.1!Crowned!as!empress,!the! woman’s!first!order!of!business!was!to!educate!herself!about!the!world!she!now!ruled.!

She!learned!about!the!church!and!the!state!of!her!kingdom,!and!inquired!into!the!laws! and!principles!of!nature:!the!composition!and!appearance!of!the!sun!and!the!moon!and! the!stars,!and!vitally,!the!substance!of!the!air,!and!the!cause!of!the!wind.!“The!bird`men! answered,!that!they!could!have!no!other!perception!of!the!air,!but!by!their!own! respiration:!for,!said!they,!some!bodies!are!only!subject!to!touch,!others!only!to!sight,! and!others!only!to!smell;!but!some!are!subject!to!none!of!our!exterior!sense…”!to!which! the!empress!replied,!“if!you!can!give!no!account!of!the!air…you!will!hardly!be!able!to! inform!me!how!wind!is!made;!for!they!say!that!wind!is!nothing!but!motion!of!the!air,”!at! which!point!the!bird`men!described!all!competing!notions!about!the!wind!circulating!in! their!kingdom,!which!mirrored!the!competing!ideas!about!the!wind!circulating!within! the!field!of!natural!philosophy!in!early!Modern!England:!

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1!Margaret!Cavendish,!Observations*upon*Experimental*Philosophy,!ed.!Eileen!O’Neil!(Cambridge! University!Press:!Cambridge,!2001).!Cavendish!writes:!“she!erected!schools,!and!founded!several!societies.! The!bear!men!were!to!be!her!experimental!philosophers,!the!bird`men!her!astronomers,!the!fly`,worm,!and! fish`men!her!natural!philosophers,!the!ape`men!her!chemists,!the!satyrs!her!Galenic!physicians,!the!fox`men! her!politicians,!the!spider`and!lice`men!her!mathematicians,!the!jackdaw`,magpie`and!parrot`men!her! orators!and!logicians,!the!giants!her!architects,”!(p.134).!! 266! !

What!properly!wind!was,!and!the!manner!how!it!was!made,!they!could!not! exactly!tell;!some!said,!it!was!caused!by!the!clouds!falling!on!each!other,!and! others,!that!it!was!produced!of!a!hot!and!dry!exhalation,!which!ascending,!was! driven!down!again!by!the!coldness!of!the!air!that!is!in!the!middle!region,!and!by! reason!of!lightness,!could!not!go!directly!to!the!bottom,!but!was!carried!by!the!air! up!and!down:!some!would!have!it!a!flowing!water!of!the!air;!and!others!again!a! flowing!air!moved!by!the!blaze!of!stars.2!! ! One!part!fiction!and!another!part!fact,!Cavendish’s!unusual!text!exemplifies!in!many! ways!the!complexities!and!controversy!evoked!by!the!wind,!the!rich!debate!inspired!by! its!enigmatic!and!mysterious!nature,!and!the!layers!of!meaning!and!modes!of! representation!contained!in!the!spectrum!of!narratives!about!it.3!!!!!

The*Blazing*World!presents!a!challenge,!both!in!content!and!in!style.!It!challenges! its!readers!to!consider!precisely!how!fiction!and!truth!should!be!read!in!light!of!the! numerous!cultural,!discursive,!and!epistemological!tensions!it!exemplifies.!Authored!by! a!female!writer!and!natural!philosopher!at!a!time!when!women!were!excluded!from!the! field,!its!very!publication!called!the!gender!conventions!of!Early!Modern!England!into! question.!Second,!and!more!salient!however,!are!the!literary!conventions!that!The*Blazing*

World!undermined,!for!in!this!work!Cavendish!deliberately!amalgamated!two!

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2!Cavendish,!Blazing*World,!138.!“The!bird`men!answered,!that!they!observed!wind!to!be!more! dense!than!air,!and!therefore!subject!to!the!sense!of!touch;!but!what!properly!wind!was,!and!the!manner! how!it!was!made,!they!could!not!exactly!tell;!some!said,!it!was!caused!by!the!clouds!falling!on!each!other,! and!others,!that!it!was!produced!of!a!hot!and!dry!exhalation,!which!ascending,!was!driven!down!again!by! the!coldness!of!the!air!that!is!in!the!middle!region,!and!by!reason!of!lightness,!could!not!go!directly!to!the! bottom,!but!was!carried!by!the!air!up!and!down:!some!would!have!it!a!flowing!water!of!the!air;!and!others! again!a!flowing!air!moved!by!the!blaze!of!stars,”!(p.138).!Seeing!that!they!could!not!come!to!agreement!on! the!subject!the!empress!moved!on!to!another,!less!controversial!topic.! 3!Even!within!this!work!of!fancy,!the!nature!of!the!wind!remained!a!topic!of!controversy!and!an! object!of!mystery.! 267! ! hermaphroditic!genres:!fiction!and!natural!philosophy.!She!intended!that!the! unconventional!style!and!form!of!her!text!disrupt!conventional!readings!and! interpretations!of!both!its!genre!and!content.!Wind!knowledge!evokes!comparable! challenges!as!evidenced!by,!and!by!virtue!of!the!competing!genres!of!discourse!that! constitute!it,!challenges!that!The*Blazing*World,!by!virtue!of!its!hermaphroditic!nature,! combining!fiction!and!fact,!science!and!fantasy,!so!poignantly!exemplifies.!Therein!lie! the!methodological!and!interpretive!problems!posed!by!Cavendish,!problems!that!apply! to!virtually!all!wind!narratives!from!the!seventeenth!century:!how!should!we!read!and! interpret!this!particular!text?!More!pointedly,!having!demonstrated!the!centrality!of! history!to!the!creation!of!a!commons!of!wind!knowledge!in!seventeenth`century!

England,!how!should!we!interpret!the!truth!claims!of!fictions!about!the!wind?!Lastly,!if! fiction!can!reveal!truths!about!the!wind,!how!does!this!transform!our!understanding!of! the!emerging!epistemological!authority!of!maker’s!knowledge!as!well!as!the!place!of! science!within!wind!knowledge?!!

In!his!seminal!essay,!A*Place*for*Stories,!environmental!historian!William!Cronon! addresses!both!the!challenges!and!the!stakes!of!historical!narrative.4!He!asks,!how!is!it! possible!for!such!different!stories,!such!different!histories,!to!emerge!from!the!same!set!

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4!William!Cronon,!“A!Place!for!Stories:!Nature,!History,!and!Narrative,”!The*Journal*of*American* History!78,!no.!4!(1992):!1347`1376! 268! ! of!historical!facts?!And!he!challenges!scholars!to!consider!the!moral!implications!of! narrative!trajectory.!Cronon’s!intention!is!not!to!suggest!that!nature!and!reality!in!an! objective!sense!do!not!exist!or!are!merely!“an!invention!of!human!culture.”5!Rather!he! asks!his!readers!to!contemplate!how!narrative!assigns!meaning!to!events,!how!it!

“reconstructs!common!sense!to!make!the!contingent!seem!determined!and!the!artificial! seem!natural,”!by!privileging!particular!moments,!events,!or!historical!actors!at!the! expense!of!others,!and!in!doing!so!succeeds!simultaneously!at!masking!and!thereby! naturalizing!what!is!in!fact!“a!covert!exercise!of!power.”!!His!writing!thus!calls!attention! to!the!political!and!cultural!work!performed!by!texts.!Therefore,!rather!than!reading! wind!narratives!for!their!potential!value!in!shedding!light!on!some!objective!scientific! truth,!for!example,!following!Cronon’s!lead!we!instead!consider!how!these!narratives! labored!to!perform!political!and!cultural!duties.!What!work!did!wind!narratives!perform! in!the!context!of!Early!Modern!England?!!

Placing!side!by!side!the!wind!knowledge!evident!in!English!narratives!of! folklore,!travel!and!exploration,!fiction,!and!religious!discourse,!this!final!chapter! magnifies!the!ongoing!crisis!taking!place!from!the!17th!through!the!mid`18th!century!over! how!to!read,!understand,!and!narrate!the!wind,!a!dilemma!that!continues!into!the! present!and!with!which!this!very!study!is!forced!to!contend.!These!varied!sources!offer! insight!into!the!field!of!wind`knowledge!and!into!popular!historic!conceptions!of!nature,!

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5!Cronon,!“A!Place!for!Stories,”!1367! 269! ! deepening!our!intellectual!engagement!with!the!epistemological!dilemma!that!narrative! itself!at!once!seeks!to!resolve!and!simultaneously!exemplifies.!Instead!of!mining!these! texts!for!truth,!we!read!them!and!analyze!them!to!more!fully!understand!the!world!that! gave!rise!to!the!various!forms!of!wind!knowledge!present!at!a!particular!moment,!the! operations!to!which!wind!knowledge!was!being!put!to!use.!And!in!this!process!we! reflexively!consider!not!only!how!to!write!a!history!of!wind!knowledge!in!the!present,! based!on!our!reading!of!these!historic!texts,!but!how!people!in!the!past!read!them!as! well.!!

Readers!were!engaged!in!an!intellectual!and!educational!process!similar!to!our! own:!searching!for!useful!wind!knowledge,!listening!to!one!another,!and!putting!to! work!what!bits!of!information!they!could.!While!the!Scientific!Revolution!expanded!the! boundaries!of!wind!knowledge!in!certain!directions,!the!range!and!volume!of!wind! knowledge!in!other!genres!of!discourse!illustrates!that!there!was!ultimately!no!definitive! or!authoritative!wind!narrative!that!emerged!by!the!close!of!the!17th!century.!A!history! of!wind!knowledge!approached!from!this!angle!is!thus!necessarily!and!overtly!reflexive! and!non`declensionist,!and!as!such!offers!a!welcome!counterpoint!to!the!vast!majority!of! scholarship!present!in!the!field!of!environmental!history,!which,!for!valid!reasons,!trend! toward!tragedy.!What!emerges!instead!is!a!narrative!that!focuses!on!human! relationships!with!nature!without!characterizations!of!nature!as!victim.!In!fact,!more!

270! ! often!than!not,!it!is!mankind!who!is!characterized!as!overwhelmingly!subject!to!this! powerful!natural!force,!obliged!to!submit!to!the!will!of!the!wind.!

The!chapter!opens!with!a!discussion!of!sailor!lore,!witchcraft,!and!wind`raising! in!relation!to!the!scientific`based!wind!knowledge!of!natural!philosophers!such!as!

William!Dampier,!who!had!his!feet!in!both!worlds—the!world!of!the!buccaneers!and!the! world!of!the!elite!scientific!community.!Wind!lore!circulated!principally!among!the! lower!class!populations!and!was!transmitted!orally!for!generations!before!being!set!in! print.!It!served!a!set!of!practical!purposes!at!sea!that!helped!sailors!navigate!the!physical! and!cultural!landscapes!they!inhabited!on!board!a!ship,!while!implicitly!calling!into! question!the!notion!of!scientific!based!wind!knowledge!as!the!only!rational!form!of!wind! knowledge.!The!overwhelming!presence!of!sailor!wind`lore!challenged!the!notion!that! wind`knowledge!was!a!field!claimed!exclusively!by!elite!specialists.!Sailors!represented! a!different!type!of!specialist!with!unique!training!that!emphasized!first`hand!experience! and!observation—maker’s!knowledge.!!

After!examining!the!ways!in!which!sailor!lore!was!put!to!use,!and!considering! instances!of!tension!between!this!particular!way!of!knowing!versus!that!of!elite! scientists,!we!turn!our!attention!to!role!that!wind`knowledge!played!in!the!field!of!travel! narratives!and!in!the!excerpts!of!their!more!heightened!extremes—hurricane!narratives,! which!stood!in!opposition!to!narratives!of!order,!imperial!authority,!and!the!wind’s! myriad!benefits!to!mankind.!Indeed,!if!science!gestured!toward!order,!accounts!of!

271! ! hurricanes!illustrate!precisely!the!opposite!and!highlight!the!delicacy!and!contingency!of! imperial!endeavor!and!the!ways!in!which!the!wind!functioned!diametrically!as!both! colonial!agent!and!subject,!alternately!facilitating!and!impeding!the!ambitions!of!empire,! and!implicitly!functioning!as!a!metaphor!for!imperial!success!and!failure.!!!

Lastly,!we!consider!the!wind!as!a!metaphor!by!examining!the!ways!in!which! wind`knowledge!operated!in!fictional!novels,!and!in!John!Flavel’s!religious!work! published!at!the!turn!of!the!17th!century.!In!doing!so!we!connect!these!two!distinct! modes!of!representation!to!scientific!representations!of!the!natural!world!via!metaphor.!

Thus!the!first!half!of!the!chapter!focuses!on!how!wind!knowledge!was!put!to!work,!so!to! speak—applications!of!wind!knowledge.!While!the!second!half!of!the!chapter!centers!on! the!utility!of!the!wind!as!a!metaphor.!Yet!even!as!a!metaphor!the!wind!was!still!being! put!to!work.!The!question!is!how?!What!work!did!wind`knowledge!accomplish!in! fictitious!and!religious!narrative!contexts?!

With!the!rise!of!modern!scientific!methods,!schisms!and!instability!within!the! church,!political!tensions!among!European!nations,!and!the!simultaneous!expansion!of! overseas!markets,!a!contest!was!at!play!in!the!late!seventeenth!century!over!what!kind!of! wind!narrative!would!emerge!as!hegemonic.!What!single!narrative!was!at!once!nimble! and!powerful!enough!to!most!effectively!speak!the!language!and!to!capture!the!social! demands!of!a!cultural!climate!undergoing!such!dramatic!change?!What!single!narrative! was!capable!of!narrating!the!wind?!Apparently!none.!The!wind!could!not!be!confined!to!

272! ! any!single!narrative.!In!the!century!following!the!publication!of!Francis!Bacon’s!History* of*Winds!(1620),!the!dramatic!changes!taking!place!in!England!and!the!incredibly! unstable,!enigmatic,!and!mutable!quality!of!the!wind!itself,!collectively!thwarted!efforts! in!this!direction.!And!the!wind’s!invisibility,!malleability,!unpredictability,!and!success! at!undermining!all!attempts!to!entirely!capture,!contain,!and!stabilize!it!is!a!testament!to! its!power!both!as!a!natural!force!and!as!a!metaphoric!and!discursive!trope.!Sailors!and! explorers,!preachers!and!natural!philosophers,!travel!authors!and!members!of! government!all!vied!for!discursive,!ideological,!and!interpretive!control!over!the!wind! during!the!late!17th!century!but!none!succeeded!entirely.!This!chapter!considers,! therefore,!this!range!of!incomplete!attempts,!visible!in!the!vast!array!of!wind!narratives! in!circulation!at!this!time.!!

Sailor Lore

The!unpredictable!quality!of!the!wind!provoked!attempts!by!people!of!all!classes! to!control!and!manage!this!natural!force,!be!it!discursively,!magically,!technologically!or! otherwise.!Folk!beliefs!about!the!wind!circulated!widely,!particularly!among!sailors,! whose!lives!and!livelihoods!were!both!intimately!tied!to!this!natural!phenomena!and! who!were!subject!to!its!whim!and!unpredictability!more!readily!than!most.!!Sailors!thus! created!a!compendium!of!knowledge!about!that!wind!that!granted!them! epistemological/interpretive!control!and!authority!over!an!otherwise!unwieldy!force!to! which!they!were!overwhelmingly!subject.!These!folk!beliefs!served!multiple!purposes,!

273! ! simultaneously!comforting!and!empowering!people!otherwise!functioning!in!an! unpredictable!environment,!and!locating!them!within!a!social!and!cultural!arena!where! such!knowledge!was!considered!valuable!and!essential.!!

That!said,!the!folkloric,!magical,!and!superstitious!knowledge!of!the!wind!that! circulated!among!the!sailors!and!the!lower!classes!did!not!always!line!up!with!the! knowledge!and!ideas!of!scientists!and!other!individuals!in!relative!positions!of! authority.!The!tension!created!by!these!competing!epistemologies!manifested!most! readily!on!board!ships!themselves,!where!the!applied!science!of!navigation!and!wind! mapping!came!into!direct!contact!with!the!folklore,!superstition,!and!first`hand! experiences!of!the!common!sailor.!Examining!the!travel!narratives!of!William!Dampier!

(as!opposed!to!his!scientific!work!represented!in!his!wind!treatise)!reveals!moments! exemplifying!such!tension.!Further!examination!of!the!narrative!techniques!deployed! when!other!authors!referenced!the!wind!in!their!travel!narratives!suggest!that!not!only! were!17th`century!English!explorers!intent!on!explicating!the!truth!about!the!wind,!so!to! speak,!but!they!were!equally!eager!to!discursively!assert!their!perceptions!of!the!wind’s! empirical!qualities!(ostensibly!derived!via!experience!and!observation),!in!order!to! validate!their!broader!narrative!claims,!and!in!doing!so!to!effectively!map!a!geography! of!empire!popularly!consumed!by!the!citizens!of!empire.!!!

Natural!philosophers!may!have!produced!competing!narratives!about!the!wind,! but!in!spite!of!these!differences!and!as!an!emergent!genre!of!interrogation!and!discourse,!

274! ! the!scientific!method!was!predicated!on!the!presumption!of!there!being!a!single!correct! way!of!accounting!for!the!wind’s!motion!and!of!interpreting!its!cause!and!behavior.!Yet! in!the!broader!context!of!wind!narratives!produced!at!this!same!moment!in!history,! scientific!discourse!about!the!wind!emerges!as!merely!one!among!a!range!of!narrative! options!used!to!characterize!and!interpret!the!cause!and!meaning!of!the!wind.!!Sailors,! scientists,!preachers,!and!the!everyday!worker,!each!in!their!own!way,!endeavored!to! make!the!unseen!seen,!to!render!invisible!forces!visible,!and!to!represent!themselves!as! qualified!representers!of!nature,!using!language!as!their!primary!tool.!!In!doing!so!they! asserted!personal!authority!as!well!as!discursive!control!over!a!physically!uncontrollable! natural!force.!!

Sailors!who!spent!the!majority!of!their!lives!at!sea!became!intimately!acquainted! with!the!wind!through!first`hand!experience!and!created!stories!that!gave!meaning!to! this!otherwise!mysterious!natural!phenomenon.!As!they!traveled!to!distant!places!and! came!into!contact!with!people!and!cultures!from!all!parts!of!the!globe!sailors!gained! exposure!to!a!wide!range!of!stories!and!legends!about!the!wind,!many!of!which! originated!in!foreign!cultures.6!These!stories,!legends,!and!superstitions!functioned!in!

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6!Brian!J.!Rouleau,!“Dead!Men!Do!Tell!Tales:!Folklore,!Fraternity,!and!the!Forecastle,”!Early* American*Studies!5,!no.1,!(2007):!30–62!“Exposed!to!many!different!opinions!and!worldviews,!a!sailor!needed! a!pliable!set!of!beliefs!capable!of!explicating!a!wide!variety!of!natural!phenomena!and! occurrences…Eventually!extreme!variations!in!folk!belief!became!rarer!and!rarer!as!dominant!trends!took! shape!in!parallel!forms!across!geographic!and!cultural!boundaries.!Thus,!sailors!of!vastly!different! backgrounds!might!be!in!possession!of!a!somewhat!common!knowledge!with!which!to!forge!the!bonds!of! fraternity.!A!forecastle!comprising!English,!French,!Italian,!and!Swedish!seamen!might! 275! ! multiple!ways!within!the!maritime!community:!they!bonded!seamen!from!diverse! backgrounds!through!familiarity!with!a!shared!repertoire!of!knowledge,!customs,!and! values!perceived!as!necessary!to!the!communal!well`being!of!the!crew;!they!functioned! as!explanatory!mechanisms!that!helped!people!make!sense!of!otherwise!inexplicable! workings!of!nature;!and!their!telling!functioned!as!an!intrinsic!part!of!the!recreational! culture!that!took!place!on!board!a!ship.7!Brian!Rouleau!describes!the!process!as! narrativized!socialization:!“representing!generations!of!acquired!knowledge!and! appreciated!skill,!this!body!of!beliefs!attempted!to!break!down!the!larger!marine! landscape!into!a!series!of!manageable!omens!and!symbols!that!required!vigilance!but! promised!survival!in!exchange.”!8!!!

The!process!was!similar!in!some!respects!to!what!took!place!within!the!scientific! community.!Sailors!relayed!their!observations!of!the!natural!world!to!one!another!and! formulated!interpretations!of!the!cause!and!meaning!of!the!events!they!witnessed!in! order!to!arrive!at!a!consensual!understanding!of!the!order!of!the!physical!world!and! their!place!in!relation!to!it.!In!the!most!general!sense,!natural!philosophers!did!the!same! thing,!for!the!facts!that!emerged!were!contingent!on!social!consensus:!on!the!reputation!

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! share…understandings!related!to!their!mutual!profession…The!mobile!nature!of!this!folklore!allowed!for! rough!equality!of!communication!necessary!within!the!heterogeneous!environment!before!the!mast”! Rouleau,!“Dead!Men!Do!Tell!Tales,”!4!! 7!“Spinning!yarns”!was!a!favored!pastime!among!European!mariner!communities.! 8!“Dead!Men!Do!Tell!Tales”!Rouleau,!41! 276! ! of!the!observer,!on!their!ability!to!accurately!convey!the!events!they!witnessed,!and!on! the!willingness!of!their!peers!to!accept!their!views!as!valid!based!on!their!own! experience!and!understanding!of!the!phenomenon!in!question.!In!both!instances,!reality! in!a!subjective!sense!and!social!order!in!an!objective!sense!was!a!joint!product!of!these! rituals!of!truth!assessment.!!

Among!the!legends!that!circulated!at!sea,!many!of!the!most!popular!were! understandably!related!to!predicting!the!behavior!of!the!wind!and!weather,!for!not!only! did!the!success!of!a!voyage!depend!upon!favorable!wind!and!seas,!but!so!too!did!the! sailors’!very!lives.!Understandably,!lore!that!related!animal!behavior!to!wind!and! weather!prognostics!abounded.!Within!the!British!Isles,!for!example,!many!people! considered!the!hare!unlucky!and!associated!the!animal!with!bad!luck!and!stormy! weather.!According!to!Cornish!folklore,!a!white!hare!was!said!to!appear!on!the!docks! and!wharves!before!a!storm,!while!in!Berkshire!hares!were!popularly!regarded!as!devils! and!witches!and!the!sight!of!a!dead!hare—particularly!on!board!a!ship—was!considered! an!especially!unlucky!omen!that!forecast!a!tempest.9!In!Scotland,!fisherman!discouraged! even!the!very!utterance!of!the!hare’s!name!while!on!board!a!boat!for!fear!of!provoking!a! storm.!Cats!were!likewise!involved!in!many!superstitions!involving!the!wind,!the!most! common!being!that!“the!drowning!of!a!cat!was!the!very!surest!way!of!raising!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

9!Fletcher!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms*or,*Legends*and*Superstitions*of*the*Sea*and*of*Sailors*in*all*Lands*and*at* all*Times*(Chicago,!Morrill,!Higgins!&!co.!1892),!122.!Basset’s!19th`century!publication!is!a!vast!anthology!of! quotes!and!excerpts!from!primary!sources!on!the!subject!of!sailor!lore!from!the!19th!century!and!prior.!Most! sources!quoted!Bassett!quotes!and!cites!date!from!the!17th!century!or!earlier.!! 277! ! favorable!wind.!Dogs!figured!less!prominently!in!wind`lore,!though!according!to!

Scottish!legend!“the!wind!will!come!from!the!direction!in!which!a!dog!point!his!nose! when!he!howls.”10!

Land!animals!were!not!the!only!creatures!commonly!associated!with!wind` raising.!Sailors,!like!the!farmers!and!herdsmen!considered!in!the!first!chapter,!often! made!connections!between!the!behavior!of!sea!birds!and!the!workings!of!the!wind.!A! popular!Scottish!rhyme!states,!“Sea`gull,!sea`gull,!sit!on!the!sand/!It’s!never!good! weather!when!you’re!on!the!land.”11!Other!Scottish!writers!attest!to!the!same,!suggesting! that!sea!birds!moved!further!inland!when!storms!approached!and!that!such!behavior! served!as!a!reasonably!reliable,!though!ominous,!weather!portent.!More!superstitiously,! perhaps,!many!sailors!considered!it!unlucky!to!kill!a!gull,!for!doing!so!was!thought!to! bring!about!a!storm!as!well.!The!curlew,!or!herring`spear,!was!also!associated!with! tempestuous!winds!and!weather:!In!the!words!of!an!old!fisherman:!!

I!think!no!good!of!them.!There’s!always!an!accident!when!they!come!over!our! heads!all!of!a!sudden,!singing!‘Ewe,!We’!and!the!men!in!the!boat!wished!to!go! back.!It!came!on!to!rain!and!blow,!and!was!an!awful!night,!and!sure!enough,! before!morning,!a!boat!was!upset,!and!seven!poor!fellows!drowned.!I!know!what! makes!the!noise,!sir.!It’s!them!long`billed!curlew,!but!I!never!likes!to!hear!them.’12!! !

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10!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!125`126.!Indeed,!cats!were!one!of!the!instruments!used!by!many!witches!to! raise!a!storm!and!many!people!believed!cats!were!actually!capable!of!smelling!an!approaching!wind,! whereas!pigs!were!thought!capable!of!actually!seeing!the!wind!(p.122`125).! 11!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!127! 12!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!126! 278! !

For!a!sailor!whose!life!greatly!depended!upon!the!temperament!of!the!wind!and! weather,!correctly!noting!the!relationship!between!animal!behavior!and!the!likelihood!of! a!storm!was!more!than!a!matter!of!practical!importance.!!It!could!be!a!matter!of!life!or! death.!The!very!presence!of!such!beliefs!stands!as!a!testament!to!the!perceived!utility,! necessity,!and!value!of!these!observations.!Sailors!did!not!explicitly!claim!animal!lore! was!true.!What!they!claimed!was!that!these!prognostics!worked.!And!accurate!or!not,! such!prognostics!succeeded!in!providing!sailors!with!a!sense!of!control!over!an! otherwise!dangerous,!unpredictable,!and!indifferent!world,!through!an!exercise!of! drawing!apparent!connections!and!causal`effect!relationships!among!the!creatures,! landscapes,!and!ecosystems!they!collectively!inhabited.13!!

Perhaps!no!bird!enjoyed!greater!association!with!calm!winds!than!the!halcyon!or! kingfisher,!as!it!is!commonly!known.!These!long`beaked!sea!birds!appeared!frequently! in!ancient!Greek!and!Roman!literature,!which!established!their!legacy!within!sailor!lore! for!centuries!to!follow.!In!the!Greek!tradition,!Alcyone!was!the!daughter!of!Aeolus,! keeper!of!the!winds,!and!her!husband’s!name!was!Ceyx.!When!the!couple!angered!Zeus,! the!powerful!sun`god!sent!a!thunderbolt!to!sink!the!ship!that!Ceyx!sailed!upon!and! drowned!him.!When!Alcyone!discovered!the!tragic!fate!of!her!husband!she!threw!

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13!Their!sheer!existence!implies!the!value!that!the!maritime!community!placed!on!observations!of! the!natural!world!as!weather!indices.! 279! ! herself!into!the!sea!and!drowned!herself!as!well.!!The!couple!was!said!to!have!been! reincarnated!as!birds—kingfisher’s.!!

The!breeding!season!of!this!species,!which!takes!place!approximately!fourteen! days!prior!to!the!winter!solstice,!is!known!for!its!calm!winds!and!tranquil!weather— known!as!the!Halcyon!Days.!For!according!to!the!Greeks,!Aeolus!was!said!to!restrain!the! winds!during!this!time!so!that!his!daughter—reincarnated!as!a!halcyon—might!make! her!nest!and!lay!her!eggs!in!safety.!!To!quote!Ovid:!“Alcyone!comprest/Seven!days!sits! brooding!on!her!floating!nest/A!wintery!queen.!Her!sire!at!length!is!kind/Calms!every! storm!and!hushes!every!wind/!Prepares!his!surface!for!his!daughter’s!ease/And!for!his! hatching!nephews!smoothes!the!seas.”14!Subsequent!writers!such!as!Milton,!

Shakespeare,!and!Shenstone!all!referred!to!Halcyon!Days!in!describing!peaceful!winds! and!weather,!and!the!phrase!became!associated!with!a!stroke!of!luck!or!what!is! commonly!referred!to!as!a!windfall.15!!

These!stories!and!observations!could!easily!be!dismissed!as!mere!superstition.!

The!notion!that!a!sailor!could!predict!the!wind!based!on!the!behavior!of!birds,!the! spotting!of!a!hare,!or!the!direction!of!a!dog’s!nose,!or!the!death!of!a!sea!gull!might!seem! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

14!Ovid!as!quoted!in!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!130! 15!Milton!as!quoted!in!Bassett:!“The!winds!with!wonder!whist,!Smoothly!the!waters!kissed,! Whispering!new!joys!to!the!mild!ocean,!who!now!hath!quite!forgot!to!rave,!While!birds!of!calm!sit!brooding! on!the!charmed!wave,”!(Basset,!Sea*Phantoms,!131).!!Shenstone!as!quoted!in!Bassett:!“Why!o’er!the!verdant! banks!of!Ooze,!Does!yonder!halcyon!speed!so!fast?!‘Tis!all!because!she!would!not!loose,!Her!favorite!calm! that!will!not!last,”!(p.130).!!Southey!as!quoted!in!Bassett:!“The!halcyon’s!brook!around!the!foamless!isles,! The!treacherous!ocean!has!foresworn!its!wiles”!(p.130),!Wild!as!quoted!in!Bassett:!“The!peaceful!kingfishers! are!met!together/!About!the!decks,!and!prophesy!calm!weather,”!(p.130).!For!further!references!to!Halcyon! days!see!Bassett!Sea*Phantoms,!130`131.!! 280! ! irrational.!Yet,!like!every!system!of!knowledge!it!contained!its!own!multifaceted!logic.!It! follows!that!the!more!highly!developed!sensory!abilities!of!particular!animals!would! provide!them!with!a!heightened!awareness!of!the!atmosphere,!superior!to!that!of! mankind.!It!stands!to!reason!that!creatures!of!the!air,!for!example,!would!be!greatly! attuned!to!changes!in!the!motion!of!the!atmosphere,!and!that!as!a!matter!of!survival!they! would!remove!themselves!from!the!open!sea!if!their!senses!gave!them!any!suggestion!of! rough!weather.!!Watching!the!birds!for!clues!about!the!wind!and!weather!was!a!way!of! tuning!into!the!specialized!knowledge!of!species!whose!survival!depended!upon! properly!interpreting!this!natural!force!to!the!best!of!their!ability.!!

On!the!other!hand,!true!or!not,!there!was!an!emotional!and!sociological!utility!to! drawing!correlations!among!physical!phenomena.!Stories!and!folklore!worked!to! explain!the!cause!and/or!meaning!of!otherwise!inexplicable!natural!events,!to!transform! the!irrational!and!chaotic!into!the!rational!and!linear!by!imposing!narrative!order!upon!a! disorderly!natural!world,!a!disorderly!wind.!The!mystery!and!invisibility!of!the!wind! drew!people’s!eyes!to!the!visible!aspects!of!nature!they!hoped!might!offer!clues!about! this!invisible!source:!to!the!behavior!of!animals;!to!the!color!of!the!sky;!or!to!the!look!of! the!sea.!The!invisible!cast!the!visible!in!shaper!relief,!and!what!came!into!focus!and! remained!most!present!when!all!was!said!and!done!were!stories!linking!the!seen!to!the! unseen,!tethering!the!mystery!to!the!explicable,!rendering!the!enigmatic!discursively!

281! ! and!imaginatively!comprehensible,!and!offering!a!degree!of!reassurance!to!those!whose! day!to!day!survival!lay!largely!at!the!mercy!of!nature.!

At!sea,!the!sailing!ship!largely!mediated!mankind’s!relationship!to!nature,!and!to! the!wind!and!weather,!but!that!mediation!provided!only!minimal!security.!It!was!an! exceedingly!small!step!from!the!bow!of!a!ship!into!the!heart!of!the!sea,!between!the! safety!of!the!deck!and!the!dangers!of!the!deep!dark!ocean,!between!the!protection! provided!by!the!technologies!of!civilization!versus!utter!subjection!to!nature’s!force!and! will.!In!a!context!where!death!was!a!constant!threat,!sailors’!overwhelming!sense!of!their! own!mortality!could!easily!be!extended!to!a!shared!sense!of!kinship!with!the!other! mortal!creatures!surrounding!them:!the!dolphins,!the!birds,!the!canines.!And!as!a!great! leveler,!a!force!to!which!all!living!creatures!and!landscapes!were!and!are!still!subject,!the! weather!rendered!mankind!just!another!animal!among!the!rest.!They!were!all!in!the! same!boat!together!so!to!speak,!mirroring!one!another’s!mortal!predicament—survival.!

From!this!perspective!the!animals!were!like!fellow!shipmates,!and!faith!in!their! knowledge!of!the!wind,!if!nothing!else,!conferred!upon!the!sailor!some!sense!of! understanding!and!control!over!an!intensely!uncertain!set!of!circumstances.16!

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16!Such!stories!carry!on!even!in!present,!where!one!hears!reports,!for!example,!of!all!the!animals! that!fled!the!coast!prior!to!the!tsunami!that!devastated!the!Sri!Lankan!and!Indian!coastlines!in!2005,!for! example.!While!the!human!death!toll!for!this!particular!disaster!numbered!more!than!150,000,!for!example,! few!animals!were!reported!dead.!The!Patanangala!beach!inside!Yala!National!Park,!for!example,!home!to!an! enormous!variety!of!animals,!was!hit!extremely!hard!by!the!tsunami,!yet!no!animal!carcasses!were!spotted! by!the!park’s!rangers!other!than!two!water!buffalo.!Likewise,!whereas!thousands!of!people!died!along! India’s!Cuddalore!coast,!the!animals!that!dwell!emerged!unscathed,!leading!many!people!to!consider!the! 282! !

Observing!the!natural!world!and!reading!its!signs!and!signals!in!order!to!predict! the!wind’s!behavior!may!have!been!an!option!and!an!opportunity!available!to!all— democratic!in!a!sense—but!the!ability!to!do!it!well!was!a!more!specialized!skill!set.!Such! specialization!took!on!new!significance!when!predicting!the!wind!gave!way!to!actually! controlling!the!wind,!through!magic,!for!example.!Some!individuals!were!reputed!to! exhibit!such!capabilities,!“generally!through!invocation!or!conjuration!of!these!superior! spirits,”!writes!Fletcher!Bassett.17!And!stories!about!them!were!not!confined!to!England! alone.!He!writes,!for!example,!“there!was!a!tradition!among!French!sailors!that!certain! shipmates!had!the!power!to!control!the!winds!through!the!possession!of!a!ring,!worn!on! the!little!finger!of!the!right!hand.18!The!possessor!must,!however,!be!careful!to!spend!no! more!than!three!months!on!a!single!voyage,!nor!must!he!remain!on!shore!more!than! three!days,!or!his!life!would!be!forfeited.”19!Another!popular!tale!described!how!Eric!VI!

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! possibility!of!animals!possessing!a!sense!of!the!disaster!to!come!based!on!a!heightened!attunement!to!their! environment.!!Reporter!Maryann!Mott!writes,!“Alan!Rabinowitz,!director!for!science!and!exploration!at!the! Bronx!Zoo`based!Wildlife!Conservation!Society!in!New!York,!says!animals!can!sense!impending!danger!by! detecting!subtle!or!abrupt!shifts!in!the!environment.!‘Earthquakes!bring!vibrational!changes!on!land!and!in! water!while!storms!cause!electromagnetic!changes!in!the!atmosphere,m!he!said.!mSome!animals!have!acute! sense!of!hearing!and!smell!that!allow!them!to!determine!something!coming!towards!them!long!before! humans!might!know!that!something!is!there.’”!Maryann!Mott,!“Did!Animals!Sense!Tsunami!Was!Coming?”! National*Geographic*News,!January!4,!2005,!accessed!Sept!20,!2014,! http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/01/0104_050104_tsunami_animals_2.html!! 17!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!101! 18!Animals!were!not!the!only!creatures!considered!capable!of!exercising!power!over!the!wind!and! other!elements;!some!individuals!were!reputed!to!exhibit!such!capabilities!as!well,!“generally!through! invocation!or!conjuration!of!these!superior!spirits.”!Fletcher!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!101! 19!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!105! 283! ! of!Norway!controlled!the!wind!with!his!cap.!The!course!of!the!wind!was!said!to!follow! the!direction!of!his!cap,!and!for!this!reason!he!became!known!as!“windy`cap.”20!!

In!the!western!world,!stories!and!legends!long!associated!witches!with!wind` raising!and!storm!conjuring.!As!early!as!45!A.D.!Pomponius!Mela!wrote!of!Druidesses! inhabiting!the!island!of!Senna!(on!the!coast!of!Gaul)!who!raised!the!winds:!“‘They!are! called!gallicenae,!supposed!to!be!of!great!genius!and!rare!endowments,!capable!of! raising!storms!by!their!incantations,!of!transposing!themselves!into!what!animals!they! please,!and!occasionally!able!to!fortell!what!is!to!come.”21!And!although!these!notions! might!appear!dated,!as!late!as!1590,!King!James!VI!accused!a!slew!of!witches!of!raising!a! storm!that!threatened!his!life!while!he!sailed!from!Denmark!to!Scotland!with!his!new! bride.22!!

As!the!story!goes,!the!devil!considered!King!James!one!of!his!greatest! adversaries,!and!as!an!enemy!of!Protestantism!the!devil!sought!to!prevent!the!King!from! taking!a!Protestant!bride!by!raising!a!wind!storm!and!drowning!them!at!sea.23!A! maidservant!named!Gellie!Duncan!was!arrested!under!suspicion!of!having!raised!the! storm!by!the!devil’s!command,!and!after!being!subjected!to!torture!by!the!piliewinkis!

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20!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!102! 21!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!110! 22!In!The*Death*of*Nature,!Carolyn!Merchant!claims!that!witches!functioned!as!symbols!of!nature’s! disorder—one!symbol!among!many.!Carolyn!Merchant.!The*Death*of*Nature:*Women,*Ecology*and*the*Scientific* Revolution!(New!York:!Harper!and!Row,!1989),!172.!See!especially!Chapter!5:!“Nature!as!Disorder:!Women! and!Witches.”! 23!Charles!Mackay,!Memoirs*of*Extraordinary*Popular*Delusions,!vol.!2!(London:!R.!Bentley,!1841),! 221`222! 284! !

(thumbscrews)!she!further!implicated!a!known!witch!by!the!name!of!Agnes!Sampson,!as! well!as!a!schoolmaster!at!Saltpans!named!John!Cunningham!(otherwise!known!as!Dr.!

Fian).!Sampson!and!Dr.!Fian!were!subsequently!identified!as!the!chief!assailants!and! tortured!until!they!made!forced!confessionals.24!!

According!to!Sampson’s!testimony!“two!hundred!witches!and!warlocks!in! number!sailed!in!sieves!on!Hallowsmas`eve,!and!were!met!by!the!devil!(one!said!he! rolled!along!like!a!huge!wave),!and!were!given!by!him!a!black!cat.!This!was!drowned!in! the!sea,!with!cries!of!‘Hola!’!raising!a!great!tempest.”25!By!another!account:!“‘The!devil! promised!John!Fian!to!rais!ane!mist,!and!cast!the!King’s!Majesty!in!England,!and!for! performing!thairof!he!tuik!ane!thing!lyk!to!ane!futt`ball,!qu’!hilk!appaerit!to!the!same! ohnni!(an!eyewitness)!lyk!to!a!wisp,!and!cast!the!same!in!the!see,!qu’!hilk!causit!ane! vapour!and!ane!reik!to!rys.”26!Agnes!Sampson!further!testified!in!her!confession!that!she! had!in!the!past,!“raised!an!awful!tempest!in!the!sea,”!(with!four!other!witches!according! to!some!accounts),!by!“throwing!in!the!sea!a!cat,!with!portions!of!a!dead!man!tied!to!it;!

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24!Mackay,!Memoirs,!219! 25!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!112! 26!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!112.!Dr.!Fian!refused!to!willingly!offer!a!confessional!in!spite!of!being! repeatedly!tortured!and!finally!subjected!to!the!boots,!which!he!suffered!until!his!legs!were!completely! crushed!and!he!was!permanently!crippled.26!The!King!and!his!Council!determined!that!Dr.!Fian!should!die! as!punishment!for!his!sorcery,!and!in!late!January!1591!he!was!accordingly!strangled!and!burned.!“The! Torture!and!Execution!of!the!Doctor!Fian,”!The!Norton!Anthology!of!English!Literature,!accessed,!February! 21,!2015,!http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nael/16century/topic_1/doctfian.htm! 285! ! and!on!another!occasion,!feasted!on!the!wines!of!a!foreign!ship,!and!then!sank!her,!with! the!devil’s!aid.”27!!

Brutal!persecution!for!such!alleged!activities!was!proportional!to!the!fear!incited! by!the!mere!suggestion!of!a!person’s!ability!to!control!the!wind!and!weather!and!points! toward!people’s!recognition!of!the!wind’s!awesome!power,!to!how!utterly!subject! humanity!was!to!its!force,!and!just!as!pointedly,!to!the!threat!such!powerful!capability— be!it!real!or!imagined—posed!to!social!order.!According!to!environmental!historian!

Carolyn!Merchant,!personal!animism!informed!the!witches’!conception!of!nature;!a! belief!system!that!was!anti`hierarchical!in!the!sense!that!“every!natural!object,!every! animal,!every!tree!contained!a!spirit!whom!the!witch!could!summon,!utilize,!or! commune!with!at!will.”28!The!witch!required!no!medium—no!priest,!for!example.!“No! hierarchies!stood!between!the!witch!and!the!object!of!her!will.”29!As!a!result,!witchcraft! was!a!tool!that!could!be!deployed!by!the!poorest,!most!socially!powerless!members!of! society,!which!granted!them!open!access!to!the!power!and!resources!of!the!natural! world.!Witchcraft!thus!became!a!symbol!of!disorder—natural!and!social—and!incited! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

27!Mackay,!Memoirs,!219,!and!Basset,!Sea*Phantoms,!112.!To!quote!Bassett’s!text!directly:! “‘…Thairafter,!at!Bergie!Todis’!house,!they!knit!to!the!foure!feit!of!the!catt!foure!jointis!of!men;!quhilk!being! done,!the!said!Janit!fetched!it!to!Leieth,!and!about!midnight!she!and!twa!Luike!hop!and!twa!wijifis,!callit! Slobeis,!came!to!the!peir`head,!and!saying!their!wordis,!‘See!that!their!be!na!desait!amang!us,’!and!they!cast! the!catt!in!the!see,!sa!far!as!they!mycht,!quhilk!swam!owre!and!cam!again;!and!they!that!war!in!the!pains,! cast!in!ane!aother!catt!in!the!sea!at!XI!houris,!after!quhilk,!be!their!sorcerie!and!inchantments,!the!boit! perished!betwixt!Leith!and!Kinhorne.’”!“The!Dammable!Life!of!Dr.!Fian,”!Gent’s*Magazine!(1779)!as!quoted! in!Bassett!112.!! 28!Carolyn!Merchant,!The*Death*of*Nature:*Women,*Ecology,*and*the*Scientific*Revolution!(San! Francisco:!Harper!and!Row,!1989),!140! 29!Merchant,!The*Death*of*Nature,!140! 286! ! strong!reactions!from!those!who!perceived!it!as!a!threat.30!!If!people!believed!that! witches!and!warlocks!were!capable!of!using!the!weather!to!compromise!the!authority!of! the!crown!for!example,!then!despite!the!truth!of!the!matter,!those!suspected!of!the!crime! had!to!be!punished,!if!for!no!other!reason!than!to!prevent!such!notions!from!gaining! further!power!and!legitimacy.!!

This!was!nothing!new.!During!the!Middle!Ages,!the!belief!that!human’s!were! capable!of!imposing!their!will!upon!the!weather!was!so!ubiquitous!that!Norway,!France,! and!Italy!all!passed!laws!prohibiting!human!interference!with!the!weather!and! criminalizing!such!behavior,!as!did!the!Pope!in!1317!and!again!in!1327.31!Managing!the! winds!of!resistance,!so!to!speak,!stripping!them!of!their!force!and!might!by!creating!real! consequences!for!any!gesture!toward!rival!power!effectively!created!a!counter`narrative,! one!that!reestablished!the!yolk!of!power!firmly!within!the!hands!government!and! religious!leaders,!rather!than!in!the!hands!of!common!people,!witches!or!warlocks,!or! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

30!Women!were!disproportionally!targeted!with!charges!of!witchcraft.!Carolyn!Merchant!writes!for! example,!that!“Combined!modern!statistics!for!several!European!countries!indicated!that!of!the!total!tried! (some!100,000),!women!comprised!approximately!eighty`three!percent,”!and!in!addition,!“of!600!witches! accused!in!England!on!the!Home!Circuit,!596!were!tradespeople,!husbanders,!laborers,!and!their!wives,! Religious,!social!and!sexual!attitudes!toward!women!and!their!role!in!contemporary!society!played!a! significant!part!in!delineating!the!victims.”!Merchant,!Death*of*Nature,!138!! 31!Priests!in!France,!during!the!Middle!Ages,!were!likewise!thought!capable!of!controlling!the! weather!and!like!Lapland!witches,!were!known!to!“[throw]!stones!into!the!air,!to!raise!a!storm,”!(Martin!de! Arles,!quoted!in!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!109).!Indeed,!sailor’s!in!both!England!and!Scotland!considered!it! unlucky!for!a!priest!to!step!on!board!the!ship,!and!maintained!that!the!Devil,!in!his!effort!to!destroy!God’s! servant!would!be!more!apt!to!send!bad!weather!and!endeavor!to!sink!any!ship!with!a!priest!on!board.! Religious!leaders!in!other!cultures!were!recognized!as!exhibiting!the!same!meteorological!powers.!For! example,!Egyptian!priests!were!thought!capable!of!raising!and!abating!the!wind.!Likewise,!while!narrating! the!voyages!of!Teonage!1679,!an!English!navy!Chaplain!asserted!that!the!“very!tempestuous”!weather!they! experienced!all!night!off!the!Barbary!Coast!was!likely!the!work!of!the!Marabouts!(“Arab!religious!men”)! intended!“to!drive!us!from!their!coast,!but!Good!is!above!the!Devill.”!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!103,!109! 287! ! magicians.!In!this!counter!narrative,!government!and!its!leaders!were!not!merely!allied! with!Godly!forces,!but!would!punish!those!who!sought!to!turn!nature’s!will!against! them.!Narratives!such!as!these!thus!functioned!as!technologies!of!social!control.!They! served!as!a!buttress!against!the!perceived!dangers!presented!by!a!lack!of!popular!or! religious!consensus!at!a!time!when!the!social!and!ideological!instability!created!by!the!

Reformation!and!the!Counter!Reformation!was!still!a!potent!event!in!recent!memory.32!

Stories!of!wind`conjuring!conferred!authority!and!control!in!another!way!as!well.!

By!creating!narrative!representations!of!reality!wherein!people!effectively!manipulated! the!wind,!story`tellers!reversed!natural!order.!In!these!tellings!it!was!nature!that!bent!to! human!will,!rather!than!the!other!way!around,!thus!creating!an!illusion!of!human! control.!Such!stories!spoke!to!the!fundamental!anxieties!associated!with!survival!in!the! face!of!nature’s!overwhelming!power!and!indifference!to!the!wants!and!needs!of!

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32!Historical!scholarship!on!witches!and!magic!includes!Tom!Robisheaux,!The*Last*Witch*of* Langenberg:*Murder*in*A*German*Village!(London;!New!York:!W.W.!Norton,!2009);!Robin!Briggs,!Witches*and* Neighbors:*the*Social*and*Cultural*Context*of*European*Witchcraft!(New!York:!Viking,!1996);!Brian!P.!Levack,! The*Witch*Hunt*in*Early*Modern*Europe!(Harlow,!England;!New!York:!Pearson!Longman,!2006);!Diane! Purkiss!The*Witch*in*History:*Early*Modern*and*Twentieth*Century*Representations*(London:!Routledge,!1996);! Lyndal!Roper,!Witch*Craze:*Terror*and*Fantasy*in*Baroque*Germany*(New!Haven,!Conn.;!London:!Yale! University!Press,!2004);!and!Alison!Rowlands,!Witchcraft*Narratives*in*Germany:*Rothenburg*1561@1625! (Manchester:!Manchester!University!Press,!2003);!On!the!relationship!among!science,!magic,!and!the!occult,! see!classic!works!such!as!John!Henry,!“Magic!and!Science!in!the!Sixteenth!and!Seventeenth!Centuries,!in! Companion*to*the*History*of*Modern*Science,!ed.!R.!C.!Olby!et!al.!(London:!Routledge,!1990),!583`96;!Charles! Webster,!From*Paracelsus*to*Newton:*Magic*and*the*Making*of*Modern*Science!(Cambridge:!Cambridge! University!Press,!1982);!Lynn!Thorndike,!A*History*of*Magic*and*Experimental*Science,!8!vols.!(New!York:! Columbia!University!Press,!1923`58);!J.E.!McGuire!and!P.M.!Rattansi,!“Newton!and!the!‘Pipes!of!Pan,’”! Notes*and*Records*of*the*Royal*Society*of*London!21!(1966):!108`43;!Frances!A.!Yates,!Giordano*Bruno*and*the* Hermetic*Tradition!(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1964);!Brian!Vickers!ed.,!Occult*and*Scientific* Mentalities*in*the*Renaissance!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!1984);!as!well!as!the!more!recent! article!by!Brian!Copenhaver!“A!Tale!of!Two!Fishes:!Magical!Objects!from!Antiquity!through!the!Scientific! Revolution,”!Journal*of*the*History*of*Ideas!52!(1991):!373`98.!!! 288! ! mankind.!At!the!same!time!they!redirected!such!energies!into!a!comparatively!more! manageable!social!problem!complete!with!human!antagonists!who!could!be!blamed!and! held!responsible!for!otherwise!inexplicable!natural!events—such!as!the!storm!that! threatened!to!sink!King!James’!ship.!!

In!1584,!within!the!context!of!heightened!social!and!political!anxiety!around! practices!of!witchcraft,!gentlemen!and!parliament!member!Reginald!Scot!compiled!and! published!an!exhaustive!sixteen!volume!set!devoted!to!contemporary!beliefs!around! witchcraft,!alchemy!and!the!dark!arts.!Included!in!this!work!were!considerable! references!to!various!rituals!associated!with!wind!raising:!

[She]!casteth!a!flint`stone!over!her!left!shoulder!toward!the!west,!or!hurleth!a! little!sea!sand!up!into!the!element,!or!wetteth!a!broom!sprig!in!water!and! sprinkleth!the!same!in!the!air;!or!diggeth!a!pit!in!the!earth,!and!putting!water! therein,!stirreth!it!about!with!her!finger,!or!boileth!hog’s!gristles;!or!layeth!sticks! across!a!bank!where!never!was!a!drop!of!water,!or!burieth!sage!until!it!shall!be! rotten.33!! ! Charms,!incantations,!and!amulets!(sometimes!made!of!fish!jaws,!for!example)!were!all! thought!to!facilitate!human!efforts!at!raising!the!wind,!and!witches!were!recorded!as! exhibiting!a!wide!range!of!behaviors!and!ritualistic!activities!thought!to!provoke! meteorological!effects.!

Scot’s!work!challenged!the!beliefs!of!many!Englishmen,!for!he!dismissed! witchcraft!entirely,!arguing!that!such!superstition!was!fostered!and!sustained!primarily!

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33!Reginald!Scot,!Discovery*of*Witchcraft!(1584)!as!quoted!in!Bassett,!Sea*Phantoms,!103! 289! ! by!the!Roman!Catholic!Church,!and!fundamentally!incompatible!with!both!rationality! and!religion.34!More!pointedly!he!took!issue!with!continental!writers!such!as!Jean!Bodin,! author!of!Demonomie*des*Sorciers!(Paris!1580),!and!German!Catholic!clergyman!Jacobus!

Sprenger,!associated!with!the!Malleus*Maleficarum!(Nuremberg,!1494)!whose! publications!not!only!supported!belief!in!witchcraft,!but!which!jointly!advocated!for!and! resulted!in!the!increasingly!brutal!prosecution!of!alleged!witches!across!Europe.35!Scot! hoped!that!by!successfully!undermining!collective!belief!in!witchcraft!he!might!protect! the!elderly,!the!poor,!and!the!mentally!ill!who!were!disproportionally!victims!of! wrongful!accusations!and!persecution.36!His!argumentative!stance,!however,!at!once!

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34!Scot’s!book!was!the!first!publication!of!its!kind,!and!in!compiling!his!sixteen`volume!set,!Scot! consulted!material!written!by!hundreds!of!authors,!supplementing!this!information!with!his!own!research! into!the!persecution!of!witches!in!courts!of!law!and!in!towns!and!villages!across!England.! 35!Sprenger’s!Maleficarum,!an!enormously!popular!and!influential!text,!boasted!13!editions!between! 1487!and!1520,!and!was!published!sixteen!more!times!between!1674!and!1669.!It!became!widely!utilized!as!a! reference!book!in!secular!courts!throughout!Renaissance!Europe,!and!spread!throughout!the!continent! owing!to!the!technological!development!of!the!printing!press!and!spurred!by!the!religious!turmoil!caused! by!the!Reformation!and!the!Counter`Reformation;!a!dispute!which!pitted!Protestant!and!Catholics!against! one!another!in!an!increasingly!brutal!competition!for!ideological!supremacy.!The!Maleficarum!argues!that! evil!intent,!the!participation!of!the!Devil,!and!the!Permission!of!God!were!the!requisites!necessary!for! witchcraft.!The!text!takes!a!particularly!biased!and!unfriendly!attitude!toward!women,!arguing!that! women’s!weaknesses—their!strong!carnality!and!their!delicate!faith—made!them!exceptionally!prone!to! demonic!temptation!and!corruption.!For!more!information!on!the!Malleus*Maleficarum!and!witchcraft!in!the! western!world,!please!see!Hans!Peter!Broedel,!The*“Malleus*Maleficarum”*and*the*Construction*of*Witchcraft:* Theology*and*Popular*Belief*(Manchester,!England:!Manchester!University!Press,!2003);!Michael!Bailey,! Battling*Demons:*Witchcraft,*Heresy,*and*Reform*in*the*Late*Middle*Ages!(Philadelphia:!Pennsylvania!State! University!Press,!2003);!Ankarloo,!Bengt,!Clark,!Stuart,!eds.,!Witchcraft*and*Magic*in*Europe,*vol.3,!The*Middle* Ages.!(Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2003);!Valerie!Flint,!The*Rise*of*Magic*in*Early*Medieval* Europe!(Princeton,!NJ:!Princeton!University!Press,!1991);!Brian!A.!Pavlac,!Witch*Hunts*in*the*Western*World:* Persecution*and*Punishment*from*the*Inquisition*through*the*Salem*Trials*(Westport,!CT:!Greenwood!Press,! 2009);!Jeffrey!Burton!Russell,!Witchcraft*in*the*Middle*Ages!(1972;!repr.,!Ithaca!NY:!Cornell!University!Press,! 1984).!! 36!The!reference!above!to!the!various!techniques!used!by!witches!to!influence!the!workings!of!the! weather,!is!drawn!from!Reginald!Scot’s!Discovery*of*Witchcraft,!(1584).!Scot!argued!that!witchcraft!was! 290! ! presumed!and!drew!a!distinction!in!both!form!and!value!between!scientific!knowledge! and!particular!types!of!folk!belief!about!the!wind!and!weather.!His!narration! presupposed!a!dichotomy!between!magical!thinking!and!rational!thinking,!between!the! magician!and!the!scientist.!And!it!did!so!in!the!interest!of!assisting!those!victimized!by! the!latitude!of!the!former!epistemology!in!certain!social!applications,!most!notably!those! associated!with!social!censorship.!

By!the!late!16th!century!some!may!have!suggested!that!“No!one!enbued!with! common!sense!but!will!deny!that!the!elements!are!obedient!to!witches,!and!at!their! commandment,!or!that!they!may,!at!their!pleasure,!send!rain,!hail,!tempests,!thunder! and!lightening,”!as!did!Scot!almost!a!century!prior.!However,!during!the!17th!and!18th! centuries,!Lapland!and!Finnish!wizards!were!still!widely!regarded!as!the!population! most!attuned!to!the!wind!and!most!capable!of!exercising!control!over!it.!The!legends! and!stories!about!the!Laplanders’!abilities!to!raise!a!wind!abounded,!and!the!sheer! prevalence!of!these!tales!suggests!that!many!people!took!the!belief!to!heart.37!In!A*

Journey*Through*Flanders,*Holland*&c.!published!in!1731,!Regnard!writes,!for!example,!

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! incompatible!with!both!reason/rationality!and!with!Christianity!and!that!people!either!willfully!deceived! themselves!into!believing!in!such!magic,!or!presumed!such!beliefs!were!true!as!a!result!of!mental!illness.!His! publication!nevertheless!provided!a!window!both!then!and!now!through!which!to!view!popular!beliefs! around!the!practice!of!wind`raising.!!! 37!For!an!exhaustive!compendium!of!literary!examples!referencing!Finlaplanders’!wind`raising! abilities!please!see!Ernest!J.!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind:*The*Legend*of*Lapland*and*Finland*Wizards*in*Literature,! ed.!Wayne!R.!Kime!(Newark:!University!of!Delaware!Press;!London:!Associated!University!Press,!1981).! 291! !

“All!the!world!knows!that!the!people!who!lived!nearest!to!the!north,!have!always!been! addicted!to!idolatry!and!to!magic:!the!Finlanders,!in!this!respect,!surpassed!all!others;! and!we!may!say,!that!they!were!as!well!versed!in!that!diabolical!art,!as!if!they!had!had! for!their!teacher,!Zoroaster!or!Circé”38!Likewise,!the!seventeenth`century!writer!Edmund!

Bohn!was!keen!to!note!in!his!Geographical*Dictionary!the!view!shared!by!most!

Englishmen!at!that!time!that!Laplander’s!were!“infamous!for!Witchcraft!and!

Conjurations.”39!Among!their!claimed!abilities,!these!wizards!could!allegedly!bring!a! ship!to!a!stop,!conjure!and!dissipate!storm!clouds,!and!control!the!wind!to!their!liking:!

“The!Finlaplanders!can!raise!and!increase!any!Wind,!when,!and!as!much!as!they! please,”!noted!Peter!Claudi!quoted!in!Sheffer’s!book!The*History*of*Lapland!(1674).40!

The!prominence!of!English!literary!references!to!Lapland!wind`raisers!coincides! with!the!peak!of!the!witch!craze!that!struck!England!during!the!16th!and!17th!centuries.!

Documentation!and!debate!over!the!practice!of!witchcraft!took!place!in!virtually!all!

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38!Regnard!(1731),!quoted!in!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind,!40! 39!Bohn!quoted!in!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind,!45! 40!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind,!39.!Along!these!lines,!Shakespeare!incorporated!the!wind`raising! abilities!of!witches!into!several!of!his!most!famous!plays.!The!three!witches!in!Macbeth!(1606),!for!example,! exercise!absolute!control!over!the!weather!and!according!to!Moyne,!“could!raise!storms!of!any!kind,!or!allay! them!as!they!pleased.!Shakespeare’s!witches!elect!to!meet!in!thunder,!lightening,!or!rain.!They!are!able!to! loose!and!bind!the!winds!and!to!cause!vessels!to!be!tempest`tossed!at!sea.!Apparently!as!a!sign!of! friendship,!the!Second!Witch!says!to!the!First!Witch,!“I’ll!give!thee!a!wind,”!rather!than!offering!to!sell!her! one.!The!Third!Witch!offers!the!First!Witch!another!wind,!whereupon!the!recipient!says!that!she!herself!has! all!the!others,!‘And!all!the!ports!they!blow,/!All!the!quarters!that!they!know/!I’!the!shipman’s!card,’!As! though!having!in!mind!the!tradition!of!Lapland!witches!selling!wind!under!knots,!in!a!subsequent!scene! Macbeth!exhorts!the!witches!to!unlock!the!secrets!of!his!fate,!even!if!they!have!to!‘untie!the!winds’!and!set! them!free!to!‘swallow!navigation!up,’”!(Shakespeare!as!quoted!in!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind,!49).!Likewise,! The*Tempest!(1611)!opens!with!a!terrible!sea`storm!that!Prospero!has!magically!conjured!with!the!intention!of! ship`wrecking!his!enemies.!! 292! ! quarters!of!society!and!included!participation!by!the!church,!the!state,!and!the!general! public.!Likewise,!persecution!took!place!with!increasing!frequency!and!brutality,! occasionally!targeting!whole!groups!of!people!rather!than!mere!individuals!in!famous! trials!such!as!those!that!took!place!in!Lancashire!in!1612!and!1633`34,!for!example.41!A! topic!of!such!prominent!social,!political,!and!religious!relevance!accordingly!found!its! way!into!virtually!all!forms!of!written!discourse!published!at!this!time.!References!to!the! wind`raising!abilities!of!the!Lapland!witches!and!sorcerers!mirrored!England’s!social! anxiety!about!the!subject.42!!

The!story!most!frequently!recounted!about!the!Finlaplander’s!and!thus!most! visible!in!the!historical!record!was!the!wizards’!practice!of!selling!winds!to!sailors:!

“When!Mariners!buy!a!wind!of!a!Finlaplander,!he!gives!them!a!Rope,!or!a!Slip!of!some!

Stuff!with!three!Knots!upon!it;!when!they!untie!the!first!knot!they!have!a!moderate!Gale,! when!the!Second,!the!Wind!blows!very!Strong,!yet!so!that!they!make!use!of!their!Sail;! when!the!Third,!they!are!in!Danger!of!being!Shipwrack’d!and!Lost.”43!The!similarity!

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41!The!trial!of!the!Pendle!Witches!in!1612!resulted!in!the!execution!of!ten!alleged!witches.!In!a! subsequent!trial!in!1633`34!eleven!more!witches!were!found!guilty,!but!after!appealing!to!the!crown!they! were!found!innocent!and!spared!execution,!but!nevertheless!incarcerated!in!Lancaster!Gaol!where!they!are! believed!to!have!died.!For!more!information!on!the!Lancashire!Trials!pleas!see!Robert!Poole!ed.,!The* Lancashire*Witches:*Histories*and*Stories!(Manchester,!England:!Manchester!University!Press,!2002).!! 42!For!a!more!detailed!discussion!of!the!literature!published!during!the!16th!and!17th!centuries!that! referenced!the!wind`raising!abilities!of!Lapland!witches!see!Moyne,!“The!Legend!of!Finland!and!Lapland! Witches!in!Belletristic!Literature!of!the!Renaissance!and!Seventeenth!Century,”!Chapter!2!in!Raising*the* Wind.!! 43!Quoting!Ziegler!in!Sheffer’s!The*History*of*Lapland!(1674),!as!quoted!in!Moyne!Raising*the*Wind,! 40.!Further!references!to!Lapland!and!Finnish!wind`raising:!Thomas!Nasche,!in!Terrors!of!the!Night!(1694)! writes,!“Bond!men!in!Turkey!or!in!Spaine!are!not!so!ordinarilye!sold,!as!witches!sell!familiars!there! 293! ! between!this!tale!and!the!myth!present!in!ancient!Greece!involving!the!cord!Aeolus! offered!to!Odysseus!in!order!to!speed!him!on!his!journey!is!striking.!Moreover,!the! pervasiveness!of!such!beliefs!suggests!that!people!may!not!have!viewed!such!ancient! tales!as!mere!stories,!but!as!metaphors!for!and!as!descriptions!of!reality!in!the!present! context.!Popular!belief!held!that!witches!were!capable!of!capturing!the!wind!in!knotted! strings.!Knots!sold!by!magicians!thus!became!a!popular!commodity!among!the!

European!seafaring!community.!The!wind!itself!became!a!commodity!by!extension— though!unstable!in!this!role.!

Belief!in!the!wind`raising!abilities!of!the!Finlaplander’s!was!so!common!during! the!17th!century!in!fact!that!in!1685!the!Royal!Society!investigated!the!Laplanders’!sale!of! winds.44!The!historical!record!provides!few!details!about!what!specifically!motivated!

Society!member!Dr.!Charles!Willoughby’s!research!or!precisely!how!he!arrived!at!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

[Iceland].!Farre!cheaper!may!you!buy!a!winde!amongst!them,!than!you!can!buy!wind!or!faire!words!in! Court.!Three!knots!in!a!thred!or!an!odde!graddams!blessing!in!the!corner!of!a!napkin,!witll!carries!you!all! the!world!ouer.!Wee!when!we!frowne!knit!our!browes,!but!let!a!wizard!there!knit!a!noose!or!a!riding!snarle! on!his!heart,!&!it!is!haile,!storme!and!tempest!a!month!after,”!(Nasche!as!quoted!in!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind,! 50).!In!the!anonymously!authored!Pedlars*Prophecy!(1595),!the!sale!of!winds!is!likewise!mentioned:!“Against! my!coming,!proudie!a!purse!of!pence,!for!I!can!sell!you!a!prosperous!and!a!good!wind.!I!haue!in!my!pack! also!another!stoen,!Vsed!with!another!thing!that!I!do!know,!Will!cause!a!rough!wind!soone!to!be!calme! anon,!And!in!what!quarter!you!will!the!wind!to!blow,”!(Pedlar’s*Prophecy!as!quoted!in!Moyne,!Raising*the* Wind,!50).!In!the!Anatomy*of*Melancholy!Robert!Burton!makes!reference!to!the!Finlaplander’s!sale!of!winds:! “‘nothing![is]!so!familiar,!(if!we!believe!those!relations!of!Saxo!Grammaticus,!Olaus!Magnus,!Damianus!A.! Goes)!as!for!Witches!and!Sorcerers,!in!Lapland,!and!Lithuania,!and!all!over!Scandia,!to!sell!winds!to! mariners,!and!cause!tempests,!which!Marco!Polo!the!Venetian!relates!likewise!of!the!Tartars.”’!Moyne,! Raising*the*Wind,!53! 44!As!a!side!note,!the!Bishop!of!Cork!proposed!Dr.!Charles!Willoughby!as!a!candidate!for! admittance!to!the!Royal!Society!in!1683.!Thomas!Birch,!History*of*the*Royal*Society*of*London,!vol.!4!(Bruxelles:! Culture!et.!Civilization,!1767`1768),!215.!! 294! ! conclusions!he!did!on!the!subject,!but!what!is!clear!is!that!Willoughby!readily!dismissed! magic!as!the!primary!motive!force,!offering!a!more!practical!explanation!for!the! apparent!capabilities!of!the!Laps!that!he!presented!to!the!rest!of!the!association:!“By!a! constant!diligent!observation,!he!argued,!“they!foreknow!the!most!notable!changes! thereof,!which!are!more!regular!and!stated!in!those!colder!countries,!than!with!us:!and! hence!it!is!that!the!seller!will!determine!his!wind!to!such!a!day,!but!not!any!particular! one,!which!the!chapman!requires.”45!!The!Royal!Society!suggested!that!rather!than! exhibiting!an!overt!capacity!to!command!nature!itself,!the!apparent!wind`conjuring! abilities!of!the!Laps!was!related!to!their!uncanny!ability!to!accurately!interpret!the!signs! and!signals!of!the!natural!world!on!the!basis!of!deep!familiarity!with!a!more!consistent! weather!pattern!than!that!present!in!England.!Despite!the!Royal!Society’s!dismissal!of! the!supernatural!abilities!of!the!Finlaplander’s,!their!reputation!as!wizards!capable!of! commanding!the!wind!persisted!well!into!the!18th!century.46!! !

Whether!focusing!on!the!relationship!between!animal!behavior!and!the! temperament!of!the!wind,!or!suggesting!supernatural!capabilities!possessed!by!

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45!Dr.!Charles!Willoughby!quoted!in!Birch,!History*of*the*Royal*Society*of*London!416,!and!also!quoted! in!Moyne,!Raising*the*Wind,!44.!Reference!to!this!subject!in!the!recorded!minutes!of!the!Royal!Society! meeting!at!which!Willoughby!spoke!is!scant—limited!to!little!more!than!the!quote!included!above.!! 46!The!minutes!of!the!Royal!Society!meetings!illustrate!that!in!1881,!a!few!years!prior,!a!Swedish! gentleman!by!the!last!name!Heisig!attended!a!meeting!where!he!offered!the!Society!a!“Lapland!magical! drum![and!the!beater!or!drum!hammer]!and!a!Runic!almanac!cut!upon!a!staff;!and!shewed!a!table!curiously! ingraven!on!copper,!and!containing!a!full!explication!of!the!Runic!language.”!Birch,!History*of*the*Royal* Society,!112!! 295! ! particular!individuals!that!allowed!them!to!raise!a!tempest,!the!wind`knowledge!passed! down!through!sailor!lore,!like!the!folk!wisdom!of!the!everyday!worker,!gestures!toward! the!spectrum!of!narrative!utilities!it!served,!social,!political,!and!psychological!in!nature.!

Folklore!also!disrupted/challenged!the!notion!that!wind!knowledge!was!a!field!claimed! exclusively!by!educated!elite!specialists.!Sailors!and!everyday!workers!represented!a! different!type!of!specialist:!those!trained!in!the!field!and!educated!according!to!different! rubrics,!with!truth!standards!independent!of!and!at!times!at!odds!with!those!of!the! scientific!community.!Scientists!may!have!endeavored!to!impose!their!authority!when!it! came!to!natural!knowledge,!but!the!persistent!presence!of!popular!knowledge!that! offered!alternative!interpretations!of!the!wind!suggests!that!such!claims!to!power!by! natural!philosophers!were!not!absolute.!Wind!knowledge!was!diffuse!and!relatively! subjective!in!the!sense!that!everyone!had!the!capacity!to!make!sense!of!the!wind!on!the! basis!of!personal!knowledge!and!experience!and!to!apply!that!knowledge!accordingly.!!

Wind Knowledge at Sea

Seamen!of!all!ranks!became!intimately!acquainted!with!their!natural! surroundings!while!on!board!a!ship.!They!studied!the!look!of!sky,!the!texture!of!the! water,!and!the!behavior!of!animals!for!prognostic!information.!They!learned!to!read!the! wind!based!not!only!on!its!feel,!and!force,!and!surrounding!geography,!but!to!interpret! the!significance!of!other!weather!signs!as!well.!Cloud!formation,!for!example,!gave! indications!of!wind!direction!and!temperament,!as!did!other!types!of!weather,!such!as!

296! ! fog!and!haze,!or!the!color!of!the!sky!at!dusk!or!at!dawn.!Taken!as!a!whole!these!sky! signs!could!help!sailors!correctly!anticipate!approaching!winds!and!thus!take!advantage! of!nature’s!force!and!power.!More!pointedly,!the!persistent!presence!of!such!sailor!lore! calls!attention!to!the!fragility!and!marginality!of!scientific!authority!in!this!particular! context.47!It!suggests!that!wind!and!weather!knowledge!was!something!of!a! democratized!“science”!at!the!time,!that!the!common!sailor!was!in!a!position!to!calculate! the!behavior!of!the!wind!and!weather!based!on!their!capacity!to!correctly!interpret!the! signs!and!signals!of!the!world!around!them.48!!

Life!on!board!a!ship!exposed!the!common!sailor!to!the!wind!day!in!and!day!out,! for!navigating!the!ship’s!course!required!a!specialized!skill!set!that!revolved!almost! exclusively!around!orienting!the!ship!and!its!sails!in!relation!to!the!wind.!Specialized!

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47!Other!natural!phenomena!were!subject!to!equally!conflicting!interpretations.!In*The*Voyages*and* Works*of*John*Davis,!for!example,!the!narrator!discusses!the!Corpo*Sancto,!or!what!is!more!commonly!referred! to!as!St.!Elmos!Fire.!“In!the!extremitie!of!our!storme!appeared!to!us!in!the!night,!upon!our!maine!Top`mast! head,!a!flame!about!the!bignesse!of!a!great!Candle,!which!the!Portugals!call!Corpo!Sancto,!holding!it!a!most! divine!token!that!when!it!appeareth!the!worst!is!past.!AS,!thanked!be!God,!we!had!better!weather!after!it.! Some!thinke!it!to!be!a!spirit:!others!write!that!it!is!an!exhalation!of!moyste!vapours!that!are!ingendred!by! foule!and!tempestuous!weather.!Some!affirme!that!the!Ship!is!fortunate!where!it!lightethe,!and!that!shee! shall!not!perish.!It!appeared!unto!us!two!nights!together,!after!which!tiem!we!had!a!faire!wind!and!good! weather,”!John!Davis,!et!al.,!The!Voyages*and*Works*of*John*Davis*the*Navigator*(London:!Hakluyt!Society,! 1880),!164,!Google!Books,!accessed!February!21,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=I2sTAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad =0#v=onepage&q&f=false!! 48!Life!on!board!a!ship!exposed!the!common!sailor!to!wind!terminology!day!in!and!day!out,!for! navigating!the!ship’s!course!required!a!specialized!terminology!that!revolved!almost!exclusively!around! orienting!the!ship!and!its!sails!in!relation!to!the!wind.!In!Terry!Breverton,!The*Pirate*Dictionary,!(2004,!repr.! Louisiana:!Pelican!Publishing,!2007),!Breverton!extensively!quotes!John!Smith’s,*The!book!Breverton!is! referring!to!is!John!Smith’s,*The*Seaman’s*Grammar*and*Dictionary,*Explaining*all*the*Difficult*Terms*in* Navigation*and*the*Practical*Navigator*and*Gunner*in*Two*Parts,!(London:!Randal!Taylor,!1691),!and!offers!an! extensive!list!of!wind!terminology!that!any!sailor!on!board!a!ship!would!have!gained!exposure!to.!! 297! ! terminology!thus!emerged!to!describe!such!specialized!knowledge!(as!discussed!in!the! second!chapter).!In!The*Pirate*Dictionary,!for!example,!Terry!Breverton!quotes!John!

Smith’s,!Sea@Man’s*Grammar!(1691)!and!offers!a!selection!of!wind!terminology!that!most! any!sailor!on!board!a!ship!would!have!gained!exposure!to.!For!example:!!

‘To!cond!or!cun!is!to!direct!or!guide,!and!to!cun!a!ship!is!to!direct!the!person!at! the!helm!how!to!steer!her.!If!the!ship!goes!before!the!wind,!then!he!who!cuns!the! ship!uses!these!terms!to!him!at!the!helm:!Starboard,!Leeward,!Port,!Helm!a! Midships.!Starboard!is!to!put!the!helm!to!the!starboard!(or!right)!side,!to!make! the!ship!go!to!the!larboard!(or!left)!side,!for!the!ship!always!sails!contrary!to!he! helm.!In!keeping!the!ship!near!the!wind,!these!terms!are!used:!Loof,!Keep!your! Loof,!Fall!not!off,!Veer!no!more,!Keep!her!to,!Touch!the!wind,!Have!a!care!of!the! lee`latch.!To!make!her!go!more!large,!they!say!Keep!the!helm,!no!near,!bear!up.! To!keep!her!upon!the!same!point,!they!use!Steady,!or!as!you!go,!and!the!like.!The! ship!goes!Lasking,!Quartering,!Veering!or!Large!are!terms!of!the!same! signification,!vis.!That!she!neither!goes!by!a!wind!nor!before!the!wind,!betwixt! both.’49!! ! These!phrases!constituted!only!a!small!portion!of!the!specialized!language!and!the! associated!activities!sailors!applied!in!reference!to!the!wind.1!Some!terminology!related! to!the!sea,!for!example,!drew!a!connection!between!the!wind!and!ocean.!Quoting!

Captain!Smith!again:!!

When!the!Storm!is!past,!though!the!wind!may!alter!three!or!four!points!of!the! Compass,!or!more,!yet!the!Sea!for!a!good!time!will!go!the!same!way;!then!if!your! course!be!right!against!it,!you!shall!meet!it!right!head,!so!we!call!it!a!Head!Sea.! Sometimes!when!there!is!but!little!wind,!there!will!come!a!contrary!sea,!and! presently!the!wind!after!it,!whereby!we!may!judge!that!from!whence!it!came!was! much!wind,!for!commonly!before!any!great!Storm!the!sea!will!come!that!way.50!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

49!Terry!Breverton,!Pirate’s*Dictionary!(2004;!repr.,!Gretna!Louisiana:!Pelican!Publishing,!2007),!42.!! 50!John!Smith!as!quoted!in!Breverton,!Pirate*Dictionary,!76.!According!to!Smith!as!quoted!by! Breverton,!“A!Fresh!Gale!is!that!doth!presently!blow!after!a!calm,!when!the!wind!beginneth!to!quicken!or! blow.!A!Fair!Loom!Gale!is!the!best!to!sail!in!because!the!Sea!goeth!not!high,!and!we!bear!out!all!our!Sails,!A! 298! !

! References!to!terms!such!as!these!appear!frequently!throughout!17th`century!English! travel!literature!and!additionally!highlight!the!centrality!of!wind`knowledge!to!the!daily! experience!of!the!everyday!sailor.!!

In!his!wind!treatise,!explorer!William!Dampier!did!not!speak!much!to!the! relationship!between!animal!behavior!and!the!wind,!or!to!the!abilities!of!select! individuals!to!raise!a!wind,!but!he!did!occasionally!discuss!observations!of!the!natural! world!that!he!believed!had!bearing!on!reading!the!wind,!and!which!suggested!that!he! was!not!the!only!sailor!on!board!his!ships!who!attempted!to!make!predictions!based!on! personal!knowledge!and!observation.!Dampier,!for!example,!explained!the!way!in! which!Seamen!in!the!West!Indies!who!navigated!Sloops!and!other!small!vessels!learned! to!anticipate!a!“brisk!Land`Wind,!by!the!Fogs!that!hang!over!the!Land!before!Night.”51!

According!to!Dampier,!a!thick!and!still!fog!“like!Smoak!over!the!Land,!not!stirring!any! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

! stiffe!Gale!is!so!much!wind!as!our!Top`sails!can!endure!to!bear.!An!Eddy`Wind!is!checked!by!the!sail,!a! Mountain,!turning,!or!any!such!things!that!makes!it!return!back!again.!It!Over!Blows!when!we!can!bear!no! Top`sails.!A!flaw!or!wind!is!A!Gust!which!is!very!violent!all!of!a!sudden,!but!quickly!endeth…Whirle`winds! running!round,!and!bloweth!divers!ways!at!once.!A!Storm!is!known!to!everyone!not!to!be!much!less!than!a! tempest,!that!will!blow!down!Houses,!and!Tress!up!by!the!roots.!A!Monsoune!is!a!constant!wind!in!the!East! Indies,!that!blwoeth!away!three!months!together!one!way,!and!the!next!three!Months!the!contrary!way.!A! Hericano!is!so!violent!in!the!West!Indies,!it!will!continue!three,!four,!five!weeks,!but!they!have!it!not!past!in! five,!six,!or!seven!years;!but!then!it!is!with!such!extremity,!that!the!Sea!flies!like!rain,!they!over`flow!the!low! grounds!by!the!sea,!insomuch,!that!Ships!have!been!driven!over!tops!of!high!trees!there!gowing,!many! Leagues!into!the!land,!and!there!left,!as!was!Captain!Francis!Nelson!and!Englishman,!and!an!excellent! Seaman!for!one,’”!(p.184).! 51!William!Dampier,!Dampier’s*Voyages:*Consisting*of*a*New*Voyage*Round*the*World,*A*Supplement*to* the*Voyage*Round*the*World,*Two*Voyages*to*Campeachy,*Ad*Discourse*of*Winds,*A*Voyage*to*New*Holland,*and*a* Vindication*in*Answer*to*the*Chimerical*Relation*of*William*Funnel,!ed.!John!Masefield,!vol.2!(London:!E!Grant! Richards,!1906),!263.! 299! ! way”!was!a!sure!sign!of!a!good!land`wind!if!observed!in!fair!Weather,!as!is!a!Tornado! spotted!over!the!land!in!fair!weather52!Thus,!when!plying!to!windward,!he!and!his!crew! would!look!for!such!signs!to!give!them!a!sense!of!what!to!anticipate!for!the!coming! evening.53!!

Weather!signs!such!as!these,!though!reliable,!were!nevertheless!often!contingent! on!the!season,!noted!Dampier.!He!asserted,!therefore,!that!if!people!tried!to!read!the! weather!without!a!thorough!understanding!of!its!patterns!they!could!easily!misinterpret! the!signs.!Dampier!writes,!for!example,!that!in!most!instances!a!thick!still!fog!hanging! over!the!land!was!a!sure!sign!of!a!strong!land`wind.!!However,!he!noted!that!this! indication!was!only!valid!in!good!weather!during!the!dry!season,!for!during!the!wet! season!“fogs!do!hang!over!the!Land!all!the!Day,!and!it!may!be!neither!Land`wind!nor!

Sea`Breeze!stirring.”54!All!those!on!board!a!ship!were!exposed!to!the!wind,!and!thus!in!a!

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52!Dampier,!Discourse*of*Winds,!263! 53!No!fog,!for!example,!meant!they!could!anticipate!only!a!light!land`wind!that!night,!which!meant! they!would!not!make!considerable!progress!that!evening.!Dampier,!Discourse*of*Winds,!311! 54!Dampier,!Discourse*of*Winds,!264.!These!types!of!weather!signs!were!also,!in!some!instances,! exclusive!to!specific!regions!or!to!particular!locations!during!particular!seasons.!Dampier!spent!an!entire! chapter!discussing!these![unique]!types!of!conditions.!He!discusses,!for!example,!an!unusually!fierce!wind! that!appears!off!the!Coast!of!Carthagena!between!the!months!of!April,!May!and!June.!These!winds!were!so! strong!that!“Ships![were]!not!able!to!ply!to!Windward!on!that!Coast!while!these!Winds!last,”!(p.266).!Such! winds!appeared!early!in!the!morning,!sometimes!as!early!as!three!or!four,!and!would!persist!until!very!late! in!the!evening,!sometimes!as!late!as!eleven!o’clock,!after!which!time!it!became!unduly!still!until!the!morning! gave!rise!to!them!again.!These!winds,!he!argued,!would!blow!in!this!manner!for!approximately!ten!or! eleven!consecutive!days:!and!he!made!a!point!to!highlight!the!weather!conditions!present!while!these!winds! are!in!effect.!He!writes:!“While!these!fierce!Winds!stay,!the!Sky!is!commonly!clear!without!any!Cloud!to!be! seen;!tho’!doubtless!‘tis!imperceptivley!hazy,!for!then!the!Sun!does!not!give!a!true!black!Sade!on!the!ground,! but!very!faint!and!dusky.!The!Horizon!too!looks!very!dusky,!thick!and!hazy,!and!while!the!Sun!is!near!the! horizon,!either!in!the!Morning,!or!Evening,!it!looks!very!red.!Sometimes,!tho’!but!seldom,!when!these!Winds! blow!the!Sky!is!over`cast!with!small!Clouds,!which!afford!some!drizzling!small!Rain,”!(p.267).!This! 300! ! position!to!make!connections!and!to!draw!correlations!and!deductions!about!its! behavior!based!on!their!experience!and!observations,!but!in!Dampier’s!estimation!some! methods!and!their!associated!deductions!were!invariably!more!sound!than!others.!He! believed!that!there!was!a!correct!way!to!account!for!the!wind,!a!rational!scientific! method.!Yet!the!value!and!application!of!the!wind!knowledge!at!work!was!largely! context!dependent!and!greatly!informed!by!the!social!consensus!of!the!audience!in! question!at!any!given!moment.!Therefore,!as!might!be!expected,!the!folk!beliefs!about! the!wind!that!abounded!within!the!sailing!community!were!occasionally!at!odds!with! the!thoughts!of!natural!philosophers!on!the!subject.!Dampier,!who!associated!with!both! circles,!attested!to!such!conflicts!in!the!various!travel!narratives!he!intermittently! published!at!the!conclusion!of!his!voyages!abroad.!!

As!a!writer!intent!on!appealing!to!and!aligning!himself!with!the!scientific! community,!Dampier!foregrounded!his!wind!knowledge!and!expertise,!and!emphasized! in!particular!his!reliance!upon!rational!explanations!for!physical!phenomenon.!He! described,!for!example,!one!particularly!problematic!set!of!wind!conditions!that!he! claimed!had!a!rational!explanation,!contrary!to!popular!belief.!On!coastlines!most!

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! particular!wind!is!one!which!Dampier!never!came!into!contact!with!directly!but!which!he!heard!about!from! numerous!sailors!with!whom!spoke.!He!writes,!“it!is!so!generally!known!among!the!Jamica!Seamen!and! Privateers!that!they!call!a!Talkative!Person!in!Derision,!a!Carthagene`Breeze.!I!remember!two!or!three!Men! that!went!by!that!name,!and!I!knew!them!by!no!other,!tho’!I!was!in!the!same!Ship!with!them!several! Months,”!(p.267).! 301! ! openly!exposed!to!the!Trade!Winds,!writes!Dampier,!the!winds!actually!hit!the!shore,!or! even!worse,!hit!the!shore!at!a!perpendicular!angle!such!that!the!land!winds!were!weak! or!sometimes!almost!imperceptible.!This!phenomenon,!he!noted,!was!common!on!the! east!end!of!islands!and!on!headlands!that!“stretch!farthest!out!to!Sea![and]!are!most! exposed!to!Wind’s!from!the!Sea.”55!Physical!geography!in!such!instances!greatly! impeded!the!efforts!of!any!captain!who!attempted!to!navigate!their!ship!contrary!to!the! direction!of!the!winds.!!Dampier!juxtaposed!his!rational!explanation!with!the! explanation!offered!by!sailors!who!adhered!to!folkloric!beliefs!on!the!subject:!“…The!

Sloop`men!of!Jamaica!that!Trade!round!the!island!are!commonly!put!to!their!Trumps,! when!they!come!there!in!their!Voyages:!For!if!they!meet!no!Land`Wind,!they!are!obliged! to!beat!about!by!turning!to!Windward!against!the!Sea`Breeze!in!the!day!time;!they!then! curse!these!Points!of!Land,!and!are!foolishly!apt!to!believe!that!some!Daemon!haunts! there.”56!!

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55!Dampier,!Discourse*of*Winds,!255! 56!Dampier!writes:!“First!of!all![I!shall]!begin!with!the!N.E.!and!S.E.!Points!of!the!island!of!Jamaica:! These!Points!are!at!the!East`end!of!the!Island,!one!is!at!the!very!Extreme!of!the!North`side!towards!the!East,! the!other!on!the!South!Extreme!towards!the!same!Point;!at!these!two!Places!we!seldom!light!of!a!Land`wind;! nor!very!often!at!the!End!of!the!Island!between!them,!except!near!the!Shore,!For!that!reason!the!Sloop`men! of!Jamaica!that!Trade!round!the!island!are!commonly!put!to!their!Trumps,!when!they!come!there!in!their! Voyages:!For!if!they!meet!no!Land`Wind,!they!are!obliged!to!beat!about!by!turning!to!Windward!against!the! Sea`Breeze!in!the!day!time;!they!then!curse!these!Points!of!Land,!and!are!foolishly!apt!to!believe!that!some! Daemon!haunts!there.![paragraph]!And!if!they!are!two!or!three!Days!in!beating!about!(as!sometimes!they! are)!when!they!return!to!Port`Royal,!they!will!talk!as!much!of!their!Fatigues,!as!if!they!had!been!beating!a! Month!to!double!the!Cape!of!good!Hope,!though!indeed!the!Men!are!brisk!enough,!and!manage!their!Sloops! very!well;!which!also!are!generally!very!good!Boasts!to!sail!on!a!Wind.!I!think!they!are!the!best!small! Trading`Boats!in!the!King’s!Dominions.”!Dampier,!Discourse*of*Winds,!255`256! 302! !

This!belief!that!a!demon!was!responsible!for!creating!such!contrary!winds!would! have!been!regarded!skeptically!by!most!natural!philosophers,!who!were!more!apt!to! explain!the!situation!in!Dampier’s!terms:!as!a!result!of!physical!geography!combined! with!the!directionality!of!the!wind!currents.!!Notions!of!this!kind!abounded,!however.!In! order!to!emphasize!how!pervasive!such!folk!beliefs!were!Dampier!provided!an! additional!example!elaborating!on!the!reaction!this!belief!in!wind`demons!elicited! among!the!seamen:!!

Point!Pedro!on!the!South`side!of!the!Island,!is!another!very!bad!Point!to!double,! if!a!Ship!come!from!the!Westènd!of!the!Island;!This!Point!runs!out!far!into!the! Sea,!and!is!not!only!destitute!of!the!Common!Land`winds:!But!if!there!is!any! Current!setting!to!Leeward,!here!the!Sloopmen!meet!it.!Therefore!they!are!many! times!longer!beating!about!it,!than!about!the!two!former!Points!of!the!SouthÈast! and!the!NorthÈast,!and!not!without!bestowing!some!Curses!upon!it.!Nay!some! Captains!of!Privateers,!when!they!have!been!beating!about!it,!have!stood!close! into!the!Point,!and!fired!their!Guns!to!kill!the!old!Daemon!that!they!say!inhabits! there!to!disturb!poor!Seamen.!I!have!related!these!odd!Passages!to!shew!how! ignorant!Men!are!that!cannot!see!the!Reason!of!it.57!! ! Dampier!dismissed!such!notions!and!behavior!as!“ignorant”!and!lacking!in!“reason.”58!

Arguably,!however,!these!notions!were!equally!reasonable!within!a!different!knowledge! paradigm.!Dismissing!any!possibility!of!metaphysical!influences,!the!ever`pragmatic!

Dampier!believed!there!was!a!clear!physical!explanation!for!the!difficult!circumstances! that!many!sailors!otherwise!attributed!to!demonic!spirits.!And!he!offered!a!list!of!places! whose!physical!geography!created!comparable!scenarios:!the!entrance!to!the!Bay!of!

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57!Discourse*of*Winds,!255`256! 58!Discourse*of*Winds,!256`257! 303! !

Campeachy,!for!example,!the!coast!between!Cape!Catoch!and!Cape!Condecedo,!and!the! capes!on!the!Peruvian!Coast,!such!as!Cape!Passao,!and!Cape!Blanco.59!In!these!places! and!others!like!them,!he!argued,!the!relationship!between!the!landmasses!and!the!wind! currents!made!it!particularly!difficult!for!sailors!to!navigate!their!ships,!and!sailors!were! apt!to!wrongly!believe!that!spirits!inhabited!these!locations!and!were!responsible!for! impeding!the!ship’s!progress.!It!is!striking!that!for!all!his!authority,!expertise,!and! rationality,!however,!Dampier!was!not!able!to!convince!his!crew!to!the!contrary.60!The! belief!in!wind!demons!and!comparable!monsters!and!spirits!maintained!popular!appeal! as!a!different!and!rival!explanatory!mechanism.!

The!wind!was!such!a!central!part!of!any!sailing!voyage,!such!a!critical! component!of!the!crew’s!preservation!and!the!success!of!the!journey!that!conflicting! interpretations!of!wind!portents!occasionally!turned!into!a!source!of!candid!dispute! among!a!ship’s!crew.!Dampier!described!one!such!incident!that!took!place!later!in!his!

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59!Discourse*of*Winds,!256`257! 60!In!another!instance!Dampier!emphasizes!his!knowledge!and!expertise!in!relation!to!that!of! “ignorant!Seamen”!when!he!discusses!the!Corpus*Sant,!or!what!is!commonly!referred!to!nowadays!as!St.! Elmos!Fire.!He!writes,!“A!corpus!Sant!is!a!certain!small!glittering!light;!when!it!appears!as!this!did,!on!the! very!top!of!the!Main`mast!or!at!a!Yard`arm,!it!is!like!a!Star;!but!when!it!appears!on!the!Deck,!it!resembles!a! great!Glow!worm.”!He!notes!that!when!such!a!phenomenon!appears!“aloft”!it!is!considered!a!good!omen,! but!when!it!is!seen!on!deck!“it!is!generally!accounted!a!bad!Sign.”!Dampier!goes!on!to!say!“I!have!heard! some!ignorant!Seamen!discoursing!how!they!have!seen!them!creep,!or!as!they!say,!travel!about!in!Scuppers,! telling!many!dismal!Stories!that!happend!at!such!times:!but!I!did!never!see!any!one!stir!out!of!the!place! where!it!was!fist!fixt,!except!upon!Deck,!where!very!Sea!washeth!it!about.!Neither!did!I!ever!see!any!but! when!we!have!had!hard!Rain!as!well!as!Wind;!and!therefore!do!believe!it!is!some!Jelly;!but!enough!of!this.”! William!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage*Round*the*World!(London:!J.!Knapton,!1688),!414`415,!accessed!February!27,! 2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=adsNAAAAQAAJ&dq=William+Dampier,+A+New+Voyage+Round+the +World+knapton&source=gbs_navlinks_s!! 304! ! career!while!bound!for!New!Holland,!serving!as!captain!of!the!Roebuck.!Dampier!was! already!dealing!with!unrest!on!board!his!ship:!namely,!a!sailor!by!the!name!of!Fisher! with!mutinous!plans!who!was!determined!to!undermine!Dampier’s!authority!and!raise! dissent!among!his!crew.!The!Roebuck!had!taken!port!in!Bahia!to!obtain!water!and!to! refresh!the!men!before!setting!out!for!Benculi!on!the!island!of!Sumatra.!Dampier!had! also!chosen!to!land!there!with!the!intention!of!quelling!“the!Disorders!among!my!Crew;!

Which!as!I!have!before!related,!were!grown!to!so!great!a!Heighth,!that!they!could!not! without!great!Difficulty!be!appeased.”61!Low!on!supplies,!incensed!by!Fisher,!and! unsure!of!their!route,!many!of!his!sailors!were!reluctant!to!continue.62!!

Dampier’s!crew!believed!that!the!incoming,!southerly!the!winds!would!prevent! the!success!of!their!voyage!south,!and!although!Dampier!asserted!that!these!ideas!were! based!on!misinformation!or!general!ignorance,!they!nevertheless!sewed!seeds!of!conflict! and!made!his!crew!hesitant!to!continue.!He!writes:!“Their!Heads!were!generally!fill’d!

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61!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage,!402! 62!Dampier!had!taken!port!hoping!to!win!back!his!sailors’!allegiance!before!setting!out!for!Benculi! on!the!Island!of!Sumatra.!He!had!word!that!three!of!Captain!Avery’s!men!were!on!the!island!and!capturing! three!pirates!who!operated!under!the!command!of!such!a!notorious!captain!would!have!been!a!boon!for! Dampier.!However,!given!the!mutinous!state!of!his!crew!a!success!like!this!would!have!been!difficult!to! achieve,!if!not!disastrous!in!its!effects,!and!Dampier!was!aware!of!the!risks.!He!writes:!“I!would!have! brought!them![the!pirates]!away!with!me!had!it!not!been!for!these!unhappy!differences!which!made!me! dread!such!infectious!company,”!(Dampier,!Discourse*of*Winds,!325).!Captain!Avery!had!recently!murdered! the!captain!of!a!ship,!turned!pirate!and!fled!with!the!ship,!setting!a!fearful!precedent!that!likely!unnerved! any!captain!preparing!to!set!sail!into!the!tropics.!Knowing!what!a!temptation!piracy!was!for!seamen!at!that! time,!Dampier,!in!organizing!his!expedition!to!New!Holland,!requested!a!reward!promised!to!the!men!who! agreed!to!accompany!him!on!this!dangerous!voyage.!He!writes,!“considering!ye!Temptations!our!Seamen! have!had!of!late!to!break!loose!and!turn!pirate!when!they!come!into!ye!nither!parts!of!ye!World!I!should!be! glad!yt!some!good!encouragement!might!be!proposed!to!those!who!should!goe!in!this!Voyage!upon!their! return,”!(p.!325).!! 305! ! with!strange!Notions!of!Southerly!Winds!that!were!now!setting!in!(and!there!had!been! already!some!Flurries!of!them)!which,!as!they!surmis’ed,!would!hinder!any!farther!

Attempts!of!going!on!to!the!Southward,!so!long!as!they!should!last.”63!!

Even!more!frustrating!for!Dampier!was!the!fact!that!he!had!anticipated!the! arrival!of!these!winds!and!had!told!his!men!to!keep!an!eye!out!for!them,!informing!his! crew!that,!“these!were!only!Coasting!Winds,!sweeping!the!Shore!to!about!40!or!50!

Leagues!in!Breadth!from!it.”64!However,!his!men!did!not!believe!him!and!insisted!that! these!winds!blew!across!the!entire!Sea!between!America!and!Africa!as!the!Portuguese!

Pilots!on!the!ships!bound!for!Europe!wrongly!believed.!Indeed,!Dampier’s!men!spoke! with!these!pilots,!whom!he!notes,!“were!themselves!as!ignorant”!as!his!men!on!the! subject!since!they!had!no!real!experience!with!these!winds!due!to!the!course!which!they! sailed.!As!a!consequence!of!their!misinformation!however,!Dampier’s!men!believed!that! it!was!not!safe!to!sail!until!September,!over!six!months!away.!

Adding!to!the!political!and!economic!stakes!of!the!conflict,!Dampier!had!gained! word!that!three!of!Captain!Avery’s!men!were!currently!on!the!island!of!Benculi.!

Capturing!men!who!operated!under!the!command!of!such!a!notorious!pirate!would! have!been!a!boon!for!Dampier.!However,!given!the!mutinous!state!of!his!crew!the! successful!capture!of!these!pirates!would!have!been!difficult!to!achieve,!if!not!disastrous!

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63!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage,!402! 64!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage,!403! 306! ! in!its!effects,!and!Dampier!was!aware!of!the!risks.!He!writes:!“I!would!have!brought! them![the!pirates]!away!with!me!had!it!not!been!for!these!unhappy!differences!which! made!me!dread!such!infectious!company.”!Captain!Avery!had!recently!murdered!the! captain!of!a!ship,!turned!pirate!and!fled!with!the!ship,!setting!a!fearful!precedent!for! mutiny!that!unnerved!many!a!captain!preparing!to!set!sail!for!the!tropics.!The!reward! for!his!capture!and!for!the!capture!of!his!piratical!companions!was!high.!Yet!in!this! instance,!conflicting!wind!knowledges!that!challenged!and!undermined!Dampier’s!right! to!authority!as!captain,!determined!the!extent!to!which!he!could!successfully!achieve! these!political!and!economic!aims.!!

Dampier!ultimately!rallied!his!men!and!his!ship!set!sail!as!planned.!However,! this!particular!conflict!illustrates!the!divide!that!occasionally!emerged!between!popular! knowledge!and!knowledge!of!the!educated!elite,!while!gesturing!toward!the!political! economy!of!wind!knowledge.!In!recounting!this!event,!Dampier!expressly!located! himself!in!the!category!of!the!expert!and!situated!his!ideas!in!opposition!to!the!notions! of!those!whom!he!described!as!less!educated.!What!additionally!comes!forward!from! this!scenario,!however,!is!the!fact!that!sailors!too!took!note!of!the!wind!and!weather! patterns!and!made!judgments!about!what!these!signs!indicated!and!how!they!might! affect!the!upcoming!leg!of!a!voyage.!The!captain!and!the!ship!navigator!may!have!had! more!information!than!the!rest!of!the!crew!and!perhaps!more!experience!in!some! instances!but!that!did!not!mean!that!sailors!necessarily!trusted!their!captain!at!all!times!

307! ! and!under!all!circumstances!with!respect!to!the!wind.65!There!were!moments!when!the! common!sailor!was!willing!to!stake!his!wind`knowledge!against!that!of!his!captain’s!in!a! challenge!to!authority.!The!wind!thus!challenged!authority!both!directly!and! indirectly—on!its!own!and!through!people.!!

Travel Narratives

We!have!considered!thus!far!the!predominantly!oral!tradition!of!sailor!lore!and! the!ways!in!which!this!particular!set!of!human!beliefs!accounted!for!the!wind,!and! explained,!predicted!and!helped!people!make!sense!of!this!natural!force.!We!have!also! considered!instances!of!tension!that!pitted!folklore!against!other!competing!wind! epistemologies,!namely!scientific.!Along!these!lines,!a!new!literary!genre,!which!made! generous!references!to!the!wind—the!travel!narrative—rose!to!prominence!during!the!

17th!century,!popularized!largely!by!the!writing!of!explorers!such!as!Dampier.!Many!of! these!travel!narratives!related!the!experiences!of!sailors’!lives!at!sea!and!detailed!their! voyages!abroad.!66!!!

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65!In!this!particular!case,!Dampier!was!correct.!! 66!There!was!already!a!market!for!such!books,!but!the!genre!really!took!off!after!Dampier!published! his!series!of!travel!narratives,!spurring!a!flurry!of!similar!publications!by!many!of!his!contemporaries,! comrades,!and!shipmates.!In!fact,!after!being!made!Captain!of!the!Roebuck!and!coming!into!sustained! conflict!with!one!of!his!mutinous!subordinates,!William!Funnel.!The!conflict!between!Funnel!and!Dampier! escalated!to!such!an!extent!that!upon!returning!to!England!Funnel!took!Dampier!to!court!and!attempted!to! prosecute!him!for!abuse!of!authority.!He!also!worked!with!Dampier’s!publisher!James!Knapton!to!produce! an!account!of!his!tribulations!while!on!board!Dampier’s!ship.!Hoping!to!capitalize!on!Dampier’s!reputation! as!a!travel!writer,!Funnel!gave!his!book!virtually!the!same!title!as!Dampier’s!popular!text,!A*New*Voyage* Round*the*World.!See!William!Funnel,!A*Voyage*Round*the*World:!Containing!an!Account!of!Captain! Dampierls!Expedition!Into!the!South`Seas!in!the!Ship!St.!George!in!the!Years!1703!and!1704! (London:!printed!by!W.!Botham,!for!James!Knapton,!1707).!For!more!on!the!travel!narrative!genre!in!general! 308! !

Given!the!enormous!amount!of!folkloric!wind!knowledge!circulating!among!the! sailing!community!one!might!expect!such!lore!to!emerge!as!a!highly!visible!theme!in!the! books!that!made!their!way!to!publication!at!this!time.!Prevalent!as!it!may!have!been,! however,!folklore!was!almost!entirely!absent!from!this!form!of!discourse!and!was!not! the!primary!way!in!which!the!wind!factored!into!these!travel!narratives.!Instead,!when! sailors!wrote!about!their!travels!abroad!they!conspicuously!drew!upon!sundry!notes! about!the!wind!recorded!in!their!logbooks,!such!as!its!direction!and!force!details!that! allowed!them!as!authors!to!narratively!reconstruct!their!sailing!voyage!in!a!way!that! appeared!factual!and!true.!In!describing!his!voyage!to!Spitzenbergen!and!Greenland!

(1671)!for!example,!Commander!John!Wood!writes,!!!

Tuesday,!June!27…little!Wind!from!the!North`west!to!the!North!by!East!with! Calms:!we!kept!close!with!the!Ice,!and!found!it!joyn!to!the!Land!of!Nova! Zembla…Thursday,!June!29….little!Wind,!with!Rains…At!Noon!the!Wind!at! West!and!West!and!by!South!a!fine!Gale,!but!very!foggy!Weather…Friday,!June! 30.!A!fresh!Gale,!and!very!foggy,!with!a!great!Sea;!our!Ship!began!to!split…the! Wind!at!West`north`west.67! !

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! see*Nigel!Leask,*Curiosity*and*the*Aesthetics*of*Travel*Writing,*1770–1840:*‘From*an*Antique*Land’!(Oxford:! Oxford!University!Press,!2002).!Leask!draws!a!connection!between!Britain’s!antiquarian!tradition!and!the! empiricism!evident!in!western!narratives!of!other!cultures.! 67!In!addition!to!terse!notes!as!these,!Davis’s!narratives!also!included!more!involved!discussions!of! the!ways!in!which!the!wind!informed!each!and!every!leg!of!the!ship’s!journey.!Sir!John!Narbrough,!Abel! Tasman,!John!Wood!(Captain.),!Friedrich!Martins,!Sir!Tancred!Robinson,!An*Account*of*Several*Late*Voyages* &*Discoveries*to*the*South*and*North,!(London:!S.!Smith!and!B.!Walford,!1694),!164,!165,!167,!accessed! February!27,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=6wEmrBQS_a0C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad =0#v=onepage&q&f=false!* 309! !

These!regular!references!to!the!state!of!the!wind!were!supplemented!with!additional! information!on!the!general!state!of!the!weather!and!the!presence!of!any!unusual! observations!such!as!land,!ship,!or!animal!sightings:!the!Isles!of!Fero!identified!by!

Captain!William!Flaws!and!his!crew,!for!example,!and!the!“small!Vessel”!they!“gave! chase”!to!on!9!August,!1676;!or!the!“abundance!of!Seales”!jumping!out!of!the!water!and! dancing!around!the!ship!noted!by!Captain!Wood!on!4!April!1671;!or!the!“many!Willocks! and!other!Sea!Fowles”!observed!by!Flaws!on!22!of!July,!1676.!68!Indeed,!the!travel! narrative!genre!may!readily!be!conceptualized!as!an!extension!and!derivative!of!the! logbooks,!which!themselves!constitute!a!distinct!form!of!literary!discourse!with!its!own! particular!format,!vocabulary,!and!content.69!!

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68!Captain!William!Flawes!writes,!“Thursday!August!9…AT!3!in!the!Morning!a!fresh!Gale,!saw! many!Willocks!and!other!Sea`Fowls,!and!at!5!we!saw!the!Land!East`south`east!from!us;!being!high!Land,! and!making!like!Islands,!being!the!Isles!of!Fero…we!saw!a!small!Vessel,!and!gave!chase!to!her,!but!she! made!from!us,”!(Captain!William!Flawes!(1676),!as!quoted!in!Narbrough,!An*Account,!179`180)!Several!days! prior!he!had!noted,!“Saturday,!July!22…Noon!to!this!Day!4!in!the!Morning,!the!Wind!at!South`west!by! West,!and!South`west,!with!thick!Fogs.!Course!West!by!North,!and!North`north`west!46!Miles,!at!which! time!it!was!very!foggy!Weather:!we!saw!many!Willocks,!and!other!Sea!Fowles!more!than!usual,!which!made! us!think!that!we!were!near!the!Land!of!Cherry`Island,”!(p.175).!Likewise,!Commander!John!Wood!writes,! “the!fourth!day!we!had!snow,!hail,!and!gloomy!Sun`shine,!with!cold!weather,!but!not!excessive,!the!wind!at! North`west,!the!weather!every!day!unconstant.!Here!we!saw!abundance!of!Seales,!they!jump’d!out!of!the! water!before!the!Ship,!and!which!was!strange,!they!would!stand!half!out!of!the!water,!and!as!it!were!dance! together,”!(John!Wood!(1676)!as!quoted!in!Narbrough,!Several*Late*Voyages*and*Discoveries,!198).!! 69!For!more!information!on!the!extent!to!which!British!Naval!Logbooks!provide!a!reliable!source!of! meteorological!information!for!eras!past!please!see!Dennis!Wheeler,!“British!Naval!Logbooks!from!the!Late! Seventeenth!Century:!New!Climactic!Information!From!Old!Sources,”!History*of*Meteorology!2!(2005),! accessed!February!27,!2015,!http://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/10wheeler.pdf.! Wheeler!analyzed!the!data!provided!approximately!52!early!logbooks!(in!the!National!Maritime!Museum’s! collection)!that!described!the!wind!and!weather!conditions!from!1685`1700!in!“the!confined!but!frequently! navigated!area!of!the!English!Channel”!yielding!a!sample!of!5,500!days!of!data,!the!analysis!of!which! provides!information!on!the!wind!force!terms!most!common!in!17th!century!British!Naval!logbooks!and!their! equivalents!to!the!modern!Beaufort!scale!now!in!use!to!measure!wind!force.!He!also!provides!a!chart!of! 310! !

Logbooks!were!not!uniformly!standardized!by!the!Royal!Navy!until!the!19th! century.!However,!custom!created!a!set!of!informal!dictates!that!most!ship!captains,! merchant,!naval,!or!otherwise,!abided!by.!These!included!a!two!page!format,!dates!

(including!days!of!the!week),!wind!directions!according!to!the!32!point!compass,!the! ship’s!course!and!progress!in!the!last!24!hours,!latitudinal!and!longitudinal!coordinates,! the!ship’s!bearings!relative!to!visible!landmarks!or!in!relation!to!the!nearest!significant! landmark!estimated!from!a!chart,!followed!by!a!section!of!general!remarks!that!might! include!notes!on!sail!settings,!land!sightings,!salutes,!deaths,!ship!encounters,!and! battles,!for!example.70!The!contents!of!a!thorough!logbook!thus!provided!the!most!basic! structural!foundation!for!a!story:!character,!setting,!plot,!and!conflict.!In!fact,!many! travel!narratives!read!like!an!unedited!ship!log,!which!gave!them!an!added!air!of! authenticity.!!

These!autographical!travelers’!accounts!were!thus!predominantly!descriptive! rather!than!analytic.!They!narrated!what!meteorological!events!took!place!rather!than! explaining!why.!In!this!way!they!differed!from!folkloric!and!religious!accounts,!which!

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! mean!monthly!wind!directions!and!another!the!frequency!of!rain!days!between!1685`1700,!based!on!the! analysis!of!this!same!sample.!! 70!The!logbooks!of!the!Royal!Navy,!prior!to!the!19th!century!provided!very!minimal!daily! information.!The!logbooks!of!joint!stock!companies!such!as!the!East!India!Company!and!the!Hudson!Bay! Company,!included!much!more!detail!by!comparison.!For!more!information!on!ship!logs!please!see! “Understanding!Ship’s!Logbooks,”!The!Royal!Museums!Greenwich,!National!Maritime!Museum,!(2015),! accessed!February!28,!2015,!http://www.rmg.co.uk/about/partnerships`and` initiatives/cliwoc/understanding`shipls`logbooks!! 311! ! tended!to!offer!not!only!descriptions!of!physical!phenomena!but!conclusions!about!the! significance!of!the!relationships!among!various!phenomena.!Yet!embedded!in!both!these! descriptive!and!analytic!narrations!of!wind!were!subtle!hierarchies!of!order:!ways!of! imposing!structure!and!correlation!and!reason!upon!environments!and!natural!forces! that!to!a!great!extent!resisted!human!attempts!at!rationalization.!Both!forms!of! narration—folklore!and!travel!narratives—endeavored!to!discursively!bound!or!tether! the!force!of!the!wind!by!linking!it!to!a!broader!and!seemingly!stable!narrative! structure—to!accounts!that!included!the!behavior!of!animals,!for!example,!the!color!of! the!sky,!an!incident!on!board!the!ship,!a!land!sighting.!By!discursively!tying!the!wind!to! other!presumptively!stable!objects!and!situations!within!the!physical!environment,!the! authors!of!each!genre!effectively!imposed!a!discursive!order!upon!a!metaphorically! unstable!object,!an!object!that!was!likewise!a!physically!unwieldy!and!irrational!force.!

Travel!narratives!that!described!sea!voyages!incorporated!elements!of!sailor! vernacular!into!their!texts!introduced!this!language!to!the!general!public.!In!doing!so!the! authors!and!publishers!changed!the!purpose!and!value!of!the!language!used!to!describe! the!wind,!and!thus!the!very!meaning!of!the!wind!in!this!particular!context.!While!such! terminology!may!have!served!practical!navigational!purposes!within!the!context!of!a! maritime!voyage,!it!took!on!new!meaning!and!significance!in!the!context!of!the! publishing!world,!fulfilling!a!new!set!of!functions,!commercial!and!popular!in!nature.!

Publishers!aimed!for!broad!readership!and!therefore!had!to!negotiate!a!balance!between!

312! ! wind!terminology!that!would!be!accessible!to!the!general!public!without!compromising! the!feeling!of!authenticity—another!key!selling!point!for!these!texts.!Authentic!language! that!reflected!the!grammar!of!the!seaman!was!thus!important,!but!only!insofar!as!it!did! not!alienate!the!audience.!

The!wind!references!that!appeared!in!popular!travel!narratives!of!the!late!17th! century!illustrate!the!type!of!wind!terminology!and!language!commonly!used!by!sailors! and!commonly!referred!to!in!sailor!logbooks.!In!his!book!of!nautical!vocabulary,!The*

Seaman’s*Grammar,!Captain!John!Smith!writes,!“the!sometimes!Governor!of!Virginia!and!

Admiral!of!New!England”!(borrowing!heavily!from!the!privateer!and!Lieutenant!Sir!

Henry!Mainwaring’s,!The*Seaman’s*Dictionary)!listed!and!defined!many!of!the!most! popular!wind!terms!in!circulation!at!this!time.71!He!writes,!for!example:!!

A!Fresh!Gale!is!that!doth!presently!blow!after!a!calm,!when!the!wind!beginneth! to!quicken!or!blow.!A!Fair!Loom!Gale!is!the!best!to!sail!in!because!the!Sea!goeth! not!high,!and!we!bear!out!all!our!Sails.!A!stiffe!Gale!is!so!much!wind!as!our!Top` sails!can!endure!to!bear.!An!Eddy`Wind!is!checked!by!the!sail,!a!Mountain,! turning,!or!any!such!things!that!makes!it!return!back!again.!It!Over!Blows!when! we!can!bear!no!Top`sails.!A!flaw!or!wind!is!A!Gust!which!is!very!violent!all!of!a! sudden,!but!quickly!endeth…Whirle`winds!running!round,!and!bloweth!divers! ways!at!once.!A!Storm!is!known!to!everyone!not!to!be!much!less!than!a!tempest,! that!will!blow!down!Houses,!and!Tress!up!by!the!roots.72!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

71!This!quote!is!drawn!from!the!listing!on!John!Smith:!William!Thomas!Lowndes,!The*Bibliographerhs* Manual*of*English*Literature,!vol.!2!(London:!William!Pickering,!1834),!1696.!For!more!information!on!John! Smith’s!text!please!see!Captain!John!Smith’s!Sea!Grammar!and!its!Debt!to!Sir!Henry!Mainwaring’s! ‘Seaman’s!Dictionary’!by!P.L.!Barbour,!in!Mariner’s*Mirror!58,!no.1!(1972):!93`101.! 72!Breverton,!Pirate*Dictionary,!184.!Smith’s!wind!terminology!and!the!descriptions!he!offers!are! strikingly!similar!to!the!wind!force!scale!published!in!Daniel!Defoe’s!Storm!(1703),!which!is!commonly!and! perhaps!mistakenly!credited!as!the!first!wind`force!scale!to!appear!in!print.!John!Smith’s,*The*Seaman’s* Grammar*and*Dictionary,*Explaining*all*the*Difficult*Terms*in*Navigation*and*the*Practical*Navigator*and*Gunner* in*Two*Parts!(London:!Randal!Taylor,!1691).!! 313! !

! Wind!terms!such!as!these!appeared!throughout!popular!travel!narratives,!as!part!of! most!daily!entries.!John!Narborough,!for!example,!was!an!English!Admiral!in!the!Royal!

Navy!who!was!repeatedly!commissioned!alternately!by!the!crown!and!by!groups!of!

New!England!investors!to!explore!the!South!Seas!and!to!hunt!for!treasure.!Excerpts!from! descriptions!of!his!journey!to!the!“Streights!of!Magellan”!incorporate!much!of!the! specialized!terminology!noted!in!Smith’s!Seamen’s*Grammar,*such!as!little!wind,!and! fresh!gale.!He!writes:!

February!24.!Fair!Weather!and!little!Wind,!Northerly.!This!Morning!we!weighed,! to!go!to!Port!Desire`Bay,!and!in!the!Evening!at!six!a!Clock!we!Anchored!in!the! Bay,!in!fourteen!Fathom!of!Water...Sunday!February!26.!Fair!Weather,!and!a! fresh!Wind!at!South`south`west.!May!24.!Close,!hasey!Weather,!and!a!fresh!gale! of!Wind!at!North`east!and!by!North.!This!Forenoon!we!Anchored!in!Angria` Rode,!in!sixteen!Fathom!of!Water.!Friday!May!26.!Fair!Weather,!and!little!Wind! at!North`east.!This!Forenoon!we!set!Sail!out!of!Angria`Rode,!to!go!for!England.73!! ! This!linguistic!taxonomy!also!highlights!the!way!in!which!wind`powered!technologies— in!this!case,!the!sailing!ship—elicited!specialized,!mediated!ways!of!knowing!the!wind,! unique!to!the!circumstances!created!by!the!technology!in!question,!as!well!as!a! specialized!vocabulary!used!to!describe!the!particulars!of!this!relationship.!Through! texts!such!as!these!the!literate!public!became!increasingly!familiar!with!these!specialized! nautical!wind!terms.74!This!increasingly!shared!vocabulary!served!to!connect!people!

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73!Narbrough,!Several*Late*Voyages*and*Discoveries,!127`128! 74!An!additional!prominent!example!of!a!narrative!employing!this!type!of!wind!terminology!is! Woodes!Rogers,!A*Cruising*Voyage*Round*the*World!(London:!A.!Bell!and!B.!Lintot,!1712).!! 314! ! from!various!strata!of!society!in!a!collective!imagining!of!the!world!abroad!and!in!the! technologies!and!the!forces!of!nature!that!sailors!partnered!with!in!the!process.!!

A!much!later!example!of!this!type!of!narrative,!The*Three*Voyages*of*John*Davis,! published!in!1880,!describes!two!of!Captain!Davis’s!voyages!in!search!of!the!Northwest!

Passage!(1585!and!1586)!and!his!journey!to!the!coast!of!China!(1587).!Davis!was!one!of! the!most!prominent!and!successful!English!explorers!under!the!reign!of!Elizabeth!I,!and! he!not!only!published!works!on!navigation!and!the!sea,!but!his!voyages!were! subsequently!published!by!the!Hakluyt!Society,!founded!in!honor!of!Richard!Hakluyt,! an!author!and!priest!who!advocated!for!English!settlement!in!North!America!and!who! used!the!publishing!world!to!draw!public!attention!and!to!increase!interest!and!support! for!such!endeavor.75!In!A*Life*of*John*Davis,!Biographer!Sir!Clements!Robert!Markham! writes,!“Davis!converted!the!Arctic!regions!from!a!confused!myth!into!a!defined!area,! the!physical!aspects!and!conditions!of!which!were!understood!as!far!as!they!were!

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75!Davis’s!publications!include!his!work!on!practical!navigation!entitled!The*Seaman’s*Secrets!(1594)! and!The*World’s*Hydrographical*Description!(1595).!English!writer!Richard!Hakluyt!published!a!number!of! travel!narratives!with!imperialistic!aims!in!mind!and!the!Hakluyt!Society!founded!in!his!name!continued!to! do!so!even!after!his!death.!Hakluyt’s!advocacy!for!the!settlement!of!North!America!found!expression!in! published!works!such!as!Divers*Voyages*Touching*the*Discoverie*of*America!(1582)!and!The*Principal* Navigations,*Voiages,*Traffiques*and*Discoueries*of*the*English*Nation!(1589–1600).!Hakluyt!articulated!his!views! regarding!the!“advantages!of!colonization”!in!the!epistle!to!his!publication!Divers*Voyages*Touching*the* Discovery*of*America*and*the*Islands*Adjacent:!“as!a!means!of!employing!the!idle,!of!rendering!the!laws!less! sanguinary,!by!diminishing!the!necessity!for!capital!punishment,!and!of!enlarging!the!commerce!of!the! country;!the!extension!of!the!knowledge!of!navigation,!particularly!among!our!merchant!seamen;!and!the! conversion!of!the!savage,!and!consequent!promotion!of!the!worship!and!glory!of!God.”!Richard!Hakluyt,! Divers*Voyages*Touching*the*Discoverie*of*America!(Hakluyt!Society,!1801),!xvii.!! 315! ! known.”76!Davis!accomplished!this!not!only!by!mapping!the!Arctic!region!and!others!via! illustration,!but!through!literary!description:!!

The!twenty`fourth,!the!Ile!De!Diego!Roiz,!standing!in!the!Latitude!of!nineteen! degrees!and!fortie!minutes!to!the!South`ward,!and!in!the!Longitude!of!ninetie` eight!degrees!and!thirtie!minutes,!bare!North!off!us!about!five!of!the!clocke,!eight! leagues!off.!Wee!bare!roome!to!have!landed,!but!the!wind!grew!so!stiffe!in!the! night!that!we!altered!our!determination.!About!this!Iland!we!saw!great!store!of! white!Birds,!having!in!their!tayles!but!two!long!feathers.!These!Birds!and!divers! others!accompanied!us!with!such!contrary!winds!and!gusts!that!wee!often!split! our!sayles,!and!boutlting!to!and!againe,!we!rather!went!to!the!Lee`ward!then! gained!anything,!the!wind!blew!so!stiffe!at!the!East!South!East.77!! ! In!this!passage!Davis!couples!technical!navigational!language!with!more! descriptive!passages!of!the!wind!and!weather,!supplemented!by!his!observations!of!the! land!and!animals!in!the!vicinity.78!!He!offers!coordinates!that!would!allow!a!specialist!to!

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76!“[John!Davis]!not!only!described!and!mapped!the!extensive!tract!explored!by!himself,!but!he! clearly!pointed!out!the!work!cut!out!for!his!successors.!He!lighted!Hudson!into!his!strait.!He!lighted!Baffin! into!his!bay.!.!.!.!His!true`hearted!devotion!to!the!cause!of!Arctic!discovery,!his!patient!scientific!research,!his! loyalty!to!his!employers,!his!dauntless!gallantry!and!enthusiasm,!form!an!example!which!will!be!a!beacon` light!to!maritime!explorers!for!all!time!to!come.”!Davis!was!killed!in!1604!by!a!captive!pirate!whose!ship!he! and!his!crew!had!just!seized!in!the!waters!off!Bintan!Island!near!Singapore.!Sir!Clements!Robert!Markham,! The*Life*of*John*Davis,*the*Navigator,*1550@1605:*Discoverer*of*Davis*Straits*(London:!George!Philips!and!Son,! 1889),!71,!accessed!February!25,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=zlI6AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=A+Life+of+John+Davis&hl=en &sa=X&ei=gafuVIbrBoOaNsrYgOAN&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=A%20Life%20of%20John%20D avis&f=false!! 77!John!Davis,!Charles,!Henry!Coote,!John!Jane,!Edward!Wright,!The*Voyages*and*Works*of*John* Davis,*the*Navigator!59/1!(London:!Hakluyt!Society,!1880),!166,!accessed!February!27,!2015,! http://books.google.com/books?id=I2sTAAAAIAAJ&dq=voyages+of+john+davis&source=gbs_navlinks_s!! Davis!references!wind!direction!and!the!general!state!of!the!weather!more!frequently!than!wind!force.!The! terms!cleare,!and!fogge!appear!with!great!frequency,!for!example.!However,!wind!force!was!nevertheless!a! part!of!his!observations.!The!terms!faire!and!calm!were!commonly!present!in!his!notes,!as!descriptions!of! wind!forces,!as!were!Davis’s!references!to!“a!“pretie!storm,”!“stormy”!winds,!and!a!“tempestuous!storm,”! all!of!which!functioned!to!not!only!describe!the!weather,!but!the!associated!wind!force!as!well.!! 78!Other!examples!from!Davis’!work!include!the!following:!“the!15!we!departed!thence,!having!the! winde!North!and!by!East,!moderate!and!fayre!weather…The!28,!in!Gods!name,!we!departed,!the!winde! being!Easterly,!but!calme…The!1!of!August!we!had!a!faire!wind!and!so!proceeded!towards!the!northwest! 316! ! identify!his!exact!location!in!space,!while!including!additional!details!that!allow!more! general!readers!to!imagine!the!setting!around!him.!Presenting!the!information!in!this! manner!rendered!his!narrative!appealing!to!both!specialists!and!non`specialists!alike.!

Grounding!his!account!in!concrete!details!about!the!wind!and!weather,!and!including! navigational!coordinates!lent!an!air!of!credibility!to!the!broader!arcs!of!Davis’s!story.79!!

While!his!close!descriptions!of!the!birds!in!this!passage,!so!striking!in!their!detail,! implicitly!transfer!the!same!degree!of!close!observation!and!empirical!authority!to!his! mention!of!the!quality!of!the!wind.!His!wind!knowledge!conferred!and!legitimated!his! rank!while!the!story!of!his!travels!appealed!to!a!literate!public!interested!the!world!that! lay!beyond!the!English!shores!and!to!government!and!businessmen!invested!in!the! profitable!returns,!political!and!economic,!of!such!imperial!endeavor.!

As!Davis’s!writing!suggests,!these!texts!and!the!language!they!incorporated!were! thus!political!in!their!aims.!From!the!16th!century!throughout!the!19th!century!the!English! were!actively!engaged!in!activities!designed!to!broaden!the!scope!of!empire!and!to! increase!the!English!presence!abroad.!Travel!narratives!reaffirmed!the!reality!of!such! endeavors!by!constructing!an!image!of!the!world!in!keeping!with!the!state’s!political!

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! for!our!discoverie…The!23!of!this!month![August]!the!wind!came!southeast!very!stormy!and!foule! weather…The!24,!in!the!afternoon,!the!wind!coming!somewhat!faire!wee!departed!from!this!roade,! purposing!by!God’s!grace!to!returne!for!England.”!John!Davis,!Voyages*and*Works,!2,!9,!13,!14! 79!Davis!self`identified!as!an!expert!navigator!and!such!details!attest!to!his!observational!abilities— key!elements!of!skilled!navigation—while!publically!conveying!legible!nuances!of!his!skill!set.!!! 317! ! goals,!bringing!the!people,!landscapes,!and!experiences!taking!place!on!the!periphery! and!in!the!farthest!reaches!of!this!expanding!empire!back!home!to!the!residents!of!the! core.!In!doing!so,!these!narratives!linked!those!at!home!to!those!who!represented!the! nation!in!its!exploration!and!conquest!abroad.!They!became!joint!participants!in!an! expanding!geography!of!empire!the!empirical!reality!of!which!was!in!part!constructed! and!affirmed!through!discursive!narrative!representation.!Davis’s!travels!took!place! during!the!late!16th!century,!however!the!narratives!of!his!exploration!were!not! published!until!several!centuries!later!when!the!British!Empire!was!at!the!peak!of!its! strength.80!!

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80!Peter!Hulme!and!Tim!Youngs,!eds.,!The*Cambridge*Companion*to*Travel*Writing!(Cambridge:! Cambridge!University!Press,!2002).!Notable!anthologies!include:!Andrew!Hadfiled,!ed.!Amazons,!Savages*and* Machiavels:*Travel*and*Colonial*Writing*in*English*1550@1630:*An*Anthology!(Oxford:!Oxford!University!Press,! 2001);!Peter!Mancall!ed.,!Travel*Narratives*From*the*Age*of*Discovery:*An*Anthology!(Oxford;!New!York:! Oxford!University!Press,!2006);!Anthony!Pagden,!Facing*Each*Other:*The*World’s*Perception*of*Europe*and* Europe’s*Perception*of*the*World!(Aldershot,!Hampshire,!Great!Britain;!Burlington!VT,!USA:! Ashgate/Variorum,!2000);!Kenneth!Parker,!ed.,!Early*Modern*Tales*of*the*Orient:*A*Critical*Anthology!(London:! Routledge,!1999);!Louis!B.!Wright,!ed.,!The*Elizabethans’*America:*A*collection*of*Early*Reports*by*Englishmen*on* the*New*World!(Cambridge,!Mass.:!Harvard!University!Press,!1966).!For!an!early!work!in!this!genre!see,!E.S.! Bates,!Touring*in*1600:*A*Study*in*the*Development*of*Travel*as*a*Means*of*Education!(Boston,!1911).!For!non` western!perceptions!see,!Dale!Eickleman!and!James!Piscatori!eds.,!Muslim*Travellers:*Pilgrimage,*Migration,* and*the*Religious*Imagination!(London:!Routledge,!1990);!Nabil!Matar,!In*the*Land*of*Christians:!Arabic*Travel* Writing*in*the*17th*Century!(New!York:!Routledge,!2003);!and!David!Northup,!Africa’s*Discovery*of*Europe,* 1450@1850!(New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!2002).!Pertinent!to!the!subject!as!well!is!Edward!Said’s!well! known!study,!Orientalism!(New!York:!Pantheon,!1978).!For!captivity!narratives!see!Linda!Colley,!Captives:! Britain,!Empire,!and!the!World,!1600`1850!(London:!J.!Cape,!2002).!For!studies!emphasizing!gender,!see! Susan!Bassnett,!“Travel!Writing!and!Gender,”!in!Cambridge*Companion*to*Travel*Writing;!Grzegorz!Moroz,! Travelers,*Novelists*and*Gentlemen:*Constructing*Male*Narrative*Personae*in*British*Books,*from*the*Beginning*to* the*Second*World*War!(Frankfurt!am!Main:!Peter!Lang,!2013).!On!the!relationship!between!fiction!and!travel! narratives!in!the!eighteenth!century!in!Western!Europe,!and!Britain!in!particular,!see!Percy!Adams,!Travelers* and*Travel*Liars,*1660@1800!(Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1962);!and!for!the!relationship!between! travel!narratives!and!theatre!see!Anthony!Parr,!ed.,!Three*Renaissance*Travel*Plays!(Manchester:!Manchester! University!Press,!1995).!! 318! !

Strong,!triumphant,!definitive!narratives!such!as!these!validated!the!nation’s! efforts!in!this!direction!and!conveyed!a!particular!image!of!the!world!in!keeping!with!an! ideology!of!expansion!and!imperial!authority!and!control.!They!operated!not!only!as! technologies!of!persuasion!but!served!as!buttresses!that!guarded!against!the!weight!of! both!natural!impediments!and!social!opposition!to!these!activities.!The!wind!functioned! in!multiple!capacities,!validating!the!empirical!quality!of!these!voyages!and!by! implication!the!political!aims!motivating!them,!while!at!once!facilitating!and! undermining!such!endeavors!on!the!physical!level—alternately!propelling,!stalling,!or! destroying!the!ships!that!made!such!imperial!expansion!possible.!The!wind!thus! functioned!as!both!an!agent!and!an!opponent!of!empire,!collaborating!with!explorers!as! they!mapped!an!ever`widening!arc!of!influence,!while!simultaneously!suggesting!the! contingency!and!delicacy!of!such!endeavor!both!physically!and!ideologically.!!

The!factual!quality!of!the!wind!references!that!appeared!in!these!narratives,!as! seemingly!innocuous!as!they!may!have!appeared,!validated!each!author’s!broader! claims,!as!well!as!the!political!aims!of!the!nation!state!that!the!explorers!represented.!

Davis,!for!example,!noted!that!“all!the!ships!of!China,!Patane,!Jor,!Pan`Hange,!and!other! places!which!are!to!the!Northward,!come!to!Bantam!or!Palimbam!when!the!Northerly!

Monsoin!is!come:!and!returrne!backe!againe!when!the!Southerly!Monsoin!

319! ! commeth…This!being!observed,!you!shall!have!both!wind!and!tyde!with!you.”81!Davis’s! mention!here!of!the!seasonal!monsoon!winds!jointly!gestured!toward!England’s! engagement!with!Asia!and!the!Far!East.!Implying!the!economic!and!political!ties!being! forged.!Likewise,!Admiral!Narbrough!described!his!experiences!along!the!South!

American!coast!near!Baldavia!where!the!Spanish!had!detained!four!men!of!his!company:!!

February!9.!Fair!Weather,!Wind!Westerly.!This!Morning!the!Captain!sent!me!to! see!for!Indians,!but!I!could!see!none…Saturday!February!11.!Fair!Weather,!Wind! variable.!This!day!the!Captain!ordered!me!to!go!with!the!Pinnace,!and!discover! the!North`shore…February!13.!Fair!Weather,!and!a!fresh!gale!of!Wind!Westerly.! This!Morning!I!run!all!along!the!North`shore!from!Cape!Gregory,!to!the!first! Narrow;!and!I!was!no!sooner!entered!into!the!first!Narrow,!but!I!saw!three! Anchors,!which!lay!up!above!High`water!Mark,!in!a!small!sandy!Cove:!there!I! landed,!and!haled!up!the!Boat;!and!seared!about!to!see!if!we!could!fall!with!any! Guns,!or!other!Trade…I!saw!no!Indians!here,!nor!anything!worth!Observing.82!! ! Narbrough’s!activities!in!these!passages!are!political!and!economic!in!nature—scouting! for!natives,!taking!stock!of!the!coastline,!and!attempting!to!trade!with!other!companies! in!the!area.!And!the!wind!and!weather!operate!as!part!of!the!set!and!setting,!the! backdrop!against!which!these!events!take!place.!In!another!sense,!by!situating!such! political!and!economic!activities!within!the!context!of!nature’s!activity!Narbrough! implicitly!naturalizes!British!imperial!efforts!and!locates!them!on!the!same!level!as!the! course!of!nature.!British!trade!and!exploration!become!merely!one!more!set!of!natural!

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81!Davis,!Voyages*and*Works,!177`178! 82!The!four!men!who!according!to!Narbrough!were!detained!by!the!Spaniards!were!Thomas! Armiger,!John!Fortescue,!Hugh!Cooe,!and!Thomas!Highway.!All!were!between!the!ages!of!27`40!years!old.! Narbrough,!Voyages*and*Discoveries,!125`126! 320! ! events!taking!place,!on!par!with!the!notable!qualities!of!the!sky,!the!direction!of!the! wind,!the!presence!of!animals!in!the!vicinity.!!

Similar!linguistic!trends!are!evident!in!The*World*Encompassed,!published!in!1628! and!prepared!by!Francis!Drake’s!nephew!and!namesake!Sir!Francis!Drake,!2nd!Baronet.!

Drawing!upon!several!sources—the!most!notable!being!the!journal!of!chaplain!Francis!

Fletcher!who!sailed!on!board!the!Golden*Hind!as!part!of!Drake’s!five`ship!squadron—this! text!recounts!Drake’s!historic!voyage!circumnavigating!the!world!(1577`1580),!the!first! successful!completion!of!such!a!venture!since!Magellan.83!!In!a!notable!passage! describing!entrance!to!the!south!sea!through!the!straights!of!Magellan,!the!author! describes!the!“extreame!gusts!or!contrary!windes![that]!doe!come!(whereunto!the!place! is!altogether!subject),”!which!rendered!the!passage!extremely!difficult!and!dangerous!to! navigate—an!observation!noted!by!Magellan!as!well.84!The!straight!was!hazardous,!

“…carrying!with!it!much!winde,!often!turnings,!and!many!dangers,!requireth!an!expert!

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83Though!Drake!set!out!with!a!five`vessel!squadron,!Drake’s!own!ship,!the!Golden*Hind,!was!the! only!one!that!completed!the!voyage.!Drake!plundered!a!number!of!Spanish!vessels!while!in!the!Pacific,!and! particularly!along!the!coast!and!in!the!seas!near!Chile—a!region!in!which!the!Spanish!did!not!expect!enemy! vessels!and!thus!returned!to!England!with!large!quantities!of!gold,!silver,!pearls,!and!precious!stones.!To! keep!the!peace!with!Prince!Phillip!who!would!have!been!incensed!to!learn!of!English!ships!in!Spanish! waters,!Drake!was!quietly!welcomed!home!with!little!pomp!and!circumstance.!The!enormous!riches!he! returned!with!were!enough!to!pay!off!the!English!foreign!debt!from!the!Queen’s!share!alone,!with!money!to! spare.!Hans!P.!Kraus,!“Sir!Francis!Drake:!A!Pictorial!Biography,”!Library!of!Congress!Rare!Book!and!Special! Collections!Reading!Room,!accessed!February!25,!2015,! http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/catalog/drake/drake`4`famousvoy.html!!! 84!Sir!Francis!Drake,!The*World*Encompassed,!London:!Hakluyt!Society,!1854)!76,!accessed!February! 25,!2014,! https://books.google.com/books?id=p2krMV9N8TwC&dq=Drake,+The+World+Encompassed,&source=gbs_ navlinks_s!! 321! ! judgement!in!him!that!pass!the!same:!it!lieth!West!North!West!an!East!South!East.”85!The! long!and!detailed!description!of!the!English!ship’s!dangerous!experience!rounding!the!

South!American!cape!(Cape!Horn)!was!valuable!not!only!for!practical!navigational! purposes!(namely!for!the!details!it!provided!about!the!wind!and!coast),!but!carried! weighty!political!inference!as!well.!86!Rounding!Cape!Horn!signaled!Drake’s!entrance! into!the!Spanish!controlled!domain!of!the!American!coastline!in!the!South!Seas,!an!area! that!at!that!time!was!still!relatively!unexplored!by!the!English.!It!cast!Drake!and!his! companions!in!the!role!of!brave!heroes!venturing!into!enemy!territory!and!succeeding! against!nature’s!odds—the!challenging!geography!of!the!coastline!and!the!temperament! of!the!wind!in!this!region—and!against!the!hostility!of!rival!imperial!nations.!

Hurricanes

Most!discourse!about!the!wind!centered!on!the!ways!in!which!the!wind!might! benefit!mankind.!Farmers,!sailors,!and!scientists!alike!discussed!the!wind,!and! contemplated!its!movement,!signs,!and!signals!in!order!to!most!advantageously!harness! its!strength!and!force.!Yet!for!all!the!ways!in!which!the!wind!aided!humanity,!there!were! moments!when!nature’s!utility!and!magnanimity!fell!to!the!wayside!and!the!wind’s!

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85!Sir!Francis!Drake,!The*World*Encompassed,!(London:!Hakluyt!Society,!1854),!71.!! 86!These!linguistic!trends!in!reference!to!the!wind!persisted;!evident!in!publications!that!appeared! even!in!the!next!century.!For!examples!please!see!George!Annesley,!Earl!of!Mountonrris,!Voyages*and*Travels* to*India,*Celon,*and*the*Red*Sea!(London:!F.,C.!and!J.!Rivington,!1811);!John!Pinkerton,!A*General*Collection*of* the*Best*and*Most*Interesting*Voyages*and*Travels*in*Various*Parts*of*Asia,!in*Four*Volumes,!(London:!Longman,! 1819);!Francis!Venables!Veron,!Voyages*and*Travels*of*a*Sea*Officer,!(London,!“Printed!for!the!Author”!1792);!A* General*History*and*Collection*of*Voyages*and*Travels,!in*Eighteen*Volumes,!ed.!Robert!Kerr!(London,!William! Blackwood,!1824).!! 322! ! awesome!power!was!unleashed,!indifferent!to!the!needs!of!mankind!or!to!the! consequences!for!human!life.!Hurricanes!and!storm!winds!were!perhaps!the!most! visible!reminder!of!the!extent!to!which!human!beings!engaged!with!the!wind!on!its! terms,!on!nature’s!terms,!rather!than!their!own.!Uncoincidentally,!references!to!such! catastrophic!events!emerge!in!the!scientific!writing!of!natural!philosophers!such!as!

Ralph!Bohun,!in!the!travel!literature!of!Drake!and!Dampier,!and!too!in!the!fictional! novels!that!emerged!at!the!opening!of!the!18th!century.!!

The!physical!impacts!of!a!hurricane!not!only!rendered!the!wind!more!overtly! visible!but!additionally!animated!the!wind!as!an!aspect!of!nature!that!in!such!instances! was!decidedly!not!artistic!or!compatible!with!such!operative!human!knowledges.!If!art,! as!defined!by!Bacon,!was!the!manipulation!of!nature!resulting!in!the!creation!of!things! novel!and!productive,!then!hurricanes!were!its!antithesis:!the!undoing!of!human,! creative,!productive!acts;!the!destruction!of!physical!environments!and!the!rules!people! imposed!that!governed!their!management!and!development.!These!storms!likewise! mapped,!both!physically!and!metaphorically,!imperial!fears!of!rebellion,!subversion,! and!a!disregard!for!social!order!and!political!authority!!

The!English!nation!set!out!to!colonize,!exploit,!and!control!vast!territories,! populations,!and!economies!to!their!advantage!and!the!wind!functioned!as!the!prime! mover!enabling!travel!to!such!foreign!places.!This!same!pattern!of!dominance!and! colonization!was!dually!exemplified!in!English!attitudes!toward!nature—as!an!unruly!

323! ! subject!in!need!of!civilizing!and!control—and!equally!manifest!in!the!approach!natural! philosophers!took!toward!the!wind!as!well.!Scientists!tackled!the!subject!in!much!the! same!way!that!explorers!and!colonists!approached!the!foreign!people!and!places!they! traveled!to!and!encountered:!authoring!descriptive!taxonomies,!attempting!to!chart! behavior,!movements,!and!patterns!from!a!position!of!presumed!authority.!The!English! attempted!to!colonize!the!globe!and!these!political!efforts!were!both!mirrored!in!and! enabled!by!their!efforts!to!colonize!the!wind.87!Hurricanes!cast!the!challenges!presented! in!these!dual!aims!in!sharper!relief.!

Hurricanes!were!also!a!defining!environmental!characteristic!of!the!Caribbean,! one!that!set!the!region!apart!from!other!British!colonies,!and!that!simultaneously! challenged!notions!of!humanity’s!ability!to!impose!order!and!rule!over!the!natural! world!and!the!imperialist’s!ability!to!impose!order!and!rule!over!colonial!landscapes! and!subjects.!88!England!experienced!storms!that!could!be!considered!hurricanes—the!

Great!Storm!of!1703!being!the!most!notable!example.!However,!windstorms!of!hurricane! magnitude!were!very!rare!occurrences!in!England!when!compared!to!the!frequency! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

87!For!an!overview!of!the!historiography!of!empire!see:!J.!Gascoigne,!lThe!Expanding! Historiography!of!British!imperialism,”!Historical*Journal!49!(2006):!577–592.! 88!Historian!John!Gascoigne!writes,!“Empires!were!often!mirrors!that!refracted!and!magnified! characteristics!and!foibles!of!the!colonizing!culture.!In!this!sense!the!empire!was!almost!a!testing!ground!for! the!attitudes!and!practices!that!collectively!made!up!a!national!identity!or,!more!accurately,!the!different! types!of!identity!that!shelter!under!the!same!national!umbrella,”!(Gascoigne,!Expanding*Historiography,!579).! This!was!certainly!the!case!with!respect!to!wind!knowledge.!The!competing!epistemologies!circulating! about!the!wind!in!Early!Modern!England!all!came!into!focus!around!questions!empire!and!colonial! expansion—science,!folklore,!religion,!and!fiction,!“sheltered!under!the!same!umbrella”!to!use!Gascoigne’s! eloquent!phrasing.!And!hurricanes!were!events!that!brought!these!various!attitudes!and!practices!that! collectively!made!up!English!national!identity,!as!well!as!their!epistemological!tests,!into!sharper!focus.!! 324! ! with!which!they!struck!the!Caribbean.!As!trade!and!colonization!created!incentives!for! direct!and!sustained!contact!with!the!Caribbean!Islands,!however,!these!storms!became! a!topic!of!interest.!Likewise,!as!triangle!trade!between!England,!America,!and!the!

Caribbean!grew,!the!social!and!economic!ramifications!of!these!natural!disasters! increased!proportionally.89!

!For!natural!philosophers,!hurricanes!thus!presented!both!a!challenge!and!an! opportunity:!scientists!labored!to!understand!the!cause!of!these!devastating!wind!storms! and!to!discern!indicators!of!their!approach!in!order!to!protect!the!people!and! investments!at!risk,!thereby!validating!natural!philosophy’s!practical!utility.!Natural! philosopher!and!Royal!Society!member!Ralph!Bohun,!for!example,!devoted! approximately!fifty!pages!of!his!Discourse*Concerning*the*Origin*and*Properties*of*Wind!to! an!extended!discussion!of!Hurricanes.90!He!oriented!his!analysis!first!around!a!brief! description!of!the!potential!causes!of!these!tropical!storms!that!included!a!prescription!

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89!In!his!study!Hurricanes*and*Society*in*the*British*Greater*Caribbean*1624@1783!historian!Matthew! Mulcahy!writes,!“Disasters!become!defined!as!such!only!when!they!strike!human!communities,!and!their! impact!has!as!much!to!do!with!the!context!in!which!they!strike!as!with!the!physical!forces!that!give!rise!to! them…the!particular!social!forms!and!institutions!that!colonists!established!over!time!in!turn!shaped!their! experience!of!hurricanes,”!(p.!5).!And!later,!on!that!same!page!he!writes,!“In!the!seventeenth`!and! eighteenth`century!Greater!Caribbean,!slavery,!plantation!agriculture,!and!British!mercantilism!were! important!in!defining!the!effects!of!hurricanes!and!shaping!colonists’!response!to!them.!The!specific! landscapes!of!sugar!and!rice!plantations,!the!demographic!dominance!of!African!slaves,!and!the!economic! networks!and!policies!linking!the!colonies!of!the!Greater!Caribbean!with!other!parts!of!the!British!Atlantic! world!all!influenced!the!degree!and!kind!of!damage!inflicted!by!the!storms,!the!problems!created!by!the! breakdown!of!the!social!order,!and!the!nature!of!relief!efforts,”!(p.!5).!For!an!in!depth!discussion!of! hurricanes!in!the!British!Caribbean!please!see!Matthew!Mulcahy,*Hurricanes*and*Society*in*the*British*Greater* Caribbean*1624@1783!(Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins!University!Press,!2006).! 90!Ralph!Bohn,!A*Discourse*Concerning*the*Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind*with*an*Historicall*Account* of*Hurricanes*and*other*Tempestuous*Winds*(Oxford!:!Printed!by!W.!Hall!for!Tho.!Bowman,!1671).! 325! ! for!investigating!and!testing!his!hypothesis.!He!also!included!weather!prognostics! aimed!at!forecasting!the!approach!of!a!hurricane!and!concluded!with!a!series!of!first` hand!accounts!of!these!dreadful!disasters.!!

Bohun!argued!that!hurricanes!were!the!result!of!trade!winds!flowing!east!to!west! encountering!a!crosscurrent!of!wind—wind!blowing!from!the!opposite!direction:!“For! although…the!progresse!of!Wind!is!Naturally!direct,!yet!meeting!with!any!impediment,! it!whirles!about!in!a!Circular!and!Vortiginous!Motion,”!he!writes,!citing!the!work!of!

Dorisi,!Riciolus,!and!Varenius!(“in*his*Geography”).91!Apart!from!citing!scholarly!sources! on!the!subject,!Bohun!substantiated!his!claims!on!the!basis!of!extrapolation,!noting!that!

“we!see!these!kind!of!Eddy’s!in!Rivers”!in!instances!when!the!channel!is!obstructed!by!a! damn!or!a!bank,!for!example.92!Bohun!believed!that!wind!currents!behaved!much!the! same!way!and!suggested!that!“the!Phaenomenon!of!Hurricanes!my!be!sufficiently! illustrated!from!Hydrostatique!!experiments.”93!!

His!prescription!for!testing!this!“Hypothesis”!as!he!described!it,!would!entail! collecting!observations!and!making!inquiries!as!to!whether!contrary!wind!blew!from!the! continent!during!hurricane!season,!while!also!taking!into!consideration!the!effects!of!the! sun,!the!moon,!earthquakes,!and!oceanic!water!currents!in!creating!conditions!that!gave! rise!to!hurricanes.!He!referenced!the!observations!of!“most!of!Noblesse!and!persons!of!

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91!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!257! 92!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!258! 93!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!258! 326! !

Qualiitie”!in!his!discussion!of!the!relationship!between!volcanic!activity,!earthquakes,! and!hurricanes,!suggested!that!taken!together!reputation!and!observation!made!for! verifiable!scientific!evidence—constituted!scientific!truth.94!

Bohun!included!additional!first!hand!accounts!of!these!violent!storms.!He! published,!for!example,!a!juicy!excerpt!from!a!“History!of!the!Caribbe@Islands,”!authored! by!an!“Ingenious!Frenchman”!the!content!of!which!he!affirmed!as!true!on!the!basis!of! having!“lately!met!with!several!other!relations!both!of!the!French!and!the!English!who! liv’d!upon!St.!Christophers,!miserably!deploring!the!Subversion!of!their!houses!and!the! ruine!of!their!Families!and!Estates!by!Hurricanes.”95!He!included!this!tract!on!the!basis! of!it!being!emblematic!of!the!type!of!information!corroborated!through!his!discussions! with!other!residents!of!the!Caribbean!Islands:!“‘Hurricane’s!are!terrible!and!violent!

Tempests,!which!may!be!term’d!the!true!images!of!the!last!Conflagration!of!the!World,”! he!writes.96!What!follows!is!a!detailed!description!of!the!weather!conditions!leading!up! to!the!storm!and!the!destructive!aftermath!caused!by!these!fierce!hurricane!winds:!

Ordinarily!the!Sea!becomes!Calme!on!a!suddain,!and!Smooth!as!glasse;!then! presently!after,!the!Air!is!darkened,!and!fill’d!with!Dense!and!Gloomy!Clouds;! after!which,!it’s!all!(as!it!were)!on!Fire….When!these!storms!are!over!a!man!may! behold!the!saddest!Spectacles!that!can!be!imagined.!There!may!be!seen!Pieces!of! Mountains!shaken!by!the!Earthquakes,!and!Forrests!oveturn’d;!Houses!beaten! down!by!the!violence!of!the!Winds;!abundance!of!Poore!Families!undone!by!the! loss!of!their!Goods,!&!the!Mercahndize!in!their!Cottages;!of!which!they!can!save! but!very!little.!There!one!may!see!the!poor!Sea`men!drown’d,!and!rowling!in!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

94!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!261! 95!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!281! 96!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!281! 327! !

waves,!with!many!brave!ships!broken!in!pieces,!and!batter’d!against!the!Rocks.! ‘Tis!a!thing!so!wofull!and!deplorable,!that!should!this!Disorder!happen!often,!I! know!not!who!could!have!the!Heart!of!confidence!to!go!the!Indies.’97!! ! The!wind!emerges!as!a!dangerously!powerful!force!by!this!account;!a!force!capable!of! wrecking!absolute!havoc!upon!human!society!and!challenging!mankind’s!attempts!to! impose!order—scientific!or!otherwise—upon!the!natural!world,!to!tame!and!subjugate! and!rationalize!the!landscape!and!the!sea.!And!by!such!an!account!humanity!is! portrayed!as!both!a!victim!and!brave!opponent!of!such!violence:!the!poor!families!

“undone!by!the!loss”!the!“brave!ships!broken!in!pieces,!and!batter’d!against!the!Rocks.”!

The!chaos!rendered!by!such!fits!of!wind!is!“woful!and!deplorable.”!Portraying!the!wind! in!this!manner!elevated!the!noble!character!of!the!British!people!and!of!the!British!nation! in!their!battle!against!it.!Mastery!over!the!wind—as!incomplete!as!it!may!have!been— and!success!in!the!face!of!such!violent!opposition!stood!as!a!testament!to!the!nation’s! strength,!persistence,!and!determination.!The!awesome!power!of!the!wind!thus!dually! illuminated!the!force!and!power!of!the!colonial!endeavor!and!sweetened!those!instances! of!victory,!while!softening!the!sting!of!humiliation!when!such!efforts!failed.!After!all,!the!

English!were!taking!on!a!force!virtually!unparalleled!in!strength.!Failure!under!those! circumstances!could!be!narrated!heroically!and!virtuously!rather!than!as!a!result!of! foolishness!or!incompetence.!Narrating!the!wind!in!powerful!terms!conferred!power!to! the!English!by!implication!as!well.!!

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97!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!282`285! 328! !

Bohun!followed!up!the!Frenchman’s!account!of!the!storm!with!another!account! written!by!the!Captain!of!“one!of!his!Majesties!Frigates!on!the!way!to!the!West`Indies,”! who!had!learned!of!Bohun’s!“design”!and!responded!accordingly.98!This!he!described!as! an!even!“more!accurate”!description!on!the!basis!of!the!author’s!station!and!reputation.!

Yet,!both!accounts!are!ripe!with!drama.!The!Captain!writes,!for!example,!“The!Terrour! of![the!hurricane]!was!such,!that!I!thought!it!the!Emblem!of!Hell,!and!the!last!dissolution! of!all!things;!and!especially!the!first!two!hours,!which!were!attended!with!so!much!

Thunder!and!Lightening,!so!astonishing,!as!if!we!had!been!wrapt!up!into!the!Clouds,!or! the!whole!Air!set!on!Fire.”99!

Hurricanes!were!unique!to!the!new!world.!At!times!they!functioned!as!a! metaphor!for!how!empire!itself!had!gone!awry,!overstepped!its!bounds!and!imposed! selfish!and!alien!agendas!upon!cultures!and!environments!the!nation!made!little!attempt! to!understand!and!which!it!was!ultimately!incapable!of!subjugating.!The!wind!can!thus! be!viewed!as!both!a!metaphor!for!and!in!some!instances!the!realization!of!imperial! anxieties:!rebellious!servants!and!subalterns,!revolt!and!uprising;!the!undoing!of! imperial!order!and!authority;!the!free!reign!of!nature.!For!amidst!attempts!by!colonial!

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98!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!285! 99!Bohun,!Origine*and*Properties*of*VVind,!288.!Without!a!means!to!accurately!and!reliably!measure! wind!speed,!descriptive!(and!emotionally!evocative)!language!became!the!means!by!which!the!wind’s!force! was!reasonably!conveyed!in!such!instances.!Without!recourse!to!other!ways!of!measuring!and!defining!the! wind,!subjective!first`hand!accounts,!derived!from!observation,!became!the!default![medium/vehicle]!for! conveying!truth!with!respect!to!such!matters.!! 329! ! authorities!to!grapple!with!problems!of!social!order,!hurricanes!presented!a!persistent! reminder!of!how!quickly!such!efforts!could!be!undone.!In!an!attempt!to!combat!these! anxieties,!colonial!authorities!attempted!to!make!the!wind!an!imperial!actor!to!the!extent! that!it!was!possible,!namely!discursively.!

The!dramatic!language!that!occasionally!appeared!in!Bohun’s!scientific!text,! supplementing!his!more!terse!accounts,!thus!mirrored,!in!many!respects,!the!language! present!in!the!descriptions!of!storms!that!appeared!in!travel!narratives!like!those! published!by!Dampier.!In!both!cases!the!drama!and!overwhelming!force!of!nature!are! amply!conveyed.!In!A*New*Voyage*Round*the*World,!Dampier!writes!of!a!storm!that!

“lasted!above!a!week:!it!drenched!us!all!like!so!many!drowned!Rats!and!was!one!of!the! worst!storms!I!was!ever!in.”100!In!another!instance,!Dampier!describes!his!ship’s! encounter!with!a!particularly!fierce!storm!off!the!coast!of!China:!

By!12!a!clock!at!night!it!blew!exceedingly!hard,!and!the!Rain!poured!down!as! through!a!Sieve.!It!thundered!and!lightned!prodigiously,!and!the!Sea!seemed!all! of!a!Fire!about!us;!for!every!Sea!that!broke!sparkled!like!Lightening.!The!violent! Wind!raised!the!Sea!presently!to!a!great!heighth,!and!it!ran!very!short,!and!began! to!break!in!on!our!Deck…I!never!was!in!such!a!violent!Storm!in!all!my!Life;!so! said!all!the!Company.101!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

100!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage,!70! 101!Dampier!writes!further,!“by!12!a!clock!at!night!it!blew!exceedingly!hard,!and!the!Rain!poured! down!as!through!a!Sieve.!It!thundered!and!lightned!prodigiously,!and!the!Sea!seemed!all!of!a!Fire!about!us;! for!every!Sea!that!broke!sparkled!like!Lightening.!The!violent!Wind!raised!the!Sea!presently!to!a!great! heighth,!and!it!ran!very!short,!and!began!to!break!in!on!our!Deck.!One!Sea!struck!away!the!Rails!of!our! Head,!and!our!Sheet!Anchor,!which!was!stowed!with!one!Flook!or!bending!of!the!Iron,!over!the!Ships! Gunal,!and!lasht!very!well!down!to!the!side,!was!violently!washt!off,!and!had!like!to!have!struck!a!hold!in! our!Bow,!as!it!lay!beating!against!it…After!four!a!clock!the!Thunder!and!the!Rain!abated,!and!then!we!saw!a! Corpus!Sant!at!our!Main`top`mast!head…This!light!rejoyc’d!our!Men!exceedingly…I!never!was!in!such!a! violent!Storm!in!all!my!Life;!so!said!all!the!Company…”!“…for!the!heighth!of!the!Storm!is!commonly!over! 330! !

Dampier’s!language!in!this!instance!is!quite!descriptive!without!being!emotive.!He!adds! details!that!enable!his!readers!to!envision!the!vicious!scenario!he!describes:!the!high! waves,!the!frightening!flashes!of!lightening,!an!almost!apocalyptic!chaos!where!the!sea! is!turned!to!fire!and!his!ship!flounders!at!the!complete!mercy!of!the!wind!and!storm.102!

Hurricanes!were!an!unanticipated!impediment!among!the!range!of!challenges! entailed!in!colonial!expansion,!incomparable!to!anything!in!England’s!common!weather! repertoire.!The!completely!foreign!quality!of!these!deadly!storms!added!to!the! overwhelming!newness!of!native!people!and!environments!entailed!within!the!spectrum! of!colonial!encounter.!Hurricanes!were!yet!another!thing!colonists!had!to!learn!about,! and!a!thing!which!many!did!not!learn!of!until!they!were!confronted!by!them!first!hand.!

Scientists!and!authorities!issued!many!reports!of!these!deadly!storms,!but!the! information!about!them!by!and!large!“remained!the!province!of!a!small!elite!who! bought!books!or!read!traveler’s!accounts,”!rather!than!filtering!down!to!the!broader!

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! when!the!Corpus!Sant!is!seen!aloft;!but!when!they!are!seen!lying!on!the!Deck,!it!is!generally!accounted!a!bad! sign.”!William!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage,!414!! 102!Studies!in!Comparative!Literature!that!identify!proto`ecological!ideas!and!values!emerging!in! the!literature!of!the!early!modern!period!include:!Robert!N.!Watson,!Back*to*Nature:*The*Green*and*the*Real*in* the*Late*Renaissance!(Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania,!2005);!Gabriel!Egan,!Green*Shakespeare:*From* Ecopolitics*to*Ecocriticism!(London,!Routledge,!2006);!Ken!Hiltner,!Milton*and*Ecology!(Cambridge:!Cambridge! University!Press,!2004);!Silvia!Bowerbank,!Speaking*for*Nature:*Women*and*Ecologies*of*Early*Modern*England! (Baltimore:!Johns!Hopkins!University!Press,!2004);!Diane!Kelsy!McColley,!Poetry*and*Ecology*in*the*Age*of* Milton*(Aldershot!England;!Burlington!VT:!Ashgate!Publishing,!2007);!and!for!an!overview!of!existing! scholarship!in!the!field!see:!Karen!Raber,!“Recent!Ecostudies!in!Tudor!and!Stuart!Literature,”!English* Literary*Renaissance!37,!no.1!(2007):!151`71.!! 331! ! population!of!society,!writes!historian!Mathew!Mulcahy!in!his!study!of!hurricane’s!in! the!British!Greater!Caribbean.103!Hurricane’s!represented!the!unknown,!unwieldy,!and! terrifying!forces!that!potentially!awaited!those!who!left!the!safety!of!English!civil!society! for!the!dangers!of!colonial!life.!According!to!Mulcahy,!“colonists!worried!about!how! tropical!heat,!humidity,!earthquakes,!and!drought!would!affect!individual!bodies!and!

English!culture,!but!hurricanes!quickly!became!the![West!Indies’]!most!dreaded! feature.”104!!!

Bohun!and!Dampier’s!accounts!of!these!storms!were!thus!not!unique!in!their! drama.!Wind!storms!exemplified!a!central!concern!of!English!colonists!and!highlighted! the!ways!in!which!the!nation!attempted!to!manage!such!unmanageable!situations,!to! hold!onto!what!shred!of!system!and!authority!could!be!mustered!and!sustained!under! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

103!Matthew!Mulcahy,!Hurricane’s*and*Society*in*the*British*Greater*Caribbean,*1624@1783!(Baltimore:! Johns!Hopkins!Press,!2006),!11.!Mulcahy!writes!notes,!“colonists!arrived!with!a!firm!belief!that!they!could! transform!the!wilderness!of!the!New!World!into!an!orderly,!productive,!and!settled!landscape.!But!the! hurricane’s!forced!them!to!adjust!their!expectations…”!writes!Matthew!Mulcahy!(p.11).!Mulcahy!suggests! further!that,!“early!colonists!likely!had!little!or!no!knowledge!of!hurricanes!when!they!left!England.”! Scientists!and!authorities!issued!many!reports!of!these!deadly!storms!but!the!information!about!them!by! and!large!“remained!the!province!of!a!small!elite!who!bought!books!or!read!travelers’!accounts,”!rather! filtering!down!to!the!broader!population!of!society,!(p.15).!Along!these!lines,!quoting!Captain!Smith’s,! Seaman’s*Grammar,!Breverton!writes:!“Monsoune!is!a!constant!wind!in!the!East!Indies,!that!bloweth!away! three!months!together!one!way,!and!the!next!three!Months!the!contrary!way.!A!Hericano!is!so!violent!in!the! West!Indies,!it!will!continue!three,!four,!five!weeks,!but!they!have!it!not!past!in!five,!six,!or!seven!years;!but! then!it!is!with!such!extremity,!that!the!Sea!flies!like!rain,!they!over`flow!the!low!grounds!by!the!sea,! insomuch,!that!Ships!have!been!driven!over!tops!of!high!trees!there!gooing,!many!Leagues!into!the!land,! and!there!left,!as!was!Captain!Francis!Nelson!and!Englishman,!and!an!excellent!Seaman!for!one.’”! Breverton,!Pirate*Dictionary,!184! 104!“‘What!is!to!be!most!feared,’!wrote!one!observer,!‘is!a!general!conspiracy!of!all!the! Winds,…which!is!called!a!Hurricane.’!One!17th`century!ship!captain!stated!that!the!‘Force!and!Violence’!of!a! hurricane!‘exceeds!all!Storms!of!wind!in!the!World,’!And!eighteenth`century!Jamaican!planer!described! hurricanes!as!‘the!most!formidable!enemy’!and!‘principal!dread’!of!colonists.!According!to!Edmund!Burke,! heat!and!humidity!were!‘unfriendly!and!unpleasant!to!and!European!constitution,’!but!hurricanes!were!‘the! most!terrible!calamity!to!which!they!are!subject!from!the!climate.”!Mulcahy,!Hurricane’s*and*Society,!11! 332! ! such!trying!circumstances.!Supplementing!his!dramatic!description!of!this!particular! storm,!for!example,!Dampier!was!nevertheless!keen!to!include!bits!of!factual! information!that!gesture!toward!his!knowledge!and!expertise!in!such!dire!straits.!He! creates!an!impression!of!objectivity,!clear`headedness,!and!prescription!that!make!his! account!of!the!storm!appear!all!the!more!credible,!and!which!validates!his!authority,! narratively!and!otherwise.!He!carefully!notes,!for!example,!precisely!how!the!ship’s! crew!handled!the!sails!in!order!to!prevent!as!much!damage!and!loss!as!possible:!“This! made!us!take!in!our!Top`sails,!and!the!Wind!still!increasing,!about!9!a!clock!we!rist!our!

Main`sail!and!Foresail;!at!10!we!furl’d!our!Fore`sail,!keeping!under!a!Main`sail!and!

Mizen.!At!11!a!clock!we!furl’d!our!Main`sail,!and!ballasted!our!Mizen.”105!Relaying!step! by!step!information!such!as!this,!with!facts!that!include!the!time!and!the!exact!steps! taken!to!promote!the!ship’s!safety!gesture!toward!the!protocol,!regiment,!and! hierarchical!systems!of!state!authority!that!formed!the!basis!of!authority!and!order!on! board!a!ship.!Such!order!and!authority!found!further!expression!in!imperial!endeavors! to!tame!and!regulate!wild!and!otherwise!unruly!populations!and!landscapes! encountered!both!at!home!and!abroad.!

On!board!a!ship!the!circumstances!created!by!a!hurricane!tested!and!challenged! these!modes!of!authority!and!offered!sailors!a!limited!set!of!options!to!facilitate!a!decent! human!outcome.!The!same!force!of!nature!that!hours!earlier!had!worked!to!the!crew’s!

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105!Dampier,!New*Voyage,!413`414! 333! ! advantage!now!threatened!their!very!lives:!!“Afterwards!we!durst!not!adventure!to! bring!our!Ship!to!the!Wind!again,!for!fear!of!foundering,!for!turning!the!Ship!either!to!or! from!the!Wind!is!dangerous!is!such!violent!Storms,”!writes!Dampier.106!Amidst! complete!chaos!those!in!authority,!such!as!Dampier,!nevertheless!endeavored!to!impose! order,!even!if!such!order!could!only!be!effectively!established!after!the!fact,!in!this!case,! through!authorship!and!narrative!order.!

This!passage!is!relatively!mild,!however,!when!compared!with!a!description!of!a! terrifying!storm!encountered!by!Dampier!and!his!crew!later!in!their!journey.!He!writes:!

The!Evening!of!this!18th!day!was!very!dismal.!The!Sky!looked!very!black,!being! covered!with!dark!Clouds,!the!Wind!blew!hard,!and!the!Seas!ran!high.!The!Sea! was!already!Roaring!in!a!white!Foam!about!us;!a!dark!Night!coming!on,!and!no! Land!in!sight!to!shelter!us,!and!our!little!Ark!in!danger!to!be!swallowed!by!every! Wave;!and!what!was!worst!of!all,!none!of!us!thought!our!selves!prepared!for! another!World.!The!Reader!may!better!guess,!than!I!can!express,!the!Confusion! that!we!were!all!in.!I!had!been!in!many!eminent!Dangers!before!now…but!the! worst!of!them!all!was!but!a!Play`game,!in!comparison!with!this.107!! ! In!this!passage!the!storm!itself!receives!comparatively!little!descriptive!attention.!

Dampier’s!emotional!reaction!to!the!violence!and!danger!created!by!the!strength!and! fury!of!the!wind,!and!the!spiritual!woe!and!the!“great!Conflicts!of!Mind”!it!elicited!in! him!is!amply!discussed,!however.!

I!had!a!lingering!view!of!approaching!Death,!and!little!or!no!hopes!of!escaping!it;! and!I!must!confess!that!my!Courage,!which!I!had!hitherto!kept!up,!failed!me! here;!and!I!made!very!sad!Reflections!on!my!former!Life,!and!lookt!back!with!

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106!Dampier,!New*Voyage,!413`414! 107!Dampier,!New*Voyage,!495`497! 334! !

Horrour!and!Detestation,!on!Actions!which!before!I!disliked,!but!now!I!trembled! at!the!remembrance!of.108! ! At!this!moment,!when!the!wind!and!storm!raged!it!all!its!fury,!indifferent!to!the! suffering!or!costs!inflicted!upon!mankind,!Dampier!grimly!confronted!his!mortality!and! repented!with!renewed!vigor!and!“concern”!for!his!“roving!course!of!life.”!He!reflected! upon!the!“many!miraculous!Acts!of!God’s!Providence…in!the!whole!course!of![his]!life,! of!which!kind![he!believed]!few!Men!have!met!with!the!like,”!and!offered!thanks!as!he! submitted!himself!to!“God’s!good!Providence”!this!dreaded!night—“the!most!doleful! night!I!ever!was!in.”109!

This!passage!represents!one!of!the!few!isolated!moments!where!Dampier’s! emotional!self!and!inner!world!comes!forward!in!the!text,!and!the!wind!serves!as!the! catalyst!for!such!inner!revelation!and!for!its!subsequent!narration.!Framing!the!moment! in!these!terms!not!only!adds!an!element!of!narrative!drama!but!characterizes!Dampier!as! a!God!fearing,!honorable,!self`reflective!man.!Moreover,!the!fact!that!God!preserves!he! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

108!Dampier,!New*Voyage,!495`497! 109!“I!must!confess!that!I!was!in!great!Conflicts!of!Mind!at!this!time.!Other!Dangers!came!not!upon! me!with!such!a!leisurely!and!dreadful!Solemnity:!A!sudden!Skirmish!or!Engagement,!or!so!was!nothing! when!ones!Blood!was!up,!and!push’d!forwards!with!eager!Expectations.!But!here!I!had!a!lingering!view!of! approaching!Death,!and!little!or!no!hopes!of!escaping!it;!and!I!must!confess!that!my!Courage,!which!I!had! hitherto!kept!up,!failed!me!here;!and!I!made!very!sad!Reflections!on!my!former!Life,!and!lookt!back!with! Horrour!and!Detestation,!on!Actions!which!before!I!disliked,!but!now!I!trembled!at!the!remembrance!of.!I! had!long!before!this!repented!me!of!that!roving!course!of!life,!but!never!with!such!concern!as!now.!I!did!also! call!to!mind!the!many!miraculous!Acts!of!God’s!Providence!towards!me,!in!the!whole!course!of!my!life,!of! which!kind!I!believe!few!Men!have!met!with!the!like.!For!all!these!I!returned!Thanks!in!a!peculiar!manner,! and!this!once!more!desired!God’s!assistance,!and!composed!my!Mind,!as!well!as!I!could,!in!the!hopes!of!it,! and!as!the!Even!shew’d,!I!was!not!disappointed!of!my!hopes.!Submitting!our!selves!therefore!to!God’s!good! Providence,!and!taking!all!the!care!we!could!to!preserve!our!Lives,!Mr.!Hall!and!I!took!turns!to!steer,!and! the!rest!took!turns!to!heave!out!the!Water,!and!thus!we!provided!to!spent!the!most!doleful!night!I!ever!was! in.”!Dampier,!A*New*Voyage,!495`497! 335! ! and!his!crew,!in!light!of!the!notion!that!violent!acts!of!nature!functioned!as!divine! reprobation,!may!have!suggested!to!Dampier’s!readers!that!God!considered!him!good! enough!and!worthy!enough!to!save,!not!only!in!this!instance,!but!consistently!over!the! course!of!his!adventures,!adding!to!his!credibility!as!an!honorable!reputable!person.!This! is!significant!insofar!as!extending!his!credibility!to!other!events!he!reports,!such!as!the! people,!the!places,!the!flora!and!fauna!he!encounters,!and!not!least!of!all,!to!the!wind! and!its!behaviors.!That!readers!found!this!emotive!passage!captivating,!and!that!its! themes!spoke!to!a!set!of!important!social!and!religious!principles!is!implied!by!virtue!of! the!striking!similarity!between!it!and!passages!that!subsequently!appeared!in!the!fiction! novels!of!the!early!18th!century,!such!as!the!in!the!wildly!popular!fictional!work,!

Robinson*Crusoe!authored!by!non!other!than!our!beloved!Daniel!Defoe.!!

Wind and the Novel

The!rise!of!the!novel!roughly!coincided!with!the!rise!of!the!modern!scientific! method,!and!the!case!can!be!made!that!this!was!not!merely!coincidental.!Over!the!course! of!the!17th!and!18th!centuries!science!became!increasingly!oriented!around!measures!of! truth!derived!through!observation,!experience,!and!experiment!rather!than!grounded!in! the!logic!of!the!rhetorician!and!the!received!wisdom!handed!down!from!authorities.!As! a!result,!the!details!of!individual!experience!gained!increased!legitimacy.!Up!to!this! point!published!literature,!like!natural!philosophy,!had!been!rooted!in!received!wisdom.!

The!characters!in!stories!were!characters!that!readers!were!already!familiar!with—

336! !

Biblical!figures,!or!heroes!and!heroines!from!the!Greek!and!Roman!legacy!such!as!Zeus! or!Aphrodite;!and!story!plots!were!embellishments!on!ancient!tails.!Authors!limited! themselves!to!finding!new!ways!of!telling!old!stories!and!a!writer’s!literary!success!was! thus!contingent!on!how!much!the!public!liked!their!new!spin!on!old!themes.!However,! as!natural!philosophers!such!as!Francis!Bacon!increasingly!advocated!for!a!new! approach!to!natural!knowledge!and!a!new!standard!for!truth!rooted!in!the!present,!so! too!did!writers!begin!to!explore!a!new!mode!of!creative!literary!expression!which! privileged!the!contemporary!moment!over!the!past.!Writers!began!to!focus!on!creating! literature!with!details!that!mimicked!the!kinds!of!experiences!and!observations! verifiable!in!day`to`day!life,!books!with!believable!plots!and!characters!drawn!from!the! realities!of!common!experience,!which!expressed!truths!by!such!measure.!Many!of!these! early!novels!were!modeled!after!the!travel!narratives!popularly!circulating!at!this!time,! and!were!thus!set!at!sea.!The!wind!played!a!key!role!in!such!stories,!functioning!as!a! potent!literary!trope.!110!

Daniel!Defoe!is!notable!among!the!authors!now!recognized!as!forerunners!of!the! genre,!and!is!often!credited!as!the!first!English!author!to!depart!from!the!conventional! protocol!of!storytelling!in!vogue!at!the!time.!Robinson*Crusoe,!published!in!1719!to!

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110!Although!the!definition!of!the!“novel”!is!subject!to!scholarly!debate,!there!is!nevertheless!some! consistency!among!particular!components!of!the!books!published!during!the!18th!century!that!established! the!genre!as!a!literary!form:!A!loose!definition!of!the!novel!is!a!long!narrative!involving!imaginary! characters!and!events!which!speak!to!the!human!experience.!For!further!reading!on!the!origins!of!the! English!novel!see!Ian!Watt,!The*Rise*of*the*Novel:*Studies*of*Defoe,*Richardson,*and*Fielding!(Oakland,!CA:! University!of!California!Press,!2007.! 337! ! popular!reception!and!credited!among!the!first!English!novels,!was!based!loosely!on!the! life!and!travel!narratives!of!William!Dampier,!Alexander!Selkirk,!and!other!17th!century! sailors!and!explorers.111!The!tale!revolves!around!the!experiences!of!the!protagonist!of!

Crusoe,!who!provides!a!first`person!narration!of!his!experience!as!a!castaway!on!a! deserted!island!after!being!shipwrecked.!Though!a!work!of!fiction,!the!story!is!written!in! first!person!and!mimics!the!form!of!the!travel!narrative,!such!as!those!published!by! authors!such!as!William!Dampier,!which!were!extremely!popular!at!that!time.!As!a!tale! with!a!strong!maritime!component,!the!wind!factored!into!the!plot!in!an!important!way! at!key!moments.!!

As!the!story!goes,!Crusoe!came!from!a!good!home,!received!a!decent!education! in!keeping!with!his!middling!station,!and!had!the!opportunity!to!live!a!peaceful,!happy,! life.!However,!he!was!not!content!with!his!lot.!He!longed!for!the!sea.!!

[My!father]!told!me!it!was!for!men!of!desperate!fortunes!on!the!one!hand,!or!of! aspiring,!superior!fortunes!on!the!other,!who!went!abroad!upon! adventures…that!these!things!were!all!either!too!far!above!me,!or!too!far!below! me;!that!mine!was!the!middle!station!of!low!life,!which!he!had!found!by!long! experience!as!the!best!state!in!the!world.112!! !

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111!Oroonoko,!written!Aphra!Behn!in!1688,!is!supposed!to!be!first!English!novel,!but!there!is!lively! and!rich!debate!on!the!subject.!Daniel!Defoe,!Robinson*Crusoe,!(1960!repr.,!Detroit,!MI:!Wayne!State! University!Press,!1961).! 112!Defoe,!Robinson*Crusoe,!9! 338! !

His!father’s!advice!fell!on!deaf!ears.!Crusoe!could!not!be!persuaded!otherwise.!Thus,! against!the!wishes!of!his!parents!Crusoe!left!the!safety!of!his!home,!foregoing!the!ease!of! his!middling!station!to!seek!life!aboard!a!ship.113!!

The!wind,!in!this!tale!functions!as!a!moral!agent.!Defoe!uses!the!wind!to!signal!

God’s!displeasure!with!the!choices!of!the!young!Crusoe.!Storm!winds!serve!as!a!sign! that!he!has!set!upon!the!wrong!path.!Within!the!first!night!the!ship!Crusoe!boards! encounters!a!squall:!“Never!any!young!adventurer’s!misfortunes,!I!believe,!began! sooner!or!continued!longer!than!mine.!The!ship!was!no!sooner!gotten!out!of!the!Humber! but!the!wind!began!to!blow,!and!the!sea!to!rise!in!a!most!frightful!manner.”114!In!a! moment!of!clarity!incited!by!the!terror!of!the!storm!Crusoe!rethinks!his!decision!to!take! up!the!life!of!a!sailor.!The!wind!and!storm,!and!the!crisis!he!finds!himself!in!persuade! him!to!reconsider!his!choices.!“…In!this!agony!of!mind!I!made!many!vows!and! resolutions,!that!if!it!would!please!God!here!to!spare!my!life!in!this!one!voyage,!if!ever!I! got!once!my!foot!upon!dry!land!again,!I!would!go!directly!home!to!my!father,!and!never! set!it!into!a!ship!again!while!I!lived;!that!I!would!take!his!advice,!and!never!run!myself! into!such!miseries!as!these!any!more.”115!Here!we!see!the!similarity!between!the!passage! published!by!Dampier!many!years!earlier!in!his!autobiographical!travel!narrative!and! the!circumstances!the!fictive!protagonist!Crusoe!finds!himself!in.!In!the!wake!of!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

113!“My!father…had!given!me!a!competent!share!of!learning…but!I!would!be!satisfied!with!nothing! but!going!to!sea.”!Defoe,!Robinson*Crusoe,!8! 114!Defoe,!Robinson*Crusoe,!12! 115!Defoe,!Robinson*Crusoe,!13! 339! ! terrifying!wind!storm!and!in!danger!of!dying,!both!men—the!real!and!the!imagined— reflect!upon!their!life!choices,!consider!those!instances!when!they!behaved!in!error,!and! repent!for!their!sins.!In!both!instances,!the!circumstances!elicited!by!the!wind’s!wild! ferocity!become!an!impetus!for!religious!reflection!and!repentance.!!

However,!in!Defoe’s!telling,!Crusoe!ultimately!ignores!this!initial!warning.!As! the!weather!abates!he!soon!forgets!the!lesson!wrought!by!the!wind!and!the!vows!he! made!in!that!moment!of!clarity.!The!result!is!that!God!sends!a!stronger!sign!of!his! displeasure!in!the!form!of!a!more!terrible!and!violent!tempest!that!destroys!the!ship! altogether,!and!leaves!Crusoe!and!what!remained!of!the!ship’s!crew!desperate!as!they! paddle!to!shore!in!a!lifeboat.!In!the!days!that!follow,!Crusoe!comes!into!contact!with!a! more!seasoned!sailor!on!board!the!same!ship!as!he,!and!the!sailor!reiterates!the!message! of!the!wind!and!storm:!“‘Young!man,’!says!he,!‘you!ought!never!to!go!to!sea!any!more;! you!ought!to!take!this!for!a!plain!and!visible!token!that!you!are!not!to!be!a!seafaring! man…as!you!made!this!voyage!for!a!trial,!you!see!what!a!taste!Heaven!has!given!you!of! what!you!are!to!expect!if!you!persist.”116!As!it!turns!out!the!old!sailor!is!correct.!God’s! dissatisfaction!continues!to!mount.!These!frightening!winds,!which!successively!increase! in!strength,!are!just!the!beginning!of!Crusoe’s!tribulations,!for!he!ignores!the!message! they!convey—God’s!displeasure—and!against!his!better!judgment!refuses!to! appropriately!change!the!course!of!his!life.!

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116!Defoe,!Robinson*Crusoe,!19! 340! !

The!wind!functioning!as!the!hand!of!God!and!illustrating!His!displeasure!with! humanity!is!a!familiar!theme.!It!emerged!prominently,!for!example,!in!Defoe’s!non` fictional!work!the!Storm—a!compilation!of!first`hand!narrative!accounts!of!the!Great!

Storm!of!1703,!one!of!the!few!hurricanes!to!cross!the!Atlantic!and!strike!England.!The*

Storm!was!one!of!Defoe’s!earlier!literary!undertakings,!which!he!broached!the!same!year! that!he!established!his!tri`weekly!political!periodical,!The*Review.!These!publications! helped!to!establish!Defoe’s!reputation!as!a!writer!and!satirist,!while!setting!standards!for! early!journalistic!reporting.!In!both!the!Storm—a!compilation!of!first!hand!accounts!of! the!devastating!hurricane!that!struck!England!in!1703—and!in!his!fictional!work,!

Robinson*Crusoe!Defoe!emphasized!the!extent!to!which!the!wind,!and!nature!more! generally,!functioned!as!an!index!of!God’s!happiness!or!dissatisfaction!with!humanity,! an!interpretation!that!was!held!as!a!matter!of!public!consensus!at!the!time.!Likewise,!the! moral!of!both!stories,!the!factual!and!the!fictional,!is!essentially!the!same:!recognition!of! the!sins!responsible!for!such!catastrophe,!and!the!necessity!of!repentance.!With!respect! to!the!Great!Storm,!for!example,!Defoe!allegedly!believed!that!the!outrageous!losses! suffered!by!England’s!navy!represented!divine!punishment!for!failed!efforts!against!

Catholic!ruled!Spain!and!France!in!the!early!stages!of!the!War!Of!the!Spanish!

Succession.117!In!the!case!of!Crusoe,!the!protagonist!refused!to!embrace!his!humble!

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117!Jenny!McKay,!mDefoels!The*Storm!as!a!Model!for!Contemporary!Reportingm!in!Richard!Keeble,! Sharon,!Wheeler,!eds.!The*Journalistic*Imagination:*Literary*Journalists*from*Defoe*to*Capote*and*Carter! (Abingdon,!Oxon:!Taylor!and!Francis!(Routledge),!2007),!15–28.!! 341! ! station!in!life!and!instead,!chose!to!seek!out!more!than!his!middling!lot.!This,!coupled! with!his!failure!to!heed!the!wind!signs!given!by!God—intended!as!a!warning!that!he! was!on!the!wrong!path—ultimately!resulted!in!his!fate!as!a!castaway!on!a!deserted! island!forced!to!endure!great!hardship!and!meditate!on!the!error!of!his!ways.!Robinson!

Crusoe!may!thus!be!interpreted!as!propaganda!advocating!a!particular!form!of!social! order—one!contingent!on!a!citizen!accepting!their!station!in!life,!and!ironic!in!light!of!

Defoe’s!personal!ambition—in!which!the!wind!functions!as!the!enforcing!agent.!Though! a!fictional!work!the!piece!conveys!a!moral!certitude!about!the!meaning!of!the!wind,!not! as!fiction,!but!as!fact,!not!as!make`believe,!but!real!and!applicable!to!daily!life,! underpinning!all!attempts!to!know!and!to!understand!its!fundamental!cause!and! behavior.!This!story,!written!in!imitation!of!reality!as!an!extended!metaphor!for!reality,! uses!the!genre!to!convey!a!message!about!the!wind!and!about!nature!more!generally:! nature!is!the!hand!of!God!and!religious!truth!is!the!ultimate!truth.118!!

Defoe’s!use!of!the!wind!in!precisely!these!terms!is!echoed!in!the!prominent! works!of!maritime!fiction!published!in!the!years!that!follow,!such!as!Tobias!Smollet’s!

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118!The!storm!and!the!literary!discourse!that!emerged!from!it!might!also!be!understood!as!an! example!of!nature!and!art!comingling!in!dialectical!relationship!with!one!another.!Human!art!in!the!form!of! buildings,!and!ships,!and!mankind’s!many!creations!were!destroyed!by!the!storm,!only!to!be!rebuilt.!And! the!destruction!of!the!storm!likewise!resulted!in!literature!(another!form!of!human!art)!designed!to! commemorate!this!particularly!poignant!event!in!a!comingling!of!art!and!nature.!The!destruction!wrought! by!the!storm!became!a!catalyst!for!the!production!of!works,!or!as!Bacon!would!call!it—art.!! 342! !

Roderick*Random!and!Gulliver’s*Travels!by!Jonathan!Swift.119!Roderick!Random!was!the! first!fictional!work!authored!by!Smollet,!published!in!1748!to!quick!acclaim.!Before! working!as!a!writer!Smollet!spent!time!at!sea!where!he!served!as!a!naval!surgeon!and! second!mate.!While!on!board!the!Chichester!he!participated!in!the!disastrous!battle!of!

Cartagena!in!the!West!Indies!as!part!of!Sir!Choloner!Ogle’s!fleet.!Unsurprisingly,!there! are!a!number!of!parallel’s!between!Smollet’s!own!life!and!the!life!of!the!protagonist!in! his!narrative:!both!were!disinherited!gentlemen,!both!spent!time!on!board!ships,!both! worked!as!surgeons.120!Reality,!as!Smollet!personally!experienced!it!and!observed!it,! made!its!way!into!the!fictional!refabrication!he!embarked!upon!with!this!story.!Thus,!

Roderick!Random,!though!imagined!and!made`up!is!a!tale!rooted!in!both!a!set!of! circumstances!and!in!a!larger!set!of!principles!that!can!be!described!as!true.!

As!the!story!goes!Roderick!Random!was!born!to!the!son!of!a!wealthy!landed! gentlemen.!Roderick’s!father!had!fallen!in!love!with!a!woman!below!his!station!and! against!the!will!of!his!father!had!a!child!with!her—Roderick.!Roderick’s!grandfather!cast! his!son!and!his!mistress!out!of!his!house!which!resulted!not!only!in!the!woman’s!death! during!childbirth,!but!in!Roderick’s!father!leaving!his!home.!Thus!Roderick!is!orphaned!

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119!Tobias!Smollett,!Roderick*Random!(1748!repr.!London:!Penguin!Books,!1995);!Jonathan!Swift,! Gulliver’s*Travels!(Oxford;!New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!2005).! 120!In!the!introduction!to!Roderick!Random!David!Blewett!writes:!“Smollett!came!from!an!old!and! respected!Scottish!family,!but!like!his!hero,!grew!up!in!poverty!because!his!father!was!disinherited!for! marrying,!against!his!father’s!wishes,!a!woman!without!any!money!of!her!own…In!a!word,!Smollet! borrowed!the!initial!idea!of!Roderick’s!early!life!from!his!own!boyhood!experience,!but!he!developed!and! transformed!that!experience!into!the!much!more!deprived!and!desperate!situation!in!which!he!placed! Roderick.”!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!xix! 343! ! at!infancy,!and!raised!by!his!wealthy!grandfather!who!sends!him!away!to!school,!and! ultimately!deprives!him!of!the!wealth!to!which!he!is!entitled!by!virtue!of!his!lineage.!

Roderick!travels!far!and!wide!and!undergoes!a!long!series!of!adventures!and! misfortunes,!before!being!reunited!with!his!father!and!receiving!his!rightful!inheritance.!

He!ultimately!returns!to!his!homeland!a!victor,!warmly!received!by!those!loyal!to!he!and! his!family.!!

The!wind!does!not!figure!as!prominently!in!Smollet’s!novel!as!it!does!in!Defoe’s.!

Nor!does!it!occupy!such!an!overtly!moralistic!role!in!the!story.!However,!it!is!still!a! recognizable!trope,!and!one!that!functions!in!Smollett’s!fictional!work!in!much!the!same! way!that!it!did!in!the!17th`century!travel!narratives:!creating!an!impression!of!truthful! and!factual!reporting!of!actual!events.!The!character!Roderick,!who!narrates!the!entire! tale,!says!for!example,!“we!stretched!to!the!northward,!and!falling!in!with!a!westerly! wind!in!eight!weeks!arrived!in!soundings.”121!In!another!instance!he!notes,!“We!sailed! from!Jamaica,!and,!in!ten!days!or!a!fortnight,!beat!up!against!the!wind!as!far!as!the!isle! of!Vache.”!and!again,!“With!the!first!fair!wind!we!sailed!from!the!Rio!de!la!Plata.”122!In! instances!like!these!the!wind!becomes!one!among!a!number!of!apparent!facts!that!affirm! the!reality!Smollet!is!actively!constructing!through!his!fictive!story!telling.!!

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121!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!549! 122!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!236,!545! 344! !

!The!dramatic!descriptions!of!windstorms!recognizable!in!both!17th`century! travel!narratives!and!in!more!scientifically!oriented!treatises!such!as!Bohun’s!also!factor! into!the!tale.!In!one!particularly!dramatic!passage!Random!recounts!not!only!his! personal!experience!with!a!violent!storm!but!the!reactions!of!his!fellow!shipmates!to!the! danger!and!chaos!elicited!by!nature’s!violence.!Escorted!out!of!a!channel!with!a!

“prosperous!breeze”!that!subsequently!“died!away”!the!ship!and!its!crew!found!itself!

“becalmed!about!fifty!leagues!to!the!westward...”!The!next!night!however,!a!tremendous! storm!struck:!“our!main`stop!sail!was!split!by!the!wind”!and!by!morning!the!storm!had! increased!to!hurricane!force.!Roderick,!who!had!been!fast!asleep,!describes!the!panic!and! chaos!of!these!circumstances:!“I!was!wakened!by!a!most!horrible!din,!occasioned!by!the! play!of!the!gun`carriages!upon!the!decks!above,!the!cracking!of!cabins,!the!howling!of! the!wind!through!the!shrouds,!the!confused!noise!of!the!ships!crew,!the!pipes!of!the! boatswain!and!his!mates,!the!trumpets!of!the!lieutenants,!and!the!clanking!of!the!chain` pumps.”123!The!same!wind!which!had!just!previously!facilitated!the!ship’s!efforts!in!a! calm!and!orderly!way,!now!threatened!to!undermine!all!vestiges!of!human!authority! and!order.!!

The!sea!was!swelled!into!billows!mountain`heigh,!on!the!top!of!which!our!ship! sometimes!hung!as!if!it!were!about!to!be!precipitated!to!the!abyss!below!!...Some! [sailors]!clung!to!the!yards,!endeavoring!to!unbend!the!sails!that!were!split!into!a!

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123!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!166! 345! !

thousand!pieces!flapping!in!the!wind;!others!tried!to!furl!those!which!were!yet! whole,!while!the!masts!at!every!pitch,!bent!and!quivered!like!twigs.124!! ! In!this!passage!the!wind,!and!nature!more!generally,!is!described!in!mythic! proportions—huge,!vast,!and!powerful,!particularly!in!comparison!to!the!frailty!of!the! ship!and!the!futility!of!the!human!efforts!on!board.!In!another!gesture!toward!the! religious!meaning!so!commonly!assigned!to!nature’s!violence!Roderick!states!that,!

“Morgan,!who!had!never!been!at!sea!before,!turned!out!in!a!great!hurry!crying!‘Cot!have! mercy!and!compassion!upon!us!!I!believe!we!have!cot!upon!the!confines!of!Lucifer!and! the!d—n’d!’!while!poor!Thompson!lay!quaking!in!his!hammock,!putting!up!petitions!to!

Heaven!for!our!safety.”125!The!fear,!noise,!and!confusion!elicited!by!the!storm!and!the! reactions!of!Random’s!sea!companions,!who!attributed!the!wind’s!violence!to!none!other! than!Satan!himself,!is!a!poignant!example!of!nature!and!art!comingling!in!a! representation!of!nature!that!points!toward!the!destruction!and!undoing!of!art,!of! productive!human!acts,!while!simultaneously!exemplifying!art!in!narrative!form.!The! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

124!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!166! 125!“We!got!out!of!the!Channel!with!a!prosperous!breeze,!which!died!away,!leaving!us!becalmed! about!fifty!leagues!to!the!westward!of!the!Lizard:!but!this!state!of!inaction!did!not!last!long;!for!next!night! our!main`stop!sail!was!split!by!the!wind,!which,!in!the!morning!increased!to!a!hurricane.!I!was!wakened!by! a!most!horrible!din,!occasioned!by!the!play!of!the!gun`carriages!upon!the!decks!above,!the!cracking!of! cabins,!the!howling!of!the!wind!through!the!shrouds,!the!confused!noise!of!the!ships!crew,!the!pipes!of!the! boatswain!and!his!mates,!the!trumpets!of!the!lieutenants,!and!the!clanking!of!the!chain`pumps.!Morgan,! who!had!never!been!at!sea!before,!turned!out!in!a!great!hurry!crying!‘Cot!have!mercy!and!compassion!upon! us!!I!believe!we!have!cot!upon!the!confines!of!Lucifer!and!the!d—n’d!’!while!poor!Thompson!lay!quaking!in! his!hammock,!putting!up!petitions!to!Heaven!for!our!safety….!I!went!above;!but!if!my!sense!of!hearing!was! startled!before,!how!must!my!sight!have!seen!appalled!in!beholding!the!effects!of!the!storm!!The!sea!was! swelled!into!billows!mountain`heigh,!on!the!top!of!which!our!ship!sometimes!hung!as!if!it!were!about!to!be! precipitated!to!the!abyss!below!...Some![sailors]!clung!to!the!yards,!endeavoring!to!unbend!the!sails!that! were!split!into!a!thousand!pieces!flapping!in!the!wind;!others!tried!to!furl!those!which!were!yet!whole,! while!the!masts!at!every!pitch,!bent!and!quivered!like!twigs.”!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!166! 346! ! picture!that!emerges!in!this!particular!representation,!as!in!reality,!is!one!in!which! mankind!finds!itself!at!the!utter!mercy!of!nature.!The!scene!thus!serves!as!a!moralistic! reminder!to!its!readers!that!for!all!of!humanity’s!power!and!authority!there!is!greater! power!still:!the!power!of!nature,!the!power!of!God.!

In!spite!of!the!realistic!images!of!the!wind!that!appear!throughout!Smollet’s!text,! the!wind!and!weather!also!discursively!function!at!metaphors!for!life’s!highs!and!lows.!

In!one!scene!in!particular!Random’s!uncle!Mr.!Bowling!attempts!to!console!the! despondent!Random!with!the!following!wisdom:!!

He!comforted!me,!with!observing,!life!was!a!voyage!in!which!we!must!expect!to! meet!with!all!weathers,!sometimes!it!was!calm,!sometimes!rough;!that!a!fair!gale! often!succeeded!a!storm;!that!the!wind!did!not!always!sit!one!way,!and!that! despair!signified!nothing;!but!that!resolution!and!skill!were!better!than!a!stout! vessel:!for!why?!Because!they!require!no!carpenter,!and!grow!stronger!the!more! labour!they!undergo.126!! ! In!this!passage!the!wind!serves!as!a!metaphor!for!life’s!changing!fortune:!the!good! follows!the!bad,!bad!follows!good,!circumstances!vary.!The!best!way!to!manage!life’s! unpredictability,!Bowling!argued,!was!with!determination!and!skill.!Humanity!may!not! have!been!able!to!control!nature,!or!in!this!case,!the!course!of!the!wind,!but!skill!and! patience!might!allow!people!to!harness!its!power!to!their!benefit!when!circumstances! permitted.!

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126!Smollett,!Roderick*Random,!235! 347! !

Travel!narratives!and!the!fictional!literature!that!subsequently!replicated!the! genre,!such!as!Robinson*Crusoe*and!Roderick*Random,!became!so!stylistically!ubiquitous! during!the!first!half!of!the!18th!century!that!Jonathan!Swift!chose!to!parody!the!genre!in!

Gulliver’s*Travels,!published!in!1726.127!!Swift’s!satirical!novel!describes!the!travels!of! protagonist!Lemuel!Gulliver,!an!English!naval!surgeon!who!offers!a!first`person! narration!of!his!adventures!abroad.!First!he!journeys!to!an!island!of!miniature!people,! next!to!an!island!of!giants.!These!escapades!are!followed!by!a!voyage!to!an!island!of! scientists!and!intellectuals!whose!research!appears!absurd,!impractical,!and!largely!out! of!touch!with!reality.!Lastly,!as!captain!of!a!ship,!Gulliver!lands!on!an!island!populated! by!rational,!intelligent!horses!who!are!waited!upon!by!human`like!creatures!called!

Yahoos,!leading!Gulliver!to!conclude!that!all!humans!are!shamefully!similar!to!Yahoos.!

Swift,!like!Dampier,!Defoe,!and!the!countless!others!who!published!books!in!the!style!he! was!parodying,!made!mention!of!the!wind!throughout!his!text!in!the!manner!typifying! the!genre:!“We!sailed!with!a!fair!wind!to!the!Cape!of!Good!Hope…!I!began!this! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

127!Other!examples!include:!The*Voyages*of*Captain*Richard*Falconer*by!William!Rufus!Chetwood.! Chetwood!was!writing!during!the!South!Sea!bubble!and!seems!to!have!been!acquainted!with!Defoe,!as!his! name!is!referenced!on!the!title!page!of!Defoe’s!King*of*Pirates!(1720).!Having!witnessed!the!success!of!Defoe’s! fictional!work,!Chetwood!threw!his!hat!in!the!ring!and!authored!fictional!travel!narratives!of!voyage!and! adventure.!The!work!appears!to!draw!upon!Sloane’s!Natural*History*of*Jamaica,!Acosta’s!History*of*the*West* Indies,!and!Sprat’s!History*of*the*Royal*Society.!In!1726,!Chetwood,!published!another!adventure!tale!(a!tale! that!has!at!times!has!been!attributed!to!both!Benjamin!Victor!and!to!Defoe):!The*Voyage*and*Adventures*of* Captain*Robert*Boyle,!which!went!through!eight!re`printings!and!was!translated!into!four!languages.! Dampier’s!narratives!not!only!serve!as!a!basis!for!the!narrative!but!Dampier!himself!appears!as!a!character! in!this!particular!work—a!testament!to!his!fame,!literary!and!otherwise.!For!more!information!see!Bonner,! Buccaneer,*Author,!184.!Other!examples!of!the!genre!include,!Peter!Longueville,!The*English*Hermit:*or,*the* Unparalled*[sic]*Sufferings*and*Surprizing*Adventures*of*Mr.*Philip*Quarll,*and*Englishman,!(Westminster,!1727);! and!John!Barnard,!Ashton’s*Memorial@*An*History*of*the*Strange*Adventures*and*Signal*Deliverances*of*Mr.*Philip* Ashton*by!(London:!1726).!! 348! ! desperate!voyage!on!February!15,!1714`15,!at!nine!o’clock!in!the!morning.!The!wind!was! very!favourable…!Our!course!was!east`north`east,!the!wind!was!as!south`west…!I!set! up!my!sail,!the!wind!being!fair,!with!a!design!to!reach!the!nearest!of!those!islands.”128!!

! Thus!what!we!have!is!the!evolution!of!presumably!factual,!discursive,! reconstructions!of!the!wind’s!behavior,!giving!way!to!fictive!reconstructions,!and!further! to!fictive!satirization!of!the!fictive.!Swift!satirized!the!travel!narrative,!as!a!genre,!and!its! empirical!quality!by!implication,!i.e.!the!“true”!and!“real”!events!such!narratives! claimed!to!recount!and!the!literary!techniques!employed!to!achieve!this.!Orderly!regular! descriptions!of!the!wind!functioned!as!one!of!these!literary!techniques—a!legitimizing! agent!in!these!stories!that!created!an!impression!that!truth!and!fact!exist!in!a!singular! and!stable!sense.!The!malleability!of!the!wind!as!both!a!symbol!and!as!an!idea,!the! instability!of!the!wind!narratively!and!empirically,!was!what!made!it!so!appealing!and! functional!as!a!tool!in!this!capacity.!In!these!instances!the!wind!worked!to!create!an! impression!of!the!real!in!keeping!with!the!narrative!aims!of!the!author.!By!this!same! token,!the!evolution!of!these!travel!narratives!over!time,!from!non`fiction!to!fiction,!and! subsequently!to!satire,!may!be!conceived!as!an!evolving!metaphor!for!the!limits!of! human!control!during!an!age!when!empire!worked!with!particular!vigilance!to!establish!

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128!Jonathan!Swift,!Gulliver’s*Travels!(Plain!Label!Books,!2011),!271,!356,!97,!189,!Google!e`Books! Edition,!accessed!February!27,!2015,! https://books.google.com/books?id=emISbmWjamwC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&ca d=0#v=onepage&q&f=false!! 349! ! authority;!for!the!conceit!that!human!beings!are!capable!of!controlling!not!only!the!wind! but!nature!more!generally;!that!a!stable!narrative!actually!exists,!and!that!truth!itself!is! not!merely!a!construction.!His!satire!calls!further!attention!to!the!way!in!which!any!truth! about!the!wind!from!a!human!perspective!is!ultimately!a!construction!that!operates!as!a! product!of!social!consensus.!As!natural!philosophers!constructed!new!ways!of!knowing! and!understanding!the!wind!in!modern!scientific!terms—charting!its!movements!and! behaviors,!canonizing!a!vocabulary!to!describe!its!force,!and!making!conjectures!about! the!cause!for!its!motions—the!wind!simultaneously!retained!its!power!as!a!metaphor,! religious!and!otherwise.!!

Fiction!authors!such!as!Defoe!and!Smollet!used!language!to!create!worlds!that! not!only!mimicked!reality,!but!which!allowed!them!to!make!claims!about!the!truths!that! defined!physical!and!social!reality.!In!both!texts!the!wind!functioned!as!an!aid!to!this! endeavor!and!an!object!subject!to!this!endeavor.!Pure!metaphor!was!thus!the!tool!of! both!the!fiction!writer!and!the!scientist.!

Religion and Science

In!Vicious,!an!historical!investigation!into!the!storied!relationship!between!wolves! and!people,!environmental!historian!John!Coleman!describes!the!Bible!as!“a! fountainhead!of!wolf!lore.”129!The!Bible!might!just!as!readily!be!described!as!a! fountainhead!of!wind!lore.!The!Bible!offered!preachers!in!early!modern!England!no! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

129!Jon!Coleman,!Vicious:*Wolves*and*Men*in*America!(New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,!2004),!41.! 350! ! shortage!of!wind!metaphors!upon!which!to!hang!their!religious!sermons,!in!addition!to! including!many!stories!in!which!the!wind!figured!empirically!as!a!prominent!actor!in! the!course!of!events—such!as!the!locust!plague!or!the!great!storm!that!induced!Noah!to! build!the!Ark.!The!wind!functioned!so!powerfully!in!this!capacity!it!found!its!way!into! discourse!and!publications!that!extended!beyond!the!pulpit!directly.!!

In!Navigation*Spiritualized:*A*New*Compass*for*Seamen,!minister!John!Flavel! discusses!the!particular!plight!of!the!seaman:!“Seamen!are!as!it!were!a!third!sort!of! persons,!to!be!numbered!neither!with!the!living!nor!the!dead,!he!writes,!“their!lives! hanging!continually!in!suspense!before!them.”!On!the!wide`open!sea,!with!little!more! than!a!wooden!vessel,!skill,!and!luck!between!themselves!and!the!water,!sailors!reaped! the!benefits!of!nature’s!force!and!power!and!by!the!same!token!suffered!from!the! same.130!Indeed,!the!immense!danger!of!a!life!at!sea!made!it!what!Flavel!described!as!

“the!most!desperate!employment.”131!At!constant!risk!of!imminent!death,!the!fate!of!the! sailor’s!immortal!soul!was!thus!of!great!concern!to!many!religious!leaders,!who!were! dismayed!by!the!sailing!community’s!general!lack!of!piety!and!faith:!

Now!you!that!border!so!nigh!upon!the!confines!of!death!and!eternity!every! moment,!may!well!be!supposed!to!be!men!of!singular!piety!and!serious…But! alas!!for!the!generality,!What!sort!of!men!are!more!ungodly,!and!stupidly!

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130!Flavel!writes,!“although!custom,!and!the!great!improvement!of!the!art!of!navigation,!have!made! it!less!formidable!now,!yet!you!are!no!further!from!death!than!you!are!from!the!waters,!which!is!but!a! remove!of!two!or!three!inches.”!John!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!or*a*New*Compass*for*Seamen:*Consisting* of*XXXII*Points…All*Concluded*With*So*Many*Spiritual*Poems!(Edmund!Blunt,!1796),!4.! 131!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!4! 351! !

insensible!of!eternal!concernments?!Living!for!the!most!part,!as!if!they!had!made! a!covenant!with!death,!and!with!hell!were!at!an!agreement.132! ! Flavel!authored!his!text,!originally!published!in!1671,!in!response!to!what!he!perceived! as!the!seamen’s!dire!need!for!spiritual!guidance,!a!perception!held!in!general!consensus! among!the!religious!community!by!the!turn!of!the!17th!century.!“It!was!an!ancient! saying…He!that!knows!not!how!to!pray,!let!him!go!to!sea.!But!we!may!say!now…He! that!would!learn!to!be!profane,!to!drink!and!swear!and!dishonor!God,!let!him!go!to!sea,! writes!Flavel,!“As!for!prayer,!it!is!a!rare!thing!among!seamen,!they!count!that!as!a! needless!business.”133!On!this!basis,!Flavel!made!it!his!purpose!to!reach!the!sailing! community,!to!aid!them!in!their!spiritual!work,!to!salvage!the!soul!of!the!sailor.!“The!art! of!navigation…is!an!art!of!exquisite!excellency,!ingenuity,!rarity,!and!admirability:!But! the!Art!of!Spiritual!Navigation!is!the!art!of!arts.!It!is!a!gallant!thing!to!be!able!to!carry!a! ship!richly!laden!round!the!world:!But!it!is!much!more!gallant!to!carry!a!soul…in!a! body…through!the!sea!of!this!world…safe!to!heaven.”134!He!makes!this!claim!on!the! basis!that!the!soul!is!more!precious!than!the!richest!merchandize,!and!the!body!is!akin!to! a!leaky!vessel:!“Consider!what!a!dangerous!Sea!the!World!is,!in!which!thy!soul!is!to!sail! in!the!leaking!ship!of!thy!body.”135!In!order!to!effectively!reach!his!audience!he!chose!to!

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132!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!4! 133!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!4`5! 134!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!10! 135!Having!chosen!his!course!of!action,!each!chapter!opens!with!an!aphorism,!and!is!subsequently! organized!around!three!discussions:!an!observation,!an!application,!a!reflection,!and!concluded!with!a! poem.!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!16`17! 352! ! speak!to!sailors!according!to!what!he!perceived!as!their!own!terms,!using!terminology! familiar!to!the!maritime!community,!and!metaphors!that!evoked!life!at!sea.136!!

The!wind!thus!factored!into!his!text!as!a!powerful!and!prominent!metaphor.!In! chapter!five,!for!example,!Flavel!writes:!“How!watchful!and!quick`sited!are!seamen!to! prevent!dangers?!If!the!wind!die!away!and!then!fresh!up!southerly;!or!if!they!see!the!sky! hazy,!they!provide!for!a!storm…!Thus!watchful!and!suspicious!ought!we!to!be!in! spiritual!concernments.”137!For!Flavel,!the!careful!and!astute!way!in!which!sailors!read! the!wind,!observed!its!course,!and!paid!heed!to!signs!in!nature!that!functioned!as! portents!of!the!type!of!wind!and!weather!they!might!expect!functioned!as!a!perfect! metaphor!for!the!careful!attention!men!should!pay!to!their!spiritual!path.138!Men!capable! of!properly!interpreting!the!signs!and!portents!of!something!as!changing!and!mysterious! as!the!wind!might!orient!that!same!skill!set!toward!the!changing!weather!of!their!faith! and!toward!the!preservation!of!their!soul.!In!both!instances,!first!hand!experience!and! careful!observation,!of!the!physical!and!spiritual!worlds!respectively,!was!portrayed!as!a! skill!set!that!served!the!population!in!important!ways,!externally,!and!internally.!

In!chapter!eight!Flavel!opens!with!the!following!aphorism:!“The*navigator*shifts* his*sails,*to*take,*All*winds,*but*that*which*for*his*soul*doth*make.”!The!discussion!that!follows!

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136!“I!have!endeavored!to!clothe!spiritual!matters!in!your!own!dialect!and!phrases,!that!they!might! be!the!more!intelligible!to!you.”!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!7! 137!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!45`46! 138!“I!am!the!ship,!whose!bills!of!lading!come/To!more!than!mans!or!angels!art!can!sum.”!Flavel,! Navigation*Spiritualized,!48! 353! ! centers!on!the!way!in!which!a!good!sailor!takes!advantage!of!nature’s!wandering,! harnessing!the!wind!to!his!benefit.!!

The!mariner!wants!no!skill!and!wisdom!to!improve!several!winds,!and! make!them!serviceable!to!his!end;!a!bare!side`wind,!by!his!skill!in!shifting!and! managing!the!sails,!will!serve!his!turn:!He!will!not!lose!the!advantage!of!one! breath!or!gale!that!may!be!useful!to!him,!I!have!many!time!wondered!to!see!two! ships!sailing!in!a!direct!counter!motion,!by!one!and!the!same!wind.!Their!skill! and!wisdom!herein!is!admirable.139!! ! Just!as!sailors!were!able!to!read!the!wind,!harness!its!power!and!take!the! necessary!precautions!when!the!wind!behaved!to!the!contrary,!so!they!might!navigate! their!spiritual!path,!asserted!Flavel.140!The!skill!set!that!allowed!sailors!to!know!and!use! the!wind!to!propel!their!ships,!was!so!powerful!that!it!functioned!as!an!appropriate! metaphor!for!what!the!religious!community!would!argue!was!the!most!significant! concern!of!every!human!being:!proper!care!of!the!immortal!soul.141!!!!

At!the!same!time!that!Flavel!was!publishing!his!religious!guide!for!seamen—a! guide!that!used!the!wind!as!a!powerful!spiritual!metaphor—the!natural!philosopher!

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139!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!59! 140!“O!Sir’s!!I!beg!you,!if!you!have!any!regard!to!those!precious!immortal!souls!of!yours,!which!are! also!imbarqued!for!eternity,!whether!all!winds!blow!them,!and!will!quickly!be!at!their!port!of!heaven!or!hell,! that!you!will!seriously!mind!these!things,!and!learn!to!steer!your!course!to!heaven,!and!improve!all!winds!(I! mean!opportunities!and!means)!to!waft!you!thither.”!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!6`7! 141!Other!examples!of!Flavel’s!use!of!wind!as!a!metaphor!for!his!religious!teachings!include!his! observation!that!“Ships!make!much!way!when!they!a!trade`wind!get,!With!such!a!wind!the!saints!have!ever! met.!Though!in!most!parts!of!the!world!the!winds!are!variable,!and!sometimes!blow!from!every!point!of!the! compass,!by!reason!whereof,!sailing!is!slow,!and!dangerous;!yet!the!about!the!Equinoctial,!seamen!meet! with!a!trade`wind,!blowing,!for!the!most!part,!one!way;!and!there!they!sail!jocund!before!it,!an!scarce!need! to!lower!a!top`sail!for!some!hundreds!of!leagues.![Likewise]!Although!the!people!of!God!meet!with!many! seeming!rubs!and!set`back!in!their!way!to!heaven,!which!are!like!contrary!winds!to!a!ship;!yet!are!they!from! the!day!of!their!conversion,!to!the!day!of!their!complete!salvation,!never!out!of!a!trade`wind’s!way!to! heaven.”!Flavel,!Navigation*Spiritualized,!134`135!! 354! !

Margaret!Cavendish!was!challenging!emergent!popular!conventions!regarding! mechanistic!views!of!nature!grounded!in!experimental!science!(1660’s).!Margaret!

Cavendish!advocated!for!a!natural!philosophy!strongly!influenced!by!the!stoic!tradition,! a!philosophy!in!which!all!matter!was!endowed!with!vitalism.!She!believed!that!every! aspect!of!the!universe!was!conscious!in!its!own!way!unique!unto!itself,!and!was! conscious!of!the!rest!of!the!universe!insofar!as!its!particular!perspective!permitted.!The! result!was!that!nature!knew!itself!and!did!not!know!itself—could!never!know!itself!in!its! entirety.!Nor!could!men,!therefore,!understand!nature!in!her!entirety.!142!Cavendish! writes:!!

The!truth!is,!that!all!or!most!artificial!experiments,!are!the!best!arguments!to! evince,!there!is!perception!in!all!corporeal!parts!of!nature:!for!as!parts!are!joined,! or!commix!with!parts,!so!they!move!or!work!accordingly!into!such!or!such! figures,!either!by!way!of!imitation,!or!otherwise;!for!their!motions!are!so!various,! as!it!is!impossible!for!one!particular!to!describe!them!all;!but!no!motion!can!be! without!perception,!because!every!part!or!particle!of!nature,!as!it!is!self`moving,! so!it!is!also!self`knowing!and!perceptive;!for!matter,!self`motion,!knowledge,!and! perception!are!all!but!one!thing,!and!no!more!differing,!or!separable!from!each! other,!than!body,!place,!magnitude,!color!and!figure.!Wherefore!experimental! philosophers!cannot!justly!blame!me!for!maintaining!the!opinion!of!self`motion,! and!a!general!perception!of!nature.143! !

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142!Modern!scholar!and!biographer!of!Margaret!Cavendish,!Lisa!Sarasohn!writes:! “[Cavendish]…allowed!that!there!might!be!some!form!of!conflict!inherent!in!mater!because!each!part!lacks! knowledge!of!the!infinite!whole!and!Nature!does!not!have!an!infinite!knowledge!of!her!parts.!But!each!part,! when!organized!into!different!kinds,!does!possess!the!rationality!and!knowledge!of!its!particular!kind!of! being.!The!idea!of!the!equality!of!kinds!is!presented!as!response!and!repudiation!of!human!arrogance!and! presumption.!Species`specific!rationality,!which!is!a!natural!product!of!the!rationality!of!matter,!undermines! the!idea!of!the!mechanistic!universe.”!Lisa!Sarasohn,!The*Natural*Philosophy*of*Margaret*Cavendish*(Baltimore,! MD:!Johns!Hopkins!University!Press,!2010),!193`194.! 143!Sarasohn,!Philosophy*of*Margaret*Cavendish,!113! 355! !

In!Description*of*a*New*World,*Called*the*Blazing*World,!Cavendish!satirized!the!theories! and!methods!associated!with!the!mechanical!philosophy!in!vogue!at!that!time!and! popularized!by!the!Royal!Society,!(an!institution!she!was!excluded!from!participating!in! by!virtue!of!her!gender).144!In!this!text,!she!imaginatively!described!a!“new!world”!the!

“Blazing!World”!which!was!her!own!and!within!her!power!to!create.!According!to!

Cavendish,!!

The!end!of!reason,!is!truth;!the!end!of!fancy!is!fiction;!but!mistake!me!not,!when!I! distinguish!fancy!from!reason;!I!mean!not!as!if!fancy!were!not!made!by!the! rational!parts!of!matter,!but!by!reason!I!understand!a!rational!search!and!enquiry! into!the!causes!of!natural!effects;!and!by!fancy!a!voluntary!creation!or!production! of!the!mind,!both!being!effects!or!rather!actions!of!the!rational!parts!of! matter…and!for!this!reason,!why!I!added!this!piece!of!fancy!to!my!philosophical! observations,!and!joined!them!as!two!worlds!at!the!ends!of!their!poles;!both!for! my!own!sake,!to!divert!my!studious!thoughts,!which!I!employed!in!the! contemplation!thereof,!and!to!delight!the!reader!with!variety,!which!is!always! pleasing.145!! ! Her!work!is!thus!one!of!fact!and!fiction,!similar!in!some!ways!to!the!approach!of!Swift!in!

Gulliver’s*Travels,!as!both!texts!use!imaginative!enhancements!of!the!real!as!a!vehicle’s! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

144!Cavendish!went!to!great!lengths!participate!in!the!philosophical!conversations!of!her!male! contemporaries!who,!according!to!Lisa!Sarasohn!were!“trying!to!articulate!a!new!ideal!of!the!gentlemen! scholar,”!(Sarasohn,!Philosophy*of*Margaret*Cavendish,!153).!The!gentlemen!scholar,!as!conceived!by!the!Royal! Society!during!the!1660’s,!had!an!incentive!to!distance!himself!from!the!antiquated!university!culture!and!its! institutions!by!participating!in!a!circle!of!learning!that!included!participants!from!the!highest!strata!of! society.!The!society!endeavored!to!win!patronage!from!the!King!and!other!high`ranking!courtiers!such!as! the!Earl!of!Clarendon,!and!many!of!its!early!members!were!recruited!on!the!basis!of!their!gentlemanly!status! rather!than!on!the!basis!of!their!scientific!wit.!Cavendish!was!excluded!from!participation!in!the!Royal! Society,!however,!and!thus!aligned!herself!with!the!University!of!Cambridge.!“By!privileging!the!authority! and!preeminence!of!the!university,!Cavendish!hoped!to!subvert!the!efforts!to!keep!her!out!of!the!community! of!natural!philosophers,”!writes!Sarasohn,!(p.153).!!Cavendish’s!natural!philosophy!rejected!experimental! philosophy,!as!well!as!the!mechanistic!philosophy!that!was!gaining!so!much!popularity!at!the!time!as!a! result!of!advances!in!technology!and!in!the!writings!of!philosophers!such!as!Descartes!and!Thomas!Hobbes,! who!advocated!for!mechanistic!explanations!of!the!natural!world.! 145!Sarasohn,!The*Natural*Philosophy*of*Margaret*Cavendish,!124`125! 356! ! for!social!commentary,!directed!in!part!at!the!ideas!and!methods!of!the!scientific! community.!!Among!other!things,!Cavendish!criticized!the!scientific!community’s! capacity!to!adequately!explain!the!nature!of!the!wind,!and!her!critique!is!strikingly! similar!in!content!to!the!critique!Daniel!Defoe!lobbied!against!natural!philosophers! approximately!thirty!years!later!in!the!Storm:!the!lack!of!consensus!among!the!members! of!the!scientific!community,!their!inability!to!agree!upon!the!cause!and!substance!of!the! wind!called!their!ideas!and!presumptions!into!question!and!opened!them!to!criticism.!

Truth!is!constituted!by!consensus!after!all.!!

Cavendish’s!opinions!on!the!subject!are!particularly!interesting!and!relevant!by! virtue!of!their!relation!to!the!concept!of!replication,!physical,!metaphoric,!and!otherwise.!

As!an!adherent!to!the!concept!of!vitalism!and!as!a!skeptic!of!the!experimental!method,!

Cavendish!believed!that!the!reproduction!of!an!object!was!never!capable!of!representing! the!object!in!its!totality.!!It!follows!from!this!line!of!reasoning!that!any!deductions! derived!from!experiments!in!which!scientists!attempt!to!recreate!nature,!might!say! something!about!the!object!in!the!experiment,!but!little!more.!The!experimental!method! derives!its!authority!on!the!basis!that!the!object!or!phenomenon!the!experiment!seeks!to! represent!has!enough!fundamental!similarity!with!the!object!or!phenomenon!in!question! that!inferences!can!be!drawn!or!rules!established!about!it!on!the!basis!of!the! experiment’s!outcome.!For!Cavendish,!such!reasoning!did!not!hold.!She!suggested!that! the!metaphor!for!reality!created!by!the!experimental!context!never!ceased!to!be!more!

357! ! than!that—never!ceased!to!be!more!than!a!metaphor.!Cavendish,!thus!emerges!a!voice!of! opposition!against!the!experimental!method,!a!voice!that!calls!scientific!wind! knowledge,!its!methods!and!its!facts,!into!question.!She!writes,!!

There!is!as!much!difference!between!natural!and!artificial!ice!and!snow,!as!there! is!between!chalk!and!cheese,!or!between!a!natural!child,!and!a!baby!made!of! paste!or!wax,!and!gummed!silk;!or!between!artificial!glass,!and!natural! diamonds:!The!same!might!be!said!of!hail,!frost,!wind,!etc.!for!although!their! exterior!figures!do!resemble,!yet!their!interior!natures!are!quite!different,!and! therefore,!although!by!the!help!of!art,!some!may!make!ice!of!water!or!snow,!yet! we!cannot!conclude!from!hence,!that!all!natural!snow!is!made!that!way,!by!saline! particles,!or!acid!spirits,!and!the!like.146!! ! From!this!perspective,!experiment!was!limited!in!what!it!could!tell!people!about!the! natural!world,!because!the!replication!of!a!thing!was!never!the!same!as!the!thing!itself;! its!substance!was!fundamentally!different.!Extending!Cavendish’s!view!seems!to! suggest!that!experiment!is!itself*a!type!of!metaphor!for!reality,!a!metaphor!for!the!object! it!seeks!to!describe:!the!operations!and!fundamental!composition!of!nature,!or!in!the! case!of!this!discussion,!the!operations!and!fundamental!composition!of!the!wind.!From! this!vantage!point,!the!methods!by!which!the!fields!of!experimental!science,!fiction,!and! religion!each!represented!the!wind!and!expressed!wind!knowledge!were!not!all!that! different.!All!of!them!operated!on!the!basis!of!metaphoric!constructs.!!

This!brings!us!full!circle!to!the!question!posed!at!the!beginning!of!this!chapter.!

Having!demonstrated!the!centrality!of!history!to!the!creation!a!wind`knowledge!

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146!Margaret!Cavendish,!Observations*upon*Experimental*Philosophy,!ed.!Eileen!O’Neil!(Cambridge! University!Press:!Cambridge,!2001),!113.! 358! ! commons!in!seventeenth!century!England,!how!should!we!interpret!the!truth!claims!of! fictions!about!the!wind?!What!is!their!utility?!What!work!do!they!perform?!There!is!no! single!answer.!No!definitive!conclusion.!The!answers!are!as!variable!as!the!wind,!the! purposes!as!circumstantial.!The!mutable!quality!of!wind!knowledge,!and!of!metaphor,! the!capacity!of!each!to!serve!a!variety!of!purposes,!to!perform!a!variety!of!tasks! concomitantly,!is!a!commonality!they!both!share.!!

More!extraordinary!is!the!centrality!of!narrative,!of!history,!to!all!wind` knowledge,!whether!in!fiction,!sermons,!travel!writing,!or!folklore.!Each!of!these! narrative!genres!reveal!human!observations!about!the!wind!and!natural!world,!and!in! doing!so!foreground!the!significance!of!experiential!knowledge,!i.e.!maker’s!knowledge,! to!any!description!of!the!wind.!History!in!this!context!not!only!constitutes!key!elements! of!wind!knowledge,!but!also!makes!it!“common.”!Without!narratives,!without!histories! of!wind!in!natural!philosophy,!myth!and!folklore,!religion,!travel!writing,!and!fiction,! we!would!not!see!the!work!of!wind!or!have!wind!knowledge.!Narratives!of!all!kinds! thus!represent!the!importance!of!maker’s!knowledge!and!of!the!commonness!existent! within!this!knowledge!commons.!

359! !

Conclusion

On!June!20,!1819!the!U.S.!steamship!Savannah!pulled!into!port!at!Liverpool,!

England!“with!sails!furled!and!American!colors!flying”!to!a!large!crowd!of!enthusiastic! onlookers.!“The!piers!were!thronged!by!thousands!who!greeted!her!arrival!with! vociferous!cheers,!and!before!she!anchored!her!decks!were!so!crowded!it!was!with!the! greatest!difficulty!the!crew!could!move!about!in!the!performance!of!their!duty,”!writes! the!19th`century!historian!George!Preeble.1!Those!present!knew!that!they!were! witnessing!an!historic!moment.!This!ship,!a!steam!and!sail!hybrid,!was!the!first!of!its! kind!to!cross!the!Atlantic,!traveling!from!Savannah,!Georgia!to!Liverpool,!England!in! twenty`nine!days!and!eleven!hours.!!Although!the!ship!relied!upon!steam!power!for!a! mere!fraction!of!the!voyage!(approximately!80!of!the!707!hours!of!the!journey),!the! invention!of!a!vessel!that!relied!on!steam!rather!than!wind!power,!even!if!only!in!part,! marked!a!significant!step!in!human!technological!development,!one!that!diminished!to!a! degree!the!extent!to!which!humanity!was!subject!to!the!will!and!the!whim!of!the!wind.2!

Thus,!it!should!come!as!no!surprise!that!the!log!book!of!the!Pluto,!a!sailing!ship!the!

Savannah!passed!“at!the!rate!of!nine!or!ten!knots”!a!mere!eight!days!into!her!journey!

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1!This!quote!appears!in!the!19th`century!historian!George!Preble,!but!he!does!not!specify!the!source! of!the!quote.!According!to!Preeble,!“It!is!stated!that!‘the!piers!were!thronged!by!thousands!who!greeted!her! arrival!with!vociferous!cheers,!and!before!she!anchored!her!decks!were!so!crowded!it!was!with!the!greatest! difficulty!the!crew!could!move!about!in!the!performance!of!their!duty.’”!George!H.!Preble,!Origin*and* Development*of*Steam*Navigation!(Philadelphia:!L.R.!Hamersly!&!Co.!1883),!99.! 2!Smithsonian!Institution!(1891):!mLog!Book!of!the!Savannah,m!from!Report*of*the*U.S.*National* Museum*During*the*Year*Ending*June*30,*1890,!Government!Printing!Office,!Washington,!p.!632`633,!as! quoted!in!Wikipedia!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Savannah!! 360! ! should!describe!her!as!“the!happiest!effort!of!mechanical!genius!that!ever!appeared!on! the!Western!Ocean.”3!!

As!a!hybrid!vessel!reliant!on!both!wind!power!and!steam!power,!the!sails!of!the!

Savannah!exemplified!the!wind!knowledge!of!the!past,!while!her!steam`powered! paddles!gestured!toward!the!knowledge!transforming!19th`century!society!and!culture!in! the!present,!within!the!context!of!the!industrial!revolution.!In!more!abstract!terms,! however,!the!Savannah’s!part!sail,!part!steam!configuration!may!be!viewed!as!a!perfect! metaphor!illustrating!the!ways!in!which!mankind’s!attempt!to!extricate!itself!from!the! binds!of!nature!are!partial!at!best.!Incomplete.!As!are!human!attempts!to!know!and!to! interpret!nature,!and!to!subjugate!nature!to!human!design,!specifically!as!those!attempts! relate!to!human!relationships!with!the!wind.!The!wind!could!be!used!to!satisfy!human! purposes,!functioning!as!a!partner!facilitating!human!endeavors.!And!it!was.!However,! the!wind!was!also!an!unpredictable!and!unwieldy!collaborator!in!such!ventures,!just!as! readily!undermining!the!very!projects!it!facilitated.!It!could!not!be!controlled.!The!

Savannah’s!hybrid!design!thus!exemplifies!this!tension!and!its!attendant!history.!The! ship’s!steam!engines!highlighted!a!newfound!degree!independence!from!such! collaborative!partnerships!between!humanity!and!nature!resulting!from!progress!and! evolution!in!the!fields!of!science!and!technology.!Its!sails,!on!the!other!hand,!illustrated! the!historically!proven!benefits!of!such!relationships,!while!at!the!same!time!suggesting!

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3!The!national!affiliation!of!the!sailing!ship!Pluto!is!unclear.!Preble,!Origin*and*Development,!98! 361! ! the!extent!to!which!humanity!could!never!completely!extricate!itself!from!its! dependence!upon!and!its!relationship!to!nature,!if!for!no!other!reason!than!by!virtue!of! human!mortality—which!unequivocally!claims!man!as!subject!to!nature!in!the!final! instance.!!

And!what!of!the!maker’s!knowledge!present!in!such!design?!The!sail!and!steam! design!of!the!Savannah!gestured!toward!the!maker’s!knowledge!of!the!past!and!to!the! intellectual!commons!it!constituted,!as!well!as!to!the!maker’s!knowledge!of!the!future— the!era!of!industrialization!to!follow,!the!new!manifestations!and!applications!of!wind! knowledge!in!that!context,!and!the!quality!of!the!commons!nurtured!there.!The!unique! wind!knowledge!commons!created!over!the!course!of!the!17th!century!had!enormous! political!and!cultural!significance.!This!commons!emerged!from!the!first`hand! experiences!and!observations!of!everyone!who!interacted!with!the!wind!and!who! endeavored!to!narrate!the!quality!of!that!relationship!insofar!as!it!informed!human! understandings!of!the!wind’s!meaning!and!substance.!This!commons!used!history! centrally,!as!a!key!way!in!which!actors!sought!to!make!wind!knowledge!visible.!!It!also! galvanized!an!extraordinary!set!of!“laborers”!to!create!better!wind!knowledge,!a!central! but!neglected!dimension!in!the!growth!of!British!imperial!capacity,!but!one!that!also! created!challenges!to!empire.!!And!this!commons!resisted!any!degradation!by! commoners.!!Rather,!the!wind!knowledge!commons!was!nurtured!by!all!forms!of!use! and!“trespass”!if!you!will.!!There!is!no!declension!here.!In!this!sense,!human!

362! ! relationships!with!the!wind!give!rise!to!a!very!different!type!of!story!than!what! commonly!emerges!in!the!fields!of!environmental!history,!the!history!of!science,!or!the! history!of!empire.!!

Almost!two!hundred!years!prior,!Francis!Bacon!had!articulated!his!vision!for!a! reformed!natural!philosophy!that!privileged!experiential!knowledge!over!received! wisdom,!and!thus!elevated,!if!only!implicitly,!the!knowledge!of!the!craftsmen!and!the! everyday!worker!when!it!came!to!interpreting!and!understanding!the!natural!world.!At! the!same!time,!however,!Bacon!did!not!see!man!as!necessarily!separate!from!nature!but! rather!as!an!extension!of!nature!itself,!a!privileged!part!of!nature.!In!the!words!of! historian!Perez`Ramos,!quoting!Bacon,!“by!knowing!how!to!combine!the!already! existing!simple!qualities,![mankind]!is!capable!of!producing!other!nature—‘a!kind!of! second!world.’”4!Bacon!was!referring!here!to!the!production!of!works,!both!the!simple! and!the!complex,!perfectly!exemplified!by!technologies!such!as!the!steamship!Savannah! and!its!predecessor!the!sailing!ship.!Bacon!believed!that!the!path!to!human!progress!lay!

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4!Perez`Ramos,!Francis*Bacon’s*Idea*of*Science*and*the*Makers*Knowledge*Tradition!(Oxford:!Clarendon! Press;!New!York:!Oxford!University!Press,!1988),!146.!Bacon!writes:!“When!a!man!makes!the!appearance!of! a!rainbow!on!a!wall!by!the!sprinkling!of!water,!Nature!does!the!work!for!him,!just!as!much!as!when!the! same!effect!is!produced!in!the!air!by!a!dripping!cloud:!and,!on!the!other!hand,!when!gold!is!found!pure!in! sands,!Nature!does!the!work!for!herself...just!as!much!as!if!it!were!refined!by!the!furnace!and!human! appliance…Therefore!as!Nature!is!one!and!the!same,!and!her!power!extends!through!all!things,!nor!does! she!ever!forsake!herself,!these!three!things!should!by!all!means!be!set!down!as!alike!subordinate!only!to! Nature;!namely,!the!course!of!Nature;!the!wandering!of!Nature;!and!art,!or!Nature!with!man!to!help.’!Thus,! writes,!Perez`Ramos,!“Art!not!only!equals!Nature!but!can!also!bring!forth!things!which,!though!being!also! natural,!were!hidden!in!Nature!as!customarily!perceived,”!(p.146`147).”!This!second!world!is!akin!to!what! contemporary!environmental!historians!often!refer!to!as!“second!nature.”!The!most!cited!work!in! environmental!history!that!makes!reference!to!the!concept!of!second!nature!is!easily!William!Cronon’s! masterful!study,!Nature’s*Metropolis:*Chicago*and*the*Great*West!(New!York:!W.W.!Norton,!1991).! 363! ! in!operative*knowledge,!which!he!regarded!as!the!very!foundation!of!human!learning.5!!In! addition!to!elevating!humanity!toward!the!metaphysical!and!to!the!“summary!law!of! nature”!that!represented!the!pinnacle!of!human!intellectual!achievement,!such!operative! knowledge,!according!to!Bacon,!might!be!applied!toward!the!alleviation!of!human! suffering!and!inconvenience,!toward!improving!the!quality!of!human!life.6!Nowhere!did!

Bacon!see!such!opportunities!more!readily!apparent!than!in!the!cultivation!of!wind! knowledge!and!its!attendant!applications.!

In!the!two!hundred!years!between!the!publication!of!Bacon’s!History*of*Winds! and!the!voyage!of!the!Savannah,!not!all!of!Bacon’s!visions!for!the!future!had!yet!come!to! fruition.!But!many!had,!and!discourse!played!a!key!role!in!these!developments.!While! quite!distinct!from!the!mechanical!arts!Bacon!so!readily!emphasized!and!lauded,!early! modern!discourse!about!the!wind!was!nevertheless!responsible!for!both!shaping!and! mirroring!the!material!world,!functioning!as!a!symbolic!form!of!second!nature.!Indeed,!

“no!accurate!understanding!of!early!modern!science!can!be!achieved!by!artificially!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

5!According!to!Perez`Ramos,!Bacon’s!doctrine!of!operativo!rested!on!the!premise!that!“art!not!only! equals!existing!Nature!but!can!also!bring!forth!things!which,!through!being!also!natural,!were!hidden!in! Nature!as!customarily!perceived!(Perez`Ramos,!Maker’s*Knowledge,!146).!Quoting!Bacon!on!the!following! page:!“‘The!use!of!history!mechanical![i.e.!of!Nature!altered!by!human!art]!is,!of!all!others,!the!most!radical! and!fundamental!towards!natural!philosophy;!such!natural!philosophy!I!mean!as!shall!not!vanish!in!the! flames!of!subtle!or!sublime!speculation,!but!such!as!shall!be!operative!to!relieve!the!inconveniences!of!man’s! estate…it!will!give!a!more!true!and!real!illumination!concerning!the!investigation!of!causes!of!things!and! axioms!of!arts,!than!hitherto!shone!upon!mankind.!For!like!a!man’s!disposition!is!never!well!known!till!he! be!crossed…so!Nature!exhibits!herself!more!clearly!under!the!trial!and!vexation!of!art!(natural!arte!irritate!et! vexata)!than!when!left!to!herself.’”!Bacon!quoted!in!Perez`Ramos,!Maker’s*Knowledge,!147!! 6!Kevin!Sharpe!quotes!Harold!Love!here.!Sharpe!provides!a!historiographical!overview!of! scholarship!devoted!to!the!politics!of!theatre,!poetry,!and!art!in!“Representations!and!Negotiations:!Texts,! Images,!and!Authority!in!Early!Modern!England,”!The*Historical*Journal!42,!no.!3!(1999):!853`881.!! 364! ! separating!reading!and!writing!from!additional!forms!of!making!and!doing,”!writes! historian!Deborah!Harkness.7!The!same!might!be!said!of!history!more!generally.!

Language,!as!a!descriptor!of!the!material!world!not!only!reflected!what!was,!but! simultaneously!constituted!the!empirical—gave!it!meaning.!Language!played!a!key!role! in!the!production!of!culture!through!its!capacity!to!alternately!make!visible!or!to!conceal! particular!aspects!of!experience,!to!open!or!close!doors!of!intellectual!and!material! possibility,!and!thus!to!define!the!imaginative!ways!in!which!people!explored,! combined,!and!applied!the!properties!of!the!physical!world!and!their!experience!in!that! world.8!In!his!discussions!of!early!modern!England,!historian!Kevin!Sharpe!writes,!

“Those!who!possessed…‘a!privileged!understanding!of!the!figurative!nature!of!belief! systems,’!and!who!controlled!the!‘master!narratives!of!their!culture’!were!the!‘specialists! in!the!use!of!figurative!language,’!writers—and!artists.”9!!

As!a!natural!philosopher,!politician,!and!master!rhetorician,!Bacon!used!his! command!of!language!to!influence!the!ways!that!natural!philosophers!thought!about! and!related!to!the!natural!world!and!to!the!wind.!He!created!a!wind!taxonomy:!naming! the!winds,!describing!their!motions,!categorizing!their!characteristics,!identifying!areas! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

7!Deborah!Harkness,!The*Jewel*House:*Elizabethan*London*and*the*Scientific*Revolution,!New!Haven!:! Yale!University!Press,!2007),!209.! 8!For!a!discussion!of!the!politics!of!art!please!see!Roy!Strong,!The*Tudor*and*Stuart*Monarchy:* Pageantry,*Painting.*Iconography!(Woodbridge,!Suffolk,!UK;!Rochester,!NY:!Boydell!Press,!1995`1998).! 9!H.!Love!quoted!by!Kevin!Sharpe!in!“Representations!and!Negotiations:!Texts,!Images,!and! Authority!in!Early!Modern!England”!The*Historical*Journal!42,!no.!3!(1999):!853`881;!855.!Sharpe!calls!for! historians!to!model!themselves!after!literary!critics!and!to!focus!attention!to!the!ways!in!which!writers!and! artists!of!Early!Modern!England!informed!the!rich!complexities!of!political!culture,!and!to!the!work!that! texts!and!images!performed!within!this!context.!! 365! ! for!future!research,!and!publishing!his!findings.!In!doing!so,!he!used!the!limited!means! at!his!disposal—language!and!the!novel!methodology!of!emergent!science—to! epistemologically!bound!and!control!an!otherwise!powerful!and!unruly!force!of!nature! to!which!humanity!was!overwhelmingly!subject.!At!the!same!time,!however,!in!naming! and!describing!what!was!currently!known!about!the!wind,!Bacon!jointly!articulated!the! operative!knowledge,!the!maker’s!knowledge!that!was!part!and!parcel!of!the!everyday! worker’s!experience!with!the!wind,!elevating!the!status!of!such!knowledge!to!the!level! of!that!possessed!by!the!natural!philosopher,!if!only!implicitly.!Bacon!included!in!his! treatise,!for!example,!the!wind!knowledge!of!the!farmers!and!the!herdsman!who! observed!the!sun,!moon,!and!sky!for!prognostic!clues!about!the!wind,!and!who!noted! the!relationship!between!distinct!animal!behaviors!and!the!wind’s!temperament.!He!also! gestured!toward!the!wind!knowledge!of!the!ship!builder!and!the!sailor!in!designing!and! managing!wind`based!technologies.!His!references!to!the!application!of!wind! knowledge!in!arenas!such!as!agriculture,!medicine,!entertainment,!and!war,!evoked!the! experience!and!wisdom!of!the!everyday!worker!even!as!the!workers!themselves!went! unnamed!in!his!writing.!The!wind!knowledge!Bacon!championed!and!rhetorically! appropriated!was!by!definition,!maker’s!knowledge,!and!in!this!instance,!maker’s! knowledge!rooted!in!an!intellectual!commons!facilitated!by!the!fundamental!nature!of! the!wind!itself—a!force!that!was!inherently!uncontrollable,!freely!accessible,!and! unbounded.!!

366! !

William!Dampier!capitalized!upon!this!intellectual!commons.!He!cultivated!his! own!unique!brand!of!wind!expertise!that!spoke!to!the!aims!of!the!scientific!community! and!to!the!curiosity!of!the!public!within!the!context!of!imperial!expansion.!As!a!scientist,! a!buccaneer,!and!a!travel!writer,!he!operated!in!eddies!that!connected!otherwise! disparate!worlds.!He!occupied!liminal!spaces,!both!culturally!and!physically,!rubbing! shoulders!with!the!likes!of!Samuel!Pepys!and!the!Royal!Society,!mapping!the!ambitions! of!empire,!opening!up!trans`oceanic!trade!routes,!subverting!England’s!political!rivals,! and!working!intimately!with!the!wind!on!a!daily!basis!in!order!to!accomplish!all!of!these! tasks.!The!wind!knowledge!Dampier!articulated!in!his!Discourse*of*Winds!was!a!function! of!maker’s!knowledge!acquired!through!his!routine!observations!and!his!daily!labor.!He! may!have!applied!his!knowledge!in!the!service!of!science!and!the!state,!but!as!a!sailor!he! became!a!student!of!wind!as!a!course!of!necessity,!and!in!the!interest!of!furthering!his! personal!ambitions.!And!he!was!not!alone!in!this!respect.!What!Dampier’s!writing!and! experience!succeeds!at!bringing!into!sharper!focus,!by!implication,!is!that!the!intellectual! commons!he!drew!upon!in!cultivating!his!wind!knowledge!was!open!and!accessible!to! all.!It!could!be!turned!to!any!number!of!purposes,!personal!or!otherwise.!Wind! knowledge!cultivated!and!applied!in!the!interest!of!science!and!empire!could!just!as! readily!be!cultivated!and!applied!for!personal!gain!by!mutineers,!pirates,!and!even!by! slaves,!for!example.!And!it!was.!Thus,!the!same!natural!force!that!on!the!one!hand! supported!and!facilitated!England’s!imperial!ambitions!was!alternately!a!tool!that!jointly!

367! ! undermined!that!power!and!authority.!Dampier’s!life!and!work!perfectly!exemplifies! this!tension,!a!tension!mirrored!in!the!larger!imperial!context!that!shaped!him!and!in! which!he!operated.!!

Human!enterprise!involving!wind!knowledge!was!not!the!only!thing!that! potentially!threatened!to!undermine!the!power!and!stability!of!empire,!however.!

Nature,!and!the!wind!itself,!occasionally!played!a!part!as!a!protagonist!in!this!process.!

The!Great!Storm!of!1703,!for!example,!physically!devastated!the!English!nation:!laying! waste!to!the!countryside,!destroying!villages!and!wrecking!havoc!in!the!cities,! annihilating!the!navy!and!drowning!thousands!of!sailors!at!sea.!Examining!the!political! economy!of!wind!knowledge!through!the!lens!of!someone!like!Dampier!and!his! colleagues!illustrates!a!host!of!practical,!first`hand,!material!applications!of!wind! knowledge:!how!people!put!wind!knowledge!to!work!on!board!a!ship,!whether!for! personal!or!imperial!gains,!for!example.!The!political!economy!of!wind!knowledge! further!underscores!how!practical!human!enterprise!involving!wind!knowledge! alternately!supported!and!undermined!the!ambitions!of!empire.!The!Great!Storm,! however,!begins!to!suggest!the!ideological!power!and!utility!of!wind!knowledge!and! inserts!nature!itself!as!a!key!protagonist!in!this!drama.!!

The!physical!and!epistemological!challenges!presented!by!the!Great!Storm,!so! poignantly!described!and!exemplified!in!Defoe’s!text,!reinstate!the!subjectivity!of!human! experiences!with!nature.!The!discourse!that!emerged!from!all!quarters!of!society—low!

368! ! and!high,!political,!religious,!scientific!and!otherwise—in!response!to!the!Great!Storm! attempted!to!describe!not!only!the!wind’s!effects,!but!its!fundamental!cause.!These,!at! times,!competing!and!incommensurable!narratives!call!attention!to!the!sociological! aspect!of!truth—the!extent!to!which!truthful!narrations!about!the!wind,!and!the!concept! of!truth!in!general,!operated!then!and!now,!as!a!function!of!social!consensus,!or!a!lack! thereof.!Attempts!to!accurately!measure!and!describe!wind!force,!for!example,!in!order! to!compare!the!Great!Storm!to!narrations!of!tempests!past,!highlight!this!dilemma.!The! rubrics!used!to!make!such!assessments!over!the!long!17th!century!were!not!fixed,!and! data!and!information!on!the!subject!took!the!form!of!history,!which!compounded!the! subjective!quality!of!such!descriptions.!!

At!the!same!time,!attempts!to!account!for!the!wind!and!storm’s!cause!reinforced! the!extent!to!which!religion!operated!as!a!primary!lens!through!which!people!viewed! nature!and!interpreted!its!meaning!and!significance!in!Early!Modern!England.!In!this! context,!religion!jointly!functioned!as!a!tool!of!social!control,!particularly!at!key! moments!like!these!when!catastrophic!events!threatened!not!only!to!undo!social!and! political!order!but!which!poignantly!reminded!people!just!how!little!control!human! beings!really!had!and!ultimately!have!over!their!lives!and!environment.!The!continuities! between!the!descriptions!of!the!winds!in!ancient!Greek!literature!passed!down!through! generations!compared!to!those!that!emerged!in!1703!in!reaction!to!the!storm!thus!point! to!the!enduring!legacy!of!this!existential!predicament!and!highlight!the!extent!to!which!

369! ! the!wind!functioned,!then!and!now,!as!a!continual!reminder!of!the!uncertainty,!mystery,! and!powerlessness!that!is!part!and!parcel!of!the!human!experience.!Humanity’s! relationship!to!nature,!and!the!unresolved!questions!elicited!by!the!wind!and!storm! served!as!a!potent!reminder!of!the!existential!dilemma!that!science,!technology,!and! religion!each!spoke!to!in!their!own!way,!and!endeavored!ameliorate.!And!these!attempts! to!describe!the!storm!and!to!explain!its!cause,!whether!it!be!in!scientific,!mythological,!or! religious!terms,!all!pendulate!around!the!conundrum!of!truth!and!what!it!means!to! narrate!the!real,!what!it!means!to!describe!an!invisible!animate!force,!how!to! characterize!that!which!remains!unseen!and!mysterious!and!powerful,!and!the!morals! people!create!in!this!narrative!process.!

The!wind!and!wind!knowledge!performed!duties!both!physical!and!ideological,! functioning!as!handmaidens!to!empire!and!arguably!claiming!the!title!of!its!most! powerful!adversaries!as!well.!The!wind!lent!itself!to!literary!metaphoric!applications!by! virtue!of!its!uncontrollable,!malleable,!and!mysterious!nature.!Experiment!was!itself!a! metaphor!for!how!nature!behaved!in!the!“real!world,”!for!scientific!experiments! extended!claims!about!particular!effects!and!specific!moments!in!order!to!make!larger! claims!about!the!way!that!nature!operated!more!universally.!Literary!references!to!wind! in!religious!and!fictional!works!functioned!in!much!the!same!way:!as!metaphors!for! larger!truths,!for!enduring!explanations,!or!moral!justifications!for!otherwise! inexplicable!phenomena.!In!all!instances,!the!wind!served!as!a!poignant!reminder!of!

370! ! mankind’s!greatest!ambitions!as!well!as!his!most!fatal!flaws,!his!fragility!and!weakness,! and!the!partial!quality!of!all!human!attempts!to!exert!uncontested!and!unequivocal! control!over!human!projects!and!more!significantly,!over!nature!and!the!wind.!!

In!the!two!hundred!years!between!the!publication!of!Bacon’s!History!of!Winds,! and!the!Savannah’s!historic!voyage!across!the!Atlantic,!English!people!of!all!classes!and! stations!constructed!and!consumed!representations!of!the!wind,!ideologically!and! otherwise:!the!farm!workers!in!the!fields,!the!sailors!on!the!ships,!the!scientists!and! statesmen,!authors!and!clergymen.!All!narrated!the!wind,!in!unique!terms,!each!with! different!aims!in!mind.!These!wind!narratives!performed!a!range!of!cultural!and! political!duties.!They!helped!people!navigate!their!physical!environments!both!literally! and!figuratively.!They!provided!a!sense!of!order!and!control!over!an!unwieldy!force!of! nature!to!which!people!were!almost!unequivocally!subject.!They!affirmed!the!goals!of! science!and!the!ambitions!of!empire.!And!they!provided!an!existential!rationale,!a! spiritual!meaning!for!the!otherwise!inexplicable!and!oftentimes!trying!and!tragic! circumstances!that!were,!and!still!are,!part!and!parcel!of!the!human!experience.!These! narratives,!these!distinct!forms!of!second!nature!about!the!wind,!performed!cultural! work!in!tandem!with!the!physical!work!and!first!hand!experience—the!maker’s! knowledge—that!fundamentally!informed!them.!The!slippery!nature!of!the!wind,!its! mysterious,!invisible,!untamable,!unmanageable,!irrational!quality!was!precisely!what! governed!its!convenient!utility!as!a!metaphoric!device!both!then!and!now.!Early!modern!

371! ! discourse!about!the!wind!within!the!fields!of!science,!folklore,!travel!literature,!religion,! and!fiction!thus!offer!deep!insights!into!how!narration!and!discourse!as!creative,! productive!acts,!as!art,!called!the!wind!as!an!empirical!object!into!being,!while!at!the! same!time!reflecting!back!the!image!and!identity!of!the!people,!nation,!and!culture! responsible!for!their!creation.!!

372! !

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400! !

Biography

Risha!Druckman!was!born!in!Tucson,!Arizona,!on!September!8,!1978.!As!a!

National!Merit!Scholar,!she!earned!a!B.A.!in!Political!Science!(2000),!and!an!M.A.!in!

History!(2006)!from!the!University!of!Arizona—graduating!with!honors.!Her!graduate! work!in!social!and!cultural!history!at!both!UA!and!Duke!has!focused!principally!on! intersections!among!the!fields!of!environmental!history,!labor!and!business!history,!and! the!history!of!science.!As!a!member!of!the!American!Historical!Association,!Risha!co` organized!a!panel!and!presented!her!research!at!the!Association’s!annual!meeting!in!

January,!2014.!She!is!a!member!of!the!American!Society!for!Environmental!History,!the!

Western!History!Association,!and!the!Forest!History!Society.!Risha!is!the!recipient!of!a!

University!of!Arizona!Graduate!School!Tuition!Stipend!Award,!a!Duke!History!

Department!Summer!Research!Grant,!and!a!Duke!Graduate!School!Summer!Research!

Fellowship.!She!is!also!the!recipient!of!an!F.K.!Weyerhaeuser!Forest!History!Fellowship! in!Environmental!History.!

401!