Auē`anga Ngākau - Silent Tears The Impact of Colonisation on Traditional Adoption Lore in the Cook Islands: Examining the Status of Tamariki `Āngai and their Entitlements. Diane Charlie-Puna A thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy (MPhil) 2018 Te Ipukarea, The National Māori Language Institute Faculty of Culture and Society i Table of contents Table of contents ii Attestation of authorship vii Acknowledgements viii Dedication x Abstract xi Preface xii Orthographic Conventions xii Tamariki rētita vs Tamariki `āngai xii About the Researcher xiii Personal motivation for this thesis xiv Western and Indigenous xv Chapter Titles xv Chapter 1: Setting the Scene xvi Chapter 2: Literature Review xvi Chapter 3: Evolution of Adoption Practices xvi Chapter 4: Emotional Journey xvii Chapter 5: Law verses Lore xvii Chapter 6: New Beginnings and Recommendations xviii 1. CHAPTER ONE: SETTING THE SCENE - TE KAPUA`ANGA 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Methodology 2 1.2(a) Qualitative Descriptive Methodology 2 1.2(b) Social Identity Theory 3 1.2(c) Social Identification 5 1.2(d ) Social comparison 5 1.2(e) Psychoanalytic Theory 6 1.2(f) Ethological Theory 6 1.2(g) Social Role Theory 6 1.3 Method and Procedures for Undertaking Research 7 1.3(a) Insider-Research Approach 7 1.3(b) Participants 8 1.3(c) Traditional Leaders 8 ii 1.4 Tamariki `Āngai/Tamariki Rētita Participants 10 1.4(a) Recruitment of participants 12 1.4(b) Interview Process 13 1.4(c) Questions and Answers 13 1.5 Data Analysis 14 1.5(a) Author’s bias 14 1.5(b) Ethical Considerations 14 1.6 Indigenous Methodology 14 1.7 Metaphoric Ideology 16 Kete Ora`anga Model 17 Stage 1: Selection and Preparation 18 Stage 2: Weaving of the basket 20 Stage 3: Joining and Shaping of the basket 22 Stage 4: Closing of the bottom of the basket 23 The Final Product 25 1.8 Conclusion 25 2. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - `AKATAKA`ANGA PATOA 27 2.1 Introduction 27 2.2 Introduction of Colonial Legislations in the Cook Islands 28 2.3 Cook Islands Act 1915 30 2.4 Evolution of Adoption Practice in New Zealand 33 2.5 Evolution of Adoption Practice in Hawai‘i 39 2.6 Conclusion 41 3. CHAPTER THREE: EVOLUTION OF ADOPTION PRATICES 43 TE TAUĪ`ANGA O TE AU PEU TAMARAIKI `ĀNGAI 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 Definition of Traditional Adoption Practice 44 3.3 The Evolution of Tamariki `Āngai 45 3.4 Influence of Colonisation 48 3.5 Rights and Entitlements of Tamariki `Āngai 50 3.6 Adoption Records of the Cook Islands 53 3.7 Conclusion 54 4. CHAPTER FOUR: EMOTIONAL JOURNEY - KARERE PUKU`ATU 56 4.1 Introduction 56 4.2 How They Became Tamariki `Āngai or Tamariki Rētita 58 iii 4.3 Traditional Advisor’s View on Tamariki `Angai Practice 63 Tupuariki Puna 64 Te`ānua Kāmana 65 4.4 Is Legalising Traditional Adoption Important? 67 4.5 Impact of Discovery on the Tamariki `Āngai 70 4.6 Emotional Impact on the Tamariki `āngai 74 4.7 Feeling Abandoned and Unwanted 78 4.8 Conclusion 80 5. CHAPTER FIVE: LAW VERSES LORE - TE MANA TURE KI RUNGA`O I TE PEU TUPUNA 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 Traditional Lore Maintained – Case Study of Mangaia & Pukapuka 83 5.2(a) Mangaia Adoption Lore 84 5.2(b) Pukapuka Adoption Lore 86 5.3 Land Rights and Distribution 88 5.4 Traditional Titles 92 5.6 Conclusions 94 6. CHAPTER 6: NEW BEGINNINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS - PŌROKIROKI`ANGA 96 6.1 Introduction 96 6.2 Research Findings 96 6.3 Linking the findings to the Indigenous Models 101 6.4 The Impact of Colonisation 103 6.5 Conclusion and Recommendations 105 6.6 Areas for further research 107 6.7 Final remarks 107 Bibliography 109 Māori Glossary 115 Abstract Figures Tables Attestation of authorship Acknowledgements Prefaceter O iv Figures and Tables Image 1: Pā Maunga motif drawn by Clive Nicholas 10 May 2016 for the Researcher. Image 2: Raranga motif - hand drawn by Clive Nicholas 10 May 2016. Image 3: Manutai motif - hand drawn by Clive Nicholas 10 May 2016. Image 4(a): Tikitikitangata motif - hand drawn by Clive Nicholas 10 May 2016. Image 4(b): Aitutaki ‘atamira or carved seat with the tikitiki tangata motif carved around the seat. [Photo credit: Auckland War Memorial Museum. AM12995. Crocombe and Dixon (2015), Cook Islands Art and Architecture, p.219] Image 5: Kōrare motif - hand drawn by Clive Nicholas 10 May 2016. Image 6: Te Rā motif - hand drawn by Clive Nicholas 10 May 2016. Image 7: Photo of Tupuariki Puna and wife Purotu Puna, 2012. Image 8: Papa Dan Kamana [Photo credit: Luciana Matenga, granddaughter] Image 9(a): Rangihau Conceptual Model original canvas handwritten by the late John Rangihau. [Photo credit: Charlie-Puna, 2016, Tokomaru Bay Writing Retreat Feb 2016) – canvas was displayed by Kararaina Rangihau, daughter of the late John Rangihau and permission given to use image] Image 9(b): Rangihau Conceptual Model cited by Kaʽai-Mahuta, 2010, p. 17. Image 10(a) Reaction of the Mimosa Plant – Mimosa plant before being touched. Image 10(b) Reaction of the Mimosa Plant – Mimosa plant being touched Image 10(c) Reaction of the Mimosa Plant – Mimosa plant after being touched. Image 11: Kete Photo of a completed basket by Charlie-Puna 2016. Image 12 (a) Selection and preparation stage - Nīkau not suitable Image 12(b) Selection and preparation stage - Nīkau perfect and suitable Image 12(c) Selection and preparation stage - Steaming the nīkau over open fire Image 13(a) Preparation stage – Stripping nikau off the centre stem Image 13(b) Preparation stage – Twisting the nīkau – ‘iri taviri stage Image 14(a) Weaving stage – Ara ‘iri (twill weaving) top of the kete Image 14(b) Weaving stage – Continue twill weaving Image 15(a) Weaving stage – Twill weaving reached the bottom of the kete Image 15(b) Weaving stage - raranga patapata – checked weaving pattern v Image 16(a) Joining and shaping of basket – Joining the ends of the kete Image 16(b) Joining and shaping of basket - Weaving the joint together Image 16(c) Joining and shaping of basket – Squeezing to shape the kete (round) Image 17(a) Closing of the bottom of the basket – First plait of the kete Image 17(b) Closing of the bottom of the basket – Second plait of the kete Image 17(c) Closing of the bottom of the basket – Third plait of the kete Image 18 Completed kete tautai – different photo of the complete basket, modelled by Miss Charlee Puna youngest daughter of the researcher. Image 19 Photo of Queen Makea Takau Ariki (1839-1911) [Holmes & Crocombe (2014). p.167] Image 20: Queen Makea Takau Ariki, Governor General Lord Ranfurly with British Resident Walter Gudgeon. (1839-1911). [Photo Credits: New Zealand. Minister of Internal Affairs: Photograph of Cook Islands Annexation Ceremony. Ref: PAColl-4235. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. http://natlib.govt.nz/records/22321304] Image 21: Pā Ariki, Tinomana Ariki, Ariki Makea Takau, Daniella Makea (seated) and unidentified Cook Islander (standing). Photo credits: from the album: Cook Islands, circa 1896, Rarotonga, Photographer: unknown. Te Papa (0.025525) Image 22: Painted image of the CICC Avarua church by John Walters open source permitted for personal use from – http://www.ck/religion.htm Image 23: Acceptable Attire Post Missionary Era – Photo of Ariki Makea Takau and husband, with Sir Richard Seddon and Mrs Seddon, at the time of annexation of the Cook Islands in 1900. [Photo credits: from the album: Cook Islands, 1900, by Frederick William Sears. Te Papa (0.025528)] vi Attestation of authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person (except where explicitly defined in the acknowledgements), nor material which to a substantial extent has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institution of higher learning. vii Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my research participants who openly and bravely shared their stories of what it is like to be a tamariki `āngai (feeding child) or a tamariki rētita (legally adopted child). Your experiences are unique, and your insights, experiences and journey made this research possible. I will be forever grateful for your generosity of time and your courage to openly share your stories and most importantly, the ability to cope with the mixed feelings and emotions as a result of reliving those memories through your stories and sharing. This journey would not have been possible without your support and willingness to voluntarily participate and share your stories. I am honoured and will cherish them in my heart forever. Many thanks to my supervisor, Professor Tania Ka‘ai for your professionalism, academic guidance and patience during this journey, for guiding my writing and providing robust editing of my drafts. I appreciate your compassion, wisdom and support, it is a bonus that you are a Cook Islander and you understand the Cook Islands world view. To my co-supervisor Dr Rachael Ka‘ai-Mahuta, thank you for your advice and contemporary study approach throughout this journey. To my awesome support person and guide, Tania Smith, this journey would not have been easy and as smooth sailing without your effective logistical and administration support. Thank you so much for everything. Many thanks to Auckland University of Technology for the Peter Harwood Scholarship, to the staff of Te Ipukarea, and to Te Ara Poutama for the facilities and ongoing support for us Cook Island postgraduate students.