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Changing Trends in the Canadian “Mallscape” of the 1950s and 1960s1

M arie-JoSÉe Therrien is an associate professor > Marie-Josée at the Faculty of Liberal Studies, College Therrien of Art and Design University. She is an active researcher in the field of architectural and design history in both English- and French-speaking circles and has published on the architecture of Canadian he almost total absence of stud- embassies (Au-delà des frontières, l’architecture Ties on Canadian shopping malls by des ambassades canadiennes, Quebec, Presses architectural historians can partly be explained by the perceived lack of aes- de l’Université Laval, 2005) and on shopping malls thetic value of such buildings. With the in Ontario (“Shopping Malls in Postwar Ontario,” notable exception of Claude Bergeron, D OCOMOMO International Journal, March 2008). who contended in 1981 that “suburban In her recent research, she is focussing on the and regional cent[re]s have been almost emergence of “ethnic” shopping malls in the totally ignored by architectural historians suburbs of large Canadian cities as attempts to who have been more concerned with articulate new secular identities in the realm of styles than with planning,”2 Canadian our consumerist society. shopping centres have, to this day, not yet attracted the attention they deserve.3 Their reputation, in part tarnished by the fact that they have been perceived as major contributors to the erosion of the modern public space, does not help either. Judged before being analyzed for what they really are, shopping centres have been depicted on many occasions as the necessary evils of our consumer soci- ety. Even among the commentators who are sympathetic to the genre, there seems to be an urge to warn the reader of the “conspicuous weaknesses” of such build- ings. While acknowledging the import- ance of shopping centres in Canada, Ian Chodikoff, current chief editor of Canadian Architect, does not hesitate to define the type in unflattering terms, as illustrated in the following excerpt:

Shopping centres define themselves through their own global spaces while pro- moting a subset of mismatched interiors competing with one another—the individual stores. In a sense, the shopping centre is filled with hypocrisies: it presents itself as a public space, yet it isn’t one, it attempts to create dynamic streetscape, but this is nullified when one stops to take note of the surrounding sea of parking lots and toxic FIG. 1. Hanks and Irwin, view of Thorncrest Plaza, 1955. | City of Archives, Fonds 213, serie, 1464, file 1, item 16.

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car-laden landscapes. It even attempts professional architectural journals of the of the Canadian metropolitan commun- to introduce the spontaneity of street life day, the Journal of the Royal Architectural ities.”7 He provided a series of standards through kiosks, but the effect is broken Institute of Canada (JRAIC) and The that served as guidelines in determining down by dispassionate vendors leaning up Canadian Architect (that later became the sizes and types of future shopping against racks of sunglasses, keychains, simply Canadian Architect (CA)—which is centres.8 The location of these buildings or cellphones waiting to be purchased by the name used here, regardless of publica- within a network of “shopping nuclei” repetitive consumers. Our winters have tion dates). I then examine a series of arti- constituted an important aspect of his forced us to refine the concept of not only cles published in 1958 in CA, in a special study. As a planner, Faludi might not the atrium, but all varieties of interior shop- issue on shopping centres. Then, through have given much thought to the actual ping spaces. At the same time, the mall is the analysis of the Yorkdale Shopping types of stores and the layout of shopping not usually a pure, formal composition but, Centre (John B. Parkin, Victor Gruen centres—these being the jobs of develop- rather, a series of accretions—the results Associates, John Graham Consultants ers—but it seems he had anticipated that of serial renovations. Often only commercial Ltd., 1964), I concentrate more specific- some of the commercial buildings of his motivations are resolved.4 ally on the divergent opinions expressed “shopping nuclei” would be more than by professionals, representing some of utilitarian retail destinations. In a study Chodikoff’s assessment echoes some the trades involved in the construction for Metropolitan Toronto, Faludi drew a of the criticisms expressed by Canadian of such commercial facilities. In that last map of the shopping nuclei for new resi- observers from the same professional section, I rely on articles published in local dential areas of the Canadian financial journal who, in 1964, explored and media, the two journals of architecture metropolis. His hope was to replace the inspected the new retail environment cited above, and Canadian Interior (CI, a scattered clusters of stores by planned of the . If the magazine that published its first issue the and controlled shopping areas, served novelty of this enclosed mall seemed to same year the Yorkdale Centre opened). by adequate parking space. To support have pleased the crowds, gained media The conclusion juxtaposes the contrast- his vision, he established a hierarchy of approval, and attracted many European ing opinions of the journalists, the critics, shopping centres whose numbers and mall developers for a few years after its and other experts and casts light on the categories of stores were determined by inauguration,5 professionals of the built complexity of the new retail practices in demographic and economic factors, while environment were divided. the changing Canadian mallscape of the their location depended on geographic 1950s and 1960s. factors (including circulation routes), By exploring how postwar Ontario shop- and their built forms on topographical ping centres and shopping malls were A Shopping Centre features. depicted by various proponents, I seek for Every Neighbourhood to provide a fresh perspective on the Thorncrest Plaza (fig. 1) in reception of these commercial buildings, Shopping centres have not always been (a suburb of Toronto) is a mid-1950s whose construction entailed the develop- portrayed negatively. In fact, they were example of what Faludi identified as a ment of new retail practices, the profes- welcome suburban constructions that “nucleation, clustering of retail uses, sionalization of the interior designer, and received the support of the first postwar assuming a structural unity at a street the fast-paced growth of suburban div- generation of planners. Hungarian-born intersection of adjacent to it.”9 Well isions.6 The discussion of these themes is architect and engineer Eugene G. Faludi integrated in the “self-contained com- divided into three sections. First I examine advocated the integration of shopping munity” of Thorncrest Village, which the context that led to the construction centres in the new residential areas that according to local sources was modelled of two neighbourhood shopping cen- were then being developed. In 1949, he after the Kansas City Country Club,10 tres, the Thorncrest Plaza in Etobicoke wrote “The Trend in Shopping Centres” the unusual fan-shape Thorncrest plaza (Hanks and Irwin, 1955) and the Don for the JRAIC. The content of that essay (fig. 2) represents a departure from Mills Centre (John B. Parkin Associates, was largely inspired by similar American earlier commercial facilities and con- 1955), focusing particularly on their links studies published during the interwar per- temporary L-shaped strip malls whose to broader considerations of suburban iod and in the late 1940s. Faludi described configurations followed the more com- planning and, in the case of , the shopping centre as an essential com- mon linear grid of less pastoral residen- on its reception in the two Canadian ponent in the “decentralization process tial settlements. While accommodating

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FIG.A 2.  erial view of Thorncrest Plaza, 1955. | Google Earth. © Europa Technologies 20011. FIG.V 3.  iew of the fieldstones and glass facade of Thorncrest Plaza, © 2011 Google, Image © Digital Globe, retrieved December 14, 2011. 1955. | Marie-Josée Therrien, 2008. pedestrians who live in the immedi- Shopping centres continued to receive What these two authors do not discuss ate neighbourhood, Thorncrest Plaza positive coverage in the national archi- however is the notion that the spatial is just as much a shopping destination tectural journals during the 1950s and arrangement of a shopping centre could for vehicular traffic, as evidenced by early 1960s. In a 1953 article on sub- contribute on its own to the betterment the space allocated for parking at the urb development, an anonymous JRAIC of suburban civic life. Such a notion, front and back of the building. In Faludi’s author presented the shopping centre as which began to gain popularity among nomenclature, this commercial cluster is an essential element of a neighbourhood. American shopping centre developers in a “small neighbourhood shopping cen- Echoing Faludi, the author contended the early 19050s, had not yet permeated tre,” itself part of a broader network of that shopping centres—like schools, the Canadian mallscape. Faludi’s and the shopping facilities in the greater suburb churches, and community buildings— anonymous author’s remarks are more in of Etobicoke all geared toward provid- “provide the real core and structure of tune with the work of Clarence Perry, an ing goods for everyday needs. With its a neighbourhood” and help “create a interwar American planner and the chief grocery, drugstore, and a small mix of focal point in each residential area.”12 This proponent behind the movement of the tenants, it was designed as the focal ser- author further argued that all these com- Neighbourhood Units.13 For these two vice point of that new residential area. munity services “will be most attractive if JRAIC authors, public buildings as a whole Thorncrest Plaza also illustrates the first there are adequate parking yards so that and their distribution in the neighbour- generation of Canadian shopping cen- the buildings themselves may face upon hood were the contributing factors to the tres that were planned by real estate a quiet open space in which pedestrians health of the suburban life.14 developers whose principal occupation are free from traffic.” Shopping centres was the construction of the residential of the era offered such an arrangement, T he Rise of Pedestrian- subdivision.11 As for shopping centre which made the author conclude that this oriented Shopping Centres architecture, expertise in the field was was “undoubtedly an important element practically non-existent. Early small shop- in restoring some civic quality to our cities According to a report published by ping centres tended to blend in with of the industrial age.” That last comment Statistics Canada,15 there were sixty-four their surroundings or at least to be of the illustrates the concern that postwar plan- shopping centres in Canada in 1956, and same scale (fig. 3). Certainly, the layout ners, merchants, and residents of suburbs most of the large shopping centres were of Thorncrest Plaza and the treatment had in common with regard to the invad- located in suburbs.16 Whether as a neigh- of the facades, with their fieldstones, ing presence of the automobile—a shared bourhood shopping centre or its larger are in harmony with the scale of this concern that led to the widespread pres- kin, the community shopping centre, the residential suburban area, suggestive of ence of vast parking lots in front of and early 1950s retail complex was planned pre-industrial communities. around commercial centres. to provide only “convenience goods”:

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FIG. 4. John B. Parkin Associates, Don Mill Shopping Centre 1953-1955, FIG.D 5.  on Mill Shopping Centre, 1953-1955, view of the row of shops. | Canadian view of the main mall. | Canadian Architectural Archives Library and Cultural Resources, Architectural Archives and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 55943-19. Panda collection: PAN 59963-48.

products that were purchased on daily suburban retail environment to the con- that city centres would not accommo- or weekly basis. Suburbanites still con- cept of an old marketplace. He was one date the increasing number of motor- tinued to depend on the city for “shop- of the financiers of the Don Mill Shopping ized consumers. Both shared concerns ping goods” like seasonal purchases and Centre (figs. 4-6), an early example of a about city traffic congestion, backlog more substantial items, such as furniture postwar retail environment that, as he on expressways, and insufficient parking and kitchen appliances. For such goods, wrote, introduced “pleasant surroundings spaces. McClaskey anticipated regional they had to fend for themselves by driv- [that] recreate the happy informality of centres based on criteria similar to the ing to the closest major city. It was not the old market square.”18 The comforting ones elaborated by Welch. According until the early 1960s that analogy of the old market square was the to McClaskey, “In theory, the largest developers seized the opportunity to brainchild of Victor Gruen, who is among type shopping centres are to duplicate develop a new market structure similar the most often cited figures in the history all downtown shopping facilities and to the regional model implemented by of shopping mall design and whose influ- eliminate all downtown disadvanta- their American counterparts. ence was to be felt across Canada for at ges in regard to traffic and parking.”21 least two decades. For Welch, regional malls were a “new In the early 1950s, American advocates kind of downtown, surrogates for city of shopping centres began to depict Unlike Faludi, who revealed his sources, cent[re]s that had reached capacity.”22 To their retail environments—not yet the McClaskey remained vague about who remedy these downtown predicaments, enclosed mall that was about to become could possibly have influenced his Welch devised a “cent[re] isolated and a standard—as ideal locations for social visions. However, the credits for the first self-contained,”23 easily accessible by car. gathering and family outings, planting phase of the Don Mills Shopping Centre But the real “revolutionary” contribution in this manner the seed that contributed include the name of Kenneth C. Welch of Welch, as Richard Longstreth pointed to the commercialization of the public as the “economic and planning consult- out, was the design of a commercial space.17 In Canada, Angus McClaskey— ant.”19 It is most likely that Welch, who centre with stores organized around a the president of Don Mills Development had already published numerous articles pedestrian mall, a plan that “ensured Limited, who, with E.P. Taylor, contributed on the subject, did influence McClaskey’s compactness and thus helped intensify to the development of one of the most views.20 Some elements in McClaskey’s retail activity.”24 A similar configuration publicized and acclaimed postwar suburbs evaluation of shopping centres seem was adopted by architect John B. Parkin of Toronto—was among the first com- to have been drawn from Welch’s ideas for the Don Mills Shopping Centre. In mercial/residential developers to link the on regional malls. McClaskey foresaw its first stage, it comprised a row of

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FIG.D 6.  on Mills Shopping Centre, 1953-1955, view on parking lot and service FIG.D 7.  on Mills Shopping Centre, first phase, 1953-1955, site plan. | CA, October 1959, station. | Canadian Architectural Archives and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 55943-18. p. 72.

shops connected by arcades surrounding though Bach were being played at a drive-in admitting that “the subjugation of com- two open-air perpendicular courtyards movie. With a very limited palette of glass, mercial flamboyance and vulgarity is pos- (figs. 4 and 7). metal and masonry, the architects have sibly too rigid (though no architect who composed in a rectangular style of great has fought through a shopping centre That centre elicited many accolades from finesse, allowing little room for the trad- will admit this),” the anonymous architect the architectural elite when it was only itional individuality of the separate shop or who penned the article contended that in its first phase and was no more than for the customary anarchy of competitive “it is a model of the manoeuvre itself.” a modest “convenience centre” or, as advertising. It will be interesting to see On a triumphant note, he concluded: McClaskey described it, “a corner store whether such a complete volte-face can “Every financial adviser in the shopping with a parking lot.”25 In fact, the original endure.28 centre business said it would fail, and it received a national hasn’t; in fact its commercial success is award as much for its first stage of com- That assessment of an emerging popu- a major root of its significance.”30 Four pletion as for its projected scheme (fig. 8), lar building type of the postwar con- years after the Massey Medals jurors had which was never realized as initially sumer age might sound rather elitist to shyly suggested that commercial impera- envisioned.26 One of the rare shopping a present-day reader, but at the time it tives might affect the overall order of centres to receive such an award, an early reflected the jurors’ adherence to the the centre, the architect this time eagerly Massey Medal in 1955, this suburban mall International Style and the strict order of reassured the reader that they had not was praised for its aesthetic quality and the Modern Movement that favoured uni- done so. Such fervour underscored the its site planning. Judging it best in the formity over individuality. Despite their growing tensions between the architec- category of commercial buildings, the jur- praise, however, the jurors anticipated tural value of the retail environment and ors27 of the Massey Medals wrote: that the architect’s control would even- its commercial value. As more and more tually be challenged by merchant needs. shopping centres came to transform the The buildings in this project are the first mallscape of large Canadian cities, these of a series that will eventually become an In 1959, CA devoted its October issue to brewing tensions eventually led to a clash outlying retail centre of large size; the site the eleven best buildings since the war. of values. planning shows regard for modern park- Twenty leading architects were invited ing requirements. As compared with other to identify the most significant buildings The success of any shopping centre is contemporary and past constructions that that “have had the greatest effect on evidently based on more than its archi- cater to wide popularity among the con- architects, on clients, and on the public.”29 tectural qualities. Good design could sumer public, it is amazing in a way to find The Don Mills Centre, which was among certainly spell good business, as Victor this composition so lofty an abstraction, as the short list, earned further kudos. While Gruen reportedly explained to his more

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FIG.D 8.  on Mills Shopping Centre, projected scheme FIG.o 9. J hn B. Parkin Associates, John Graham Consultants Ltd., Victor Gruen Associates, Yorkdale for second phase (1959). | JRAIC, February 1956, p. 48. Shopping Centre, 1962-1964, construction site, ca. 1962, with Highway 401 and Airport in the background. | Canadian Architectural Archives and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 63379-1.

thrifty developers,31 but the science of trade could not be identified but who aesthetic freedom: “The greatest free- constructing a successful large shopping seemed to be speaking from a business dom should be encouraged in the use centre proved to be a much more sophis- point of view. In general, the authors of individual taste and imagination.”34 In ticated task, entailing a close collabora- were favourably disposed toward shop- modern shopping malls, we can expect tion of several professions. Architects ping centres. Acknowledging the import- “excitement and spatial drama,” as were only one group among these ance of this building type, the author found in interconnected squares of a professions, and concessions had to be of the introduction explained that the Mexican mining town or Victorian mar- made. As Canadian suburbanites were special issue “makes a tentative stab at ket halls. He urged architects to employ fully embracing the culture of the shop- defining the shopping centre architec- “mechanical gadgetry,” to plan for water ping centre, the architectural profession turally” (in italics in the text).33 In the fountains and plants with greater use of saw its role transformed and challenged first article, James Acland, professor at solar shading—all this “to attract shop- by the needs of clients whose investment the School of Architecture, University pers and make for a more imaginative power and knowledge of the latest of Toronto, painted a broad picture of space.” Acland also welcomed “brilliant trends in marketing and merchandising the evolution of the marketplace since colours,” as they contribute to an “air had to be met. the Greek agora. Acland cleverly used of festive showmanship.” Structures too historical examples to root the contem- should be more imaginative: “If these F estive “Cathedrals porary suburban mall in a noble lineage, markets are to be cathedrals of retail of Commerce”32 thus inventing a tradition whose most commerce then why not exploit the full prevalent archetypical features must be gamut of structural potentiality to solve The question of the architectural qual- emulated in order to create commercial circulation, function and constructional ities of shopping centres surfaced again hubs that achieve a truly urban spirit. needs?”35 Acland’s plea was a far cry from in a special issue of CA in October 1958. the comments made less than three years The issue contains articles and reviews Contrary to the Massey Medals jurors’ before by the Massey jurors. His perspec- of malls, written by an architect, a comments on the Don Mills Shopping tive brought a breath of fresh air in a developer, and a contributor whose Centre, Acland argued for diversity and series of assessments that reduced the

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FIG.Y 10.  orkdale Shopping Centre, layout. | JRAIC, June 1964, p. 43. FIG.Y 11.  orkdale Shopping Centre, Simpson’s Court, 1964. | Canadian Architectural Archives and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 6422-11.

architectural quality of the postwar retail the physical planning of the premises. centre owners had already put Harris’s environment to the modernist principles. Harris, on a few occasions, reminded advice into practice. Competition was the architects that compromises must be too intense among the newly large The CA special issue includes a second made, for instance as regards the ques- Canadian commercial developer com- article on “The Business of Shopping tion of the overall design versus tenants’ panies for them not to abide by the Centres,” by shopping centre consult- considerations. The strain to preserve a market rules. They were quickly catch- ant James F. Harris. In his insightful and balance between the two contingencies ing up with the latest American trends well-balanced précis, he discussed the requires “a rare skill,” as he suggested in the second half of the 1950s. 39 In compromises that architects, develop- to his readership. Harris was very diplo- fact, these companies hired American ers, and other specialists must agree matic is his criticisms of the architect’s experts as consultants, as their more upon when planning a mall. In his open- role and did not hesitate to share the modest precursors did. Such was the ing paragraph, Harris explained that he blame when appropriate, as illustrated case for the Oshawa Shopping Centre hoped “to demonstrate that the skills in this excerpt: “It has been too common (1956), and for the Wellington Square of the architect must meet and inter- a mistake for the developer to assume Shopping Centre (1960) in downtown mingle with the skills of other special- an architect holds these specialized skills London, Ontario. Both developers— ists and that, if these are combined within his profession and some architects Principal Investment Ltd. and Webb & harmoniously under the control of the have let that assumption stand without Knapp Canada Ltd., respectively—hired developer, they produce the desired protest.”37 For Harris, there was no doubt John Graham & Co. as their planning results.”36 For him, the emphasis is on that architects play an important role, and design consultants. John Graham profit: the success of a shopping cen- but he kindly reminded them of their had worked on the Northgate Shopping tre is measured by its sales volume. To position, advising them that the most City in Seattle (1948-1950), a benchmark achieve such success, developers must successful are the ones who “can quickly that became the “industry’s model.”40 keep abreast of the latest developments differentiate between the problems that Canadian architects were not excluded in the shopping centre business, includ- lie within their responsibility and those from these vast enterprises, but they ing, among other things, market analy- that belong to management.”38 became part of huge teams whose sis, merchandising practices, specialized size and mix of expertise were neces- financial expertise, and the various pro- In 1958, when these articles were pub- sary because of the risks taken by the fessional skills of the trades involved in lished, some of the largest shopping developers and mall owners.

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FIG.Y 12.  orkdale Shopping Centre, Simpson’s Court. | JCanadian Architectural Archives FIG.Y 13.  orkdale Shopping Centre, Eaton’s Court with elevated dining facilities. | and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 64536-10. Canadian Architectural Archives and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 67052-4.

Yorkdale: The Mall “a shopping area unparalleled in this articles and the numerous advertise- That Every Respectable country”44 was not an exaggeration at ments that had created great expecta- Torontonian Deserves the time, but adding that it was “one tions among the residents of the larger of the biggest in the world” was more Toronto area fail to reveal the prelimin- In February 1964, when the Yorkdale typical of the boosterism prevalent in ary stage of the planning that was initi- Shopping Centre (figs. 9-14),41 “Canada’s the field. Such claims usually do not hold ated by one of the two anchor stores, the biggest, newest and most expensive true for more than a few months. That T. Eaton Company. Here again, American plaza,”42opened, Canadian residents being said, Yorkdale—with its eighty experts proved to have been instrumen- of large urban agglomerations were acres, one hundred stores, two theatres, tal in the history of Canadian retail archi- accustomed to commercial “introvert” one auditorium, a total rentable area of tecture. Eaton’s executives commissioned buildings, but enclosed malls with cli- more than one million square feet, and six the planner and real estate analyst Larry mate-controlled environment were still thousand five hundred parking spaces— Smith to conduct a marketing study. a novelty. Across Canada, there were was a noticeable achievement. Smith was one of the most “prominent only a handful of them43 who had been planners commissioned by developers purposely built as totally enclosed malls, Located on the south side of Highway 401 and department store companies” in the all of which had been initiated by Webb (fig. 9) and bounded on the east side by United States.”47 Upon Smith’s recom- & Knapp Canada (Trizec). In addition and on the west side by mendations, Eaton’s purchased a fifty- to these, Webb & Knapp/Trizec also what was supposed to be the Spadina acre site south of the 401 in 1955. While owned an underground shopping mall Expressway (a highway that was aban- assembling the rest of the parcel that built under the podium of the Place doned after a grassroots movement of would form the final site,48 Eaton’s offi- Ville-Marie, a seven-acre urban build- citizens fought against the project),45 cials convinced the executives of Robert ing complex, by I.M. Pei, in collaboration Yorkdale was truly the first regional shop- Simpson Co. to participate in the develop- with Affleck, Desbarats, Dimakopoulos, ping centre to take full advantage of a ment of a “possible” shopping centre. Lebensold, Michaud & Sise—a mall that new highway system in the making.46 It That was a major coup as, up until then, received much attention in the architec- had captured the attention of the metro- there were no Canadian shopping cen- tural journals, locally and internationally. politan newspapers, from the announce- tres that accommodated two department The promise held by the Yorkdale pro- ment of its construction in May 1962 to stores under the same roof. The practice moters that their centre would comprise its opening on February 25, 1964. These of dual anchors was still facing resistance

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among department stores’ executives in the United States.49 In Canada, consid- ering that the department store owners had been reluctant to move to the sub- urbs, such a bold decision between these two historic competitors was astonishing. It is most likely that Larry Smith was no stranger to the deal. This consultant plan- ner, who had been involved in the plan- ning of the Southdale Shopping Centre (Edina, Minnesota, 1956)—“the first regional mall specifically designed for and constructed with dual anchors,”50 another benchmark of the industry—was certainly in a position to point out the merit of internal competition. Following the com- pletion of architectural, traffic, market, and other planning studies, an invitation was sent to a selected group of develop- ers in March 1960. Eaton’s hired Webb & Knapp, who took over the project, built the commercial complex and leased the stores. Three other American compan- FIG.Y 14.  orkdale Shopping Centre, bazaar at supermarket. | Canadian Architectural Archives and Cultural Resources, Panda collection: PAN 64233-6. ies, leaders in retail architecture, were commissioned: John Graham Associates for Eaton’s store, Daniel Schwartzman of golden balls—that gave a resultant it has the corner grocery.”57 It was a mall & Associates for Eaton’s interiors, and glow of almost fairyland enchantment that Torontonians deserved, now that Victor Gruen Associates, who worked in to the vaulting” has survived.52 Eaton’s, their “city had become a mercantile cen- conjunction with John B. Parkin on the for its part, featured a “floating” restau- tre with a cosmopolitan, sophisticated Simpson’s store.51 rant in the form of giant mushroom-like structure.”58 It provided them with access structures (fig. 13). A touch of “Middle to all the goods brought by postwar pros- Yorkdale was a resounding success, an East flavour”53 was added with a bazaar perity. Under one roof, away from traffic “instant downtown uptown,” as it was area in the court of the Dominion super- and from the hustle and bustle of the city, described by the promoters. The enclosed market (fig. 14). This so-called bazaar area Yorkdale’s patrons discovered their first L-shaped malls (fig. 10), totalling one comprised kiosks designed to create an surrogate downtown, with indoor store thousand six hundred feet in length, environment reminiscent of old market facades designed to grab their attention. included two department stores located places.54 along the east-west aisle and a Dominion The design aspect of each individual store supermarket that closed the north-south The local media coverage reflected the held the attention of jour- aisle. The mall featured three courts with optimism of the merchants and the mall nalist Gordon McCaffrey, who observed: benches and trees. The most spectacular owners. Journalists depicted in great “Every merchant—from budget store of them, the Simpson’s court (figs. 11-12), detail the experience of shopping in to luxury trade—has wracked his (or his rose three storeys and comprised a reflect- this climate-controlled “main street,”55 designer’s) brain to come up with ways ing pool and spiral staircase. One of the which was “designed to part a customer to tempt and pamper the shopper.” rare original decorative treatments still from her (his) money as painlessly as pos- McCaffrey then described a few specialty visible today is the intersecting barrel- sible.”56 Yorkdale was “marking another stores whose distinct facades and interior vaulted ceiling, but none of the cylin- phase in the country’s shopping revolu- decoration ranged from an old-English drical light fixtures, “topped by a crown tion that affected the women’s wear as decor with ceiling beams salvaged from

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local barns, for a men’s tailor shop, to a court however, Thom was short of compli- unrelated to each other.” There is nothing circus-like atmosphere for a toy shop. He ments. His vitriolic attacks were aimed at between them other than the express- notes that “there are scarcely two stores the developers and owners as well as the ways. For Pinker, such retail complexes alike” and that some of them look as interior designers, although he did not are based on wholesale and functional if they “have come out of a Hollywood specifically name that profession. Here segregation, not on the integration of movie set.” One might ask how it could are his conclusive criticisms: mixed activities—a position that led him fail to please every one. to write of Yorkdale that, “while it may be This is the real criticism. In spite of the an investor’s dream, it is one the commun- Yorkdale: a Site of Perdition numerous grotesque affairs that have been ity can well do without, symbolizing as added to pep up a dull building, it is not their it does, the fragmentation of the city.”61 The eclectic decors described by presence that is objectionable, for anyone McCaffrey were frowned upon by the will recognize that in a market place, or an The commentators in the JRAIC were not commentators of CA and the JRAIC, who exhibition hall, or a stage, it is normal to much more enthralled by the mall than lashed out against the mall planners with expect incongruous and fanciful fittings. the two CA critics, but the editorial board caustic remarks. The special section on Places like these must allow for them and had made the effort to invite three dif- Yorkdale, published by CA in June 1964, receive them graciously. No one criticizes ferent types of professionals, whose views set the tone with its inflammatory title: frivolity or caprice, but one has a right to offered a more balanced assessment of “Amentia59 in a Market Place.” That spe- expect the same degree of quality in them the diverse phases of planning and the cial section featured a series of articles, that is expected in the architecture. What is multiple aspects involved in the construc- two that are merely descriptions of the so dismaying here is that the fittings are as tion of such a retail building. Planning mall and the Simpson’s department store shoddy as the building that houses them […] consultant Howard Lesser reminded archi- and two critiques, the first by architect tects that the success of a shopping centre Ron Thom, and the second by architect One is only saddened that most of those the size of Yorkdale depends on the care- and urban planner Donovan Pinker. involved in creating Yorkdale were not more ful blending of numerous ingredients. He Thom was the more acerbic of the two responsible in seeing that this great com- neither condemned nor praised Yorkdale, critics. He contended that a shopping plex added to the culture and the quality of but simply described the steps that such a centre must be viewed as a major insti- in particular and of the com- development business entails which, as he tution “involved in the daily life of almost munity in general. observed, “is considerably more complex everyone in the community it serves” and than during the immediate post-war per- not just a “building capable of handling I suspect that the final results are due iod, when demand for all types of accom- people, cars and goods.”60 He added: “In as much as anything to the owners’ and modation virtually guaranteed success to the lives of many, it often constitutes the developers’ decision to make the statisti- enterprising persons and firms.”62 major contacts with architecture beyond cians responsible for the architecture. the scope of the home.” Thom proceeded Michael Hugo-Brunt, an architect and to ask whether Yorkdale was fulfilling its Less corrosive than Thom, Donavan Pinker town planner, demonstrated a little more broader architectural role. His answer was addressed larger issues related to the sub- subtlety in his assessment than Ron Thom, negative: “with a few exceptions, it can urbanization of what was then Metro but he too dismissed the diversity of the only be described as sadly lacking.” Toronto. He acknowledged the precur- parts that reflected, in his own words, sory work of Gruen, who envisioned a “lack of discipline or control.” Hugo- The exceptions in his opinion were the shopping centres as “crystallization points Brunt’s opinions, though more positive Simpson’s store—which stands as a for suburbia’s community life,” and rec- toward developers and merchandising coherent statement for what it is—and ognized that early retail centres such as experts, concurred with those of Thom, the Simpson’s court, “a good deed in Gruen’s Northland had been an improve- as illustrated by his concluding remarks: an otherwise naughty building.” This ment for pedestrians. Pinker’s major criti- “handsome big room works in terms of cism has to do with the void left between Yorkdale is probably more significant as a architecture and the way it treats people the large shopping centres. As they are commercial achievement than a great work […] It is a good-time out-place, a good entities of their own, these specialized of architecture or of planning. Nevertheless, meeting place.” Beyond the Simpson’s centres, as Pinker calls them, are “quite it is a new and more logical solution in

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metropolitan shopping […] The developers The Place Ville-Marie shopping plaza was most suited to providing consumers with have functioned as patrons of the arts and used again as a benchmark in the opening what they had been accustomed to seeing evolved a variety of environmental experi- remark of a special section on Yorkdale on TV and in other popular media. Their ence for the use, both in the public and mer- in the new professional journal Canadian alliance with mall owners and individual chandising spaces. Interiors (CI). In his article entitled merchants was natural, but to broadly dis- “Yorkdale Embarrassing, Frumpy,” close such alliance was another matter in Yorkdale’s failures are poor elevations, an designer Norman Hay, in a more jovial the early 1960s. unfortunate but characteristic individual- style than the previously cited critics, did ism between the various elements and a not spare the new shopping centre, as The timing of the inaugural publication loss of scale in the enormous car parks inferred by this remark: “It has some good of CI—the year Yorkdale opened—attests […] Yorkdale is an experimental shopping features; it holds forth some architectural to the emerging influence that the design sub-centre which will, undoubtedly, become promise; it’s scrubbed and fresh and all profession was having on the interiors of a prototype for developments in the future. done up in party clothes, but the over-all the built environment, particularly the With an example like this greater architec- impression is depressingly dowdy.” In con- retail environment. Many of the articles tural control might be expected both inter- trast, the Place Ville-Marie shopping plaza in CI featured store design. Norman Hay, nally and externally.63 “exudes confidence and sophistication; by then the head of design at Expo 67 and Yorkdale does not.”65 It would appear an advocate of Good Design, might have Interior designer Allison Hymas, for her from that and Hymas’s comments that the personally preferred the modernist aes- part, began her critique with a warning: design profession makes common cause thetic, but the journal had the mandate with the architectural profession; but the of presenting the latest trends and the When one has added up the many factors reality is far more complex. most innovative solutions applied by the involved in a project such as Yorkdale, it professionals it represented.66 Yorkdale’s is difficult to assess one of those factors, In the mid 1960s, the Canadian architec- original eighty stores were in many ways design, as either good or bad. The design tural scene was at a turning point. High models of the interior design trade. The critic must bear in mind that this is essen- modernism, with a rigorous order that examples that the editorial committee tially real estate and not architecture; that had produced exemplary buildings such chose to feature confidently stressed the return on the financial investment is the aim as Place Ville-Marie, was rapidly loos- quality of each individual environment, of the developers and not a concern for the ing its appeal, at least to the masses. designed to display its merchandise in the creation of well ordered buildings in which Designers trained after the war whether most attractive manner and entice con- buying and selling take place.64 in architectural or design programs, had sumers to browse and buy, an art that been exposed to the tenets of modern- in the current retail jargon is known as As with Thom and Hugo-Brunt, a lack of ism. The aesthetic principles that many visual merchandising. This meant that the an overall order was Hymas’ main criti- of them had come to appreciate and same design firm could recreate a pseudo cism, but there were a few good individual advocate were those influenced by the eighteenth-century store front for one examples of store design that she briefly teachings of Bauhaus and other organiza- client and a proto-psychedelic fascia for reviewed. She compared the laissez-faire tions, such as the CIAM (Congrès inter- another. As long as the rules of efficient attitude of Yorkdale to the well-ordered national d’architecture moderne) and store design were respected, stylistic Place Ville-Marie underground mall, an art museums that promoted standards preferences did not matter. Customers icon of Canadian high modernism. There, of “Good Design.” But while the three seemed to have been content to oblige. the owner (the same as Yorkdale’s) “pro- related professions—architect, urban vided a well ordered series of rentable planner, and designer—displayed aes- C onclusion space where the architectural features thetic affinities, consumers had differ- are controlled.” Hymas concluded that ent expectations, and mass culture was In the fifteen years that separate the an “imposed sense of order” is more on the rise. The mass market was indif- Yorkdale regional mall from Faludi’s pleasing than the juxtaposition of a fake ferent to the Good Design principles and neighbourhood shopping centre, the thatched roof and Florentine arcade, and to the austerity of the International Style. Canadian society had considerably “would seem to have a more lasting archi- Of the three kin professions, that of the changed. It had become a full suburban tectural value.” designer (interior or industrial) was the nation increasingly more dependent on

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the automobile. The middle class had was to get a firm grip on shopping malls Value Space, an Architectural Geography of abandoned the mentality of thrift preva- interiors. There might have been dissen- New Retail Formats in Southern Vancouver Island, can be retrieved from the National lent during the Great Depression and the sion among the ranks, but they assumed Library of Canada website: [http://www.col- war. The universalist and collective val- the job of designing malls and greatly lectionscanada.gc.ca/], accessed December 22, ues championed by the architects who contributed to the festive atmosphere of 2011. adhered to the Modern Movement and the retail environment in the 1960s and 4. Chodikoff, Ian, 2003, “View Point,” Canadian the advocates of postwar Good Design beyond. Architect, September, [http//www.canadia- may have been adopted by large corpora- narchitect.com/news/viewpoint/1000176522], accessed August 14, 2011. tions and governmental institutions, but As for the Canadian architectural histor- when it came to private taste, individuals ians, it is true, as Claude Bergeron wrote, 5. Ainsworth, Lynne, 1989, “1964 the Theme for Yorkdale’s Birthday Party,” The Toronto Star, preferred to surround themselves with that they have not paid attention to March 7. environments that reflected their person- the subject; but it was not just because 6. The planning of regional malls also entails the ality. An imposed sense of order was not “they were more concerned with style development of regional and even national what the average consumer wanted to than planning.”68 It was also due to the highway systems. This aspect of mall history reproduce in her or his domestic sphere. dismissal of the type by the architectural is beyond the scope of this research. With growing private affluence, consum- profession, which rarely featured them in 7. Faludi, Eugene, 1949, “The Trend in Shopping ers, wealthier than ever before, were its journals (with the notable exception Centres,” JRAIC, September, p. 267. on the hunt for status symbols. Design of the Eaton’s centre in the 1970s); and 8. There are three types of shopping centres for was no longer just about its utilitarian yet they were, and still are, among the the period that concerns this essay: the neigh- bourhood, the community, and the regional value; it was used as a social language to most conspicuous buildings around. It is shopping centres. Distinctions between the 67 express one’s status in society. Yorkdale’s time to remedy the situation, and it is my sizes, the scope of services, and the target developers and merchants understood hope that further studies will shed light audiences, as mentioned by American archi- these principles, as did some of the jour- on these complex built environments, tectural historian Richard Longstreth (1992, “The Neighbourhood Shopping Centers in nalists who had followed the evolution which require an understanding of dif- Washington DC 1930-1941,” Journal of the of shopping habits. ferent disciplines and sub-disciplines, Society of Architectural Historians (JSAH), including business history, particularly March 1992, p. 6.), were not formalized before In contrast, architects and urban planners real-estate history, retail economy, and the postwar era, and even then, fluctuation in the terminology was current among 1950s who expressed their opinions in their pro- design history. shopping centre developers. fessional journals were mostly concerned 9. Faludi : 268. about the architectural qualities of the notes buildings, including their relation to 10. See Dunkelman, David, “History of Thorncrest Village,” [http://www.torontoneighbou- 1. I wish to thank Siegfried Betterman for his the environment. But when it came to rhoods.net/neighbourhoods/etobicoke/thor- excellent work as a copy editor. actually understanding how the consum- ncrest-village/history], accessed July 21, 2011. ers evolved in these retail environments, 2. B e r g e r o n , Claude, 1981, “Canada, Thorncrest Village was designed by Eugene Developments in Architecture in Canada,” these professionals seemed to be unable Faludi. The estate was purchased in 1944 by In Warren Sanderson (ed.), International developer Marshall Foss. It was the smallest to envision user behaviour and, worse, Handbook of Contemporary Development in neighbourhood of Etobicoke and consisted they regularly dismissed the commercial Architecture, Westport (CT) / London (UK), of only one hundred and eighty houses. motivations that are the core values of Greenwood Press, p. 185. Etobicoke resident Robert A. Given (2007, Etobicoke Remembered Toronto, ProFamilia such enterprises. Restricted by their lim- 3. While I was putting the final touch to this Publishing, p. 167) also mentioned that article, I came upon the following source: ited criteria, their criticisms reveal their Marshall Foss had been inspired by the Kansas McGrail, Justin, 2011, “Big-Box Land: New contempt for mass culture. Country Club model, but I could not find fur- Retail Format Architecture and Consumption ther evidence of the role that the renowned in Canada,” In Rhodri Windsor Liscombe Kansas model might have represented for The interior designers, for their part—and (ed.), Architecture and the Canadian Fabric, Faludi and Foss. Faludi was well versed in Vancouver, UBC Press, p. 385-408. McGrail also from what can reasonably be inferred American planning theory of the time. Being comments on the little attention that such from the first volume of CI—were more the internationalist that he was, the Kansas mundane building types received from the model may very well have been a source of ins- disposed to please their clients, the store architectural historian community. McGrail has piration. For his part, Marshall Foss had refer- managers whose main motivation was the written his PhD dissertation en 2009 on the red to Thorncrest as a “country club village sale of their merchandise. This profession topic of “Big-Box.” This publication, entitled

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of the non-rich.” Such a comment, extracted Jr., 1985, “The Evolution of the Planned and Future,” DOCOMOMO, no. 31, September from an interview by an anonymous journalist in Suburb and City,” Journal 2004, p. 54. in the Housing Newsletter of February 1960, of the American Planning Association, vol. 51, 32. Acland, James, 1958 “Shopping Centres, A was brought to my attention by Dr. Richard no. 4, p. 3.) Special Issue, The Market Place,” CA, October, White, whom I thank for sharing this infor- 17. On the commercialization and privatization of p. 36. mation. The source was found in the Canadian the public space, see Cohen, Lizabeth, 2004, National Archive Fonds Eugene Giacommo 33. CA, October 1958 : 30. A Consumers’ Republic, The Politics of Mass Faludi MG30 B136. Richard Longstreth (1998, Consumption in Postwar America, New York, 34. Acland : 35 City Center to Regional Mall, Architecture, Vintage Book, A Division of Random House, the Automobile, and Retailing in Los Angeles, 35. Id. : 36 chap. 6. 1920-1950, Cambridge (MA), The MIT Press, 36. Harris, James F., 1958, “The Business of 18. McClaskey, Angus, 1957, “An Evaluation of p. 106-107, 171-174) addressed the importance Shopping Centres,” CA, October, p. 42. of the role played by developer J.C. Nichols Suburban Shopping Centres,” Evaluation, of Kansas City in the development of retail vol. 1, no. 11, p. 1. 37. Id. : 43. architecture in residential areas during the 19. “Business Builds a City. For Industry: Planned 38. Id. : 44. interwar period. Faludi’s bibliography in the Factory Districts to Provide Jobs, Help Pays the 39. Ken Jones (2000, “Dynamics of the Canadian September 1949 article of the JRAIC contains Taxes,” The Architectural Forum, June 1954, Retail Environment,” In Trudi Bunting two entries by J.C. Nichols published by the n.p. and Pierre Filion (eds.), Canadian Cities in Urban Land Institute. 20. Richard Longstreth (2010, The American Transition, The Twenty-First Century, Don 11. On the early development of shopping Department Store Transformed 1920-1960, Mills/London, Oxford University Press, centres, see The Minister of Industry, Trade New Haven/London, Yale University Press / p. 407), professor at the Centre for the Study and Commerce, Statistics Canada, 1976, The Centre for American Places at Columbia of Commercial Activities, Ryerson University, Shopping Centres in Canada, Research Paper, College Chicago, p. 184 and 290) wrote about notes that the linkage between residential no. 1, Ottawa, August, p. 22. Welch that “he emerged as the leading advo- and commercial land uses helped foster the 12. “Community Services,” JRAIC, May 1953, p. 61. cate of the regional shopping centre during emergence of several large development The two following excerpts from this author the immediate postwar years.” Longstreth companies. Among these companies are are from the same page. listed all the articles written by Welch from Webb & Knapp Canada Ltd. (1955), which 1946 to 1951. was responsible for the implementation of 13. Canadian geographer Richard Harris (2004, the Oshawa Shopping Centre (inaugurated 21. McClaskey : 1. Creeping Conformity, How Canada Became in 1956) and Wellington Square, in London, Suburban 1900-1960, Toronto, University of 22. Longstreth, 2010 : 187. Ontario (1960). Webb & Knapp merged with Toronto Press, p. 125) mentioned that the three other companies to form Trizec in 1960, 23. Id. “homogenous residential areas [that] were with the legendary William Zeckendorf at its designed as ‘neighbourhood units’ […] made 24. Id. : 184. helm. Trizec was behind the Place Ville-Marie it the norm after 1945.” (1962) and Yorkdale (1964) centres. (For details 25. “Far From Doomed, Shopping Centre Head on the affiliation between Wellington Square 14. In 1924, Perry (1924, quoted in Gillette, Defends Central Shops, The Globe and Mail, and the Place Ville-Marie underground shop- Howard, Jr., 1983, “The Evolution of May 2, 1956. Neighborhood Planning from the Progressive ping centre, see Bergeron : 186.) 26. Phase II, completed in 1959 by Fisher, Era to the 1949 Housing Act,” Journal of Urban 40. For a description of Northgate Shopping Tedman & Fisher, was supposed to include History, vol. 9, no. 4, p. 421) claimed “that Centre, its subsequent impact, and the an enclosed atrium similar to Southdale a planned neighborhood with its physical influence of John Graham, see Longstreth, Shopping Center (1956), in Edina, Minnesota, demarcation, its planned recreational facili- 2010 : 187-217. ties, its accessible shopping centers, and its also by Victor Gruen. (Information, mentio- convenient circulatory system—all integrated ned in Bergeron : 186.) Don Mills Centre went 41. V intage photographs of Yorkdale and harmonized by artistic designing—would through many transformations. For a brief Shopping Centre can be seen at furnish the kind of environment where vigo- account of these transformations, see: [http:// [http://www.blogto.com/city/2011/05/ rous health, a rich social life, civic efficiency, www.shopsatdonmills.ca/en/centreinfo/Pages/ what_malls_used_to_look_like_in_toronto/]. OurHistory.aspx]. and a progressive community consciousness 42. Young, Sybil, 1964, “New Look for Women’s would spontaneously develop and perma- 27. The jurors were John Bland (chairman), Wear Shops,” The Women’s Globe and Mail, nently flourish.” Gordon S. Adamson, Lawrence B. Anderson, February 13. and A.J.C. Pane. 15. Minister of Industry, Trade and Commerce, 43. Brentwood Shopping Centre (1961, BC), Shopping Centres in Canada 1951-1973…, 28. JRAIC, December 1955 : 453. Wellington Square (1960 London), Halifax op. cit., p. 37. Shopping Centre (1960). 29. CA, October 1959 : 53. 16. Until 1957, as mentioned by Claude Bergeron 44. “Yorkdale Summarized Description,” Press 30. CA, October 1959 : 72. (op. cit. : 186), “the shopping centre had Release, February 21, 1964. been a suburban phenomenon.” In compari- 31. M. Jeffrey Hardwick, “Creative Destruction, 45. For a recent study of the history of the Spadina son, there were 2900 shopping centres in the Victor Gruen and the Shopping Mall’s Past Expressway, see Milligan, Ian, 2011, “This United States in 1958. (See Gillette, Howard,

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Board Has a Duty to Intervene: Challenging in 64. Hymas, Allison, 1964, “Yorkdale’s Interiors/ the Spadina Expressway through the Ontario Comments,” JRAIC, June, p. 51. All following Municipal Board, 1963-1971,” Urban History excerpts from Hymas are from that page. Review / Revue d’histoire urbaine, spring, 65. Hay, Norman, 1964, “Yorkdale Embarrassing, p. 25-39. Frumpy,” CI, 1964, p. 15. 46. The developer had cleared the site in the fall 66. On the mandate of the CI, see Piper, David, of 1961 but waited to start construction until 1964, “Editorial, What Will Tomorrow Say,” “it became clear the Metropolitan Toronto CI, first issue, April, p. 84. intended to build Spadina Expressway,” as published in the Globe and Mail of May 31, 67. On the use of design in the postwar society, see 1962. Whiteley, Nigel, 1987, “Toward a Throw-away Culture, Consumerism, ‘Style Obsolescence’ 47. Longstreth, 2010 : 191. and Cultural Theory in the 1950s and 1960s,” 48. The details of these transactions are explained Oxford Art Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, special in “Eaton’s Yorkdale, Yorkdale Background issue on “The 60s,” p. 3-27. (Retrieved from Information,” Press Release, February 25, JSTOR, August 7, 2007 [http://links.jstor.org/ 1964. sici?sici=0142-6540%281987%2910%3A2%3C 3%3ATATCC%27%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5]. 49. Longstreth, 2010 : 194-197. 68. Bergeron : 185. 50. Id. : 196.

51. Fact information is extracted from the above press release (note 46).

52. “Simpson’s Yorkdale Store, Dramatic in Conception,” Press Release, February 25, 1964.

53. “New Shopping Mall Has Oriental Flair,” Toronto Star, February 25, 1964.

54. The concept, designed by John Graham, was inspired by similar examples in Cherry Hill (near Philadelphia) and Southdale (Minnesota). “Yorkdale Bazaar Area,” Press release, February 21, 1964.

55. McCaffrey, Gordon, 1964, “Yorkdale: It’s Instant Downtown. Even Though It’s Uptown, The Toronto Star, February 25. All subsequent excerpts from McCaffrey are taken from this article.

56. Weiers, Margaret, 1964, “Spending Money Painless at Yorkdale,” The Toronto Star, February 22.

57. Young, op. cit.

58. Weiers, op. cit.

59. According to the Collins Dictionary, amentia is a severe mental deficiency, usually congenital.

60. “Critique One,” CA, June 1964, p. 44. All sub- sequent excerpts by Thom come from this source.

61. Pinker, Donovan, 1964, “Critique Two,” CA, June, p. 47.

62. Lesser, Howard, 1964, “The Role of the Planning and Development Consultant,” JRAIC, June, p. 50.

63. Hugo-Brant, Michael, 1964, “Yorkdale Shopping Centre. A Study,” JRAIC, June, p. 47.

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