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Welker-0-ABSTRACT © 2010 James Welker TRANSFIGURING THE FEMALE: WOMEN AND GIRLS ENGAGING THE TRANSNATIONAL IN LATE TWENTIETH CENTURY JAPAN BY JAMES WELKER DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in East Asian Languages and Cultures with a minor in Gender and Women’s Studies in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2010 Urbana, Illinois Dissertation Committee: Professor Ronald P. Toby, Chair Associate Professor Karen L. Kelsky, Director of Research Associate Professor Martin F. Manalansan, IV Assistant Professor Robert T. Tierney ABSTRACT This dissertation examines three spheres of women and adolescent girls who overtly challenged gender and sexual norms in late twentieth century Japan: the women involved in the !man ribu [women’s liberation] movement and the rezubian [lesbian] community, as well as young women artists and girl readers of what I call queer sh"jo manga [girls’ comics]. The individuals in these three spheres found the normative understanding of “women” untenable and worked to destabilize it in part through “transfiguring” elements appropriated from a loosely defined West. Based on both archival research and interviews, this dissertation specifically focuses on uses, effects, and experiences of transfiguration both within and beyond these spheres. The primary chronologic focus of this study is the 1970s and 1980s, when these three spheres emerged, then variously flourished, faltered, fragmented, and took on new forms. At times, I do, however, trace threads both backward to the beginning of the twentieth century—to point to deeper transnational roots than may be immediately apparent—and forward to the beginning of the twenty-first century—to show some of the effects of the cultural work of these women and girls. The introduction situates this project within existing scholarship and introduces “transfiguration,” the central concept I use to frame this study. Chapter two, “Trajectories,” provides histories of the three spheres at the heart of this work. Chapter three, “Terminology,” draws on archives stretching back to the beginning of the twentieth century to trace the transnational etymologies of three terms used within and about these spheres: “!man ribu” [women’s lib], “rezubian” [lesbian], and “sh"nen ai” [boys’ love]. Chapter four, “Translation,” examines direct translations and other transfigurations of early radical feminist writing from the US, the landmark texts Our Bodies, Ourselves (1971) and The Hite Report (1976), as well as ii twentieth century literature with an eye toward acts and impacts of translation. Chapter five, “Travel” considers the effects of real and vicarious voyages both on these spheres and on the individuals within them. Finally, the conclusion offers reflections on how engagements with the transnational shaped the ribu, rezubian, and queer sh"jo manga spheres, the women and adolescent girls within them, and, ultimately, the meaning of “women” in Japan. This dissertation shows that, while some women turned to what they perceived as an advanced West for solutions to or an escape from local issues, most were firmly focused on the local—even as they selectively adapted, even celebrated, Western practices. For the majority of even the most radical women, the Western turn was not a turn away from Japan. Rather, it was integral to being a modern woman within Japan. More significantly, among women and girls in the !man ribu movement, the rezubian community, and the queer sh"jo manga sphere—and, ultimately, beyond it—the act of transfiguring Western cultural practices into something locally meaningful, as well as the products thereof, resulted not just in change at the individual and community level, but the transfiguration of the category “women” in Japan. This more expansive notion of the female accommodated not merely a significantly increased number of public roles not bound to being a mother or a wife but a greater diversity of gender and sexual expression. iii For the women in Japan who have imagined different worlds and strived to create them iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I offer my profound gratitude to all the women and men in- and outside of Japan who made this project possible by allowing me to interview them, lending or giving me materials, answering my questions, providing invaluable introductions to others, or by offering timely words of support and advice. I am only able to mention some of them by name, but I am truly grateful to them all, including Akiyama Y!ko, Amano Michimi, Azuma Reiko, Yumi Doi, Hara “Minata” Minako, Ikegami Chizuko, It! Bungaku, It! Tari, Izumo Marou, the late Kitamura Mitsuko, Noriko Kohashi, Audrey Lockwood, Miki S!ko, Nakanishi Toyoko, Nakano Fuyumi, Sheila Michaels, Linda Peterson, Lora Sharnoff, Nanbara Shir!, Sawabe Hitomi, Takagi Sawako, Takashima Rika, Tanaka Mitsu, Larry Taub, and Yonezu Tomoko. In addition, I am deeply grateful to the members of my dissertation committee for their support, encouragement, and advice at various stages of this project. I have had the good fortune to take courses with each of them and benefitted greatly from their intellectual insights and passion. My sincere thanks to Karen Kelsky, my director of research and advisor as well as the person whose enthusiasm about my project brought me to Illinois; to my dissertation committee chair, Ronald Toby, who gave me a far deeper appreciation for the complexity of Edo period Japan and, whether he planned it or not, helped me better understand its relevance to the modern and contemporary Japan that is my primary interest; to Martin Manalansan, who shared his time and his expertise on the globalization of gender and sexualities and who gave up an entire day to come to my two-hour defense; and to Robert Tierney, who joined the faculty in EALC the same year I entered the PhD program, and who has always shown a great deal of interest in the development of my research. Other faculty at Illinois, as well as many colleagues and friends have helped me write v grant applications, responded to chapter drafts, generously provided materials and research tips, made essential introductions, and otherwise been extremely encouraging. For this I am grateful to Jeffrey Angles, Tomoko Aoyama, Julia Bullock, Beverley Curran, Erica Friedman, Patrick Galbraith, David Goodman, Barbara Hartley, Louise Haynes, Ishida Hitoshi, Sho Konishi, Wim Lunsing, Vera Mackie, Claire Maree, Mark McLelland, Mia Nakamura, Nito Mayumi, Elizabeth Oyler, Rio Otomo, Deborah Richie, Misumi Sadler, Setsu Shigematsu, Katsuhiko Suganuma, Sugiura Ikuko, Taniguchi Hiroyuki, Kathleen Uno, Tomomi Yamaguchi, and Tomiko Yoda. Among them, I am particularly thankful to Mark McLelland and Beverley Curran whose encouragement about and interest in my research came at just the right time for me to realize something like this was even possible. I am also thankful to Takemura Kazuko at Ochanomizu University for agreeing to serve as my advisor in Japan, and to the Institute for Gender Studies for allowing me to affiliate there. I presented portions of chapter three at IGS Kenky"kai 2008 (January 2009, Ochanomizu University, Tokyo), at Revisiting Postwar Japan as History: A Twenty Year Check-Up on the State of the Field (May 2009, Sophia University, Tokyo), the Japan Workshop (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, January 2010), and at the Association for Asian Studies Annual Meeting (March 2010, Philadelphia). Chapter four began as a presentation at AsiaPacifiQueer 3 (December 2003, University of Melbourne). My thanks to the organizers, my fellow panelists, and members of the audience. I am also grateful for the feedback I received on chapters three and four from the members of the Dissertation Writing Workshop in the Department of History in fall 2009 and spring 2010, and to Professors Lillian Hoddeson and Mark Steinberg, who kindly allowed me to be an interdisciplinary interloper from another department. Much of the research for this dissertation was made possible thanks to a Fulbright-Hays vi Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad grant. I am also grateful for generous funding I received while at the University of Illinois that allowed me to focus on research and coursework, as well as to present my research at many conferences, including a Foreign Language and Area Studies fellowship and conference travel grants through the Center for East Asian and Pacific Studies, a fellowship as well as research and conference grants from the Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, a fellowship from the Foreign Language Building (now the School of Literatures, Cultures, and Linguistics), and conference grants from the Graduate College and the Association for Asian Studies. Several graduate students and others at the University of Illinois kept me company, offered me moral support, suggestions, commiseration, critiques, help with drafting grant applications, and so forth over the past five years, especially Ryan Jones, Jerome Ng, Rebecca Nickerson, Josie Sohn, and E.K. Tan. Caroline McKenzie has been there for me since before I was a graduate student the first time. Louise Heal made getting my Master’s Degree in Japanese Studies a lot more fun than it would have been otherwise. And my family has cheered me on from the sidelines even if they can never quite put a finger on what it is I am researching—probably more my fault than theirs. I am immeasurably thankful to them all. Finally, my endless gratitude is owed to Jotaro Arimori, for checking my translations, for so often knowing just the right word in English, for repeatedly looking things up for me when I should have done it myself, for patiently answering my questions, sometimes the same ones again and again when I failed to write down what he told me the first (and sometimes second) time, and for his support, encouragement, and love from well before I even considered pursuing the path that brought this dissertation into being. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS A NOTE ON LANGUAGE AND NAMES .....................................................................
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