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Narrating the Border: the Discourse of Control Over China's Northwest Frontier

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ARBEITSBLATT Nr. 25 2004 INSTITUT FUR ETHNOLOGIE Steven Parham Narrating the Border: The Discourse of Control over China's Northwest Frontier UNIVERSITAT BERN Arbeitsblätter des Instituts für Ethnologie der Universität Bern Herausgegeben von: Annuska Derks Sabine Hoefler Ueli Hostettler Nathalie Peyer Anja Sieber Virginia Suter Michael Toggweiler Magdalena Urrejola Christian Wymann Heinzpeter Znoj Institut für Ethnologie Länggassstr. 49A, CH-3000 Bern 9 Fax +41 31 631 42 12 ISBN 3-906465-25-X © Steven Parham und Institut für Ethnologie der Universität Bern URL: http://www.ethno.unibe.ch/arbeitsblaetter/AB25_Par.pdf This is the electronic edition of Steven Parham, "Narrating the Border: The Discourse of Control over China's Northwest Frontier", Arbeitsblatt Nr. 25, Institut für Ethnologie, Universität Bern, Bern 2004 ISBN: 3-906465-25-X Electronically published November 8, 2004 © Steven Parham und Institut für Ethnologie der Universität Bern. All rights reserved. This text may be copied freely and distributed either electronically or in printed form under the following conditions. You may not copy or distribute it in any other fashion without express written permission from me or the Institut für Ethnologie. Otherwise I encourage you to share this work widely and to link freely to it. Conditions You keep this copyright notice and list of conditions with any copy you make of the text. You keep the preface and all chapters intact. You do not charge money for the text or for access to reading or copying it. That is, you may not include it in any collection, compendium, database, ftp site, CD ROM, etc. which requires payment or any world wide web site which requires payment or registration. You may not charge money for shipping the text or distributing it. If you give it away, these conditions must be intact. For permission to copy or distribute in any other fashion, contact: [email protected] ARBEITSBLATT Nr. 25 2004 Steven Parham Narrating the Border: The Discourse of Control over China’s Northwest Frontier "A true Communist and Internationalist wouldn't assign any particular importance to the question of borders, especially borders between fellow Socialist States." (Nikita Khrushchev 1974) "China and the Central Asian states have been cooperating from Time Immemorial. Geography is not the only factor of their closeness: there is also spiritual affinity." (Han official in Urumqi 2003) "The Chinese are like cockroaches: there are too many of them and you cannot get rid of them." (Kazakh official in Ucharal 2003) Acknowledgments The present paper could not have been accomplished without the support of many people who helped me in many different ways and to whom I would like to express my gratitude. Special thanks go to Professor Hans-Ruedi Wicker, Institute of Ethnology, University of Bern, for his encouragement and advice during the whole process of attempting a study in a region that is, from a theoretical and geographical point of view, not all that readily accessible. The field research for this paper would not have been possible without the generous financial support of the Karman Stiftung in Bern, Switzerland, and Professor Wolfgang Marschall's aid in obtaining this support. Also, I would like to thank the Feldforschungsspesenfonds of the University of Bern for its financial support. Research in Kazakhstan would not at all have been possible without the unwavering aid of Joseph 'let's yorknut' Peddicord whose invaluable Russian skills and personal qualities opened many doors and many more hearts in Kazakhstan; in the frequent laugh-or-cry situations he more than once helped me to keep my equanimity. Dr. Urs Breitenmoser (Institute of Veterinary Virology, University of Bern) I thank for his invaluable time and his knowledge of the area and numerous contacts he made accessible to me. In Kazakhstan, I thank Andy Offenbacher from the Nuclear Technology Safety Centre (United States Department of Energy) in Almaty for his time and the coffee; the director of the IOM in Almaty, Michael Tschanz, for his precious time and insights on the structure of the government of Kazakhstan; Valery Vladimerivich of the Taldyqorghan Business Centre for cutting through red tape; and the migration officer in Ucharal for professing to believe in my innocence and not deporting me back to Almaty again. In China (Xinjiang), I thank Emil and his Tatar gang of thieves for their amazing hospitality in Yining; Ma YueLiang in Turpan for several nights of genuine Chinese hospitality; and the border guards at Khorgos (Chinese side) for proving that not all who wear a uniform must be officious. I would like to express my thanks to Emanuel Schwarz for taking the time to edit this thesis and providing many a night of insight and inspiration. This is also a good opportunity to express my gratitude to My Dying Bride and Summoning who have kept me awake and motivated through long nights of writing and months of bus travel over the last years in all parts of Asia. Last but of course not least, I wish to thank Michèle with all my heart for being my flittery muse and providing a constant flow of creative vibes. Up The Irons for our next trip to Asia. Table of Contents Introduction..................................................................................................1 1. A Framework for China's Northern Frontier.......................................4 1.1. Methods of Frontier Anthropology.........................................................................4 1.2. The Nation-State and Its Frontiers..........................................................................6 2. A History of China's Frontier Relations..............................................16 2.1. Steppe Empires and China's Frontiers ..................................................................16 2.2. Tsarist Russia Encounters Qing China .................................................................22 2.3. Soviet Central Asia and 20th Century China.........................................................29 3. Frontier Policies Through Time: The Discourse of Control..............41 3.1. Frontier Policy from Han to Early Qing China.....................................................41 3.2. Frontier Policy in Qing China...............................................................................46 3.3. Frontier Policy in the ROC ...................................................................................51 3.4. Frontier Policy in the PRC....................................................................................54 3.5. Xinjiang and Its Borders Today............................................................................60 4. Field Research on the Xinjiang-Kazakhstan Border .........................65 4.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................65 4.2. Research Methodology and Critique ....................................................................68 4.3. Discussion: Kazakhstan ........................................................................................74 4.4. Discussion: Xinjiang.............................................................................................85 4.5. One Borderline – Two Frontiers: Comparing Both Sides ....................................96 Conclusion.................................................................................................100 Appendices I. Interviews Conducted .............................................................................................103 II. Maps 1: Central China and Inner Asia.........................................................................106 2: Xinjiang, Mongolia, and the South-eastern Kazakh Steppe ..........................107 3: XUAR and Its Neighbouring States Today ...................................................108 4: The Kazakhstan-Xinjiang Border ..................................................................109 5: Southeast Kazakhstan (Taldyqorghan Oblast) – Xinjiang Border ................110 6: Northeast Kazakhstan Oblast – Xinjiang – Russian Border..........................111 III. Joint Kazakhstan-PRC Declaration of 1995 (Russian Original)..........................112 IV. Pictures ................................................................................................................113 References..................................................................................................................116 1 Introduction It takes but a brief and cursory glance at atlases, encyclopaedias, and historical compendia to realise that cartographers excel in highlighting the boundaries between discrete entities, be they natural, as in maps showing topographic (mountains versus plains), climatic (tropical versus temperate), or geographic (deserts versus rainforests) features, or human in nature, as with maps of demography (urban centres versus rural peripheries), language areas, or political bodies (the representation of nation-states in a multitude of colours). Learning to 'interpret' and 'read' maps is instilled in most European school children at a young age and we have come to accept the graphic representation of these discrete entities as a phenomenon approaching the realm of intuition. However, how often do those contemplating a map pause to consider the assumption that these depicted objects, by their very nature, are generally unable to represent anything other than bounded, discrete entities? This may be intuitive in respect to the assumption
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