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Leeds Thesis Template Middle to Late Miocene terrestrial biota and climate by Matthew James Pound M.Sci., Geology (University of Bristol) Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Earth and Environment September 2012 - 2 - Declaration of Authorship The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his/her own, except where work which has formed part of jointly-authored publications has been included. The contribution of the candidate and the other authors to this work has been explicitly indicated below. The candidate confirms that appropriate credit has been given within the thesis where reference has been made to the work of others. Chapter 2 has been published as: Pound, M.J., Riding, J.B., Donders, T.H., Daskova, J. 2012 The palynostratigraphy of the Brassington Formation (Upper Miocene) of the southern Pennines, central England. Palynology 36, 26-37. Chapter 3 has been published as: Pound, M.J., Haywood, A.M., Salzmann, U., Riding, J.B. 2012. Global vegetation dynamics and latitudinal temperature gradients during the mid to Late Miocene (15.97 - 5.33 Ma). Earth Science Reviews 112, 1-22. Chapter 4 has been published as: Pound, M.J., Haywood, A.M., Salzmann, U., Riding, J.B., Lunt, D.J. and Hunter, S.J. 2011. A Tortonian (Late Miocene 11.61-7.25Ma) global vegetation reconstruction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 300, 29-45. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2012, The University of Leeds, British Geological Survey and Matthew J. Pound - 3 - Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisors Prof Alan Haywood, Dr James Riding and Dr Ulrich Salzmann for their support, guidance and advice. They have all contributed a great deal to my development as a researcher and I owe them a debt of gratitude. This PhD has been funded by the Natural Environmental Research Council and the British Geological Survey University Funding Initiative (PhD studentship NE/G523563/1). I wish to thank the owner of Kenslow Top Pit, Janet Renwick for granting access to conduct fieldwork, Nick Schafstall, James Witts and Stephanie Wood for their help on fieldwork, Jane Kyffin-Hughes for her assistance with laboratory work, Dr Timme Donders and Dr Jirina Daskova for their help in pollen identification, Dr Steve Hunter for his help running HadAM3 and our many fruitful discussions, the staff of the British Geological Survey library, Keyworth for assistance in tracking down many unusual pieces of literature and Aisling Dolan, Luciana Genio, Wang Hao, Claire MacDonald and Marion Maury for their kind assistance in translating the literature. I am grateful to the palaeobotanical community, many of whom sent me obscure references or reprints that have bolstered the reconstructions presented in this thesis. In particular, I wish to thank Dr John Williams for granting me access to the John Williams Index of Palaeopalynology, Natural History Museum, London and for many discussions. Finally, I would like to thank my friends and family for their support, especially ma cherie Marion Maury - merci beaucoup! - 4 - Abstract The Middle to Late Miocene (15.97 – 5.33 Ma) is considered a time interval that was warmer than today. It is also a time interval of significant cooling. The aim of this study is to provide a new global view of this 10 Ma interval of global warmth and climate change, through the use of vegetation, mammals and modelling. The study begins in the UK and uses palynology to assign, the previously poorly constrained, Brassington Formation to the Tortonian. The pollen of the Brassington Formation shows the existence of a warm-temperate mixed forest in the UK with a mean annual temperature of 16°C – roughly twice the modern mean annual temperature. Using this fossil site, as well as 633 others, the global biome distributions are determined for the Langhian, Seravallian, Tortonian and Messinian stages. The data show that the Langhian represents a world significantly warmer than today. Cooling occurred through the Seravallian and Tortonian and by the Messinian, this cooling trend had eliminated warm – temperate mixed forests from the western USA and Australia and had formed mid – latitude deserts. Using the palaeobotanical data for the Tortonian age a data – model hybrid vegetation map has been made, suitable for use in palaeoclimate modelling studies. This is then used as a boundary condition in the HadAM3 climate model to show influence of vegetation on the Tortonian climate. Finally the palaeoecology of Late Miocene mammals is investigated to develop a new proxy for vegetation. The co–occurrence technique uses the biome tolerances of Late Miocene mammals to reconstruct regional vegetation. This has been successfully used to add further details to the vegetation maps from palaeobotanical data. This study presents a new approach to exploring vegetation and climate during the Miocene and provides novel details on this dynamic epoch. - 5 - Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 3 Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 4 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................... 10 List of Figures .............................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 17 1.1 Project rational .................................................................................................. 17 1.2. The Earth as a system and its dynamics during the Miocene ............................. 18 1.2.1. Miocene chronology ............................................................................... 20 1.2.2 Tectonics and ocean circulation ............................................................... 22 1.2.3. Mountains ............................................................................................... 23 1.2.4. Ice sheets ................................................................................................. 24 1.2.5. Climate of the Miocene ........................................................................... 25 1.3. Driving forces and evolution of Miocene climate................................................ 27 1.3.1. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 during the Miocene ....................... 27 1.3.2. Other climate forcing agents and their importance in the Miocene ...... 30 1.4. Vegetation in the Earth system and our present understanding of Miocene global vegetation ............................................................................................... 32 1.4.1. Vegetation in the Earth system ............................................................... 33 1.4.2. Present day distribution of vegetation ................................................... 34 1.4.3. Current knowledge of Miocene vegetation ............................................ 36 1.5. Vegetation as a proxy for climate ........................................................................ 37 1.6. Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................. 39 1.7. Structure of thesis ................................................................................................ 40 Chapter 2 The Miocene vegetation of the UK from the palynoflora of the Brassington Formation, Derbyshire. ...................................................................................... 41 2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 41 2.2. The geological setting of the Brassington Formation .......................................... 42 2.3. Previous research on the palaeobotany and palynology of the Brassington Formation .......................................................................................................... 44 - 6 - 2.4. Material and methods .......................................................................................... 46 2.5. Palynostratigraphy ................................................................................................ 49 2.5.1. A revised palynostratigraphy of the data in Boulter (1971a,b) ............... 49 2.5.2. The palynostratigraphy of the Kenslow Member of Kenslow Top Pit .... 52 2.6. The Late Miocene palaeoecology and palaeoclimate of Derbyshire ................... 54 2.7. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 57 Chapter 3 Global vegetation dynamics and latitudinal temperature gradients during the mid to Late Miocene (15.97 - 5.33 Ma) ..........................................................58 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 58 3.2. Methods................................................................................................................ 60 3.2.1. Constructing the vegetation database ...................................................
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