Media Development VOL LVII 3/2010

2 A Latin American pilgrimage towards 39 Persistence, a loud speaker and a thesaurus ecumenism Kristine Greenaway Dennis A. Smith 41 Edinburgh 2010 seeks renewal 7 Communication is the call to share Olav Fykse Tveit 43 El derecho a la verdad: De la memoria a la acción 10 Promoting peace and social justice Roberto Burgos through commonality Robert S. Fortner 46 La Dolce Vita ha cumplido 50 años Carlos A. Valle 14 The dialogue decalogue Leonard Swidler 48 Ingmar Bergman’s legacy on Farö Ylva Liljeholm 17 Tiempos para recrear la comunicación profética 51 Film in anti-trafficking and anti-slavery Rolando Pérez campaigns William Brown 22 Comunicar para la construcción de una “otra” oikoumene 54 ICTs past: The telegraph in India Violeta Rocha Sujatha Sosale

26 Chancen und Herausforderungen der 59 Peace journalism training in East Africa Ökumene Levi Obonyo Friedrich Weber 64 IN THE EVENT... 30 Ecumenism - a movement for all seasons John Bluck 68 ON THE SCREEN...

33 The world changed in our generation Ingmar Lindqvist The cartoons on pages 5, 11 and 31 are by Canadian artist and minister Bob Haverluck 36 Unity, diversity, and love in the Middle East and were especially commissioned for Riad Jarjour Media Development.

Media Development 3/2010 1 relation, not in opposition, the need to affirm the dignity EDITORIAL to the other. and integrity of people every- • Credible dialogue does not where. In 2005 the World Council of question the claims of other Communication creates com- Churches organized a confer- religions, nor does it seek munity. Genuine communication ence called ‘Critical Moment compromise. It enhances the can strengthen a sense of be- in Interreligious Relations and common search for truth longing and rekindle community Dialogue’. It encouraged reflec- through awareness-building spirit, because the model for tion on the meaning of dialogue and education.1 such communication is partici- and promoted critical thinking Such precepts echo calls patory and inclusive, rather than about future directions. within the communication rights one-way and exclusive. For to- At the conference, Catholicos movement for interactive and day’s pluralistic and multicultur- Aram I identified the essen- participatory processes that re- al societies to coexist peacefully, tial characteristics of what he generate and revitalize the basic a genuine community of peoples described as ‘credible dialogue’. meaning of ‘to communicate’, and nations, including their dif- In order to help religions take a understood as sharing informa- ferent faith-based traditions and coherent and holistic approach tion and knowledge, genuine religions, will have to emerge. to crucial issues in the life of conversation, and creating com- Communication is prophetic. societies, he proposed: munity in solidarity. Prophetic communication • That the integrity and dis- In 1986 the World Associa- expresses itself in both words tinctiveness of each religion tion for Christian Communi- and deeds. It involves critically can be affirmed and respect- cation (WACC) elaborated its reading today’s communica- ed by deepening knowledge Christian Principles of Commu- tions scene, promoting equitable of each other through inter- nication. They evolved out of an access to new information and religious dialogue. increasing realization that, while communication technologies, • That interreligious dialogue communication is the oxygen sharing information and knowl- should be guided by a broad of human interaction, the way edge, and challenging limitations vision of cooperation, while people communicate – their on freedom of expression and clearly spelling out existing reasons for communicating – the right to communicate – even differences. should be subject to an ethic of if the subject is religion itself. • If dialogue is to be credible, reciprocity. It is difficult to conceive of its risks and limitations must In communication terms, the a genuine ecumenism that does be recognized. Principles anticipated the 1993 not affirm the dignity and worth • If the aim is a convergence Declaration of the Parliament of of human beings everywhere. In of opinion based on an the World’s Religions ‘Towards this sense, communication for exchange of perspectives and a Global Ethic’, which called for ecumenism must be a dynamic experiences, the agenda for a commitment to a culture of co-pilgrimage towards living in dialogue should take into non-violence and respect for life; real community and towards account the circumstances in a culture of solidarity and a just justice and freedom for all. which it takes place. economic order; a culture of tol- Its effectiveness will depend • In dialogue people should erance and a life of truthfulness; on its ability to deepen under- not only talk to each other, and a culture of equal rights and standing, to take risks, to listen, they should listen to each partnership between women and and to celebrate difference. n other in a spirit of sharing a men. common humanity. There are five Christian Note • Credible dialogue shapes Principles of Communication, 1. In Changing the Present, Dreaming and reshapes people’s at- the Future. A Critical Moment in In- but two seem to have particular terreligious Dialogue, edited by Hans titudes towards the other relevance when it comes to com- Ucko. Geneva: World Council of and enriches their identity in munication for ecumenism and Churches, 2006, pp. 11-12.

2 Media Development 3/2010 and injustice. With time I learned that difference need not be A Latin met with fear. I learned that God is bigger than I had been taught. Perhaps the Creator was not subject to my rules, nor to the dogma so carefully articulated American by my church. As I grew up I began to understand that I understood very little; I learned to make room pilgrimage for nuance, ambiguity and contradiction. Guatemala: discovering an ancient silence I first arrived in Guatemala as a volunteer in 1974. towards I spent the year traveling throughout the country: observing, listening, learning. I was embraced by a warm, wise and generous people who, at the same ecumenism time, observed this young gringo from a distance, marked by an ancient silence. Dennis A. Smith I returned to Guatemala in 1977 as a mission worker for the Presbyterian Church (USA) and soon Personal reflections on ecumenism and discovered that my academic training had not pro- WACC’s Christian Principles of Communi- vided me with the analytical framework I needed to come to grips with the economic and political ex- cation by its President. clusion experienced by most Guatemalans. Patient grew up in a middle-class Evangelical home where Guatemalan mentors and a few veteran missionar- I I learned to take religious belief and practice very ies introduced me to Latin American literature, his- seriously. This rather hermetic world was not very tory and culture. comfortable with difference. We viewed people from In my youth, I had embraced a technological other traditions with suspicion and, sometimes, fear. optimism that saw God working in a special way For example, after John Kennedy was elected Presi- through the electronic media. What better way to dent of the United States in November of 1960, I evangelize the world than through television and remember sensing an undercurrent of tension at our radio? Gradually, I learned that such powerful me- church: Had the US become subject to Rome? How dia were hampered by a built-in defect: they only could God have allowed such a thing to happen? permitted monologue. Using these media to initiate Nor were we comfortable with Pentecostals. The nuanced conversations, to build real relationships, exuberance of Pentecostal worship – exotic prac- was contrary to the technology itself. tices like speaking in tongues and divine healing Furthermore, such media, in the context of rap- – generated suspicion. We were taught that such idly growing global entertainment and information manifestations were only appropriate for the primi- empires, tended to create an imbalance of power: tive church; we suspected that such spiritual self- producers and broadcasters – even religious ones – indulgence was a sign of immaturity. had a monopoly on words and images and used this Yet this apparently closed faith community of- power to promote their own agendas; the audience fered me many opportunities to broaden my world, was cast in a passive role. to find myself face to face with ‘the other’. One In the 1970s I found colleagues with similar summer our youth group offered Bible classes to concerns who came to question the efficacy of the poor children in the logging camps of Northern electronic media as evangelistic tools. Perhaps the California. That summer we also visited jails and electronic media were best used to promote moral talked to prisoners. Another summer I lived on Na- principles, we suspected. Perhaps professionally de- vajo lands, working with a church mission. Such signed micro-programs could speak to the spiritual experiences led me to ask myself questions about angst of the age, offering consolation and challenge history and about social systems rooted in violence in the person of Jesus. Perhaps the media could be

Media Development 3/2010 3 used to teach and encourage those who were al- novelas – over-the-top soap operas that ooze with ready believers. stereotypes of gender and class. But communica- In the late 1970s I had my first contact with the tion researchers like Rosa María Alfaro and Jesús Latin America region of the World Association for Martín Barbero have documented how poor folks Christian Communication (WACC). WACC Lat- in Latin America can resignify what they watch; the in America colleagues challenged me to consider disenfranchised use TV to give them a language for new notions of what communication is and how it describing what seems to be out of control in their works. They helped me to see communication as a lives – especially their relationships and their role process rooted in human culture, not technology. within the community. Communication became thicker, rounder, more During the 80s, civil conflict raged in Guatemala, sensual. In the words of Argentine communication El Salvador and Nicaragua, and the US intervened theorist María Cristina Mata, I came to understand militarily in the region. I witnessed how radio was communication as building meaning in common. being used in nearby El Salvador as a tool for pro- In the 1980s, faced with the growing power of moting social change and for organizing political media systems to impose political ideologies and resistance. In Guatemala, courageous journalists promote the consumer society, WACC-Latin Amer- used radio to break imposed silences and to chal- ica worked to promote media education. Pioneers lenge impunity and injustice. Community groups like María Elena Hermosilla, Valerio Fuenzalida throughout the region used radio to question the and Francisco Gutiérrez developed strategies to status quo and to propose policy alternatives. help excluded sectors of society – women, youth, I discovered that many people were honing their peasants, families – to set aside their passive role ability to read between the lines; they understood and become active, critical media consumers. that ‘the official story’ was a lie, but they had little In Guatemala, I witnessed how the ancient, com- access to information and analysis that would help plex beauty of Mayan culture could be reduced to a them more fully to understand the devastation that tourist poster, and, in this colourful representation, was being poured out on their communities. the people themselves, their very way of being, could In addition to my work in media education, in be invisibilized; their voices could be silenced. the 1980s – a time when the US intervened mili- I heard Guatemalan colleagues ask themselves: tarily in Central America and when churches were What happens when not only your land but also riven by volatile ideologies – I worked with col- your story is stolen from you? Your memory of who leagues to document the impact of US-based tele- you are and why you are here, usurped? What hap- vision and radio preachers on local Protestant and pens when you move to the city in search of sur- Catholic parishes. In the 1990s I began to look at vival, and you must come up with a new narrative how new religious movements were using the media to explain to yourself and others who you are and to establish themselves as powerful actors in the re- where you belong? ligious marketplace and how these emerging media I learned that once a people is silenced and invisi- entrepreneurs challenged the cultural power of tra- bilized, genocide becomes a viable policy option for ditional religious institutions. those in power. What makes Christian communication ‘Christian’? Citizen participation and accountability Christian churches in Latin America exercise an Through WACC I also came in contact with the absolute religious majority. Dealing with difference work of researchers like Rosa María Alfaro and her has been played out mostly in racial-ethnic, cultural colleagues who documented the power of the me- and ideological – rather than religious – arenas. An dia to set the agenda for public discourse. Again, important exception has been the history of bitter WACC members were on the front lines of devel- rivalries between Roman Catholics and Protestants oping strategies to use the media to promote citi- in the region, including fierce competition for privi- zen participation and to demand accountability of leged access to political and economic elites. Over those in authority. the centuries, minority religions and spiritualities – In Latin America we are famous for our tele- especially the ancestral spiritualities of indigenous

4 Media Development 3/2010 political and cultural divisions. Instead of being a tool for promoting understanding and reconcili- ation, the media were ‘widening the gap between rich and poor, consolidating oppression and distort- ing reality in order to maintain systems of domina- tion and subject the silenced masses to media ma- nipulation’. As an expression of these concerns, in the early 1980s WACC participated actively in UNESCO de- bates on communication rights, especially promot- ing the MacBride Commission’s proposals to create a more just and equitable world information and communication order. In 1984, General Secretary Hans W. Florin guided staff in the development of a statement of WACC’s core identity for the consider- ation of the Board. By 1986, the Board had adopted the Christian Principles of Communication. The Principles affirmed that: • communication creates community; • communication builds participation; • communication liberates; • communication defends and promotes human cultures in all their rich diversity; • communication speaks prophetically to power structures. and African peoples – have been violently repressed. Michael Traber, head of WACC’s studies unit, Small Jewish, Muslim and other religious commu- was the key drafter of these principles. In the con- nities are largely limited to major urban centers. text of the UNESCO debates, WACC hoped these In recent decades, however, traditional Christian ‘Christian Principles’ would challenge church hi- churches have been forced to negotiate their privi- erarchies ‘to disassociate themselves from power leged access to cultural power with new religious structures which keep the poor in a position of sub- movements and resurgent ancestral spiritualities. servience’ and to promote ‘genuine reconciliation This is the context in which WACC-Latin Ameri- by means of which the dignity of all people can be ca embraced efforts by global WACC to understand reaffirmed.’ our Christian identity in a pluralistic world. What WACC proposed the Christian Principles in a does it mean to be a world association of ‘Christian’ decidedly secular age; many North American and communication? What makes Christian communi- European social scientists were proclaiming that the cation ‘Christian’? days of organized religion as a cultural force were WACC was created in 1968 by traditional Prot- numbered. In this secular environment, the word estant broadcasters and publishers from Europe ‘Christian’ in WACC’s name must have been viewed and North America. Many had shared the techno- with a certain bemusement by some. Nonetheless, logical optimism of my youth, seeing in the media WACC had established credibility in UNESCO an ideal tool for spreading the Christian message. In circles and the academic world through their ener- the 1980s WACC became a truly global association getic and thoughtful promotion of communication as communicators from the South assumed new lev- rights. els of protagonism. Through the Christian Principles, WACC chal- WACC’s Board and professional staff under- lenged the secular ethos of the age by insisting that stood that information and communication systems communication is a function of transcendence. The were exacerbating the world’s growing economic, introduction to the Christian Principles observes

Media Development 3/2010 5 that ‘communication remains God’s great gift to imagined possibilities for using new media as spaces humanity, without which we cannot be truly hu- for real conversations and for building real relation- man.’ Somehow, there is something sacred about ships, for networking, and for building grassroots the creation of meaning in common; communica- social movements. tion reflects the spiritual values that are at the heart This new millennium offers WACC the oppor- of human identity. tunity to revisit the ‘Christian Principles’, reaffirm their validity within the Christian community, and Resurgence of the cultural power of religion offer them as a discussion starter to communication In Latin America, the Christian Principles came professionals from other traditions. to be a core expression of a common agenda that would permit church media producers and journal- Living out and sharing faith stories ists to forge a common bond with other commu- In my own faith journey, there came a moment nication professionals, activists and academics in when I moved from understanding evangelism as the region. Many activists and academics who had proselytism to evangelism as living out and sharing become distanced from organized religion found in my faith story. I came to understand that God is the Christian Principles a useful statement of their neither Christian nor Jew, Muslim nor Hindu. God own ethical and political commitments. is God. Joyfully, I can affirm that I am a follower The 1990s proved that religion, far from dying of Jesus; this is part of my core identity. Can I of- out, was growing in political, economic and cul- fer my faith journey to others humbly, respectfully, tural influence. Unfortunately, in recent years much while remaining open to being enriched by the faith media coverage of religion has been limited to doc- stories of others? Can I embrace the insights and umenting the rapid rise of religious fundamental- practice of justice lived out by those of no faith tra- isms. More thoughtful journalists have delved into dition? the complex connections between personal religious WACC’s Christian Principles begin by affirming commitments, religious institutions, histories of that communication grows out of a sense of tran- political, economic and cultural exclusion, gender, scendence. Mystery and longing for meaning lie at class, and ethnicity. Simultaneously, the academic the very core of all that is. Our longing for under- world, especially the social sciences, has scrambled standing and for building relationships is closely to try to describe and understand the resurgence of linked to our sense of the sacred. This is the starting the cultural power of religion. point for our understanding of communication. Simultaneously, we are witnessing a renaissance WACC offers the Christian Principles to the in ecumenical and interfaith relations. Within the Christian family, mindful that within many reli- Christian community, new ecumenical fora allow gious institutions communication still is viewed as Pentecostals and Evangelicals to sit at the same technology and technique more than telling stories table with mainline Protestants, Orthodox and of justice and mercy, building relationships and cre- Roman Catholics. Many communities throughout ating a common hope. the world have now experienced direct, thoughtful WACC offers the Christian Principles to col- conversations – even shared projects of community leagues from other faith traditions and to those service and joint celebration of holy days – between from no faith tradition. We do so with trepidation, faith groups that have experienced conflict with one mindful of the horrors that have been committed another. Many communities are moving beyond tol- throughout history in the name of the Christian erance of the other to celebration of diversity. faith. We do so expectantly, in the hope of being en- At the same time, the information and communi- riched and challenged by others. We do so humbly, cation environment is changing rapidly. Ownership hoping that these principles can help to strengthen of media content providers and distribution systems our shared commitment to the common good. – especially emerging digital technologies – contin- This is the sense in which I, as a communicator ue to be highly concentrated. Yet these same tech- and as a follower of Jesus, offer WACC’s Christian nologies have blurred the traditional lines between Principles to other communicators as a gift – the consumers and producers, offering previously un- raw material for a pending conversation – and as

6 Media Development 3/2010 a challenge: Do the stories we tell and the images we create build community? Do they liberate? Do they foment participation? Do they defend and pro- Communication mote human cultures? Do they speak prophetically to power? Let’s talk... n is the call to WACC’s Christian Principles of Communication can be found on its web site at http://www.wac- cglobal.org/en/about-wacc/principles.html share

Dennis Smith is President of WACC and a mission worker of Olav Fykse Tveit the Presbyterian Church (USA). After serving for 33 years in communication training and social research in Guatemala, in It is my pleasure to congratulate the World 2011 he will begin a new appointment as PCUSA Regional Li- aison for the Southern Cone and Brazil. Association for Christian Communication on more than 40 years of promoting com- munication for social change. The values BACK ISSUES OF upheld through WACC’s work around the MEDIA DEVELOPMENT world and its Christian Principles of Com- STILL AVAILABLE munication significantly overlap with those of the ecumenical movement and of the 2/2010 The Right to Memory World Council of Churches (WCC).

1/2010 Rethinking Media & Gender Justice was asked to contribute an article to this issue I on ‘Communication for Ecumenism’ in my first 4/2009 Reimagining Borders month as WCC general secretary. Now, almost a half year into this calling, I already feel that the ex- 3/2009 Copyright and Development periences I have had in visiting churches and par- ticipating in ecumenical events have contributed to 2/2009 Environmental Communication my understanding of how critical good communica- tion is for promoting greater understanding of each 1/2009 Reforming the Media other and encouraging an ecumenical approach to our differences, even within the Christian family. 4/2008 The Promise of Peace One particular event, the assembly of the Chris- tian Conference of Asia, held in Kuala Lumpur in 3/2008 Communicating Science April 2010, helped me in clarifying my thinking on this subject. The theme of their assembly was 2/2008 Censorship and Haiti ‘Called to Prophesy, Reconcile and Heal’. This is not compartmentalized approach, but rather a holistic 1/2008 Communication and Poverty one. These three aspects cannot be separated in our Christian witness and if I am to speak about com- munication, it cannot and should not be delinked Back issues of can be bought singly or in bulk (when avail- from other aspects of the Christian mission. able). A single copy costs C$ 20.00 including postage. A 20% Communication is not separate from account- discount will be given on orders of five or more copies. Make ability – to God and to each other. We are account- payment payable to ‘WACC’. able for what we teach and preach, and for the effects of what we teach and preach. And, we are ORDER FROM: WACC Publications, 308 Main Street, accountable for the consequences of not addressing Toronto ON M4C 4X7 Canada the issues affecting those who need the Gospel of

Media Development 3/2010 7 the Kingdom of God in this world. future, a vision of new life, of salvation, of shalom. As Christians we are called to keep these roles The word of God allows us to recognize the truth of (prophesy, reconcile, heal) together, we are called to what must be changed and the promise and power fill them together. Together we are called to be one of God to bring forgiveness and change. church, not to exercise these roles individually or We have many challenges today and some of them announce ourselves individually and autonomously can be seen as results of a one-sided and uncritical to be prophets or reconcilers or healers. The fruits use of religion ending up being very destructive and shall be the proof of our work. bringing neither justice nor peace. Therefore, it is very appropriate that we as churches reflect precise- New life in common ly on how the prophetic, critical ministry can be a There is no true prophecy that does not speak both ministry of real reconciliation and healing, not only critical truth and contribute to the building of a vi- criticizing but also articulating and communicating sion, a dream of the new life in common. Commu- new visions for the future, of what God can create nication must aim at what we shall address in com- for us and with us today and tomorrow. mon as well as what we want to have together. The The emphasis of the prophetic witness and mis- church is called to share the good news of God’s sion of reconciliation and healing by the ecumenical love for the world – the whole world, the love that movement has come to the fore in many different is ultimately expressed in God’s giving of his own contexts and attracted the imagination of people son (John 3:16). The call to share the Gospel with inside and outside the churches. The ecumenical all is forever the basic calling of the church. The call movement needs to manifest a bold accompaniment to share the Gospel will, however, forever be the and costly solidarity with its member constituencies call to share the realities of the kingdom of God as in their engagement for peace with justice and in announced by the Gospel. their response to the call to prophetic witness and The ministry of reconciliation will always have mission of reconciliation and healing. an element of prophetic ministry as a critical voice – a voice communicating within and to the world. Platforms for peace with justice To preach the forgiveness of sin will always be a One of the longstanding engagements of the global critical word of repentance, pointing to the need for ecumenical movement is in the context of the on- change, to resist, even to fight against injustice, op- going violent Arab-Israeli conflicts due to the un- pression and violations of human dignity and basic settled Palestinian question. In 2002, responding to human rights. The reconciliation of God through a call from the churches in Jerusalem, the WCC cre- Christ is not ignorance of what is wrong, a mini- ated the Ecumenical Accompaniment Programme in mizing of the problems of evil, sin and death. The Palestine and Israel (EAPPI) and in 2007 launched description of Christ’s death as atonement for sin, the Palestine Israel Ecumenical Forum (PIEF) as a as described in the Bible, is an expression of taking platform to promote prophetic witness for peace the sin seriously, as well as taking those seriously with justice and to prepare for reconciliation and who are hurt and affected by sin, and, finally, tak- healing processes in Palestine and Israel. The global ing the sinner, seriously. The forgiveness of sin is a ecumenical fellowship’s commitment towards this proactive act of God to stop sin, to break the evil direction is an honest contribution to a comprehen- circle, so that we shall not sin. Thus, the proclama- sive just peace in the whole Middle Eastern region. tion of the Gospel of reconciliation will always also In this context a very significant development be a word of truth, a prophetic witness, a critical has taken place in the ecumenical family pertain- approach. ing to the situation in Palestine. In December 2009, At the same time there is no true Christian pro- Palestinian Christians from a variety of church tra- phetic witness that does not aim at reconciling and ditions issued a call to churches around the world, healing. The prophetic and critical word is also a a call that they refer to as the ‘Moment of truth: transformative word speaking of something new. a word of faith, hope, and love from the heart of The prophets were both critical to their contem- Palestinian suffering.’ It came to be known as the poraries and pointing to the possibility of another ‘Kairos Palestine’ document because the ecumenical

8 Media Development 3/2010 family saw in it an opportune moment to intervene solved for the sake of both of them. and put an end to the suffering of both Palestinians The vision of the ecumenical movement is and and Israelis. will be always rooted in Christ’s prayer given to us This ‘Kairos call’ is a cry of hope that asks Chris- in the17th chapter of the Gospel of John – ‘That tians to see the realities in this situation, to see that they all may be one’. We are called to this and we in the name of justice and peace this situation can- are also living it – through the ecumenical move- not continue and to stand against injustice, violence ment facing the world as it is. It is an important and occupation. One way to do so is to revisit Chris- aspect of our vision for the ecumenical movement tian theologies that justify dispossession of the land that the ecumenical movement is a movement with and legitimize occupation. This is not an expression many eyes all over the world. We are able to see the of theological triumphalism over and against Jews, world as it is because we are many and we are not but a criticism of Christian theologies openly sup- only in one place, but we are where life is chang- porting or legitimizing the occupation of Palestine. ing, where life is threatened and where life is cel- The document also contains an important call ebrated. to non-violent resistance as a right and obligation As one ecumenical movement witnessing togeth- and as an act of liberating love for Palestinians and er, we speak out about what we are seeing. We not Israelis. The discussion among Palestinian Chris- only reflect, we also proclaim that there is one hu- tians includes what means of non-violent resistance manity, that there is a wholeness of creation, that are important and appropriate, and it presents it- there is a beauty of creation. We stand together self, for instance, as discussions of a possible call to proclaiming the word of God that tells us that God boycott goods from Israel. These are complicated loves this world and all human beings. Therefore, issues. From the World Council of Churches the we proclaim God’s will that justice should prevail call not to buy products illegally produced in oc- in this world. cupied territories and the call to member churches Communication is an expression of the essence for proper stewardship of investments so as not to of the church – the call to share. To share the Gos- benefit from occupation remain both well known pel, to share the reality we live in, to share the bur- and unchanged. dens of one another, to share the perspectives and The document is based on a deep conviction of traditions we have, to share our calling and our the need for prophetic critical speech against injus- gifts. If there is not good communication, this can- tice and occupation from the perspective that this is not become a reality. If there is a high level quality a prerequisite for much needed reconciliation and of communication, we really can be able to live to- healing. Here our prophetic witness needs to be gether and benefit from the richness of diversity in a expressed through our love for the Palestinians as multicultural world. n well as for the Israelis, as all parties need healing and reconciliation. The ‘Kairos Palestine Call’ has Rev. Dr Olav Fykse Tveit is general secretary of the World the potential to become an important rallying point Council of Churches At the time of his election, he was general secretary of the Church of Norway Council on Ecumenical and for justice and peace within a context that threatens International Relations (2002-09). Before taking up the post world peace. It has been communicated in local and of general secretary, Tveit served the WCC as a member of the international press and through its website (http:// Faith and Order Plenary Commission and as a co-chair of the www.kairospalestine.ps/). Palestine Israel Ecumenical Forum core group. Previous assign- The communication of this initiative has become ments include the position of secretary for the Church of Nor- key in motivating others towards common prayer, way Doctrinal Commission (1999-2000), and Church-State Relations (2001-02). Tveit is an ordained pastor in the Church dialogue and action. It provides a good case study of Norway and has also served as a parish priest in Haram, for how communication can contribute to greater Møre Diocese, 1988-91 and an army chaplain during his com- understanding in our diverse world. The act of com- pulsory year of national service (1987-88). In 2002, Tveit was municating in itself may be one of the most crucial awarded a doctorate in theology by the Norwegian School of factors in bringing about change; change in under- Theology/Menighetsfakultetet in Oslo for his dissertation on ‘Mutual Accountability as Ecumenical Attitude’. standing of reality and change in attitude towards a love for both parts in a conflict that must be re-

Media Development 3/2010 9 truths from holy texts not their own, some only those truths that coincide with their own (such as Promoting reverence for life), and some refuse to encounter others’ texts under any circumstances. So any effort to appeal to the principles of a text, by definition, peace and privileges one over another and delegitimizes (at least to some degree) the claims of another spiritual family. social justice But even this difficulty pales in comparison to the situation where there is an official Hindu, Bud- dhist, Christian, or Islamic state. And this more dif- through ficult situation pales, too, in comparison to the one where not only is there an official religion, but that religion is seen by people as being part and parcel commonality of their identity – even if unpractised. This seems to be case in France and Belgium as successive govern- Robert S. Fortner ments have taken aim at the ‘ostentatious display’ of religion by Muslim women wearing veils, hijabs, It probably goes without saying that, if or burqas, especially in state-funded schools. people could achieve peace and/or social Clashes of cultural values justice in the world, we would all applaud. France has the largest Muslim population in Eu- Unfortunately, these two goals are often rope, the result of allowing immigration from the elusive and can be impossible to achieve at formerly French colonial empire. Now that there the same time. In a perfect world achieving are millions of Muslims living in France, elements social justice would in fact lead to peace. of the society and government are attempting to But justice in our world is too often in the turn back the clock on the multicultural ideal. Peo- eye of the beholder. Justice for one party ple are only welcome if they become truly French, if they assimilate completely. One can be religious, can be an intolerable injustice to another. but only to a point. Not only is a decision by an impartial And no religion can be rubbed in the face of sec- referee required, but also the means and ular French citizens, by which is meant, making it will to enforce the decision lest it lead to possible to recognize a person of faith by her attire. increased conflict. To some French people, the wearing of obviously Is- lamic dress (which may seem to Muslims a response or instance, while Charles Taylor (2009, xi) to the Qur’an’s requirement of modesty), is an af- Fstarts one essay with the claim that ‘it is gen- front to their assumptions about Islam and human erally agreed that modern democracies have to be rights. They do not mix. So any woman who wears “secular”,’ it is hard to imagine those deeply com- a hijab, veil, or burqa is, ipso facto, being denied mitted to a fundamentalist interpretation of their her basic human (and independent) dignity. faith agreeing. This would be especially the case if This is not to select the French for criticism, or they read Taylor’s definition of secularism, which to unfairly castigate secularism or Islam, for we requires the right not to believe in anything, to have could find similar circumstances in other countries a society in which no particular religious outlook and with other religious traditions. It is merely to has a privileged status, and that allows all spiritual provide one example of the sort of difficulties we families to be heard (Taylor: 2009, xii). find when cultures are thrown together as a result But this is extremely difficult to pull off. All re- of emigration, poverty, conflict, discrimination, eth- ligions have adherents who range from the über- nic cleansing, globalization, natural disaster, or any tolerant to the exclusive. Some will accept central of dozens of other reasons that people move from

10 Media Development 3/2010 their homeland or accept their mythologies (‘God’s chosen people; Serbia for the Serbs’). In every society there is a prevailing ethos as to how ‘others’ (e.g., legal or illegal immigrants) are treated. Daniel Bar-Tal and Gemma H. Bennink (2004, 13) refer to this ethos as ‘societal beliefs,’ and say that they ‘often foster the emergence of collective emotional orientations.’ They continue: ‘They are formed in the course of the conflict, dis- seminated to society members, maintained by soci- etal institutions, and supported by collective mem- ory. They fuel the continuation of the conflictive relations and constitute obstacles to the progress of peacemaking.’ Some societies aim to assimilate others, work- ing to strip them of their distinguishing culture and identity to make them as near to native as possible. Some attempt to incorporate them into a multicul- tural mix that expects only some aspects of the new culture to be taken on, but allowing other aspects of the former culture to be maintained. Still others adopt an ‘inclusive and intercultural’ approach that welcomes ‘cultural and ethnic diversity,’ allowing the other to live in the new society without shed- ding any aspects of the former identity (see Watt: 2006). Achieving social justice or maintaining the peace occurs in each of these types of societies using differ- and social justice is similar in all three cases, but not ent approaches. Assimilation-focused societies tend always identical. Since the three types of societies to define both peace and social justice as achievable range from the corporate focus (society is more im- only by assimilation. To the extent that such soci- portant than the individual) to the balanced (both eties do successfully assimilate (whether through society and the its constituent cultures have legiti- persuasion, incentive, suppression, or threat), they mate claims on a person’s allegiance) to the more argue that peace and social justice will be achieved purely cultural (a person’s cultural Weltanschaung – and not otherwise. has superior claim on its members), there are nu- Multicultural societies are less corporate in ori- ances that religious leaders must take account of in entation, allowing for some room to co-exist with the effort to promote peace and social justice. other cultural traditions, and achieving peace and In every society, too, there is a dominant religious social justice is murkier, more problematic, more tradition or two, and minority traditions. Depend- open to the possibility of polysemia, or multiple ing on where the leaders sit as religious authorities interpretations by the constituent groups in the so- in a society also affects the degree of responsibility ciety that do maintain a modicum of independence they have for achieving and maintaining peace and from the dominant ethos. Interculturally-based so- social justice. The Islamic scholar Adnan Silajdzic cieties are the most culturally individualistic societ- (2002) argues that in an era of ‘technically feasible ies, accepting of the traditions that comprise them holocaust… the dialogue between Christians and by and large, with only nominal restrictions that Muslims is more vitally necessary than ever be- may violate basic human dignity or rights to life fore.’ and liberty. He continues by suggesting that the views that The task for religious leaders in promoting peace adherents to different religions have of one anoth-

Media Development 3/2010 11 er are seriously flawed, despite the fact that ‘many requires a protective stance toward any in the so- books and studies have been written in which Mus- ciety who are disadvantaged by mental or physi- lim and Christian authors have pointed out the ne- cal infirmity, age, gender, or socio-economic status. cessity for revision of traditional attitudes about This does not necessarily require the creation of a each other, for the sake of the creation and for the ‘nanny-state’, but it does mean working to provide human being in a more decent and humane world.’ opportunities for those who have been marginal- Undoubtedly an overwhelming majority of the ized in the society. It may mean an active defensive earth’s people wish to live in a more decent and hu- posture when they are castigated by the society at mane world, yet it is an unusual week that does not large; it may mean going on the offensive to force carry headlines about a new atrocity, increasing vio- the society to take account of their needs and to ad- lence, or a breaking of the peace in one place or an- dress them in a reasonably comprehensive fashion. other. We just don’t seem capable of reaching that 3. The effort to understand, and to explain, place of nonviolence that Christ preached about in the basics of religious faith and to initiate (if the the First Century. dominant religious tradition) or join (if a minor- Elazar Barkan and Alexander Karn (2006, 4) ity one) in common efforts to dispel animosity and provide a reason for that: ‘We retain a capacity for misperceptions, to work for common ground, and acts of immense irrationality (not to mention cru- to collaborate wherever possible on policies or ac- elty and callousness), and we adapt ourselves read- tivities that have the intention to address debilitat- ily to the moral disorder which Plato once hoped ing circumstances within any group, regardless of to eliminate from the world. We humans, it seems, religious orientation, that has been marginalized can get used to anything, bending our practice and within the society. shifting our allegiances to enhance our chances for 4. The willingness to look beyond ‘obvious’ fulfillment and self-gratification.’ causes for differential social status to underlying or hidden causes for it. This means eschewing the com- Ethical imperatives for religious authorities mon or socially accepted reasons for one’s position What, then, should we expect, ethically speaking, into structural or traditional definitions of issues from those who represent religious belief in soci- in favour of analytically-determined ones. It is the ety? How might such authorities represent the will welfare of the other that is at issue, the reduction of of God in such a way that it will promote peace grievances, the dignification of the widely-accepted and achieve social justice? Given the introduction undignified that are at issue. Only by engagement, to the problems associated with these goals in the defence, and address of apparent inequities of dif- last few pages, the following ethical imperatives are ferent groups in the society are tensions reducible in order. and grounds for acceptance made obvious. It is imperative that religious authorities affirm, through speech and action: Commonness trumps exceptionalism 1. The equality of all people, regardless of cultur- In other words, it is ‘commonness’ that must be al tradition, race, ethnicity, gender, or religion. This stressed by those best able, and most accepted, with- means that they are committed to the inclusiveness in the society to do so, not exceptionalism. Perhaps of all within national societies. The use of demon- these requirements are only common sense, but it is izing words, references to ‘others’ or using sepa- a foundational requirement that is probably most ratist language, in reference to the ‘other’ must be difficult for religious people to accept: this isthe eliminated from speech. Media or other references requirement that whatever one’s faith, it cannot be to minorities, or identifiable groups, in derogatory publicly proclaimed that it is the only way to God. terms must be called out and it must be made clear I know – I’m in trouble now. We Christians are that such references are not only ethically unaccept- recognized as members of the world’s most exclu- able, but the first step toward legitimizing violence sive faith: Christ is the only way to salvation. But against the ‘other.’ let me split some hairs – ethically speaking. There 2. The commitment to establishing a more de- are two great commandments: to love God with all cent and humane world for human habitation. This our heart, mind, soul, and strength, and to love our

12 Media Development 3/2010 neighbour as ourselves. By loving our neighbour we References also love God. Barkan, E. & Karn, A. (2006). ‘Group Apology as an Ethi- But imagine this. If we recognize that Christ is cal Imperative.’ In: Taking Wrongs Seriously: Apologies and Reconciliation. Barkan, E. & Karn, A. eds. Stanford, CA: the only way to salvation, that does not require us Stanford University Press, pp. 3-32. to think him the only way to see God. Yes, we do Bar-Tal, D. & Bennink, Gemma H. (2004). ‘The Nature of see God in the Son, and if we want to know what Reconciliation as an Outcome and as a Process.’ In: From God is like we look to the Son. There is no argu- Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation. Bar-Siman-Tov, A. ed. ment from me on that. But the Son commands us, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 11-38. Silajdzic, A. (2002). ‘But, There Is No Other Way: Reconcilia- for instance, to show mercy and compassion. Other tion among Muslims, Serbian Orthodox, and Catholics – An faiths demand the same. So adherents to those faiths Islamic View.’ Journal of Ecumenical Studies. 39. 186+. see God through the commands of their own scrip- Taylor, C. (2009). ‘Foreword. What is secularism?’ In: Secular- ture even if they do not know Christ. They may not ism, Religion and Multicultural Citizenship. Levey, G. B. & (indeed, to true Christians, they will not) thereby Modood, T. eds. xi-xxii. achieve salvation, but on the need for mercy we are Watt, P. (2006). ‘An Intercultural Approach to “Integration”.’Translocations. 1:1. 154-163. agreed. So when it comes to achieving social justice or Robert S. Fortner (PhD) is Executive Director of the Interna- peace we need to recognize that we often have need tional Center for Media Studies, and Research Scholar in the of one another. We cannot achieve it unilaterally Institute of Communications Research at the University of Il- and we dare not point exclusively to the bible as linois, Urbana-Champaign. the scriptura sola justifying the search for justice or peace because to do so actually injects a religious dispute into the effort, thereby negating it in the International Ecumenical Peace eyes of other religious traditions. Where we can Convocation make common cause, the requirements of ethics (that is, to reduce the potential for misunderstand- 17 - 25 May 2011, Kingston, Jamaica ing or conflict in the quest for peace, for instance) are that we do so. The WCC’s International Ecumenical Peace Con- We can still pray for the salvation of those of vocation (IEPC) will celebrate the achievements other faiths through acceptance of Christ as saviour of the Decade to Overcome Violence which and Lord, can still engage in discourse with them began in 2001. At the same time it will encour- over the question of truly knowing God through age individuals and churches to renew their other means. But that is an evangelical question commitment to nonviolence, peace and justice. and such conversations should be restricted to those cases when the two faiths, in good faith, sit down to The IEPC aims at witnessing to the Peace of engage in theological talk. God as a gift and responsibility of the In the public sphere, where people do make oikumene. common cause in pursuit of equality, constructing a more humane world, dispelling misperceptions The goals are: of faith, and examining the root causes of people’s exclusion or disadvantage within a society, ethics • To affirm what we can say together demands that the battle of theology be put aside. • To identify topics for further discussion If people of all faiths are willing to acknowledge • To recommend fruitful examples and the intersections of commonality, and to agree that, • promising initiatives whatever one’s faith, achieving social justice or • To initiate practical services for committed peace requires a commonness of purpose and per- groups spective for the benefit of the ‘other’ (whatever side is the ‘other’), only then can religion make its maxi- http://www.overcomingviolence.org/en/peace- mum contribution to achieving these goals. n convocation.html

Media Development 3/2010 13 We are here, of course, speaking of a specific kind of dialogue, an interreligious, inter-ideological The dialogue dialogue. To have such, it is not sufficient that the dialogue partners discuss a religious-ideological subject, that is, the meaning of life and how to live decalogue accordingly. Rather, they must come to the dialogue as persons somehow significantly identified with a Leonard Swidler religious or ideological community. If I were nei- ther a Christian nor a Marxist, for example, I could The ‘Dialogue Decalogue’ (Ground Rules not participate as a ‘partner’ in Christian-Marxist for Interreligious, Intercultural Dialogue) dialogue, though I might listen in, ask some ques- was first published in the Journal of Ecu- tions for information, and make some helpful com- menical Studies in 1983 and has been ments. It is obvious that interreligious, inter-ideological translated into more than a dozen lan- dialogue is something new under the sun. We could guages. While the ‘Dialogue Decalogue’ not conceive of it, let alone do it in the past. How, was originally written primarily to further then, can we effectively engage in this new thing? interreligious dialogue, it has been adapted The following are some basic ground rules, or ‘com- to a variety of other circumstances to help mandments,’ of interreligious, inter-ideological dia- people of diverse ideologies and value logue that must be observed if dialogue is actually to take place. These are not theoretical rules, or systems build bridges and find common commandments given from ‘on high,’ but ones that ground. have been learned from hard experience. ialogue is a conversation on a common sub- First Commandment ject between two or more persons with differ- D The primary purpose of dialogue is to learn, that ing views, the primary purpose of which is for each is, to change and grow in the perception and un- participant to learn from the other so that s/he can derstanding of reality, and then to act accordingly. change and grow. This very definition of dialogue Minimally, the very fact that I learn that my dia- embodies the first commandment of dialogue. logue partner believes ‘this’ rather than ‘that’ pro- In the religious-ideological sphere in the past, we portionally changes my attitude toward her; and a came together to discuss with those differing with change in my attitude is a significant change in me. us, for example, Catholics with Protestants, either We enter into dialogue so that we can learn, change, to defeat an opponent, or to learn about an oppo- and grow, not so we can force change on the other, nent so as to deal more effectively with her or him, as one hopes to do in debate – a hope realized in in- or at best to negotiate with him or her. If we faced verse proportion to the frequency and ferocity with each other at all, it was in confrontation--sometimes which debate is entered into. more openly polemically, sometimes more subtly so, On the other hand, because in dialogue each but always with the ultimate goal of defeating the partner comes with the intention of learning and other, because we were convinced that we alone had changing herself, one’s partner in fact will also the absolute truth. change. Thus the goal of debate, and much more, is But dialogue is not debate. In dialogue each part- accomplished far more effectively by dialogue. ner must listen to the other as openly and sympa- thetically as s/he can in an attempt to understand the Second Commandment other’s position as precisely and, as it were, as much Interreligious, inter-ideological dialogue must be a from within, as possible. Such an attitude automati- two-sided project – within each religious or ideologi- cally includes the assumption that at any point we cal community and between religious or ideological might find the partner’s position so persuasive that, communities. Because of the ‘corporate’ nature of if we would act with integrity, we would have to interreligious dialogue, and since the primary goal change, and change can be disturbing.

14 Media Development 3/2010 of dialogue is that each partner learn and change naturally attempt to express for herself what she himself, it is also necessary that each participant en- thinks is the meaning of the partner’s statement; the ter into dialogue not only with his partner across partner must be able to recognize herself in that ex- the faith line – the Lutheran with the Anglican, for pression. The advocate of ‘a world theology,’ Wil- example – but also with his coreligionists, with his fred Cantwell Smith, would add that the expression fellow Lutherans, to share with them the fruits of must also be verifiable by critical observers who are the interreligious dialogue. Only thus can the whole not involved. community eventually learn and change, moving toward an ever more perceptive insight into reality. Sixth Commandment Each participant must come to the dialogue with no Third Commandment hard-and-fast assumptions as to where the points of Each participant must come to the dialogue with disagreement are. Rather, each partner should not complete honesty and sincerity. It should be made only listen to the other partner with openness and clear in what direction the major and minor thrusts sympathy but also attempt to agree with the dia- of the tradition move, what the future shifts might logue partner as far as is possible while still main- be, and, if necessary, where the participant has diffi- taining integrity with his own tradition; where he culties with her own tradition. No false fronts have absolutely can agree no further without violating any place in dialogue. his own integrity, precisely there is the real point Conversely, each participant must assume a simi- of disagreement--which most often turns out to be lar complete honesty and sincerity in the other part- different from the point of disagreement that was ners. Not only will the absence of sincerity prevent falsely assumed ahead of time. dialogue from happening, but the absence of the assumption of the partner’s sincerity will do so as Seventh Commandment well. In brief: no trust, no dialogue. Dialogue can take place only between equals, or par cum pari as the Second Vatican Council put it.1 Both Fourth Commandment must come to learn from each other. Therefore, if, In interreligious, inter-ideological dialogue we must for example, the Muslim views Hinduism as inferi- not compare our ideals with our partner’s practice, or, or if the Hindu views Islam as inferior, there will but rather our ideals with our partner’s ideals, our be no dialogue. If authentic interreligious, inter-ide- practice with our partner’s practice. ological dialogue between Muslims and Hindus is to occur, then both the Muslim and the Hindu must Fifth Commandment come mainly to learn from each other; only then Each participant must define himself. Only the Jew, will it be ‘equal with equal,’ par cum pari. for example, can define what it means to be a Jew. This rule also indicates that there can be no The rest can only describe what it looks like from such thing as a one-way dialogue. For example, the outside. Moreover, because dialogue is a dy- Jewish-Christian discussions begun in the 1960s namic medium, as each participant learns, he will were mainly only prolegomena to inter- religious change and hence continually deepen, expand, and dialogue. Understandably and properly, the Jews modify his self-definition as a Jew – being careful to came to these exchanges only to teach Christians, remain in constant dialogue with fellow Jews. Thus although the Christians came mainly to learn. But, it is mandatory that each dialogue partner define if authentic interreligious dialogue between Chris- what it means to be an authentic member of his tians and Jews is to occur, then the Jews must also own tradition. come mainly to learn; only then will it too be par Conversely, the one interpreted must be able to cum pari. recognize herself in the interpretation. This is the golden rule of interreligious hermeneutics, as has Eighth Commandment been often reiterated by the ‘apostle of interreli- Dialogue can take place only on the basis of mutual gious dialogue,’ Raimundo Panikkar. For the sake trust. Although interreligious, inter-ideological dia- of understanding, each dialogue participant will logue must occur with some kind of ‘corporate’ di-

Media Development 3/2010 15 mension, that is, the participants must be involved for example, ‘A Christian will never fully under- as members of a religious or ideological community stand Hinduism if he is not, in one way or another, – for instance, as Marxists or Taoists – it is also converted to Hinduism. Nor will a Hindu ever fully fundamentally true that it is only persons who can understand Christianity unless he, in one way or enter into dialogue. But a dialogue among persons another, becomes Christian.’ can be built only on personal trust. Hence it is wise not to tackle the most difficult Experiencing from within problems in the beginning, but rather to approach Interreligious, inter-ideological dialogue operates in first those issues most likely to provide some com- three areas: the practical, where we collaborate to mon ground, thereby establishing the basis of hu- help humanity; the depth or ‘spiritual’ dimension man trust. Then, gradually, as this personal trust where we attempt to experience the partner’s reli- deepens and expands, the more thorny matters can gion or ideology ‘from within’; the cognitive, where be undertaken. Thus, as in learning we move from we seek understanding and truth. Interreligious, in- the known to the unknown, so in dialogue we pro- ter-ideological dialogue also has three phases. In the ceed from commonly held matters--which, given first phase we unlearn misinformation about each our mutual ignorance resulting from centuries of other and begin to know each other as we truly hostility, will take us quite some time to discover are. fully--to discuss matters of disagreement. In phase two we begin to discern values in the partner’s tradition and wish to appropriate them Ninth Commandment into our own tradition. For example, in the Bud- Persons entering into interreligious, inter-ideological dhist-Christian dialogue Christians might learn a dialogue must be at least minimally self-critical of greater appreciation of the meditative tradition, both themselves and their own religious or ideologi- and Buddhists might learn a greater appreciation of cal traditions. A lack of such self-criticism implies the prophetic, social justice tradition – both values that one’s own tradition already has all the correct traditionally strongly, though not exclusively, asso- answers. Such an attitude makes dialogue not only ciated with the other’s community. If we are serious, unnecessary, but even impossible, since we enter persistent, and sensitive enough in the dialogue, we into dialogue primarily so we can learn – which ob- may at times enter into phase three. viously is impossible if our tradition has never made Here we together begin to explore new areas of a misstep, if it has all the right answers. reality, of meaning, and of truth, of which neither To be sure, in interreligious, inter-ideological dia- of us had even been aware before. We are brought logue one must stand within a religious or ideologi- face to face with this new, as-yet-unknown-to-us cal tradition with integrity and conviction, but such dimension of reality only because of questions, in- integrity and conviction must include, not exclude, sights, probings produced in the dialogue. We may a healthy self-criticism. Without it there can be no thus dare to say that patiently pursued dialogue can dialogue--and, indeed, no integrity. become an instrument of new ‘revelation,’ a further ‘un-veiling’ of reality – on which we must then act. Tenth Commandment There is something radically different about Each participant eventually must attempt to experi- phase one on the one hand and phases two and ence the partner’s religion or ideology ‘from within’; three on the other. In the latter we do not simply for a religion or ideology is not merely something of add on quantitatively another ‘truth’ or value from the head, but also of the spirit, heart, and ‘whole the partner’s tradition. Instead, as we assimilate it being,’ individual and communal. John Dunne here within our own religious self-understanding, it will speaks of ‘passing over’ into another’s religious or proportionately transform our self-understanding. ideological experience and then coming back en- Since our dialogue partner will be in a similar posi- lightened, broadened, and deepened. tion, we will then be able to witness authentically to As Raimundo Panikkar notes, ‘To know what a those elements of deep value in our own tradition religion says, we must understand what it says, but that our partner’s tradition may well be able to as- for this we must somehow believe in what it says’: similate with self-transforming profit.

16 Media Development 3/2010 All this of course will have to be done with com- plete integrity on each side, each partner remaining authentically true to the vital core of his/her own re- Tiempos para ligious tradition. However, in significant ways that vital core will be perceived and experienced differ- ently under the influence of the dialogue, but, if the recrear la dialogue is carried on with both integrity and open- ness, the result will be that, for example, the Jew will be authentically Jewish and the Christian will comunicación be authentically Christian, not despite the fact that Judaism and/or Christianity have been profoundly ‘Buddhized,’ but because of it. And the same is true profética of a Judaized and/or Christianized Buddhism. There can be no talk of a syncretism here, for Rolando Pérez syncretism means amalgamating various elements of different religions into some kind of a (con)fused Pensar la comunicación desde la construc- whole without concern for the integrity of the reli- gions involved – which is not the case with authen- ción de una cultura ecuménica encarnada tic dialogue. n en America Latina nos sigue planteando enormes desafíos éticos que continúan Note interpelando nuestras prácticas ciudadanas 1. The Second Vatican Council (also known as Vatican II), the largest council in the history of the Church, with some 3,000 de cara a construir una sociedad verdad- participants drawn from all over the world, was called by eramente justa, humana e inclusiva. Pope John XXIII to promote ‘peace and unity of all human- kind,’ and was in session from 1962-65. It opened up the l paisaje latinoamericano contemporáneo da Catholic Church to the modern world and radically changed E cuenta aún de fuertes muros que impiden con- the traditional official attitudes toward non-Catholic Chris- struir sociedades verdaderamente inclusivas. Por un tianity, non-Christian religions, and Catholics who called lado, las relaciones entre lo/as ciudadano-as y con for freedom of thought and conscience. Self-segregation, condemnation, and proselytizing gave way to constructive el liderazgo político siguen aún marcadas por la dialogue with the secular world and other denominations or desconfianza y la sospecha. Los neo-autoritarismos religions. (Note by Ingrid Shafer). políticos y fundamentalismos ideológicos enquista- dos en las esferas del poder y otros ámbitos de la Dr Leonard Swidler is Professor of Catholic Thought & In- sociedad civil siguen creando fuertes barreras para terreligious Dialogue at Temple Universty, USA. He is Co- Founder with his wife Arlene Swidler in 1964 of the Journal of construir una cultura ciudadana que ayude a san- Ecumenical Studies (and still Editor), Founder/Director of the ar las heridas producidas por la violencia, a recu- Institute for Interreligious, Intercultural Dialogue (1985),and perar nuestra memoria colectiva debilitada por las Co-Founder/Director of the Global Dialogue Institute (1995). “democra-duras” modernas, y a afirmar una ciuda- He holds degrees in History, Philosophy, and Theology from danía crítica que la espectacularización mediática Marquette University (MA), University of Wisconsin (Ph.D.) parece querer anular. and Tübingen University, Germany (STL.), was Visiting Pro- fessor at Graz (Austria), Hamburg and Tübingen (Germany), Por otro lado, las políticas estatales que afirman Nankai University (Tianjin, China), Fudan University (Shang- la desigualdad económica, social y cultural se legiti- hai), Temple University Japan (Tokyo), and University of Ma- man cada vez más acrecentando una realidad mar- laya (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). He has published more than cada por la exclusión y la discriminación. La apli- 180 articles and 60 books. cación de modelos de desarrollo sin rostro humano en muchos de nuestros países no solo resquebraja la participación de los ciudadanos y ciudadanas, sino que caricaturiza el sentido ético de la democracia. Pero, al mismo tiempo, en medio de esta tierra golpeada y convulsionada, encontramos rostros,

Media Development 3/2010 17 rastros e historias de los ciudadanos y ciudadanas protesta a favor del Estado laico se encuentran hoy que cada día protagonizan acciones de resistencia desde los movimientos feministas hasta los grupos y rituales de recuperación de la memoria colectiva. religiosos pasando por redes ciudadanas que sostie- Los medios dan cuenta también de aquellas voces nen que la laicidad es un componente fundamental de las víctimas de la violencia que reclaman por una de la democracia. Aquí el desafío se plantea en tér- auténtica política de reparaciones, las minorías reli- minos de encontrar nuevos puentes de interacción giosas que demandan verdaderos estados laicos, las entre las tradicionales reivindicaciones políticas e radios comunitarias que denuncian atropellos a la ideológicas y las demandas culturales contempo- libertad de expresión, los pueblos originarios que ráneas. Esto nos plantea otras formas contemporá- exigen respeto a sus derechos, y cas vez más voces neas de abordar las incidencias políticas, la protesta de mujeres de mujeres que cada vez más se resisten social y la construcción de las agendas públicas. a callar frente al maltrato. Hay pues muchas histo- Aquí es importante volver nuestra mirada a la rias de esperanza que los ciudadanos y ciudadanas gente, a los nuevos espacios desde los que los ciuda- de a pie construyen cada día. danos y ciudadanas abordan los problemas socia- Pero, es importante observar que en el mundo les, para plantearnos la pregunta: ¿Quienes son “los contemporáneo otros son los escenarios públicos en otros”, los interlocutores de nuestra comunicación el que las voces de los movimientos sociales transi- hoy?, ¿Desde qué fronteras y matrices culturales tan; nuevos rostros de la exclusión han emergido establece la gente de este tiempo sus prácticas ciu- desde el margen que reclaman reconocimiento, visi- dadanas?; ¿Cuáles son sus nuevos espacios de me- bilidad y solidaridad. En ese contexto, se hace nece- diación?; ¿Cuáles son sus nuevos sueños, sus nuevas sario repensar nuestros discursos, reconstruir nues- utopías, sus nuevas creencias? tras estrategias de incidencia política, y considerar los nuevos espacios de mediación cultural y política Recreando nuestras formas de visibilizar las voces para animar la protesta social. y sentires de la resistencia En ese sentido, es importante reflexionar en torno En segundo lugar, necesitamos recrear nuestras es- a algunos desafíos que el escenario contemporáneo trategias comunicacionales para visibilizar las voces nos plantea a quienes nos movemos desde fronteras de la resistencia. Es un signo de esperanza encon- alternativas, ciudadanas, ecuménicas y proféticas trarnos aún con comunidades proféticas que no han de la comunicación. dejado de indignarse frente al atropello y de levan- tar su voz cuando desde el poder se intenta negar- Repensando las alteridades las, silenciarlas y estigmatizarlas. En primer lugar, necesitamos volver a repensar el Los pueblos indígenas y originarios aun siguen valor de la alteridad y la otredad en nuestras prác- luchando por el respeto de sus derechos, las mi- ticas comunicativas en el mundo contemporáneo. norías religiosas aún reclaman un verdadero Estado Esto implica construir un discurso ético pensado no laico que reconozca la diferencia y anule los tute- sólo desde nuestros presupuestos políticos, teológi- lajes enquistados en el poder , las radios comunitar- cos o culturales tradicionalmente institucionaliza- ias aún luchan contra las fuerzas legitimadas por el dos. Hace falta recrear, repensar y afirmar nuestros Estado que intentan silenciarlas frente a cada deve- ‘discursos de resistencia’ desde la interacción con los lamiento de la verdad, los movimientos populares diversos actores de la sociedad, tomando en cuenta aun gritan por sus reivindicaciones frente a Esta- los nuevos lenguajes y relatos que la gente usa para dos que han optado por actuar bajo la lógica de la expresar y canalizar sus menadas y propuestas. criminalización de la protesta. En ese sentido, necesitamos fortalecer nuestras En muchos de nuestros países, los gobernantes capacidades políticas para aprender a transitar en –aquellos que en los grandes foros internacionales medio de las nuevas pluralidades y aprender a in- suscriben declaraciones en defensa de la democracia corporar en nuestra agenda las reivindicaciones de y los derechos humanos– despliegan una serie de es- los otros, lo cual supone desarrollar una actitud de trategias no sólo para anular la voz de los movimien- escucha y valoración respetuosa de lo diverso. tos sociales que protestan contra el atropello, sino Es interesante, por ejemplo, observar como en la también para estigmatizarlos, con la complacencia

18 Media Development 3/2010 y apoyo de muchos medios de comunicación. para generar solidaridades mas amplias, menos Este fue el caso de la protesta que las comu- coyunturales y mas sostenibles. nidades indígenas en la selva del Perú realizaron en En este sentido: junio del 2009 a raíz de la aprobación de una serie de dispositivos legales que afectaban la propiedad “No se trata de diseminar y multiplicar de sus tierras y que fueron emitidos a espaldas de el- mensajes, sino de gestar redes de articulación los, sin ningún dialogo ni consulta previa. El propio entre actores e instituciones de diferentes ám- presidente de la República respondió al clamor del bitos… Lo que ocurre en el mundo importa pueblo indígena de este modo: hasta en las más pequeña comunidad si es que sabemos hacer los puentes necesarios, “Ya está bueno de protestas… Estas personas montando una información pedagógica alta- no tienen corona, no son ciudadanos de pri- mente comunicativa y convocadora, capaz de mera clase… [Nosotros] hemos sido elegidos enlazar voluntades y experiencias de cam- no para lavarnos las manos y decir: para que bio” (Alfaro, 2004: 151). no haya ningún herido miro al otro lado y mientras nos quedamos sin gas ni petróleo. Re-pensando nuestra interacción en la esfera Eso quieren?” pública En tercer lugar, lo dicho anteriormente nos plantea Lo que en realidad las comunidades nativas de- una re-actualización de nuestra manera de entender mandan desde hace mucho tiempo es el elemental nuestras incidencias desde la comunicación alterna- derecho a ser escuchados, a tener un lugar activo y tiva en la esfera pública. En ese sentido, necesita- respetado en la mesa donde se toman aquellas deci- mos seguir construyendo un discurso público alter- siones que afectan su desarrollo. Y en esta ocasión, nativo, pero no marginal, que convoque al diálogo a juzgar por las propias palabras del presidente pe- inter-cultural, que conecte la reivindicación con ruano, la respuesta vino cargada de mucha soberbia, procesos pedagógicos ciudadanos más amplios. sostenida en un discurso agresivo, discriminador e En ese sentido, es importante tomar en cuenta intolerante. Y es que el modelo de desarrollo que que la protesta social implica no solo claridad re- sostiene el discurso oficial en muchos de nuestros specto al mensaje de la reivindicación, sino también países no entiende ni acepta la diferencia, tampo- la construcción de estrategias comunicacionales co tolera y más bien arremete contra la disidencia, que generen debate público, que construyan agenda generando brechas y acrecentando las exclusiones. pública, que convoquen y sensibilicen no solo a los Pero al mismo tiempo es importante mencionar “concientizados” sino también a los otros actores que resulta alentador encontrarnos con nuevos ali- políticos y sociales, a los sectores que muchas veces ados en las esferas del poder político y desde los miran desde lejos el clamor de los marginados. medios de comunicación que están dispuestos a En esta misma línea, esta estrategia requiere acompañar y respaldar las causas de los excluidos. crear puentes y relaciones con los líderes de opinión Columnistas de los diarios, conductores de los pro- que intervienen/actúan desde medios que legitiman gramas políticos y corresponsales de las cadenas pe- la agenda pública. Esto significa, en muchos casos, riodísticas que antes estigmatizaban al movimiento repensar nuestras estrategias de relación, construir social han contribuido a legitimar emblemáticas nuevos códigos de comunicación así como nuevas campañas de incidencia en estos años. maneras de leer la realidad, nuevas formas de inte- En este contexto, nuestras estrategias requieren ractuar con todos los actores políticos y sociales. previamente de una rigurosa re-actualización de Precisamente, nuestros esfuerzos por visibilizar nuestras miradas del escenario y de los nuevos ac- las voces de los sectores tradicionalmente excluidos tores políticos y mediáticos, a fin de que los rostros pueden contribuir a la construcción de una esfera y relatos contemporáneos de la resistencia ciudada- pública plural que devele todas las desigualdades, na sean realmente visibilizados, las demandas de los que ayude a develar no solo nuestras demandas, excluidos sean incorporados en las agendas públi- sino también los otros conflictos que nos atraviesan cas, sus historias sean narradas pedagógicamente, como sociedad (Fraser, 1977).

Media Development 3/2010 19 Esto implica, por un lado, reconocer los espacios teresante ver como en un país en el que hay tan- y agendas públicas construidos por los otros sectores tos muros que impiden la interacción ecuménica, que luchan por obtener poder real y simbólico en la católicos y protestantes se reunían para cantar, orar sociedad. Por otro lado, también implica ayudar a y compartir sus sueños y frustraciones. las organizaciones sociales, incluyendo las propias Pero, paradójicamente, cuando recobraban la lib- iglesias o comunidades de fe, a democratizar sus ertad e intentaban incorporarse a las comunidades propios espacios de diálogo, a valorar no sólo el cristianas a las que antes pertenecían, se encontra- consenso, sino también el disenso, y a conectar las ban con iglesias emocionalmente frías, si espacios reivindicaciones propias y particulares con las de- donde compartir sus historias, con marcados rasgos mandas políticas más amplias que otros sectores de de individualismo y con un púlpito desencarnado la sociedad plantean. de la realidad. Además, como bien señala Dennis Smith, esta En ese sentido, las comunidades de fe tienen un estrategia nos exige plantearnos otras formas de gran desafío, en tanto que pueden ayudar a crear abordar lo político. Sin meternos a proselitismos y espacios de encuentro, desde una espiritualidad sectarismos, debemos rescatar la belleza, la digni- conectada con la ética ciudadana. Esto implica ani- dad y el coraje de los excluidos, otorgándoles nue- mar una cultura de la espiritualidad que recupere el vos espacios donde puedan compartir sus historias sentido del encuentro, del aprendizaje en el camino y estremecernos con la fuerza de su humanidad para que –como en aquel liberador encuentro entre (Smith, 1998). Jesús y sus discípulos en Emaus– nos reconozcamos al partir juntos el pan. Construyendo comunidades de confianza Con ocasión de la presentación del libro en hom- En cuarto lugar, en un contexto caracterizado por enaje a la obra del padre Gustavo Gutiérrez, Luis la emergencia de sociedades fragmentadas, frágiles Jaime Cisneros, un reconocido intelectual peruano, y con visibles signos de incomunicación se hace sostuvo que la época actual invita a los cristianos a necesario volver a recrear nuevos sentidos de perte- recuperar el sentido liberador de la espiritualidad. nencia a comunidades en donde la gente se sienta Cisneros sostuvo que debemos evitar aferrarnos a afirmada, reconocida y valorada. una fe accidental y transitoria, y planteó la necesi- En ese sentido, debemos trabajar desde aquellas dad de vivir una espiritualidad que recupere la di- comunidades ya constituidas, como la familia, las mensión terapéutica de la fe, es decir aquella que iglesias, el barrio, la escuela, a fin de recuperar las hace que una comunidad transforme la amistad en afectividades personales, cultivar los lazos de soli- un acto liberador, que hace que la vida sea libre, daridad, hacer del encuentro una experiencia tera- bella y llena de esperanza. péutica. Solo así construiremos redes de solidaridad Esta manera de concebir la espiritualidad está que poco a poco construyan comunidades nuevas conectada con la construcción de prácticas ciudada- que sean capaces de convertir los relatos colectivos nas que interpelen y convoquen a los movimientos y personales cotidianos en semillas de una nueva sociales, comunidades de fe y colectivos culturales cultura democrática que sostenga y le de sostenibili- a insertar sus discursos y prácticas sociales toman- dad a los cambios estructurales. do en cuenta no solo la necesidad de cambiar las En otras palabras, de lo que se trata es de con- estructuras políticas de opresión, sino también las struir, para decirlo en términos de Habermas, una mentalidades muchas veces legitiman ciertas practi- comunidad de comunicación, donde todas las per- cas culturas de opresión en la vida cotidiana. sonas sean interlocutores activos en la acción comu- En ese sentido, el referente comunitario se con- nicativa (Haberlas, 1989). stituye en un factor fundamental en nuestras ru- Estuve recordando mi experiencia junto a los tas de liberación. En palabras del padre Gustavo agentes pastorales que en la época de la violencia Gutiérrez, “sólo en comunidad podemos escuchar, política en mi país acompañaron a los injustamente acoger y anunciar… el llamado a superar todo lo encarcelados. Muchos de los inocentes que fueron que rompa la comunión fraterna (opresión, injusti- apresados, acusados por terrorismo, fundaban en cia, marginación, discriminación, etc.)” (Gutiérrez, la prisión verdaderas comunidades de fe. Era in- 2004: 198).

20 Media Development 3/2010 Los comunicadores que apostamos por el cam- Las Casas, Lima. bio social desde el caminar de los marginados y ex- Habermas, Jürgen (1989). “The structural transformation of cluidos de la sociedad, tenemos el enorme desafío the sphere public”, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. de contribuir al fortalecimiento de espacios de me- Prado, Consuelo y Pedro Hughes (Coord.) (2008). “Libertad y diación, a la construcción de caminos que permitan Esperanza. A Gustavo Gutiérrez en sus 80 años”. Centro de que nuestras organizaciones, iglesias y redes ciuda- Estudios y Publicaciones – Instituto Bartolomé de Las Casas, danas aprendan a encontrarse con otros en medio Lima. de las cruzadas de liberación, a luchar no sólo por Sierra, Luis Ignacio. (1988) “Hacer teología de la Comunicación desde América Latina”. Revista Signo y Pensamiento No. 32. sus propias reivindicaciones sino también por la de Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia. los otros, y a disfrutar de la solidaridad ecuménica. Smith, Dennis (1998). “Del edén perdido al Edir Macedo: Una Quisiera terminar con un hermoso verso escrito crítica de la religión electrónica”. [en línea]. Biblioteca vir- por el Obispo metodista Federico Pagura, en el que tual de JM Communications.. Direccion URL: http://www. invita a las iglesias a ser comunidades verdadera- jmcommunications.com/spanish/eden(rev200206).html mente terapéuticas, ecuménicas y proféticas: Rolando Pérez. Peruano. Ex vicepresidente de la WACC- América Latina, profesor de la Pontificia Universidad Católica Hoy se confunden los siglos del Perú, columnista de la Agencia Latinoamericana y Caribeña en un encuentro frontal de Comunicación (ALC), coordinador del programa de Comu- siglos que mueren de viejos nicación y Incidencia política de la oficina internacional de la y uno que empieza a rodar Asociación Paz y Esperanza. del pasado sopla un viento que es destructivo y letal, pero también los clamores por más justicia y por paz

¡Vamos a andar, vamos a andar hijas con hijos del cielo busquemos la paz!

Las iglesias son sepulcros si no proclaman la verdad, si no cierran las heridas y si no enseñan a andar. las iglesias son paganas si no denuncian el mal del “imperio” y del tugurio, que destruyen por igual. n

Referencias Alfaro, Rosa María. (2006). “Otra brújula: Innovaciones en Comunicación y Desarrollo”. Calandria, Lima. Candau, Vera María. (2004) “Formación en/para una ciuda- danía intercultural: Aportes desde América Latina. NO- VAMERICA, PUCP, Rio-Brasil. Cortina, Adela. (1997). “Ciudadanos del mundo. Hacia una teoría de la ciudadanía”. Alianza editorial. Madrid. Fraser, Nancy (1977). Iustitia interrupta. Reflexiones críticas desde la posición postsocialista”. Siglo del Hombre Editores, Buenos Aires. Gutiérrez, Gustavo. (2004). “Beber en su propio pozo: En el itinerario espiritual de un pueblo”. Instituto Bartolomé de

Media Development 3/2010 21 ménico y liberador. En su caminar percibimos he- gemonismos, imposiciones, prejuicios que en más Comunicar de una ocasión revelaron un rostro desfigurado del Dios de justicia y liberación. Estas iniciativas de comunicación fueron protagonizadas por las elites para la jerárquicas cuyo objetivo fue mantener el control y la autoridad. Cuando hablamos de comunicación con es- construcción píritu ecuménico lo hacemos en la tensión entre lo hegemónico y lo popular. El ecumenismo planteado desde las jerarquías en ocasiones es poco comu- de una “otra” nicativo, traza lineamientos que no siempre están basados en las realidades de las feligresías, sus sa- beres, cosmovisiones, sus formas de espiritualidad, oikoumene sus experiencias de lo sagrado, y en la equidad de género. Violeta Rocha Hoy se habla del invierno ecuménico, y mucho de esto encuentra fundamentos en una comuni- Comunicar es un acto básico en la cación verticalista entre las iglesias, las denomina- tradición cristiana. La comunicación es un ciones y sus jerarquías que obstaculiza el diálogo liberador. Sin embargo hay otro ecumenismo, a vec- elemento imprescindible en el desarrollo es ignorado e incluso estigmatizado. El ecumenismo de la fe y de las comunidades de creyentes. de base es más comunicativo al ser más dialógico, La propia Escritura, en la mayoría de los ofreciendo más espacio y oportunidad a la partici- casos, es un ejemplo del deseo del pueblo pación popular. de Dios de comunicar sus experiencias, de Los procesos de comunicación ecuménica que compartir los testimonios que le alimentan, tienen lugar en las bases de algunas iglesias, pueden sus aprendizajes, luchas, sospechas, esper- tomarse como modelos antagónicos al modelo de comunicación oficial. Se trata de rescatar y recu- anzas. perar las experiencias de reflexión y acción comu- n la tradición judía como en la tradición cris- nitaria, así como la forma de relacionarse con lo Etiana, la comunicación ha mostrado un anhelo sagrado, convirtiéndolas en sujeto de información. por extender las obras de Dios a toda la humanidad, Allí se busca compartir la empatía, es decir la par- llevar las buenas noticias de su amor y su justicia al ticipación afectiva y emotiva de un sujeto en la re- resto del mundo. Por tanto, el espíritu ecuménico alidad ajena, que constituye uno de los factores más acompaña al pueblo de Dios en sus empeños comu- destacados en la comunicación devolviendo el papel nicativos desde sus orígenes. protagónico a las personas. En el largo andar de las relaciones ecuménicas Esta manera de comunicar crea nexos, concien- en América Latina hemos aprendido que no puede cia, estimula la socialización, recrea, educa y mo- haber ecumenismo sin comunicación, pero tampoco tiva transformaciones más concretas. En ciertos puede haber comunicación sin espíritu ecuménico, casos, se expresa como una comunicación contesta- es decir, sin la sensibilidad adecuada con la realidad taria ante el predominio de los espacios y medios de las y los otros, sin el compromiso con la trans- de comunicación oficiales, donde la ideología dom- formación del mundo pensando, compartiendo, inante aplasta las expectativas y el criterio de las aprendiendo, desaprendiendo, celebrando con ellas mayorías. Destacan en estas mayorías las relaciones y ellos. asimétricas entre hombres y mujeres. La ideología Hay que reconocer que pese a que la comuni- patriarcal todavía es una característica que empo- cación estuvo presente en el andar del pueblo de brece la comunicación y la sitúa muchas veces fuera Dios, este no siempre experimentó el espíritu ecu- de la realidad.

22 Media Development 3/2010 La comunicación ecuménica popular tiene por Desde esta perspectiva, ciertos relatos de la Biblia protagonista al pueblo de fe en su amplísima di- nos permiten descubrir que una de las funciones de versidad. La realidad de la diversidad se hace más la comunicación es colaborar en la transformación- visible en América Latina, una diversidad no sólo humanización del mundo, de la sociedad y de nues- cultural sino social y política. Las mayorías ya no tras comunidades de fe; quizás su función funda- son receptoras pasivas de las directrices de las jerar- mental. Al comunicar ecuménicamente se pretende quías eclesiales, sino artífices de nuevas relaciones, colocar una esperanza de vida allí donde el mundo, proyectos, experiencias ecuménicas diversas y en- la sociedad y nuestras comunidades pierden sentido riquecedoras. frente a las víctimas de la incomunicación, la comu- Basados en los planteamientos de la educación nicación controlada, así como el silenciamiento, la popular y las múltiples experiencias de trabajo co- invisibilización, la injusticia. munitario, se desarrollan técnicas, instrumentos, Anunciar la esperanza se transforma, entonces, metodologías que incluyen el diagnóstico de la re- en un acto de comunicación popular con el que se alidad, la planificación y la evaluación participa- busca iluminar los caminos que conducen a una tiva. Desde esta perspectiva la participación de las “otra” realidad posible. Es aquí donde algunos re- y los protagonistas populares es considerada como latos bíblicos en un proceso de relectura nos ani- un elemento central del proceso de comunicación man a esclarecer el andar, abren nuevas alternativas ecuménica, en una búsqueda de la horizontalidad y hacen brotar otros significados para la transfor- y la plena participación no solamente eclesial sino mación del mundo. ciudadana. Uno de esos relatos iluminadores se encuentre Es cierto que siempre surgen líderes ecuménicos en el libro de Génesis 18,16-33, casi olvidado en a quienes la mayoría escucha y toma como refer- la predicación y desfigurado por interpretaciones ente. Pero en el proceso de comunicación popular opresoras y hegemónicas. el liderazgo asume que el protagonista es el pueblo Sin duda, Gn 18,16-33 es fruto de la reflexión de fe. El liderazgo no es el emisor de la oikoumene, popular del pueblo bíblico en pos de la transfor- ni de los medios para perfeccionarla. Como explica mación liberadora del mundo. Nos introduce en el Mario Kaplún: “Nosotros no tenemos que ser los proceso de comunicación que acontece entre Yahvé emisores. El emisor es la comunidad… Es la comu- y su pueblo. Aquí el comunicador no es solo Yahvé; nidad la que tiene que comunicar a través nuestro. comparte dicho rol con Abraham hasta el punto de Nosotros somos los facilitadores, los organizadores, aprender misericordia como lógica de la auténtica los animadores de esa comunicación.”1 justicia liberadora. Sin duda, la comunicación, desde esta perspec- ¿Qué imagen de Dios nos ofrece el texto? Yahvé tiva, es un proceso complejo y conflictivo. Se en- es Dios comunicativo. No transmite unidirecciona- frenta a los hegemonismos, propone nuevos der- lmente su criterio de justicia sino que comparte en roteros para el diálogo entre las confesiones y con libertad con su pueblo para construir juntos la obra la sociedad misma, habla desde la experiencia de de justicia (v. 17). Dios aprende a recorrer los sen- vida, retando a los/as teólogos/as, en las academias deros de la participación solidaria y la cooperación mismas a participar a un proceso de apertura, para mutua (v. 19). Reconoce la necesidad del diálogo en dejar de ser herméticas y asfixiantes. la construcción de una nueva sociedad y no mini- miza el juicio humano, la palabra humana. El Dios Un nuevo modelo en Génesis comunicativo hace diagnóstico de la realidad en “Pronunciar el mundo es transformarlo; transfor- contacto directo con sus actores (v. 21). marlo para humanizarlo”, expresó el pedagogo En el texto, Yahvé no es el poseedor de toda la brasileño Paulo Freire. Pero resulta imposible verdad, una verdad absoluta lista para ser acogida, pronunciar-comunicar el mundo sin emprender un sin la más mínima posibilidad de ser enriquecida y proceso de diálogo, reconocimiento, humildad para transformada por la participación humana. El texto nutrirnos del aprendizaje colectivo. En este sentido, nos muestra un proceso de negociación que se da algunos textos bíblicos brindan luz acompañándo- a través del dialogo franco. Por un lado Abraham nos en el camino de la comunicación ecuménica. como interlocutor manifiesta su duda en relación a

Media Development 3/2010 23 la cantidad de personas justas que puede encontrar, proceso de diálogo popular? ¿Cómo introducir este con el propósito de salvar la ciudad. Una actitud paradigma en medio de las actuales coyunturas de muy humana, tener conciencia de la realidad en la injusticia en que nos vemos envueltas/os? ¿En qué cual se vive, y correr el riesgo de negociar con el medida somos como Abraham y Yahvé en nues- Juez de la ciudad, Yahvé. tras luchas por la justicia en la sociedad y en las Yahvé reconoce, en un auténtico proceso de iglesias? ¿Cuál es nuestra visión de sociedad? ¿Qué comunicación libre, que la verdad y la justicia se juicios éticos hacemos para separar a los buenos de construyen en el debate popular, que al descubrir los malos? ¿Qué experiencias de negociación hemos los matices de la realidad introduce el sentido de la aprendido comunitariamente? misericordia, sensibiliza la justicia con la situación de los habitantes de la ciudad. El desafío en nuestro contexto Abraham representa a la sección del pueblo que En América Latina necesitamos construir una “otra” emerge del anonimato, y que se convierte en suje- oikoumene donde “Cada miembro se siente tratado to a través de los encuentros con Yahvé. Abraham como individuo y se siente estimulado para ofrecer protesta contra la insolidaridad y el verticalismo en ideas nuevas, aunque aun las tenga en un estado de la toma de decisiones. Enseña a Dios desde su ex- confusión y vaguedad. Cada miembro busca el bien periencia en legítima celebración de la vida (v 25). del grupo a través de la máxima utilización de las En su clamor descubrimos el clamor de todas/os los capacidades individuales”,2 esto es proclamado por marginados, así como las voces de mujeres y hom- muchas experiencias de base que ensayan nuevos bres que asumen su tarea de defensores de la vida. procesos de comunicación desde sus propias viven- Ahora bien el texto no hace eco de un pacifismo cias y posibilidades. evasivo como pudiera pensarse. Abraham no pide Hay que tener en cuenta que nuestro contexto a Yahvé dejar impune los delitos de quienes piso- experimenta la tensión entre lo hegemónico y lo tean la vida y la esperanza. Interpela a Dios para popular de forma muy dramática. Las y los latino- que se haga justicia y comunique misericordia, no americanos seguimos siendo tomados por recep- sin antes reflexionar comunitariamente sobre sus tores pasivos de los enfoques, criterios y modelos consecuencias. Si bien el texto al igual que mu- importados de los países Norte industrializados, chos otros, no tiene un final feliz, pues la ciudad es el consumismo, las ideas equivocadas sobre lo qué destruida incluyendo la vegetación, el dialogo de- significa calidad de vida en detrimento de unos con scrito en Gen.18, 16-33 es muy desafiante para el respecto a otros. En este sentido urge redescubrir y trabajo bíblico y la reflexión teológica y pastoral replantear los principios de la comunicación par- para nuestras comunidades. ticipativa antihegemónica presentes en las raíces de Desde el punto de vista teológico, el texto rep- nuestros pueblos y en sus procesos de liberación. resenta una herramienta para la crítica frente a la El relato de Gn 18,16-33 aporta para la con- comunicación verticalista que hace de las mujeres y strucción de esa “otra” oikoumene en la apuesta los hombres receptores pasivos de la “voluntad de por el diálogo e intercambio de saberes bajo el cri- Dios”, tantas veces manipulada desde el poder para terio de que no existe un emisor apoderado de toda silenciar y dominar a las mayorías. Desde el pun- la información y el conocimiento y receptores pa- to de vista de la comunicación popular, el texto se sivos, totalmente ignorantes y desinformados. La vuelve un paradigma en medio de los esfuerzos por experiencia ecuménica de las bases nos aclara que devolverle al pueblo el protagonismo y la palabra, solo construimos esa oikoumene en diálogo partici- tanto en la sociedad como en las iglesias. Estimula pativo, en procesos de comunicación popular que la crítica humanizadora y la reflexión para hacer de apuntan hacia otras salidas posibles. cada ser humano un agente de la transformación En consecuencia crece la nueva “casa habitada” social y eclesial. ante el modelo hegemónico que intenta subordinar Este relato coloca varios desafíos a la hora de al resto de las propuestas, empobrecerlas y sofocar- llevar adelante nuestras prácticas de comunicación las. La asfixia comunicacional que provoca el mod- ecuménica. ¿Qué retos presenta la imagen de un Dios elo autoritario se hace evidente al quebrar el diálo- que aprende a comunicarse con el ser humano en un go e intercambio de saberes y experiencias bajo el

24 Media Development 3/2010 criterio de unidireccionalidad. ecuménico/a a nadie, sino que nos “ecumenizamos” En este sentido, la comunicación popular plantea en la relación participativa, el diálogo, la reflexión que es imposible promover el ecumenismo trans- y la celebración conjunta. mitiendo ideas y conceptos en una sola dirección Otro elemento a tener en cuenta es que lo ecu- sin posibilidad de intercambio, retroalimentación, ménico pierde sentido si no atendemos al contexto transformación. No se “crean” iglesias o institu- histórico. Un análisis detallado de las coyunturas ciones ecuménicas transfiriendo lineamientos sin en las que nos movilizamos nos reubica en el tema abrir el debate sobre su eficacia y pertinencia, sin del poder. El análisis de las relaciones de poder en permitir que las/os “receptores” puedan expresarse, nuestro contexto eclesial dejará ver múltiples opre- deconstruir significados, criticarlos, reformularlos, siones, silenciamientos, exclusiones; del mismo enriquecerlos. modo, insubordinaciones y resistencias. El propio concepto de transmisión debe ser su- Estos son elementos presentes en todo proceso perado por el de compartir el saber, la información; ecuménico. Detectarlos nos hace conscientes de como plantea José Ramón Vidal: “Transmitir y los conflictos que tienen lugar en nuestro medio y compartir se sitúan en polos opuestos en una po- abre la posibilidad para repensar los objetivos de sible acción de comunicar. Transmitir significa la nuestros empeños comunicativos. Nuestros esfuer- admisión de que algún conocimiento que poseo y zos por construir esa “otra” oikoumene no se ab- puedo pasarlo a otro, mientras que compartir sig- straen de la indignación ética ante las víctimas de nifica comunión, encuentro, participación, elabo- un sistema injusto, así como de las luchas por la ración con otro del conocimiento.”3 No es posible justicia social. el ecumenismo sin permitirle a las/os llamados “re- Por último, sin identidad no puede haber ecu- ceptores” actuar como “emisores”. No hay “otra” menismo. Yahvé y Abraham no son iguales, ni se oikoumene sin solidaridad, ni solidaridad sin en- hacen iguales en el diálogo. Parten de sus diferencias cuentro, reciprocidad, diálogo, simbiosis y respeto. y logran consenso, lo que no quiere decir uniformi- No existen recetas cerradas para la comunicación dad. La comunicación ecuménica antihegemónica ecuménica antihegemónica ni hay formulas mágicas no supone hacerse como las/os otros sino inter- para fomentar el ecumenismo. Gn 18,16-33 revela cambiar, negociar, pactar, convenir, concertar. En lo complejo del diálogo participativo y los resulta- esa “otra” oikoumene ha de existir respeto por las dos al final del mismo. Como indica Raúl Fornet- diferencias y claridad sobre lo que una/o es y desea. Betancourt: “El dialogo es problemático porque Luego se emprende el diálogo, el descubrimiento de supone en parte el desmontaje teórico de nuestras lo que son y anhelan las/os otros, el consenso, la unilateralidades, pero él es al mismo tiempo el me- transformación. jor camino para realizar ese presupuesto.”4 Profundizar en las raíces de nuestra identidad La comunicación ecuménica antihegemónica eclesial y social resulta un ejercicio primordial si as- supone también un proceso pedagógico de diálogo piramos a esa “otra” oikoumene. En este sentido entre saberes. En el proceso pueden vivirse situa- la comunicación es un reto y nada debe ser impro- ciones de subordinación si se restringe el debate visado. n participativo y se limita el intercambio de experi- encias, por ello el proceso supone aprendizajes y Notas desaprendizajes. Se debe hablar y escuchar, dejarse 1. Mario Kaplún. El comunicador popular. Buenos Aires. Hu- interpelar y desafiar por las/os otros, sus conceptos, manitas. 1987 (p. 75). 2. José Cruz. Hacia el desarrollo de la personalidad. Santo Do- críticas, prácticas. Ellas/os también son emisores de mingo. Ed. De La Salle. 1983. (p. 261). propuestas ecuménicas y nadie posee la última pa- 3. José Ramón Vidal. Medios-Públicos. Un laberinto de rela- labra. Esa “otra” oikoumene emerge del encuentro ciones y mediaciones. Ed. Pablo, La Habana, 2002 (p. 12). y complementariedad, pues ninguna confesión o in- 4. Raul Fornet-Betancurt. Hacia una filosofía intercultural lati- stitución es completa en sí misma. Si no se acepta noamericana. DEI. San José, 1994. (p. 20). este presupuesto es imposible que exista un proceso Violeta Rocha Areas, nicaraguense, biblista y teóloga femini- de comunicación ecuménica participativa. sta, rectora de la Universidad Bíblica Latinoamericana. Todo el mundo aporta a la oikoumene, nadie hace

Media Development 3/2010 25 Herausforderungen kommen, gilt es dieses kritische Wort zu hören. Chancen Gewiss: Seit 1984 hat sich zwischen den evangelischen und der römisch-katholischen Kirche einiges geändert. Die Lehrverurteilungen und Heraus- wurden zum großen Teil zurückgenommen, die Verdammungsurteile aufgehoben, die gemeinsame Erklärung zur Rechtfertigungslehre ist erschienen, forderungen der auch die Methodisten zugestimmt haben. 2007 kam es zur wechselseitigen Anerkennung des Taufverständnisses von elf Kirchen. Es gibt der Ökumene u.a. Regelungen für ökumenische Gottesdienste am Sonntagvormittag, für gemischtkonfessionelle Friedrich Weber Eheschließungen und die gemeinsame Nutzung kirchlicher Gebäude. Auf der Basis der Leitlinien Für die Glieder der Arbeitsgemeinschaft und Verpflichtungen der Charta Oecumenica hat die Christlicher Kirchen (ACK), die die Platt- ACK Deutschland im März 2006 bereits konkrete form der Ökumene in Deutschland Handlungsempfehlungen für den Kontext der Arbeit darstellt, gilt, daß sie den einen christlichen ihrer Mitgliedskirchen in Deutschland. Durch die Empfehlungen der 3. Europäischen Ökumenischen Glauben in getrennten, aber einander öku- Versammlung in Sibiu 2007 werden diese Ansätze menisch sich verbundenen Kirchen leben. weitergeführt. Nur dies läßt die bohrende Frage nicht Daraus leitete die Mitgliederversammlung der vergessen, warum es denn noch getrennte ACK für die Arbeit in den nächsten Jahren folgende Organisation geben muss? Schwerpunkte ab: • Gottesfrage in der säkularen Gesellschaft dmund Schlink hat 1984 in seiner Ökumenis- und Missionarische Ökumene; Echen Dogmatik geschrieben: • Fortsetzung des Gespräches über zentrale theologische Themen, z.B. über die „Nichts stellt die Glaubwürdigkeit der Chris- wechselseitige Anerkennung der Taufe und tusbotschaft so in Frage, wie die Uneinigkeit den Umgang der Kirchen mit Tradition; der Christenheit. Wie kann die Botschaft von • Vertiefung und öffentlicher Ausdruck einer der Liebe Gottes zur Welt wahr sein, wenn multilateralen ökumenischen Spiritualität die Christen nicht einmal einander lieben? • Ökumenisches Lernen; Wie kann die Botschaft von der Versöhnung- • Förderung der jungen Ökumene; stat Gottes in Christus wahr sein, wenn sie • interreligiöses Lernen; von solchen verkündigt wird, die unversöhnt • Versöhnungs- und Schöpfungsethik / Tag nebeneinander herleben oder sich sogar der Schöpfung; öffentlich bekämpfen? Daß die Christenheit • Integration und Begleitung von mit ihren Trennungen und Gegensätzen der Migrationskirchen; Welt dasselbe Schauspiel biete, wie diese im • Erschließung von Kontakten und Dialogen Neben- und Widereinander der Völker und zu Pfingstkirchen und der charismatischen Staaten, ist ein Skandal. Durch den zerspal- Bewegung. tenen Zustand der Christenheit wird Jesu Ja, es hat sich viel verändert und bewegt und doch, Sieg über die Welt verleugnet und wird die manche Gräben zwischen den Konfessionsfamilien Welt in ihren Spaltungen und Feindschaften sind noch tief. Darum die Frage: Was verbindet uns? gerechtfertigt.“ 1 1. Die gemeinsame Taufe. Am Anfang unseres Lebens oder unseres Christseins steht das große Ich glaube, ehe wir zu den Chancen und Zeichen für die Auferstehung aus dem Tod. Mit

26 Media Development 3/2010 ihr werden wir in die Kirche aufgenommen. „Das und der deutschen Katholischen Bischofskonferenz große Zeichen des Lebens, die Taufe, und das große zur Vorbereitung des Konsultationsprozesses zur Zeichen einer unsichtbaren Gemeinschaft, die wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Lage in Deutschland Kirche, sind uns gemeinsam.“ (Zink) heißt es: Gerade die Wirtschafts- und Strukturkrise 2. Die gemeinsame Quelle: die heilige Schrift hat gezeigt, „in welchem Ausmaß der Sinn für das 3. Das gemeinsame Bild von Gott, wie es durch Wohl aller Menschen verlorengegangen ist und die Gestalt und das Wort Jesu bestimmt ist. daß versäumt wurde, diesen Sinn wachzuhalten, 4. Das gemeinsame Bild vom Volk Gottes, beziehungsweise zu wecken (...). Wenn sich die vom wandernden Volk Gottes, das grundsätzlich Kirchen zu der wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Lage in Bewegung ist, ohne sich fest anzusiedeln. Wir in Deutschland äußern, tun sie dies aufgrund ihres haben auch die Verholzungen und Verfestigungen christlichen Auftrages und ihrer Verantwortung. gemeinsam und wir brauchen die „reformatio“. Sie sind dabei von drei Optionen geleitet, der 5. Der Glaube an den einen Geist Gottes, der Option für die Schwachen, der Option für eine sein Volk auf dem Weg begleitet. soziale Friedensordnung und der Option für eine 6. Gemeinsam ist uns der Gottesdienst, die Feier soziale Gestaltung der Zukunft der einen Welt.“2 Gottes, die Frage nach dem, was er von uns erwartet Die Optionen sind orientiert an dem Gebot der (Anspruch) und die Bereitschaft, seinen Zuspruch Gerechtigkeit. für uns zu hören. Folgende Herausforderungen werden in dem 7. Daraus folgt, daß uns auch gemeinsam ist, was gemeinsamen Wort für die kommenden Jahre wir für diese Erde und für unser Land tun können: genannt: Wir wenden uns gemeinsam gegen den Geist dieser • Verantwortung für die Eine Welt Zeit, den Geist des Machens und Verbrauchens, der • Wege aus der Arbeitslosigkeit suchen Selbstdurchsetzung und Rücksichtslosigkeit, den • Stärkung der Familien Geist der Phrasen und Ausreden. • Reform und Konsolidierung des Sozialstaates „Wir lehnen es ab, daß man das Ich des • Bekämpfung der Armut anspruchsvollen Menschen für das Wichtig- • Bewahrung der Schöpfung ste auf dieser Erde hält. Wenn es in dieser Diese Herausforderungen stellen auch im Jahre Welt noch Liebe für die Behinderten gibt, 2010 noch konkrete Aufgaben dar, die die Kirchen Hingabe für die Leidenden, Begleitung und allerdings nur in ökumenischer Gemeinschaft Tröstung der Sterbenden, Mitdenken für die, angehen können. die am Rand stehen, Hilfe für die Hilflosen, dann auch deshalb, weil es noch Christen Wir können voneinander lernen gibt. Weil es noch Menschen gibt, die bereit Wir erleben den einen Glauben in unterschiedlichen sind, auch einmal auf ein Recht zu verzich- Formen, in historisch gewordenen Traditionen. ten, auf eine Freiheit, auf einen Erfolg. Wenn Diese müssen nicht als Gegensätze wahrgenommen also die Welt der Menschen eine Welt ist, werden, sondern können als spezifische Konkretion in der man leben kann, dann auch deshalb, der einen Wahrheit verstanden werden. Die weil es Christen gibt. Und in dieser Aufgabe Denkfigur der Komplementarität ist hier hilfreich. brauchen wir nicht mehr zusammenwachsen, da sind wir längst beieinander und tun un- „Wir haben die anderen christlichen Gemein- sere gemeinsame Arbeit für die, die zu leiden schaften nicht mehr so anzusehen, als ob sie haben unter dem Geist unserer Zeit oder sich um unsere Kirche als Mitte bewegen...., unter ihrem Schicksal oder unter den Folgen sondern wir müssen erkennen, daß wir mit ihres Tuns.“ (Zink) den anderen Gemeinschaften zusammen gleichsam wie Planeten um Christus als die Die gemeinsame Herausforderung Sonne kreisen und von ihm das Licht emp- In dem 1994 erschienenen gemeinsamen Text des fangen. Diese Wende im ekklesiologischen Rates der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland Denken ist unerlässlich, wenn wir in der

Media Development 3/2010 27 ökumenischen Frage weiterkommen sol- 2. Dem ÖRK müsste eine präzise Rolle len. Wir haben die anderen nicht mit uns zu im Miteinander weltweiter ökumenischer vergleichen, sondern wir haben uns mit ihnen Organisationen zugewiesen werden, bzw. es zusammen mit dem apostolischen Chris- müssten ihm Aufgaben übertragen werden, die tuszeugnis zu vergleichen und werden nur so, dann in seiner ureigensten Kompetenz liegen. Auf von Christus her, die eigene und die fremde der Vollversammlung in Porto Alegre 2006 wurde Wirklichkeit erkennen. Wir müssen lernen, dazu Folgendes verabredet: uns gewissermaßen von außen zu sehen. „Der Ausschuss ruft den ÖRK überdies dringend Dabei kann es geschehen, daß wir innerhalb auf, den Mitgliedskirchen Gehör zu schenken und unserer Gemeinschaft größere Gegensätze sich um größere Kohärenz in den verschiedenen erkennen als zwischen ihr und manchen von Beziehungen mit den Mitgliedskirchen zu uns Getrennten.“3 bemühen, um so verstärkte Zusammenarbeit, verbesserten Austausch von Informationen und Als Ergebnis bleibt die Einsicht, daß die mehr gegenseitige Konsultation zwischen allen Erfahrungen der anderen lebensnotwendig für die Beteiligten (einschließlich des ÖRK-Stabes) und den eigene Glaubenspraxis sind. ökumenischen Partnern herbeizuführen.“5 Ich nenne einige Beispiele aus evangelischer Der Pflicht zur Aufgabenkritik ist die ACK Sicht: Deutschland nachgekommen. Die sich hier • Für evangelische Christen beispielsweise ist ergebende Frage an die ACK könnte lauten: Wo das ganze Feld der mystischen Überlieferung können wir stärker kooperieren, wie können wir fremd unsere Ressourcen besser gemeinsam nutzen, bis • Wir haben die Schrift von jeher in Gegensatz hin zu kirchlichen Immobilien? Wo finden wir zur Tradition der Kirche gestellt, dabei aber uns zu gemeinsamer theologischer Arbeit vor Ort übersehen, daß über die Schrift in allen zusammen? Jahrhunderten nachgedacht worden ist und 3. Es ist nötig, den ÖRK stärker als bisher als ein daß die Tradition aus Gedanken über die Gremium zu verstehen, in dem theologisch gearbeitet Heilige Schrift besteht wird. In ihm ist ein großes Potenzial aufgrund der • Wir suchen nach Formen des kommunitären Mitgliedskirchen vorhanden. Im ÖRK sind bis auf Lebens. die römisch-katholische Kirche fast alle Traditionen vertreten, und die römisch-katholische Kirche Ökumene müde und hellwach arbeitet seit Jahrzehnten beinahe wie ein Mitglied Unter diesem Titel habe ich am 1.3.2008 in des ÖRK mit. Zwar ist die Ausstrahlung des ÖRK Magdeburg bei der ACK Sachsen-Anhalt einen gegenwärtig ziemlich eingeschränkt. Aber durch Vortrag zum 60-jährigen Jubiläum der ACK die Gemeinschaft von fast 350 Kirchen besitzt er gehalten. Mir ist in diesem Zusammenhang deutlich Möglichkeiten, an ökumenisch relevanten Themen geworden, dass an die Arbeit der ACK ähnliche zu arbeiten, wie sie breiter nicht sein könnten. Dies Anfragen gerichtet werden wie an den ÖRK, der könnte auf die Arbeit der ACK befruchtend wirken. in diesen Tagen ebenfalls 60 Jahre alt wurde. Ich Gegenwärtig gibt es intensive Bemühungen, nach verbinde beides und versuche einen positiven Ertrag der Möglichkeit einer gemeinsamen Anerkennung daraus zu ziehen. der Taufe zu suchen, wie sie für Deutschland im 1. Der Ökumenische Rat der Kirchen in Genf ist Rahmen der ACK in Magdeburg 2007 erreicht 60 Jahre alt geworden. Nicht ganz ohne Turbulenzen wurde. Eine weitere theologische Aufgabe für die hat er die Ziellinie erreicht.4 Gefragt wurde: Hat Zukunft könnte es zudem sein, nach neuen Methoden der ÖRK noch Relevanz? Bringt er die Ökumene für theologische Dialoge zu suchen. Die Kompetenz voran? Hat er die Mittel und die geistige Kraft, der und die Erfahrung aus den unterschiedlichen ökumenischen Bewegung neuen Schwung zu geben Kirchen und Traditionen innerhalb des ÖRK sind oder sie wenigstens auf Fahrt zu halten? ein Reichtum, den man unbedingt nutzen sollte. Auch im Blick auf die ACK sind uns diese Anfragen 4. Eine weitere Zukunftsperspektive liegt in der nicht fremd. Verbreiterung und der Vertiefung der „koinonia“

28 Media Development 3/2010 – dies ist der im ÖRK favorisierte Begriff für die Denken und Handeln „trotz aller beschwörenden Gemeinschaft der Kirchen. Worte noch keine Selbstverständlichkeit“ ist. Ein Zum einen wird am ÖRK kritisiert, dass die Grund dafür könnte der „Mangel an existentieller pfingstlerischen Traditionen und die evangelikalen Betroffenheit“ sein. „Selbstgenügsamkeit und Protestanten noch zu wenig in den ÖRK eingebunden Desinteresse an anderen Christen sind oft die sind. Auch wenn durch die Einbeziehung dieser Folge fehlender Erfahrungen. … Ökumenisches Traditionen das theologische Gespräch und die Engagement bedarf aber sowohl des Verstandes theologische Arbeit – bis hin zur Verabschiedung von als auch der Gefühle. Wer nur auf eines von beiden gemeinsamen Erklärungen – nicht gerade einfacher setzt, ist manchmal sehr schnell am Ende.“9 wird, so geht doch der Anspruch des „World Council Feiges Analyse stimmt. Wo finden sich waches of Churches“ dahin, möglichst viele Kirchen und Interesse und die geschwisterliche Zuneigung zu den Denominationen als Mitglieder zu gewinnen. Zum Menschen in den anderen Kirchen? Wo wird das anderen muss es dem ÖRK gelingen, die „koinonia“ Gespräch zwischen Gemeinden gesucht und zwar zu vertiefen. Aber der ÖRK bzw. die Mitgliedschaft über die aus der Not geborene Frage hinaus, ob in ihm ist nur so verbindlich, wie es ihm die man das Gemeindehaus einmal mitbenutzen dürfe? Mitgliedskirchen zugestehen. Auch in diesem Punkt Wo meldet sich die Gemeinschaft der Christen ist die Situation der ACK kaum anders. in einer Stadt, wenn es darum geht auf soziale 5. Die Aufgabe des ÖRK und die der ACK ist es, Verwerfungen, wie Kinderarmut, hinzuweisen und die konfessionellen Traditionen nicht einzuebnen, gegen sie zu agieren und zu demonstrieren? sondern sie zum Strahlen zu bringen. Der ÖRK Gott sei Dank geschieht genau dies in vielen kann und soll keine Superkirche werden, sondern unserer örtlichen ACKs, nämlich gemeinsame eine Gemeinschaft von Kirchen, die von den theologische Arbeit, Praxis gemeinsamen spirituellen Konfessionsfamilien getragen wird und in welche Lebens in Gottesdienst und Feier und gemeinsamer diese ihre Schätze einbringen. Dienst zum „Besten der Stadt“. Nehmen wir doch unsere Aufgaben so wahr, wie sie schon 1948 beschrieben wurden: Die ACK ist Fazit ein Forum der Kirchen in Deutschland, das „sich im Die Ökumene ist müde und hellwach zu gleich – wir Glauben an die sichtbare Einheit der Kirche in Gebet müssen nur Sorge dafür tragen, dass die gelegentliche und Gottesdienst, im theologischem Dialog, Mission Erschöpfung uns nicht dazu verführen, die erreichte und gesellschaftlichem und sozialen Handeln Grunderkenntnis, dass das, was uns verbindet, viel engagiert“.6 Damit ist sie ein äußerst wertvolles stärker ist als das, was uns trennt, zu vergessen.10 Zeichen gegen das Gerede von der „Eiszeit in der Aber wie sollten wir uns das erlauben, bittet doch Ökumene“. Und lassen wir nicht nach, die uns der Herr der Kirche, Jesus Christus, „für die, die prägenden geistlichen und theologischen Einsichten durch das Wort an mich (sic. Christus) glauben bereichernd aufeinander zu beziehen. werden, damit sie alle eins seien.“ (Joh 17,20f) Ich wünsche mir, dass sich in der ACK das Ich freue mich daran, daß die Kirche verschiedene ökumenische Modell der versöhnten Verschiedenheit Gestalten hat, denn die Einheit der Kirche liegt verstärkt Bahn bricht. nicht in ihrer Gleichförmigkeit, sondern in dem Geist, der sie durchweht. Die äußere Form ist Wider die Müdigkeit im ökumenischen Gespräch wichtig, auch die Gestalt der Institution, sie hat Unter diesem Titel wurde 2007 eine Aufsatzsammlung sogar Zeugnischarakter (Barmen), aber sie ist zu Ehren von Ulrich Kühn vorgelegt.7 Die Autoren auch nicht zu überschätzen. Kirchen haben in den des Bandes wussten sich trotz aller Müdigkeit in unterschiedlichsten Verleiblichungen Raum. Und der Ökumene in der Aufgabe verbunden, „die sie haben den Auftrag, gemeinsam Zeugnis von Verständigung über Konfessionsgrenzen hinweg zu der Liebe Gottes für diese Welt und ihre Geschöpfe suchen“. In dem Band finden sich die „Katholischen abzulegen. Thesen zur Ökumene“ zum Reformationsfest 20048 Ob die Christen in der Ökumene sich in diesen des katholischen Magdeburger Bischofs Gerhard Überlegungen wiederfinden? Wir brauchen Phantasie Feige. Er weist darauf hin, dass ökumenisches in diesen schwierigen Zeiten, vom Geist Gottes

Media Development 3/2010 29 inspirierte Phantasie, um in einer Gemeinschaft von Christen, die die Verschiedenheit ihrer Kräfte und Begabungen aushalten, gemeinsam einzutreten für Ecumenism - den einzelnen Menschen wie für die ganze leidende und zerrissene Welt. n a movement Fußsnoten 1. Schlink, Edmund, Ökumenische Dogmatik, Göttingen 1983, 683 2. Zur wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Lage in Deutschland. for all seasons Diskussionsgrundlage für den Konsultationsprozess über ein gemeinsames Wort der Kirchen. Gemeinsame Texte 3, John Bluck Hannover/Bonn 1994,9ff 3. Schlink, a.a.O., 696 4. Siehe http://www.epd.de/hessen/hessen_index_54215.html I remember the time with a mixture of 5. Bericht des Weisungsausschusses, Nr. 21 pride and bewilderment. We returned 6. ACK. Eine Kurzinformation, Frankfurt 2007, 4 home from the 1983 Assembly of the 7. Matthias Petzoldt (Hrsg.), Wider die Müdigkeit im ökumenischen Gespräch, Leipzig 2007 World Council of Churches in Vancouver, 8. Petzoldt, 184ff feeling that at last the communication issue 9. Petzoldt, 185 10. Walter Kardinal Kasper, Wegweiser Ökumene und had been securely placed on the ecumeni- Spiritualität, Freiburg-Basel-Wien 2006, 15 cal agenda.

Friedrich Weber ist ein deutscher evangelisch-lutherischer The- longside the classic items of witness, unity, ologe, seit dem 1. März 2002 Landesbischof der Evangelisch- A peace and justice, learning and community Lutherische Landeskirche in Braunschweig und seit März 2007 building, the Assembly had debated, studied and Vorsitzender der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Christlicher Kirchen in spoken out on the issue of ‘Communicating Cred- Deutschland. Weber war von 1991 bis 2002 Vorsitzender der ibly’. The Cinderella topic of the ecumenical move- Konvente der Evangelischen Akademie Arnoldshain/Taunus. Seit 2003 ist er Vorsitzender des Hochschulrats der Technischen ment had finally been allowed into the ballroom. In Universität Braunschweig sowie seit 2004 Lehrbeauftragter für the official reports of the Assembly our statement Kirchengeschichte. Im Mai 2008 wurde er zum Honorarprofes- sat proudly alongside the other preoccupations of sor an der Technischen Universität in Braunschweig bestellt. such international meetings. Von 2004 bis 2009 war er Vorsitzender des Theologischen Stu- And rereading our carefully crafted words 27 dienseminars der VELKD in Pullach/München. years later, they still challenge and disturb the churches they were addressed to: experiment with alternative forms of communication, find new sym- bols to embody the ecumenism we share, enter into a critical encounter and more confident dialogue with those who work in the media, deepen our awareness and understanding of how mass media shape our lives as Christians, integrate the study of communication into theological training. The WACC has continued to do all these things, but the World Council and its agencies internation- ally lost the means, but more importantly the will, to develop this new beginning that Vancouver pro- vided. By the Canberra Assembly in 1991, the issue had been recast into ‘communication for liberation’ and the language had become more urgent but also less confident, even despairing: Mass media are now something sinister… a means of cultural impe-

30 Media Development 3/2010 rialism… hidden control… the truth is not told and that would nudge and bump us out of our safe har- we cannot exercise free judgement..communication bours and send us out to sea. for liberation is distorted as people become mere I think a huge amount of ecumenical energy was consumers of media that promote violence, pornog- diverted from structural and political reform into raphy and obscenity. experiential revival provided by the charismatic The recommended action? The Vancouver list movement. That was itself a form of untamed and is repeated plus disparate calls to boycott bad me- unlicensed ecumenism though in retrospect it hasn’t dia products, listen to the powerless and advocate proved to be as revolutionary and robust in cross- universal primary education. Little of the carefully ing theological lines. But it certainly resonated with consulted study and research work behind the ear- the individualism and sensory aesthetic of the age lier assembly is evident now. And apart from a sin- and proved more attractive to baby boomers than gle, rather desperate call to renew ‘The New World institutional ecumenism. Information and Communication Order’, the com- I think we were prisoners in a mono-cultural munication agenda was becoming too hard for a orthodoxy that simply wasn’t resilient and robust much depleted and downsized WCC. enough to prepare us for the turmoil of the 90’s and Had the ecumenical movement continued to the new millennium. flourish in its old form, as it promised to through By and large the ecumenism of the 1970s and 80s the 1970s and early 1980s, the outcome would have did try to come to terms with the gender revolution, been very different for resourcing programmes and the challenge of feminist theology, the beginnings study of communication and media development. of an inclusive language for thinking and talking Quite why the movement slowed so suddenly about God. In Aotearoa New Zealand three women remains a mystery to many. Especially in my own shared the leadership of Conference of Churches – country of New Zealand where we moved in the a model hailed as prophetic and far ahead of what course of thirty short years from having a thriving any member church had achieved. national council and later conference of churches, But what ecumenists in my country didn’t do Protestant, Orthodox and Catholic, and an almost was come to terms with the drive and energy of in- but not quite Uniting Church, to today’s ecclesiasti- digenous people, Maori in particular, to determine cal landscape where few people know how to spell the future of their churches and theology along with the word ecumenical anymore. the rest of their lives.

What went wrong? A lack of nerve? A lack of courage and commitment? A lack of clarity? Shortcuts in consultation and prepa- ration? Underestimating the magni- tude of the issues we so confidently wrote and declaimed about? Some of all of that, but more im- portantly, I think we underestimated the real depth and breadth of the ecu- menical vision we claimed. We had a tiger by the tail but we acted at times as though it was a wild cat we could tame. I think we trusted too naively and uncritically in the denominational legacies we carried so proudly. We treated them like battleships when they only deserved to be tug boats

Media Development 3/2010 31 If we had listened more carefully to our own There is a new day, of course. Ecumenism is a words at Vancouver we might have been prepared movement for all seasons. It doesn’t end with the for what followed. chapter we wrote together in Vancouver. The new book being written – multi- cultured, languaged and Listening to Vancouver faithed as it is – gives a better and bigger picture of The first recommendation from the Vancouver re- what God’s house might look like across the whole, port says with an understatement of breathless inhabited earth. proportions: ‘In many places our practice of com- The debates about a new world information and munication is not rooted in our national or local communication order that I so eagerly joined in the cultures. We have yet to reckon with the cultural 1970s and 80s feel like Don Quixote campaigns renaissance of our time.’ It goes on to describe the now. But in a strange way they have prepared me to alienation of groups whose culture and language is join the local battles for media that do justice and disregarded by the churches, and calls for ‘an envi- give respect to the people around me, for images ronment in which full respect for culture is shown and music that swell up from the ground beneath so communication can take place.’ our feet, that belong in our own soil, and honour Despite our best efforts, and with the wisdom those who have gone before us here. of hindsight, I don’t believe we got close to creat- It’s smaller, quieter stuff, much more modest in ing such an environment in those heady days of its ambition than the work I used to do. But it’s ‘communication for ecumenism’. The WCC still the stuff of ecumenism, indisputably so, driven I be- worked and thought eurocentrically, so the struggle lieve by the same barrier breaking, culture crossing, to become more multi-cultural in the way we com- justice seeking Spirit that drove the movement that municated was always an uphill battle. The nearest formed me then, and shapes me still. n we came to real progress was not in the reports we wrote and the speeches we made, even when sur- The Rt Rev John William Bluck was the 14th Anglican Bishop rounded by the best translators, but in the worship of Waiapu, Aotearoa New Zealand, from 2002 to 2008. He was educated at the University of Canterbury and ordained in we offered and the songs we gathered and sang from 1971. He embarked on his ecclesiastical career at Holy Trin- round the world, the symbols of faith, rich in their ity, Gisborne, after which he was editor of The New Zealand variety, that spoke for themselves, and the silences Methodist. Later he was Director of Communications at the we shared, without worrying about making sense of World Council of Churches, then Professor of Pastoral Theol- all the words. ogy and Communication at Knox Theological Seminary. From The other obstacle to communication for ecu- 1990 to 2002 he was Dean of Christchurch Cathedral, Wel- lington, when he was elevated to the Episcopate. An eminent menism was the sheer ambition of our rhetoric and author, he resigned his See in 2008. mode of operating. Centralised in Geneva, reliant on plane tickets and short meetings of jet lagged participants, pretending to speak for millions of Christians but effectively communicating with only a handful internationally, there was an unreality built into much of what we did and how we spoke. Even our use of a common English language rarely provided the intimacy that sharing faith requires. It often felt we were attempting to hold university level debates with a vocabulary that was effectively at primary school level. If the ecumenical structures had provided us with solid ground to stand on, and resources to do the work, the communication issue would have flourished. It finally won a place in the sun on the ecumenical agenda. But the sun was setting and the day was drawing to a close.

32 Media Development 3/2010 nically speaking) be seen or heard in every corner of the world at the same time. Billy Graham, the The world preacher, was one of the first to try this feat with the aid of communication satellites. He certainly did what he could to bring about change, to chris- changed ten the world in his generation. But the world is still not christened. Today Plato and Aristotle might see the globe as in our being an ideal state at least as far as communication goes. Then again they might not. In their ideal state the citizens could convene in council, where they generation could listen and also be listened to. Aristotle saw citizenship as being actively involved in the affairs Ingmar Lindqvist of the city. From this perspective the global com- munication village of today is definitely not an ideal There are not many today who might state. Advances in communication techniques and readily subscribe to the almost jubilant technology have largely increased our possibilities slogan used at the meeting in Edinburgh of communicating at a distance at the expense of 100 years ago: ‘The world evangelized personal, eye to eye communication. The old mass in our generation!’1 Yet, communication media were furthering one-way communication in tools nobody could dream of or imagine spite of many attempts at involving the audience. at the time of Edinburgh are readily avail- The Internet has changed that. Now everyone can able to our generation. Must we draw the express their opinions for all the world to know (again technically speaking – web communication conclusion that the effects of communica- is still a prerogative of the few, as we all know, but tion have decreased as the possibilities to tend to forget). communicate have multiplied? It certainly The result seems to be that like-minded people seems so. group together in virtual space. You do not get very much of an exchange and development of new he question is: how do we communicate if our ideas. You get more of a strengthening of already Tgoal is to achieve change? Is it not obvious that internalized ideas. we should try to reach as many people as possible Communication at a distance does this. It nor- with the aid of available communication technolo- mally tends to strengthen the ideas and beliefs of all gies? May be not. parties involved – provided there are preconceived In the 1960s the Canadian media scholar Mar- notions about the matter under discussion. When shall McLuhan saw the world changing into a glob- we are confronted with something that is news to al village – at least as far as communication went. us, the way facts are presented, for instance in news McLuhan may have been thinking of Plato and Ar- reporting, may influence our way of thinking about istotle and their notion of the ideal state when coin- the matter at hand in the future. ing the global village phrase. According to Plato the To make us change our minds about familiar ideal size of a state was about 5,000 people (5040 things we need to be challenged in personal com- to be precise, because that figure is divisible with all munication and preferably by people we trust and integers from 1-10). Aristotle qualified Plato’s ideas regard highly. Communication scholars are quite about the proper number of citizens by declaring unanimous about the strong links between personal that ideally one speaker should be able to be heard communication and change. Aristotle’s qualifica- by all the inhabitants. tion was a good one. With the extension of our senses through radio, At the WACC global Congress in Mexico in 1995 television, and Internet one person today can (tech- Cees Hamelink talked about the bomber-syndrome

Media Development 3/2010 33 among users of the web. He noted it was easier to Why did not God encircle the entire globe with abuse others over the net than in person because, his angels (no satellites needed!), have them sing to just like those dropping bombs from above, they all people and proclaim the message to every living do not see those they hit. Neither is there a need for creature then and there? The global village would anyone to reconsider their views about the person(s) have come into existence through real angels 2000 in question as there is no personal communication. years before satellites. And the world could have Today we see a growing number of hate groups been evangelized in Jesus’ generation. on the web. We also see a growing number of But no. God seems to have known the inherent groups who are convinced that they are in the right laws of communication all along. Through global and everybody else is wrong. So we have a situation one-way communication those already drawn to where facts, views and opinions are more readily him would have been drawn even closer and those and abundantly available than ever and at the same of a different disposition would have been antago- time a tendency towards limited insight and funda- nised. He would simply have further cemented ex- mentalist attitudes. isting opinions. Jesus never wrote apart from once in the sand, so How to bring about change? there were no teachings of his to be sent around to So what about evangelizing the world in our gen- attract new disciples. Paul sent his letters to exist- eration? That is no longer a problem. Not if your ing congregations to strengthen them, never to the main goal is to disperse the seed all over the globe ‘pagans’. Non-believers were always confronted in as Billy Graham attempted to do. Already back in person. the 1970s tele-evangelists in the USA talked about Jesus said that where two or three are gathered the communication satellites as God’s angels, the he was going to be in their midst. We have tended greatest blessing God had bestowed on humankind to interpret two or three as a minimum and see a since Jesus Christ. significantly larger crowd as the ideal. Maybe Jesus Now it was finally possible for one person to was talking about the ideal situation? Two or three be heard all over the globe (again – in principle, makes for ideal personal communication. while disregarding the fact that only a fraction of the world’s inhabitants had and have access to the Bringing people face to face communication technology necessary to be part of The main-line churches, whose representatives were the global village). The Christian satellite enthusi- meeting in Edinburgh in 1910, were instrumental in asts were content with reaching the many. They did founding the ecumenical movement to bring people not seem to concern themselves with the question: together and initiate discussions between churches does it bring about any change? That problem was with differing views on many things. WACC is also left for God to deal with. part of this movement and has been bringing com- But the biblical God is not known for commu- municators from many churches together. While the nicating via satellites or impersonally. Since one cold war was still on, WACC-Europe saw it as one of God’s main concerns during the ages seems to of its main challenges to make it possible for repre- have been to bring about change in human beings sentatives of churches behind the Iron Curtain to be it should be worth seeing how communication took part of the ongoing dialogue. In person. place. Not surprisingly the answer is: personally Today with growing concern over climate change and locally. it is almost a sin to fly – apart from the fact that a According to the Gospels even the revolutionary minor Icelandic volcano can make most of the flights event at the first Christmas was dealt with strictly within Europe come to an abrupt halt. Besides, we locally and personally. A group of shepherds in the have become increasingly aware that traveling by Bethlehem area was treated to wonderful music. any technical means leaves a negative impact on na- Then followed a short speech and an exhortation to ture. In addition we have the problem of dwindling go and see for themselves the wonder at Bethlehem. funds. They did so and were filled with joy. Personal pres- So we seem to be forced back to web commu- ence made them believe. nication and other means of communication at a

34 Media Development 3/2010 distance. Communication which is more apt to re- movement become ever more deeply involved in inforce than to change. Do we have any options inspiring, empowering and activating more people in a future in which an ever growing number of to become engaged in personal communication like-minded groups bond on various different web for change. On top of that, how do we continue sites? to support the use of communication technology Maybe we need to revise our thinking and strat- that is best adapted to reinforce and strengthen that egy. Maybe the road to global change is indeed lo- change? cal action and local communication in spite of all How can global actors, like WACC, come close the new possibilities of communicating on a global enough to the very local, to the grassroots, as to be scale? Maybe global developments and communi- personally present? When that question is success- cation theory combine to lead us in the right di- fully answered, things will change for sure! n rection? Jesus certainly thought in global terms and very decidedly acted locally. His working method Note was personal communication. 1. This slogan was coined by the American Arthur Pierson in Sometimes he drew large crowds. The Gospels 1885 and adopted via John Mott by the Christian Student Volunteer Movement, the presence of which movement was tell us that those that had already decided that he strongly felt in Edinburgh. was no good invariably found new evidence of faulty teaching on those occasions. Those whose interest Ingmar Lindqvist (Dr.Theol. – dissertation on missiology: Part- had already been kindled by relatives or friends got ners in Mission), director of communication for the Lutheran food for thought and felt nourished. Church of Finland for16 years, teacher of communication at universities in Helsinki and Turku, a long time teacher of work- Sometimes things get out of hand between ethnic place oriented communication at courses arranged for school or religious groups. The best way to cement intoler- principals by the Finnish Ministry of Education, producer of ance and hatred is to build walls, visible or invis- hundreds of radio and TV-programs, communication consul- ible, between the various groups. The main cure in tant for a number of churches and the LWF, key-note speaker the long run is more personal contact. on communication and consultant at various national and in- ternational meetings and seminars, author of numerous articles Communication at a distance may not be our best in books and magazines and of a book on communication phi- option to bring about change. But web communica- losophy in Swedish (Delade meningar - om kommunikation tion and other means of extending our impersonal och verklighet). presence are great in supporting, strengthening and furthering change that has been initiated by person- al communication. The web is extremely well suited to give those interested, but not yet ready to commit themselves in public, a chance to establish contact. The web is an excellent media for the Nicodemuses of today. The world evangelized in our generation? Well, theoretically what is needed is that every Christian communicates personally with at least two persons that do not share the Christian faith. The world changed into a better place in our generation? The- oretically what is needed is, in the first place, that people everywhere are prepared to communicate personally with those in their neighbourhood and not least with those whose impact on society is de- structive. After that we need a massive and inge- nious use of all available communication technolo- gies. The question is: how could we as individuals, WACC as a global actor, and the whole Christian

Media Development 3/2010 35 Churches.’ Communicating the news in such a way was very negative and some went as far as por- Unity, traying what happened as the ‘second’ Chalcedon Council Church Division. It is unfortunate that the Christian media or oth- diversity, and er member churches in the Council did not respond to counter that and for some reason the media were silent or, unfortunately, played no positive role in love in the reacting. If they had done so, it would have helped in fostering ecumenical relations and led to recon- ciliation and Christian unity. This definitely raises Middle East the question of the role of communication in ecu- menism. Riad Jarjour The reality of division What is the present-day situation of ecu- A general and objective view of the status of the menism in the Middle East? Is it stumbling ecumenical movement leads us to conclude that the or has it made sufficient progress so that churches are still divided, although all of them hope for the realization of Christ’s will that His disciples its goals are more attainable than before? be one. What are its obstacles? What are the ways Divisions in the church are not a recent phenom- by which it could move forward? How do enon; they go back to the days of the first church we view the future of church unity, and and have increased over the ages. Today we are di- what could be the role of communication vided into four major ecclesiastical families: Ortho- in promoting ecumenism? dox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic and Evangelical. The Christian churches today are in a state of divi- hese questions are not only important, but deci- sion. Nevertheless, this aspect of division must not Tsive in that they relate to the life of our churches blind us to another aspect, namely, that all these in the Middle East, the birthplace of monotheistic churches, in spite of the divisions, embody the one, religions and the model of religious pluralism. An- holy, catholic and apostolic church of Christ. The swering these questions requires a longer discussion unity of the churches is manifested in their faith in than space here allows. We can only touch briefly one Christ, as Paul writes in his letter to the Ephe- on these issues in a way that might move the reader sians (Ephesians 4:1-6). to reflect, search and investigate what Christians The Church, then, is one body headed by Christ. ought to pursue as they diligently strives to obey The visible churches are local churches that are the will of Christ. rooted in a variety of environments, languages, At the time of writing this article, news came from traditions and cultures. They have expressed their Cairo, Egypt, that the Coptic Orthodox Church has faith in Christ in a variety of ways, and they have announced its withdrawal from the Middle East manifested themselves sociologically and histori- Council of Churches. As one of its founding mem- cally as confessional communities. It is these visible bers, it is the church that with the biggest Christian churches that are divided and whose unity we seek. population in the region. What, then, were the attempts to unite the churches The news did not come from the church in pub- and to advance towards true ecumenism? lic; it came from the Egyptian media that com- municated the withdrawal of the church in a very Attempts at unity provocative way, and included words such as ‘the There were attempts to reunite the churches in the Geek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem accuses the first millennium, but they all failed or did not last Coptic Orthodox Church of being a traitor or of long. Some Protestant church leaders speaking of betraying its cause in the Middle East Council of the first steps in the formation of the ecumenical

36 Media Development 3/2010 movement, and particularly the Middle East Coun- includes a variety of churches. These issues related cil of Churches, go back to the world missionary to: (a) Mixed (Orthodox-Catholic) marriages; (b) conference held in Edinburgh in 1910. They believe a unified book of Christian Education for public the Edinburgh conference took decisive action in schools; and (c) First Communion. promoting modern ecumenism, and especially the 5. The consensus and unity-oriented documents world mission movements that came later to the issuing from bilateral encounters between the Ori- Middle East in 1924, (the first missionary move- ental Orthodox Churches (Syriac, Coptic and Ar- ment was held in Jerusalem under the name ‘Coun- menian) and the Vatican. cil of west Asia and North Africa’). These accomplishments may appear modest to As for the second millennium, especially in the some people; nevertheless, they are very significant, 20th century, the ecumenical movement achieved for they relate to believers in varied yet neighbour- significant progress, with occasional setbacks and ing religious communities regarding matters of opportunities. The second half of the 20th century daily religious and parish lives. Therefore, they are was distinguished by the work of organizations in- appropriate and effective achievements in prepar- stituted for the purpose of advancing unity, includ- ing for doctrinal unity and making the churches ac- ing the World Council of Churches, the Vatican tively involved in the ecumenical movement. Even Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity, and the so there are obstacles that stand in the way of unity, Middle East Council of Churches, among others. just as there are issues that facilitate unity. One should mention the significant progress that the ecumenical movement achieved in the Middle Obstacles to unity East: 1. Proselytism. If Christian churches regard each 1. The establishment of the Middle East Council other as sister churches and believe that truth, or of Churches (MECC) in 1974, joined by the Catho- the orthodox doctrine, is not the monopoly of lic family in 1990, made that Council a distinctive one single church, then churches must not pursue framework for animating the work of the churches a policy of proselytism in a Christian milieu. The in the region for the achievement of its goals, most Evangelical family in the MECC, having become importantly that of church unity. The MECC is national churches and having founded the ecumeni- unique among similar Councils around the world cal movement, have abandoned proselytism and the in adopting the concept of an ‘ecclesiastical family’ idea of ‘stealing’ believers from other churches. The as its structural and organizational unit. same applies to the uniate churches in their relation 2. The Pastoral Agreement of 1991 between to the Orthodox churches of the East. the Greek Orthodox and Syriac Orthodox Patri- 2. Tension between particularity and universal- archates. After resolving doctrinal differences, the ity. The Christians of the Arab Middle East experi- Agreement launched a leading pastoral experiment. ence a certain tension between the local church and The Agreement stated the following: ‘We belong to confessional community. They live in the church one faith, in spite of the fact that history has high- as members and in the confessional community as lighted our division more than our unity.’ sons and daughters. The church is a spiritual bond 3. The Balamand Document of 1993 which was and communion of faith, while the confessional issued by the International Joint Commission be- community is the sociological embodiment of the tween Orthodox and Catholics. Especially signifi- church. It is a social and cultural coalition that is cant in this Document was the affirmation ‘that distinct from ‘the other’ and that derives its identity Uniatism is an outdated form of unity’. As a result from its own history. of this document a change of attitude took place In the ecumenical movement this tension mani- in the Catholic churches whereby proselytism; i.e. fests itself either as isolation within a certain tra- ‘catholicizing’ the Orthodox, diminished. dition or as openness to others. Isolation leads to 4. The agreement between the Catholic and Or- an over-sanctification of tradition. The tradition is thodox Patriarchs of the Middle East, which took viewed as unique, and so the importance and beauty place on October 14, 1996, concerning three im- of others are minimized. This leads to a passiveness portant pastoral issues for believers in a region that in the process of unity.

Media Development 3/2010 37 3. Confessional Councils. In relation to the issue in Christianity. of particularity and universality, the churches in our 2. Psychologically and intellectually, we must, region currently display two contradictory tenden- for the sake of achieving unity, transcend all our cies. The first is in harmony with the ecumenical old wounds, i.e. the divisions which were accom- orientation, working at gathering the churches for panied by rejection, excommunication, disdain and encounters in spiritual, social, and cultural fellow- even persecution, as well as religious wars which ship. Such gatherings of churches could play an ef- used the pretext of religious differences to achieve fective and important role in achieving church uni- earthly gains. When our wounds are healed we can ty. They could also play an important role on the be reconciled with the past and with history, and we question of national involvement and commitment can accompany the other on a journey of discovery and in openness to other religions, thus enabling of what unites us and what makes us witnesses to Christian witness in the best possible form. the risen Christ. Then we shall discover how much The second tendency, however, gathers some we have distorted each other’s image in the past, churches within one church identity, regional or lo- and thus agree to rediscover the other as he/she re- cal, for the sake of consultation and coordination ally is. The role of communication is vital to accom- and in order to voice unified positions. This direc- panying this process and facilitating its realization. tion may involve some dangers. One that should 3. Practically, there are many ways of facilitating not be underestimated is that sectarian positions unity, all of them falling within the general area of embrace narrow nationalist orientations. It is no joint pastoral, cultural and social initiatives. What secret that such directions cause harm to believers has been achieved during the past three decades in both on the spiritual and ecclesiastical level as well terms of collective parish projects makes us, on the as on the social and national levels. one hand, appreciate the value of such initiatives in Thus, we ought to remain vigilant so as not to ecumenical work, and motivates us, on the other betray our Christian mission. The desired church hand, to continue moving in that direction. unity is not merely a social gathering nor is it iso- lationist; rather, it is a spiritual partnership aimed What is media’s role in the ecumenical movement? at sharing the pains and joys of our communities. Media play a fundamental role in modern societ- It is an authentic human encounter with others: all ies. This is particularly obvious when one sees the others. rapid and astonishing progress on the level of media technologies. It is also acknowledged that the media What facilitates the realization of unity/ecu- constitute a fourth power after the legislative, ex- menism? ecutive, and judiciary. The difficulties obstructing the path to unity or real As for the role of media in the ecumenical move- ecumenism will remain so long as Christians do not ment, the following considerations need to be taken proceed, individually and collectively, to eliminate into account. them on different levels and in various directions. It Media contribute to giving a true image of others; is true that the Holy Spirit is the one who works in therefore, they help overcome prejudices towards us and that unless the Lord builds the house, those other relations. When introducing others, media who build it labour in vain. But we must remain can highlight their richness on all levels. It has been ever prepared to receive the inspiration of the Spirit said: ‘you are the enemy of what you ignore’, and to lest we impede His work in us. this can be added that ‘you are the enemy of what As for the means that could facilitate unity, some and whom you ignore’. are spiritual; some are psychological and intellec- The ecumenical movement has its own history, tual, while others are practical. track, events and life. On this level, media can re- 1. Spiritually, reconciliation with God always port on all the ecumenical movement’s develop- leads us to reconciliation with others, and recon- ments whether they are bilateral agreements be- ciliation with the other is futile unless it leads us to tween churches or local, regional and international love and accept others. Love, then, is the safest way agreements. Hence, any Christian can keep in mind to meet the other; it is the greatest commandment all the progress towards the unification of churches

38 Media Development 3/2010 and pray for the realization of this unity. The media also play an essential role in creat- ing public opinion. Public opinion can often con- Persistence, stitute a barrier against the spread of an ecumeni- cal mentality, and media can orient public opinion towards developing and accepting the requirements a loud of Christian unity. In addition, public opinion generated by the me- dia can influence the achievement of Christian unity speaker and a or true ecumenism. All churches use the media to spread God’s word. Why wouldn’t the ecumenical movement then resort to this important means of thesaurus spreading the ecumenical spirit? Finally, there is no escaping the principle that Kristine Greenaway dates back to the earliest centuries: ‘Unity in what is essential, diversity in what is disputable, and love As I walked along a hot residential street in all things’. Can communication promote that? one day last summer, I reflected on the We continue to hope that the torn and fragment- surprises of being an ecumenical commu- ed body of the Church shall be gathered and revived nicator. When I graduated from a post- by the Lord, and that we shall all return to be one healed body according to Ezekiel’s vision: graduate programme in communication at Canada’s McGill University, I had not ‘Thus says the Lord God to these bones: expected to one day find myself on foot Behold I will cause breath to enter you, and carrying the entire sound system for an you shall live. And I will lay sinews upon international event in the form of a single you, and will cause flesh to come upon you, loud speaker. and cover you with skin, and put breath in you, and you shall live; and you shall know his and the hand held microphone attached to that I am the Lord… So I prophesied as he Tit by a long cord were all we had to ensure that commanded me, and the breath came into ecumenical leaders gathered in Geneva to plan the them, and they lived, and stood upon their shape of a new global organization linking Presby- feet’ (Ez. 37: 5-10). terian, Reformed, United and Waldensian churches in 108 countries could hear each other. The will among believers for true ecumenism We had no communication budget. Therefore, exists, especially nowadays in a torn and volatile when at the last moment we learned that there was Middle East. It needs to move and be active. Faith no sound system in the lecture hall, we contacted a is essential, but communication is vital in moving it Catholic colleague in another organization who was towards realization. n rumoured to have once brought a portable loud- speaker to a social event. We called her cell phone, Rev. Dr. Riad Jarjour is a Syrian Christian clergyman who found her in morning mass, arranged for the loan, completed his B.A. degree at Hagazian College and M.Div. at and I found myself hiking to a meeting venue in a the Near East School of Theology, both in Beirut, Lebanon. In 1978 he was ordained a Minister in the Evangelical Synod of nearby lay training centre, ‘sound system’ in hand. Syria and Lebanon. Further studies include the STM degree in Drawing on goodwill, last minute problem-solv- Islamic studies from the Near East School of Theology and the ing and a lack of money are the hallmarks of mod- D.Min. degree at McCormick Theological Seminary, Chicago, ern ecumenical communication. USA. In 1985 he was named Associate General Secretary of the This may be the era of social networking, on-de- MECC and Director of its Unit on Education and Renewal, be- mand printing and Google translations but it is also coming MECC General Secretary 1994 to 2003. He is current- ly General Secretary of the Arab Group for Muslim-Christian the era of diminishing resources for the communi- Dialogue and President of WACC’s Middle East Region. cation infrastructure needed to communicate the

Media Development 3/2010 39 work of churches who are collaborating worldwide In 2004 at its global assembly in Accra, Ghana, in response to the social and ecological challenges WARC issued a statement condemning the current created by rampant consumerism and exploitative world economic order which causes so many people economic, political and military systems. to suffer hardship because they are impoverished Denominations that traditionally have not and marginalized by a market-driven approach to worked ecumenically which include those that economic development which takes little or no ac- preach the ‘prosperity gospel’ (‘only believe and you count of the impact on peoples and the environ- shall be made rich’) are rich in financial resources ment. for sophisticated communication outreach. Web ra- The intent was laudable. The language in which dio, television, movies, glossy print material, skilled it was couched was explosive. It exploded in a pow- public speakers all are part of their daily techno- erful and empowering way in the ears of delegates logical fare. from the Global South. It exploded in a powerful The so-called ‘mainline denominations’ those and disempowering way in the ears of delegates who are members of the World Council of Church- from the Global North. The use of a word like ‘em- es, the new World Communion of Reformed pire’ to describe the powerful forces (military, eco- Churches and regional ecumenical councils tend to nomic, and political) which support the economic be those that are committed to social justice issues system and of a word like ‘neo-liberal’ to describe and committed to social change based on their faith the system itself, set off huge debate. and values. They are also the ones in financial and Churches in North America and Europe felt at- demographic decline. tacked and sidelined by such language. Churches in It is an open question to what extent the lack of the South insisted that those words were prophetic money they invest in communication is a cause of and had to be heard. It has taken seven years and a that decline or the result of it. I would argue the for- great deal of intensive dialogue to get to the point mer, others might argue the latter. Whichever came where the churches can agree that they understand first, the decline in investment in communication or and agree to the principles and articles of faith un- the decline which led to the reduced investment in derpinning the declaration that was drafted in Ac- communication, the end result is that a strong back cra. and good pair of walking shoes is what it takes to As a communicator I believe that the use of syn- set up the communications system for ecumenical onyms is an acceptable way of communicating an meetings. idea in a variety of contexts. We must speak the lan- Making voices heard also depends on the lan- guage our listeners can hear. Just as there are many guage that we use to communicate our message. In words and images for God, there are many ways of part this involves meeting the perennial challenge of describing evil. By using the appropriate metaphor finding the financial resources and skilled personnel or reference for the context in which we are speak- required to translate websites and print resources ing, we open the way to discussion of the idea, not and for simultaneous interpretation. But there is its envelope. also the deeper question of the verbal imagery we This is not an isolated example of how words can use to describe the initiatives in which people are either divide or unite. An ecumenical communica- invited to participate. tor is often called on to urge impassioned colleagues who are deeply committed to an issue to consider Speaking a language listeners can hear how to use words that invite rather than condemn The World Alliance of Reformed Churches which or proclaim. For a communicator the challenge is merged in June 2010 with the Reformed Ecumeni- to build community through language which unites cal Council to form the World Communion of Re- rather than divides. It is the difference between the formed Churches is known for its calls to reform Babel experience and the Pentecost experience. the global economic system so that there is a more Yes, a sound system or word is only a commu- just distribution of financial resources among all nication tool. But, without tools, how can people peoples and a sustainable level of consumption of build? How can they see what a difference it makes the earth’s natural resources. when churches work together to confront the rape

40 Media Development 3/2010 of the local environment, the abuse of children’s rights, racial abuse? How can the message of soli- darity with the poor and marginalized be heard? Edinburgh Ecumenical communicators are often crying in the wilderness. We wander in the heat with our sole speaker and microphone and with this we seek to 2010 seeks change the world, to protect the vulnerable, to re- verse destructive patterns of the earth’s resources. We have to believe in the power of the Spirit. renewal We have to remember the parable of the mustard seed. We must think of what one piece of yeast can At the closing celebration of the conference do. Being an ecumenical communicator is an act of ‘Edinburgh 2010: Witnessing to Christ To- faith. It demands persistence. n day’, marking the Centenary of the 1910 World Missionary Conference, participants Kristine Greenaway is a United Church of Canada global mis- sion personnel associate serving with WARC in Switzerland. affirmed the following ‘Common Call’. Prior to taking up the appointment with WARC, Greenaway s we gather for the centenary of the World Mis- served as Programme Manager with the World Association for Christian Communication (WACC). From 1999 to 2002 she Asionary Conference of Edinburgh 1910, we be- served as Director of Communication for the World Council of lieve the church, as a sign and symbol of the reign of Churches (WCC) in Geneva. God, is called to witness to Christ today by sharing in God’s mission of love through the transforming power of the Holy Spirit. 1. Trusting in the Triune God and with a renewed sense of urgency, we are called to incarnate and pro- claim the good news of salvation, of forgiveness of sin, of life in abundance, and of liberation for all poor and oppressed. We are challenged to witness and evangelism in such a way that we are a living demonstration of the love, righteousness and justice that God intends for the whole world. 2. Remembering Christ’s sacrifice on the Cross and his resurrection for the world’s salvation, and empowered by the Holy Spirit, we are called to au- thentic dialogue, respectful engagement and hum- ble witness among people of other faiths – and no faith – to the uniqueness of Christ. Our approach is marked with bold confidence in the gospel mes- sage; it builds friendship, seeks reconciliation and practises hospitality. 3. Knowing the Holy Spirit who blows over the world at will, reconnecting creation and bringing authentic life, we are called to become communities of compassion and healing, where young people are actively participating in mission, and women and men share power and responsibilities fairly, where there is a new zeal for justice, peace and the pro- tection of the environment, and renewed liturgy re- flecting the beauties of the Creator and creation. 4. Disturbed by the asymmetries and imbalances

Media Development 3/2010 41 of power that divide and trouble us in church and demonstrating grace and speaking out truth. world, we are called to repentance, to critical reflec- 8. Recalling Christ, the host at the banquet, and tion on systems of power, and to accountable use committed to that unity for which he lived and of power structures. We are called to find practi- prayed, we are called to ongoing co-operation, to cal ways to live as members of One Body in full deal with controversial issues and to work towards awareness that God resists the proud, Christ wel- a common vision. We are challenged to welcome comes and empowers the poor and afflicted, and one another in our diversity, affirm our membership the power of the Holy Spirit is manifested in our through baptism in the One Body of Christ, and vulnerability. recognise our need for mutuality, partnership, col- 5. Affirming the importance of the biblical foun- laboration and networking in mission, so that the dations of our missional engagement and valuing world might believe. the witness of the Apostles and martyrs, we are 9. Remembering Jesus’ way of witness and ser- called to rejoice in the expressions of the gospel in vice, we believe we are called by God to follow this many nations all over the world. We celebrate the way joyfully, inspired, anointed, sent and empow- renewal experienced through movements of migra- ered by the Holy Spirit, and nurtured by Christian tion and mission in all directions, the way all are disciplines in community. As we look to Christ’s equipped for mission by the gifts of the Holy Spirit, coming in glory and judgment, we experience his and God’s continual calling of children and young presence with us in the Holy Spirit, and we invite all people to further the gospel. to join with us as we participate in God’s transform- 6. Recognising the need to shape a new genera- ing and reconciling mission of love to the whole cre- tion of leaders with authenticity for mission in a ation. n world of diversities in the twenty-first century, we are called to work together in new forms of theo- Edinburgh, 6 June 2010. logical education. Because we are all made in the image of God, these will draw on one another’s unique charisms, challenge each other to grow in faith and understanding, share resources equitably worldwide, involve the entire human being and the whole family of God, and respect the wisdom of our elders while also fostering the participation of children. 7. Hearing the call of Jesus to make disciples of all people – poor, wealthy, marginalised, ignored, powerful, living with disability, young, and old – we are called as communities of faith to mission from everywhere to everywhere. In joy we hear the call to receive from one another in our witness by word and action, in streets, fields, offices, homes, and schools, offering reconciliation, showing love,

42 Media Development 3/2010 como funcionarios gozan antiguos perpetradores de secuestros, torturas y desapariciones. El derecho a la A lo anterior, se suma la existencia de una prensa controlada por un sector conservador y más preo- cupado en la cobertura de los procesos económicos verdad: De la activados en la posguerra y por las sucesivas prob- lemáticas propias de una sociedad en transición: delincuencia, pobreza y migración, factores todos memoria a la que atentan contra la paz y la gobernabilidad del pueblo salvadoreño, pero que difícilmente se pone en perspectiva a la luz de lo ocurrido durante doce acción años de guerra civil. Otro factor fue la falta de actores estatales que Roberto Burgos cumplieran plenamente con las responsabilidades asignadas a ellos por los diversos instrumentos y ac- Para Jon de Cortina S.J. uerdos del derecho internacional, particularmente In memoriam en lo que se refiere a la investigación de graves vio- laciones a derechos humanos y a la reparación para En El Salvador, el tema de la verdad y la las víctimas. Dichos factores contribuyeron a que construcción de una memoria necesari- en El Salvador existieran dos historias divergentes amente colectiva, ha sido un esfuerzo que en lo que se refiere al registro de los hechos acaeci- desde la sociedad civil asumieron única- dos entre 1980 y 1992. mente las organizaciones sociales. En par- Exceptuando el registro de los hechos contenido ticular, aquellas que defendieron históri- en el Informe de la Comisión de la Verdad creada por la ONU, y las publicaciones a cargo de insti- camente los derechos humanos, debido tuciones privadas o de la sociedad civil, el Estado principalmente a su vinculación con el salvadoreño nunca auspició o alentó durante dicho trabajo de iglesias, sindicatos o universi- período esfuerzos sistemáticos para dar a conocer dades. a una nueva generación de salvadoreños y salva- doreñas, las causas estructurales e históricas que icha labor se vio condicionada desde que fi- permitieron el estallido de la guerra civil. Tampoco Dnalizara la guerra civil en 1992 por la falta se registraron los factores internos y externos que de recursos suficientes para ampliar sus acciones contribuyeron a su final mediante un acuerdo nego- al mismo tiempo que se dio una persistente polar- ciado entre las partes, con plena participación de la ización de la vida política salvadoreña dentro de la comunidad internacional y de la ONU. cual se dio un exacerbado optimismo. El Salvador intentó presentarse ante los ojos del resto de Centro La construcción de la memoria histórica América como un modelo de construcción de paz Los Acuerdos de Paz de Chapultepec fueron prolí- negociada. ficos en el diseño de una serie de medidas a imple- Es así como durante los últimos dieciocho años, mentarse a corto plazo, destinadas a sentar las bases las denuncias en contra de antiguos personajes de para la construcción de una memoria colectiva en la vida política y militar salvadoreña, y los seña- El Salvador y a garantizar, en cierta medida, la no lamientos a las instituciones utilizadas por estos y repetición de los graves hechos ocurridos durante por los sucesivos gobiernos como mecanismos de los años de guerra. Se esperaba que la creación de represión sistemática a las demandas colectivas, fu- una obra monumental que recordara a todas las eron ignoradas mediante los mecanismos normati- víctimas civiles del conflicto; la instauración de un vos que garantizan la impunidad: léase Ley de Am- día feriado de conmemoración de la paz; y procesos nistía, el uso de la prescripción penal por parte de educativos y de acción ciudadana que llevaran a la los jueces, e incluso por los fueros personales que creación de una nueva “cultura de paz”, donde se

Media Development 3/2010 43 privilegiara el diálogo y la democracia como nue- proceso, han sido las demostraciones desde el nuevo vas formas de convivencia, tendría que dar como Gobierno del Presidente Mauricio Funes, en las que resultado la refundación del Estado salvadoreño. Se por primera vez en El Salvador, un gobernante ha esperaba desarrollar un modelo de sociedad capaz reconocido la honorabilidad de las víctimas, ha pe- de abolir los viejos fantasmas que desangraron al dido públicamente perdón a la sociedad por los des- país y le condenaron a la repetición irreflexiva de manes y violaciones a derechos humanos cometidas una historia oficial cargada de efemérides sin vincu- por agentes estatales y ha impulsado actividades lación alguna con los procesos sociales. públicas de homenaje con participación popular. Así, y a manera de ejemplo, muy poco se sabe Es así como la ceremonia de conmemoración en El Salvador sobre las revueltas e insurrecciones del décimo octavo aniversario de los Acuerdos de indígenas del siglo diecinueve, o sobre los intentos Paz, realizada en el campus de la Universidad Cen- fallidos de juzgar a las autoridades responsables de troamericana (UCA), representa los primeros pasos la época y sobre los focos de resistencia de cientos impulsados desde el Estado para una verdadera de comunidades que se revelaron inútilmente ante transición hacia la paz en El Salvador. La ceremonia la pérdida de sus tierras ejidales. En cuanto a la se realizó en el vigésimo primer aniversario del as- masacre de indígenas y campesinos con la que in- esinato de la comunidad jesuita y de sus dos colabo- augura su hegemonía la clase cafetalera y militar en radoras y apenas una semana después de los treinta 1932, esta se manejó durante mucho tiempo como años del asesinato del Arzobispo de San Salvador, un secreto a voces, censurados los medios de prensa Monseñor Oscar Arnulfo Romero a manos de un y eliminados por las autoridades de la época los ar- escuadrón de la muerte. chivos y las fuentes directas que podrían haber evi- Dicha ceremonia representa un aporte guberna- denciado lo ocurrido. mental a la construcción efectiva de una memoria Los esfuerzos para desarraigar de la memoria histórica y que inevitablemente deberá pasar de colectiva los abusos descritos y la tradicional im- la rememoración y la celebración, a las acciones posición de una lectura unívoca desde el Estado concretas de justicia que permitan sancionar a los sobre ellos, junto con la pobreza, la injusticia y responsables de estos y otros hechos, igual que lo la impunidad, formaron parte de las causas origi- hicieron sus pares en Chile y Argentina. narias del conflicto armado. Es por ello que la con- strucción de la memoria histórica en El Salvador, El derecho a la verdad entendida como un proceso de gestación colectiva En un texto reciente, la jurista peruana Susana Vil- e impulso de políticas públicas, que de manera par- larán, expresaba lo siguiente: ticipativa busquen la recuperación de lo ocurrido y la ejecución de medidas efectivas de restitución de “La unidad de las naciones se cimenta en la la dignidad de las víctimas, constituye quizás la me- igualdad, la libertad y la justicia, no en la jor alternativa para salvaguardar los escasos pero intolerancia, el odio y la injusticia. De esta contundentes resultados que el proceso de paz legó premisa básica e incuestionable se deriva la al pueblo salvadoreño. necesidad apremiante de verdad, y de que los Las bases para esta concepción participativa en pueblos necesitan conocerse a través de la la gestación de la memoria histórica, fueron asenta- verdad…” das por los sectores de la sociedad civil salvadoreña, que durante el conflicto registraron en forma artís- La cita anterior, otorga a la necesidad de contar tica, verbal o documental lo ocurrido, demandando con información sobre lo ocurrido en tiempos de justicia dentro o fuera del país, y que tras el fin de conmoción social, de una posibilidad de cohesión la guerra fueron perseverantes en la búsqueda de colectiva en torno a los valores más caros para la información y retribución legal para las víctimas o convivencia de los grupos sociales. La justiciabili- sus familiares, tal y como se menciona al inicio del dad de esta aspiración mediante la exigencia de un presente artículo. “Derecho a la Verdad”, ha sido puesta a prueba en La variable inédita en El Salvador y que en me- varios procesos legales sobre casos emblemáticos nos de un año ha comenzado a hacer suyo dicho ocurridos en El Salvador, tales como el de niños y

44 Media Development 3/2010 niñas desaparecidos durante el conflicto, la persis- de la posguerra, que carentes de un conocimiento tencia de los escuadrones de la muerte en la etapa mínimo sobre la historia nacional reciente, apenas inmediata posterior al fin de la guerra, entre otros. demanda la obtención de un conocimiento histórico De esta forma, hace menos de diez años que los que les permita conocer los antecedentes de la so- alegatos en torno al Derecho a la Verdad por parte ciedad en la que viven y en la que indefectiblemente organizaciones y representantes de víctimas fueron van a interactuar como actores políticos. La falta esgrimidos, primero ante la Comisión Interameri- de un basamento histórico entre este sector, hace cana de Derechos Humanos y luego ante la Corte peligrar los logros alcanzados a tan alto precio e im- con sede en San José, Costa Rica en el “Caso de las pide darle continuidad a los retos pendientes en la Hermanas Serrano Cruz Vs. El Salvador”; senten- construcción de una verdadera identidad colectiva cia del 23 de noviembre de 2004, que reconoce en que no de la espalada a su propio pasado. la actualidad por medio de su jurisprudencia la ex- En segundo lugar, la transformación de un gran istencia de un verdadero derecho cuya titularidad, sector del periodismo salvadoreño, en un periodis- tanto individual como colectiva, vincula a los Esta- mo más independiente e investigativo, que sea capaz dos miembros de la OEA mediante la obligación de de indagar en las raíces mismas de los procesos na- informar sobre lo ocurrido a las víctimas de viola- cionales, alerta a los avances de la justicia transna- ciones a derechos humanos y permitiendo el acceso cional y restaurativa, que sea capaz de contrastar a sus archivos y registros oficiales. la inacabada posguerra salvadoreña con otros pro- Este Derecho a la Verdad tantas veces negado cesos latinoamericanos de transición y que vuelque por la justicia salvadoreña, articulado con el lento los resultados de sus investigaciones a un nivel al proceso de recuperación y construcción de la me- que no pueden llegar los juristas ni el sistema judi- moria histórica reseñada más arriba, debe indefec- cial, siempre amarrado por la legalidad formal, las tiblemente dar paso a la acción concreta, no solo amnistías y los vicios del poder. mediante el inicio de causas judiciales que señalen En tercer lugar, poner fin a la postergada posibil- responsabilidades individuales o institucionales, idad de reparación para las víctimas, ya que solo la sino que también a través de la incidencia política y dignificación real de quienes sufrieron el embate de los esquemas participativos que mantengan viva la las guerras internas, auspiciadas en aras de la segu- memoria y el legado de más de setenta mil víctimas ridad nacional, permitirá ponerle fin a la coexisten- del conflicto. cia cómplice de dos versiones discordantes sobre la historia salvadoreña: aquella que niega la gravedad Del recuerdo a la acción de los hechos que ocurrieron, y la de aquellas per- Siendo El Salvador un país marcado por la violencia sonas que perdieron sus proyectos de vida, su salud y por el desbalance entre la suma de hechos ocurri- o a sus familiares. dos y la escasa producción historiográfica a lo largo Finalmente, valga insistir en que solo el acceso de su desarrollo, el encuentro con la contundencia al conocimiento de la verdad mediante procesos de los hechos y la recopilación documental de lo formativos y participativos, la satisfacción moral acaecido, no pueden quedarse en la mera acumu- y material para quienes todavía sufren y el regis- lación de datos o imágenes. tro responsable de sus testimonios, son la garantía Hoy más que nunca, la memoria colectiva deberá real de que estos episodios no vuelvan a ocurrir. El dar paso a las acciones reivindicativas que logren Salvador, se mueve finalmente en esa dirección, la permear la agenda pública con los testimonios de posguerra comienza hoy. n lo sucedido: el documental, la filmografía, la inves- tigación histórica y la misma cobertura mediática se vuelven las herramientas para reunir la fragmen- tada historia salvadoreña en un mosaico de hechos que no deben volver a ocurrir. ¿Cuáles son estas acciones reivindicativas en el seno de la sociedad salvadoreña? En primer lugar, la educación de las generaciones

Media Development 3/2010 45 superficialidad de los medios modernos, la prolifer- ación de los paparazzis, la acentuada imagen de la La Dolce Vita mujer objeto sexual. Indro Montanelli fue el primer comentarista del filme. En un artículo publicado por Il Corriere ha cumplido della Sera, expresaba su preocupación por lo que el filme mostraba: 50 años “Sí, somos nosotros, Dios nos perdone. Ésas son las cosas que decimos (y que no pensa- Carlos A. Valle mos) cuando estamos juntos. Ésas son nues- tras mentiras. Ésas, nuestras vanidades. Ésas, ¿Es La Dolce Vita una vieja reliquia del las mujeres que giran alrededor nuestro, o pasado? ¿O es una imagen de un mundo sobre las que nosotros giramos, que tienen todo dudoso, hasta el sexo. No, el retrato que hoy persiste? De entrada se convierte de esta sociedad no mejora cuando pasa del en un filme polémico y controvertido que palacio del Príncipe al salón de la poeta o al produce seducción pero también repudio. estudio de la pintura. Cambia de estilo. Pero Resultaba demasiado duro aceptar las sigue en la mezquindad, en lo dialectal, en lo críticas a una sociedad que lucía decadente falso.”1 y volcada a la frivolidad y el cinismo. Sus La Dolce Vita se abre con una llamativa escena. imágenes reproducen descarnadamente Están transportando hacia el Vaticano la imagen de una sociedad marcada por una perentoria un Cristo de brazos abiertos en un helicóptero, en necesidad de vivir apasionadamente un otro el periodista Marcelo y un fotógrafo van reg- turbulento sin sentido. istrando el hecho. La presencia de algunas mujeres jóvenes tomando el sol los hace detener para mirar- uando fue estrenada en 1960 La Dolce Vita las y pretender infructuosamente mantener algún C recibió prontamente la condena del Vaticano contacto posterior. a través de una serie de artículos en L’Osservatore El filme es un enlace de retazos de la vida ciu- Romano. En España la película solo fue conocida dadana a través de la figura del Marcelo (Marcelo 20 años después. Las repercusiones de todo tipo di- Mastroiani) que día y noche recorre Roma buscan- eron mayor promoción al filme. Mientras tanto, en do material como columnista de chismes. Marcelo el Festival de Cannes recibe la Palma de Oro ese busca vivir sin ataduras ni compromisos ya con su mismo año. celosa amante, una sofisticada mujer de clase alta o “No hay fin. No hay comienzo. Solo existe la in- con una artista de cine americano –la que protago- finita pasión por la vida”, dijo alguna vez Federico niza Anita Eckerg y su famoso baño en la Fontana Fellini. La Dolce Vita nos pinta una Roma que, di- de Trevi– No obstante todo eso, mantiene su inalca- namizada por el fuerte crecimiento económico, re- nzado propósito de llegar a ser escritor. fleja a una sociedad que ya no repara en la miseria y el dolor de la guerra, sino muestra signos crecientes La presencia de lo religioso de un postmodernismo donde vuelven a aflorar las El Cristo ha ido paseando por históricas ruinas viejas y descarnadas divisiones sociales. romanas, ha sobrevolado los nuevos y enormes La Dolce Vita se convierte en un fresco que monobloques, los niños jugando entre calles aun sin presenta una realidad tal como la ve su pintor. Es reconstruir y se ha ido acercando al Vaticano. Este el cuadro de los nuevos ricos que pasean por los Cristo que sobrevuela la ciudad pudiera verse como sofisticados cafés de Via Veneto, las grandes fiestas el manto de un cristianismo que rodea y cubre la en los viejos castillos, el bullicio de una nostálgica ciudad pero también como una señal de un Cristo alegría, las carencias de los barrios marginales, la distante de un mundo en el que no tiene lugar.

46 Media Development 3/2010 La presencia de lo religioso se repite. En la es- por él estimulándolo a que cumpla su sueño de ser cena del falso milagro de la aparición de la Virgen, escritor. se juega con la ingenua y, por momentos, brutal re- acción de la gente ante el presunto milagro. Pero, El miedo al futuro mayormente, el escenario está exacerbado por la Steiner parece tener una familia perfecta con dos presencia de un periodismo que no se detiene en hermosos hijos, pero hay algo que le angustia: la nada para lograr la toma de un milagro inexistente. vida miserable que reclama la sociedad donde “todo Su saciedad por lograr público y público exaltado está calculado y perfecto”, por lo que no oculta su no tiene límites. miedo al futuro y la posibilidad del fin de todo. Por Lo que pinta Fellini ya ha sido superado hoy por eso Steiner ha tomado una drástica decisión, mata un manejo más sofisticado y una tecnología más a sus dos hijos y se suicida. Para él la pasión por avanzada, pero conser- la vida ha entrado en una vando el mismo propósi- senda sin retorno. ¿Está to. El sacerdote que mira muy alejado Fellini de lo la escena se lamenta por lo que hoy podría decirse sucedido, porque para él sobre la precaria estabili- el milagro no puede acon- dad de un mundo nucle- tecer en el bullicio sino en arizado y con enormes la intimidad. Más tarde, poderes incontrolables? aparecerá otro sacerdote La chispa de esper- encaminándose a decir su anza que había aparecido misa con la dueña de un en la vida de Marcelo se castillo mientras observa desvanece para siempre. atónito a los agotados Con la trágica muerte de visitantes que han pasado Steiner han muerto todos la noche de fiesta en los sus sueños y por eso se innumerables escondrijos abandona en el torbellino de la torre. del ruido y de la nada. En Para poder comprender los últimos instantes del la vorágine de esas vidas filme lo vemos, después y la urgente necesidad de una agitada fiesta, diri- saciedad que las motiva, girse en la madrugada, hay que concentrarse en como parte de una com- lo que puede considerarse parsa, hacia las orillas del el centro de esta película: mar. Allí los pescadores el encuentro de Marcelo están sacando en una red con Steiner, un intelectual un enorme pez que yace que vive en su peculiar en la orilla, cuyos ojos mundo rodeado de otros atónitos parecen reflejar intelectuales que muestran su apego a la cultura su incertidumbre y la incertidumbre de los que lo oriental, desbordan en alabanzas a la libertad sin rodean. compromisos y sin hijos, cuyo lema es: “fumar, be- ber, la cama” mientras se embelezan escuchando la Paola, el ángel grabación de los sonidos de la naturaleza. Desde lejos alguien procura hablar con Marcelo. Es Destellos de un mundo dentro del mundo del Paola, la jovencita con la que en un momento él bullicio del que parecen apartados pero con el que, se ha encontrado en un pequeño restaurante de la al final y al cabo, comulgan. Marcelo visita ese cír- playa. No es de Roma, viene de un pequeño pueblo culo y muestra su admiración por Steiner a quien que extraña. Marcelo le dice con total candor que pide volver a visitarlo. Steiner muestra su interés es bella y, mientras le pide que se ponga de perfil,

Media Development 3/2010 47 comenta, “Pareces un ángel, el de la Iglesia de Um- bria”. Marcelo no la ha olvidado pero no alcanza a es- Ingmar cuchar su voz e interpretar sus gestos. Pareciera que Paola le esta haciendo una invitación, pero Marcelo sin mucha insistencia hace un gesto de “no se es- Bergman’s cucha” y se va con su grupo. La cámara se posa en la límpida y sonriente mirada de la jovencita que lo ve alejarse, una mirada en búsqueda de calidez legacy on Farö humana que se vuelve sobre el espectador. Es posible hacer una lectura de todo el filme a Ylva Liljeholm partir del tema de la incomunicación. De las reitera- das barreras creadas por los personajes para abrirse Ingmar Bergman wanted the Orkney Is- a los demás. Marcelo con las mujeres, el ocasion- lands for the shooting of Through a Glass al encuentro con su padre a quien parece casi no Darkly but was carefully pointed by the conocer. La búsqueda de máscaras con que actuar producer in the direction of Fårö (for eco- en cada ocasión y el vacío de no haber podido cono- nomic reasons, of course). Fårö is a harsh cer de verdad a Steiner y de Steiner de compartir su angustia. Y este final, de intento frustrado, de no and barren island five minutes ferry-ride poder aceptar el llamado de este ángel que pareciera from the north point of Gotland, Sweden’s prefigurar un camino distinto. ¿Una nota de ilusión biggest island. en medio de tanta desazón social? Han pasado 50 años, las técnicas narrativas y los ergman arrived for the first time on a stormy recursos técnicos han cambiado, pero no podríamos B April day in 1960 and immediately fell in love dejar de reconocer que La Dolce Vita es una pintura with the place. He lived there most of the time until dolorosa, amarga pero real de un mundo que cada his death in July 2007 and is buried, together with vez más ha hecho del hedonismo y del sin sentido de Ingrid Bergman, at Fårö church. The grave quickly la vida un motor hacia el egoísmo de las personas become a growing tourist attraction on Gotland. y de los pueblos, lo que el crítico Robert Ricardson Fårö is the place where Ingmar Bergman sought llamó un “abrumador sentido de disparidad entre inspiration and tranquillity and is also the place lo que la vida ha sido o debería ser, y lo que en re- which most of all is associated with his work. alidad es.” n Over the years Fårö has changed from being a remote place with a decreasing population to a Nota summer paradise for wealthy mainlanders, mostly La cita de Montanelli viene de El País, 15.03.2010 y es una in the political or cultural sphere, Olof Palme be- traducción del italiano. ing the most famous example. Ingmar Bergman put Fårö on the world map but involuntarily and in- Carlos A. Valle fue Secretario General de la WACC 1986-2001. directly also contributed to the insane increase in Ex Presidente del organismo evangélico del filme, INTERFILM, y autor de Comunicación es evento (1988), Comunicación: house prices. Something that makes life difficult for modelo para armar (1990), y Communication and Mission: In the locals whose children cannot afford to buy as the Labyrinth of Globalisation (2002). Actualmente colabora much as a hut on the island. con ISEDET, Buenos Aires, enseñando cursos de comunicación Even so, the relationship between the locals and y escribiendo artículos para diversas publicaciones. Bergman is always described as having been very respectful. The locals directed curious tourists as far from Bergman’s home at Hammars as they could, and Bergman for his part always used local crafts- men when he needed something done to the several buildings on his estate. After his death a public dream of getting access

48 Media Development 3/2010 Media Development 3/2010 49 to Bergman’s estate was awakened. A chance for The Fårö Bergman Centre foundation’s main everyone to have a look at this part of Fårö that goal is to create a public centre for Bergman lovers Bergman mastered and that has always been sur- all over the world. The vision is a high class cultural rounded by a touch of mystery. centre with activities all year around situated in the As things turned out, this will not be the case, old Fårö school (which was donated by the Gotland but at least his houses will be opened to an exclu- municipality). On their website are four architec- sive population of artists and cultural workers. tural visions of how such a centre could take shape. More about this later. Until this vision becomes a reality, the centre must be content with the school as it is. The Ingmar Bergman festival In 2004 a group of enthusiastic people represent- The Norwegian saviour ing Gotland University, the regional film resource After Bergman´s death, and the realisation of his centre Film on Gotland, and locals from the Fårö last will (‘sell everything at the highest price’), the Future association decided to arrange a festival – Fårö Bergman Centre foundation had to give up its the Bergman week. The festival consists of six days ambition to buy the four estates at Hammars and with films, seminars, guests and tours to filming lo- Dämba that Bergman owned. The Swedish govern- cations around Fårö. (Bergman shot seven films on ment had no ambition to give as much as a nickel Fårö). to rescue the estates from being placed in the hands Today it is the Fårö Bergman Centre foundation of anyone with enough capital, and the foundation that is the main organiser of the now very popular lacked the financial resources to put in. and established festival, together with the organisa- Therefore, the emergence of a Norwegian bil- tions mentioned above and the Gothenburg Inter- lionaire, Hans Gude Gudesen, was an unexpected national Film Festival. Bergman visited the festival godsend. The Bergman Estate foundation was cre- on several occasions, sometimes unannounced and ated in 2009. Bergman’s daughter Linn Ullman is his spontaneous dialogue with bishop Lennart Ko- the engineer behind the vision to become an inter- skinen in Fårö church is legendary. It began with national centre for artists, journalists and scholars Bergman asking Koskinen if the Bishop really be- which will be run according to Ingmar Bergman’s lieved in God! ideals. Over time the festival has hosted famous guests This means it will be a residence for hard work. like Ang Lee, Wim Wenders and Kenneth Branagh Linn Ullman’s vision is also for the foundation to – all of them giving their personal views on the im- repay the locals and the whole of Gotland’s popu- pact Bergman has had on their work and introduc- lation for letting her father live his life in peace at ing their own Bergman favourite film. In 2010 Liv Fårö. Ullman will visit the festival and hold a masterclass The foundation’s work will take the form of a lot for film students. of cultural activities for children and young people During the festiva; Bergman’s private cinema at in collaboration with the school in Fårösund and Dämba with 15 seats will be opened to the public with other Bergman foundations. You can read all for the first time (at least the lucky ones who can about her visions and goals on the foundation’s get hold of the exclusive tickets). Three of Berg- website. man’s nine children will introduce a film that will be shown at Dämba. Three Bergman foundations There is a first Bergman foundation, established in Photo captions previous page: The tree grows on 2002 on Ingmar Bergman’s own initiative. The ob- the beach where Persona was shot in 1966. At jective of this foundation is to administer, preserve the time it was, of course, much smaller. (Photo: and provide information about Ingmar Bergman’s Ylva Liljeholm.) The church is a replica of the one collected artistic works. This foundation is situated on Fårö, which Bergman used in Shame in 1968. at the Film house in Stockholm. (Photo: Ylva Liljeholm.) The somewhat confusing situation today is thus that there are three separate Bergman foundations

50 Media Development 3/2010 with different yet sometimes similar visions and goals, of which two are based on Fårö. The Berg- man Centre with little economic clout and the Berg- Film in anti- man Estate with much more. So far there has been a friendly relationship between them and this year’s Bergman week will be a collaboration between the trafficking two. Hopefully the good intentions will continue and grow for the benefit of Bergman-lovers all over the and anti- world. The logical way forward is for the two foun- dations on Fårö eventually to become one, but let that be a process that takes the time it needs. No slavery one will benefit from a situation in which the foun- dations compete with each other. n

More information is available about the founda- campaigns tions at www.bergmancenter.se (The Bergman Cen- William Brown ter foundation at Fårö); www.ingmarbergman.se (the foundation taking care of Ingmar Bergman´s Human trafficking has been described as archive among other things); www.bergmangard- a global pandemic. In and of itself, smug- arna.se (the foundation that owns the physical heri- gling people across and within borders is a tage of Bergman at Fårö.) dangerous practice, and it is thought that Ylva Liljeholm has a background as a journalist but now works at least 10,000 people die from drown- with supporting young film talents at the regional resource cen- ing, suffocation and other causes each year tre for film, Film on Gotland. For many years she has been a member of a film-theological network hosted by the culture while illegally in transit. council of Church of Sweden and of Interfilm. uman trafficking is inherently tied to various H other phenomena that also result in fatalities and other human rights infringements, and which might be grouped together under the umbrella term contemporary slavery. Contemporary slavery in- cludes the exploitation of labour forces, especially through bonded labour, as typified by the sweat shop, but also illegal nannies and domestic helpers, mail-order brides, the practice of forced prostitu- tion, child smuggling, and the farming of humans for their organs. If there are as many as 27 million slaves in the world today, a figure offered by Kevin Bales, Zoe Trodd and Alex Kent Williamson in their book, Modern Slavery, then the slave industry is as large now as it ever has been – and this industry is in large part enabled by the practice of human traf- ficking, even though human trafficking and slavery do not amount to precisely the same thing. The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), the European Union, and the G8 nations all addressed the issue of human traffick-

Media Development 3/2010 51 ing in 2000, with the UN Protocols on trafficking not just (if at all) to those involved in policy-mak- and smuggling being signed in Palermo, Italy, in the ing and regulation, but to the average citizen who same year. In addition, inter-governmental organi- would do well to know about such matters. And sations (IGOs) and non-governmental organisations yet, despite backing from Amnesty International, (NGOs), such as the UN High Commissioner for Fairtrade, Greenpeace, and others, Unchosen is an Human Rights (UNHCHR), UNICEF, the Interna- independent undertaking that, like many of its ilk, tional Organisation for Migration (IOM), and the struggles with costs of venue and relies upon many Anti-Slavery International, all have anti-trafficking favours (such as free film hire). programmes in place. However, since using films does not necessar- And yet, in spite of these measures, the wide- ily or uniquely mean showing pre-existing films, it spread practices of human trafficking and contem- can also mean making films. Again, for the most porary slavery remain largely ignored, even though part, this seems to be something undertaken by in- the two constitute a ‘global pandemic’ that likely dependent producers and creatives. If films such as takes place in relative proximity to each and every Nick Broomfield’sGhosts or Ken Loach’s It’s a Free one of us. World… both highlight the injustices of bonded If the above organisations are to be lauded for labour, together with the complications that ensue their efforts, perhaps there is also criticism to be when trying to put a stop to this practice, then these levelled at them in that, particularly with regard to are films that remain to an extent commercial en- governmental agencies, white papers offering fig- deavours. ures and solutions to a problem only get read by a This is to say that coverage of the films, together handful of people, while there should perhaps be a with the films themselves to a certain extent, will more widespread and ‘pandemic’ response to this likely focus on the entertainment value of the film pandemic issue. as opposed necessarily to the function that it can If it is a truism, or simply common sense, to say serve in anti-human trafficking and anti-slavery ac- that the media can serve as a major outlet for pass- tivism. This despite the fact that Ghosts also en- ing on information about an issue such as human courages viewers to contribute to the Morecambe trafficking, perhaps it is less obvious to say that the Bay Victims Fund, the film itself being a recreation media, with cinema and television as perhaps the of the death of 23 Chinese workers in Morecambe two most powerful examples, can also inspire in- in 2004 and whose families are still paying off their tervention, help prevention, and raise awareness of debts to the Snakeheads who helped to get them contemporary ills. there. However, if films are predominantly produced Raising awareness through cinema independently and if they do have the recovery of While many of us in the contemporary age think production costs as their bottom line, this is not with and through films (‘it was just like in such- uniquely the case. Holly, for example, is, like the two and-such a film’), not so many people seem to use films mentioned above, a feature length narrative films as a way to do precisely this: to help those af- film about human trafficking. It differs, however, in flicted by human trafficking at some point in their that the film is a core component of Guy Jacobson’s lives and to inspire those who know of it but do Redlight Children Campaign (RCC), which has as not know what to do about it to get involved in its goal the protection of children caught up in the the eradication of this widespread and pernicious global sex trade. phenomenon. Holly did have a commercial theatrical release in Using films does not necessarily mean showing the USA (where it grossed US$166,620), but more pre-existing films, although this does happen. The importantly it is a film that has screened not only at Unchosen Film Festival, for example, has been run- the UN and at the US State Department, but whose ning in Bristol, UK, since 2008, and is about to ex- non-theatrical life also involves screenings held by pand to several other locations in 2010. The festival the RCC in collaboration with various NGOs and shows various films that deal with human traffick- corporations. ing in an attempt to raise awareness about this issue In other words, rather than being a film that is

52 Media Development 3/2010 simply ‘out there’ as far as anti-trafficking and an- ti-slavery organisations are concerned, it is a film whose creators actively seek to incorporate into ac- tivist campaigns. While organisations such as the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the United Nationals Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UNGIFT) produce public service an- nouncements (PSAs) that also help to raise aware- ness of human trafficking and contemporary slav- ery, these do not necessarily gain the same coverage and thus do not have the same potential for bring- ing about change as a feature length film, especially if the film can be sold/publicised on account of its stars and/or as a result of awards gleaned from film festivals. Holly, for example, which is about a Viet- namese girl in Cambodia who has been smuggled into the country to take part in the sex trade, stars internationally recognised actors Ron Livingston, Chris Penn, Virginie Ledoyen and Udo Kier. Furthermore, while a PSA can succinctly and clearly highlight that trafficking is a major prob- lem in the contemporary world, it can do little to get to grips with the complexities of the issue. The UNODC’s PSA Trafficking in Women, for example, might well convey the fact that 700,000 women are forced into the sex trade each year, but it does so by reproducing many of the clichés involved in the human trafficking are prey to this tendency, includ- issue: namely attractive young women in particular ing glossy North American and European produc- are put forward as victims. tions such as Trade, Taken, The Transporter, and This is not a criticism per se of the UNODC, but Sex Traffic. a feature length film provides the opportunity to ex- Either the villains are stereotypical bad guys de- plore the complex network of personnel involved in fined along racial/national stereotypes, or global human trafficking and slavery, as well as the multi- trafficking is the brainchild of a single mastermind plicity of reasons for which people might find them- whose removal would supposedly bring the whole selves caught up in it. In effect, saying that human trafficking infrastructure tumbling down. Similarly, trafficking and slavery are ‘bad’ is fair enough, but those most often at risk are typically virginal teens getting closer to how and why humans will exploit whom audiences are encouraged to find as attrac- others and, more particularly, put themselves at the tive a commodity as the traffickers in the film do. risk of exploitation, is a far more important mes- However, while these are among the pitfalls sage to get across – and this can perhaps only be involved, this does not mean that some films and done in the longer format of the feature. filmmakers do not responsibly charge themselves with the task of making conscientious films that Avoiding pitfalls depict the wide-ranging reasons for people to be in- One objection to using feature films to promote volved in trafficking and slavery – as the examples awareness of, and to inspire activism and to improve of Ghosts and It’s a Free World… hopefully illus- prevention measures against human trafficking and trate, with other films from around the world, such slavery might be that they will always to a certain as Israeli director Amos Gitaï’s Promised Land, Slo- degree fall foul of clichés. Many films that feature venian Damjan Kožole’s Spare Parts, Spanish Chus

Media Development 3/2010 53 Gutiérrez’s Poniente, and British Michael Winter- bottom’s In This World. Similarly, one might object to the use of film in ICTs past: The anti-trafficking and slavery campaigns because films appeal less to the logic of the campaign in question (‘trafficking is bad’) and more to the emotions of telegraph in those watching the film. As tools for inspiring emo- tions and not reasons, films can be overlooked as ‘mere’ diversions and entertainments. India But it seems that by appealing to the emotions of those watching the films that films can much more Sujatha Sosale easily lead to a positive – and hopefully subtle and complex – engagement with issues like trafficking Little is known about the roles of the and slavery than can the reproduction of cold, hard media in early modernization efforts in facts. the colonies. Archival evidence suggests I would argue that personalising and humanis- ing trafficking and slavery is a more effective means that colonizers struggled with the hopes, of encouraging reflective thought than is assailing fears, and above all, identities (their own audiences with alienating figures. In fact, the PSAs and the recipient communities’) related to from UNODC and UNGIFT are a testament to this, significant social changes in the colonies in except that in the short form these films must also which new media technologies played an avail themselves of unsubtle clichés. important role. Given the pandemic nature of slavery and traf- ficking, it seems an important moment for govern- t is generally acknowledged that modern social ment agencies and NGOs to start using feature I development began under colonialism, at times as films, both in terms of involvement in production an inevitable extension of the industrial revolution as well as in terms of providing channels of exhibi- in the West, and at times because of the introduc- tion, as part of their campaigns. This would help to tion of technologies for administrative convenience unify those diverse but committed strands that are in the colonies. Not surprisingly, such introduc- currently trying to use films to help raise awareness tions led to unexpected outcomes where technolo- of and, hopefully, to bring an end to these contem- gies, especially communication technologies such as porary evils that go on all around us and yet which the press, the telegraph, and the railways, became people seem to know precious little about. n weapons in freedom struggles. Understanding the colonial origins of modern William Brown is a Lecturer in Film Studies at the University social development as we know it involves, at least of St Andrews and is a co-author, with Dina Iordanova and in part, looking at the ways in which technologies Leshu Torchin, of Moving People, Moving Images: Cinema and Trafficking in the New Europe, which is published by St An- were talked about among the people, both in the drews Film Studies and which is available online at http://www. colony as well as in the home country of the colo- st-andrews.ac.uk/filmbooks/ and at Amazon. nizers. In this article, I share the results of an explo- ration of pamphlets circulated in Britain about the telegraph in India that revealed a public domain rife with hopes, encouragement or disappointments re- garding the medium. This information and commu- nication technology (ICT) of the time was regarded as an enabler of peaceful change, and alternately, as a catalyst in unleashing violence and destruction that forcibly effected change. The introduction of the telegraph led to an ex- pansion of communicative capacities that in turn

54 Media Development 3/2010 revolutionized the newspaper into its modern form the telegraph in the mid-19th century in India and as a new mass medium. It also led to a more height- other colonies (Boyd-Barrett 1998, Rantanen and ened globalization of financial institutions because Boyd-Barrett 1998), it was possible to network of instantaneous real-time communication, a pro- centres and territories for administration purposes. cess that has normalized globalization in its most State involvement was apparent, as also the in- recent manifestation. The speed of information ex- volvement of private interests such as the Cable and change and the realization that that speed confers Wireless Company in Britain. power is apparent in both the routine working of A series of stakeholders in relation to the cable the telegraph as well as attempts to disable and de- as mode of communication and cable as physical stroy the technology in the course of conflicts such product emerged at this time (Hills 2002). Infor- as large-scale uprisings and clashes with the ruling mation-brokering companies such as Reuters and powers in the colonies. other state-owned organizations such as the French As some archival sources indicate, perhaps one Havas and the German Wolff introduced entrepre- of the profound changes that occurred in this entire neurial innovations with this technology. For exam- process involved perceptions of changing identities ple, compression of signals was a valued business for both the colonizer and the colonized. Structural and technological strategy for information trans- change and related changes in identity perceptions mission that Reuters soon mastered and established serve as an index to understanding social change. in India. This enabled Reuters to offer larger infor- Examining the discussions about the medium at the mation packages at lower rates, undercutting the time can provide some insights into the perceptions standard packages offered by hitherto monopoly of the colonial, developed self and the native other. organizations like Cable and Wireless Company Pamphlets, public documents examined for (Hills 2002). this study, were authored by at least moderately The anticipations and effects of this medium prominent figures in their respective professions, seem to be extensively debated in many venues, most of whom depended to varying degrees on the especially in relation to several aspects of British telegraph for practicing their professions, and cir- communication policies. Hills’s key works on tele- culated amongst the public in Britain at the time communications and empire serve as a helpful in- to stimulate debate and discussion at large. I have troduction to the world of the telegraph business drawn the pamphlets from the digital archive main- and telecommunication policy in Britain and her tained by the Knowsley Collection at the University colonies, though the goal of the book was to under- of Liverpool, and made available on a trial basis stand telecommunications and US-British relations to selected US university libraries. Authors included at this time. Policy and other forms of regulation editors, journalists, military officers and govern- shaped the telecommunication structure, processes ment officials. and market, and they reveal the close connections Based on the analysis of the archival data, I between the cable industry and the British adminis- provide a glimpse of the perceptions and opinions tration. The intention was to secure the telegraphic around the telegraph in British India, still consid- networks worldwide, and to enable this in the East, ered a part of the global South, even if contempo- Britain established India as the telecommunication rary India has moved up in the economic hierarchy hub for networking further east to her colonies of developing regions. (Hills 2002). Besides colonial administration, corporations The telegraph as new technology in British India began using the telegraph for global financial trans- Writing about the political economy of British India, actions such as foreign direct investment, with Reu- Goswami (2004: 46, 47) identified three categories ters establishing itself as one of the earliest financial of development that summed up the governing role news and information brokers in modern media of ‘state works’ – communication, built environ- communication. Although colonies, arguably the ment, and irrigation projects. Communication in- equivalent of so-called developing regions of today, cluded railways, canals, roads, lighthouses, postal figured in such transactions, it is not clear whether services, and telegraphs. With the introduction of they were themselves transactors of business using

Media Development 3/2010 55 this infrastructure and Reuters’ services. Neverthe- evident that this deep trauma caused the British to less, new media played powerful roles in effecting talk about India and Britain in specific ways, with social change in these regions. particular references to the greatness of Britain, her Changes related to these new communication resilient spirit, and the need for renewed zeal to technologies were also apparent in Britain at this control the natives using different measures of gov- time. Britain’s domestic communication policies ernance rather than force and autocratic rule. were altered to facilitate domestic companies’ oper- Those who had been urging the government for ations abroad as well as accommodate foreign com- a more perceptive understanding of the natives and panies’ operations within the country, especially the the land took this opportunity to drive home this United States, which was especially interested in point with the British government. Other, more penetrating the Indian and South African networks, progressive-minded English who were in favour both British strongholds, at the time (Hills 2002). of India and Indians prior to the uprising abruptly changed their minds after the rebellion, and so on. Colonial rule in India around 1857 Overall, there seemed to be support for the Brit- Most of the pamphlets examined for this article ish government taking over India. And in relation were circulated in the wake of the Indian uprising to this state takeover, ‘state works’ including steam of 1857. This uprising has been referred to by many power, railways, and the telegraph were discussed names such as India’s First War of Independence, quite extensively. Communication technologies be- the Sepoy Mutiny, or the Indian Rebellion. Text- came serious considerations in the change of rule books in India refer to the First Indian War of In- and consolidation of political power. dependence, whereas the British referred to it as the Sepoy Mutiny or the Indian Rebellion. The reasons Public discourses about the new medium leading to the war are complex and go back about Public discourse about the telegraph at this time three decades prior to its happening. was circulated in pamphlets as much as in other A series of policies established by the British media. Over time, the concept of the ‘pamphlet’ has such as the Subsidiary Alliance (British protection varied in some ways, but in others, especially its cir- of princely Indian states in return for the stationing culation in the public domain, it has remained un- of British troops) and later the Doctrine of Lapse changed. For instance, its etymology, as explained (British acquisition of certain categories of king- in Etymonline, is traced to the 14th century, when doms without heirs to the state) enabled the British ‘small, unbound treatise[s]’ were called pamphlets; to rapidly gain political power over Indian princely ‘popular and widely copied’ is another description, states and acquire ownership of land in the form of as also ‘brief work dealing with questions of current kingdoms. Indian troops were selected by the Brit- interest.’ ish to keep peace within India, with some supple- UNESCO has defined pamphlets as ‘non-pe- mentary English troops. Caste and religious divides riodic publication of at least 5 but not more than among the troops added to the increasing discontent 48 pages, published… and made widely available and unrest among the Indians as a result of these to the public.’ The 19th Century British Pamphlets policies. Textbooks also cite inflammatory practices Project (the digitized collection of which served as such as greasing cartridges with pork and beef fat, the database for this study), describes pamphlets as which offended both Hindus and Muslims, further ‘an important means of public debate in the 19th inciting the mutiny that was carefully planned to century, covering the key political, social, techno- break out in several places either simultaneously or logical and environmental issues of the day.’ in succession. Using the Knowsley Collection, I culled about 7 Archival documents show that this war left a pamphlets, from 5 to 65 pages in length. Two were deep scar on the colonizers’ psyche. The East In- published in 1853, one in 1859, one in 1863, and dia Company, which had gained increasing political the rest were published in 1858, the year after the power in India, folded, and the British government first war of independence. These pamphlets provid- took over the rule of India. References are made ed a glimpse into the attitudes, debates, and talk to ‘India, our country’ in these documents. It is about the telegraph at the time. All of them were

56 Media Development 3/2010 authored by British administrators, editors, or mili- tive subjects, and in all the wilder tracts of tary officers and were circulated in public in Brit- country…as well as temper of the less civi- ain. Detailed examples from a few pamphlets have lized tribes that inhabit them. It is but too been given to provide an idea of the opinion climate well known how little is required to derange around this medium in this venue. either an electric telegraph or a permanent In a pamphlet titled ‘Notes on India’, Dr. George line of rails, and how fearful might be the Buist, scientist and newspaper editor of the Bombay consequences of the latter taking place oc- Times, praised the speed and reach of information casionally in India.’ dissemination as ‘conveying intelligence instantly to all parts of India’ (1853, p. 22) and quoting from But rather than discourage the government from the popular missionary publication Friends of In- developing these networks, Alves argued for ‘ren- dia, anticipated that an all-India telegraph network dering’ British rule ‘popular by justice and generous would be established by1858. Speaking about policy so as to secure the maintenance of our tele- its implications for British rule – that it ‘will en- graphs and railways through the willing assistance tirely alter the character and complexion and the of all our subjects and native allies in India.’ Such exigencies of the administration’ (p. 24), Dr. Buist a policy would ensure that the subjects participated described the increased power that administration in the making of change. This document hints that could wield because of instantaneous communica- destruction of communication networks was part tion of events in the provinces to the central ad- of the arsenal of strategies in the first war of in- ministration. This would render the councils of the dependence, similar to contemporary war strategies presidencies of Bombay and Madras ‘old’ and ‘lum- where information and communication hubs are of- bering’ and ‘altogether out of date,’ an argument ten targeted for destruction. that favoured reduction in administrative bureau- The document also reveals an optimism about cracy in governance. the establishment of this communication technol- The second document titled ‘The Government of ogy in India, but always keeping in mind the ad- India Under A Bureaucracy’ (1853) by John Dick- vantages for Britain. Britain is characterized as a inson, (whose credentials are given in initials; other benevolent ruler and Indians as natives who could information beyond this is not available), covers sev- be coaxed and trained into becoming the ideal sub- eral domains, including finance, governance, social jects. One other footnote that is telling of a pro- problems and public works. The acknowledgments found change the technologies wrought was at the show that the pamphlet used several sources for in- level of language. Here, Alves recommends devel- spiration, among them The Times, Friends of India, oping technical and scientific terms for advanced and Bombay Times. References to the telegraph in native literature from Sanskrit and Arabic, the root this pamphlet urged the British government to pay languages of ‘Hindoo and Mahomodan languages’ equally close attention to roads and railways since respectively. Interestingly, state governments now transportation at the time was considered to be a work to introduce modern technical terms in re- conveyor of information, along with the telegraph. gional languages, some of which are apparent in A pamphlet titled ‘India: its dangers considered television newscasts. in 1856’ (published in 1858), a reprint of a letter In two lectures on the Indian Mutiny, military written by retired military officer Nathaniel Alves officer Major Wilberforce Bird observed – ‘It was to Lord Metcalfe, Lieutenant Governor of Agra, an- supposed that the natives would not use these ad- alyzed causes of the 1857 ‘insurrection’ – and pro- vantages, and that the expense would fall on the vided ‘suggestions towards producing a permanent Indian government, and yet none made more use of state of peace, prosperity and happiness in that great these things than the natives.’ It is because the Brit- country.’ Alves warned the government of what he ish did not extend themselves to understand the na- called the ‘delicate character’ of networks like rail- tives sufficiently, Major Bird argued, that commu- ways and the telegraph, whose maintenance: nication networks were destroyed (presumably in the uprising – this is not clear, but it can be inferred ‘Depends upon the good temper of our na- because of the year of publication – 1858).

Media Development 3/2010 57 In the second lecture, Major Bird also stated that ties were posted in more than one place [and] if Indians used the railways and the telegraph, this remittances by the colonial state to Britain could be a resource for Britain in her quest to main- [could now be wired].’ tain dominion over India. So ‘mutual confidence, mutual advantage and mutual prosperity, alike to Contemporary ICTs continue to be linked to the Native and the European’ was key to maintain- socio-economic development and power, and em- ing peace. This elevation of the native to almost powerment. Wireless networked technologies such equal status because of the natives’ proficiency in as the mobile phone now feature prominently in using these technologies is representative of the changing socio-economic conditions in developing more progressive-minded thinking about British regions, sparking discussions around leapfrogging rule in India. Not surprising in itself, efficient use of development. Intergovernmental organizations such communication technologies is viewed as an enlight- as the United Nations Organization and the World enment of the natives, although that perception of Bank, and highly localized community-level orga- colonized populations has been amply contested. nizations alike recognize the empowering potential of ICTs and continue to define media development Conclusion along these lines, but in very different contexts, and These examples suggest that ICTs such as the tele- in power structures that differ radically from the graph (and later the radio), introduced by colonial past. n powers, were seen mainly as being advantageous to the rulers. The advantages to India seemed to be References treated more as a by-product, and at times, a bonus Alves, N. (1858). India: Its dangers considered in 1856. Know- sley Pamphlet Collection, University of Liverpool. Stable if Indians were to become proficient in the use of the URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/60100477 technologies. Expectedly, Britain positioned itself as Bird, R. W. (1858). The Indian Mutiny: Two lectures delivered a world power in its discussion of these technolo- at the Southampton Athanaeum. Knowsley Pamphlet Collec- gies because there were other dynamics in place in tion, University of Liverpool. Stable URL: http://www.jstor. relation to cable and other competing world powers org/stable/60100511 at the time, notably the United States. Boyd-Barrett, O. (1998. Global News Agencies. In O. Boyd- Barrett & T. Rantanen (Eds.), Globalization and the News. In these discussions at this point in history, the (Pp. 19-34). London: Sage. fact that the telegraph separated communication Buist, G. (1853). Notes on India. Knowsley Pamphlet Collec- from transportation (as James Carey has observed tion, University of Liverpool. Stable URL: http://www.jstor. in another context) had not yet been considered, org/stable/60101082 perhaps because of the newness of this technology Dickinson, J. (1853). The government of India under a bureau- cracy. Knowsley Pamphlet Collection, University of Liver- in these years, coupled with the trauma that Brit- pool. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/60101529. ain experienced with the Indian uprising. It is likely Goswami, M. (2004). Producing India: From Colonial Econo- that this differentiation might have occurred a few my to National Space. Chicago and London: The University decades later, when discussion around wireless (es- of Chicago Press. pecially shortwave radio) in comparison to the tele- Hills, J. (2002). The Struggle for Control of Global Communi- graph brought the focus more on communication, cation. Urbana & Chicago: The University of Illinois Press. Rantanen, T. (1998). The Struggle for Control of Domestic separating it from transportation. Markets (1). In O. Boyd-Barrett & T. Rantanen (Eds.), Glo- The subsequent networking is traced by Goswa- balization and the News. (Pp. 35-48), London: Sage. mi (2004: p. 53): Sujatha Sosale is Associate Professor at the School of Journal- ‘By 1880, more than twenty five thousand ism and Mass Communication, and an Obermann Scholar at the Obermann Center for Advanced Studies, The University of miles of telegraph lines and submarine cables Iowa, USA. Her main areas of research include contemporary linked the major urban centers in colonial policy and participation dialogues related to communication India – among them Bombay, Calcutta, and international development, especially former Anglophone Madras and Karachi in present-day Pakistan and Francophone areas in South Asia and East Africa, and me- – to financial and political centers in London. dia and journalism education in the context of developing re- [As a result,] buy and sell prices of commodi- gions. She can be reached at [email protected]

58 Media Development 3/2010 Indians and Westerners were tucked within common national boundaries by European Peace powers in 1886. The region, a geographically rich swath of earth, has bloodied its soil with periodic violence, destruction, and brutal- journalism ity: South Africa with apartheid, Rwanda in 1994, Burundi thereafter, Sudan since the 1980s, Eastern Congo since the regime of training in Mobutu Sese Seko, Uganda from 1971 and onward in the north, Ethiopia in the 1980s and 90s, Zanzibar in its quest to secede from East Africa Tanzania, and Somalia seemingly forever. Ke- nya “burned” in late 2007 and early 2008’. Levi Obonyo Following the botched 2007 elections Kenyan Kenya went to war with itself in 2007 media marked a unique day in their history when, following the general elections that were on the first Sunday after the elections, and following not conclusive (see Waki Report, 2008). days of bloodletting in the theater of violence, all Both contending parties, Party of National the newspapers carried a similar headline: ‘Save our beloved country’. On that same day at 6:00 pm, in Unity and the Orange Democratic Move- a 60 minute program the electronic media through- ment, claimed victory at the polls. Some out the country switched to a standard broadcast have blamed the lead up to the mayhem appealing for peace through an hour long prayer, on biased media reporting while others patriotic poetry and solemn music that implored hold that media have the potential to bring the nation to return to its senses and restore peace. about peace if their approach to journal- The cut throat competition characteristic of the Ke- ism could promote harmonious coexis- nyan media took backstage. tence. But journalists in East Africa are Responsibility or lack of objectivity? disadvantaged to carry out this role unless Some journalists and journalism scholars question they are prepared from the outset. media’s business in appealing for peace. Their posi- tion is informed by an age old tradition in the craft: eace journalism (PJ) approaches the craft of the normative philosophy that reporters should be Pscribes with an inbuilt objective of influencing reasonably emotionally detached from the events the reduction of tension and violence among na- they cover. Critics have pointed that it is not the tions, ethnicities, and communities. Students of PJ role of journalism to advocate a set position, that see its potential in reducing tension particularly in journalism should simply state the facts as they are the emerging democracies of the South comprising being careful to exercise fairness, balance and objec- separate ethnic nationalities for long lumped togeth- tivity. They make a point that any journalism that er, a legacy of their colonial history. Over the years fails to observe these tenets is bad journalism and this history has been exacerbated by untamed greed that differentiation should be made between bad for power by the post colonial elites manifested in and good journalism. In essence what the industry election rigging, unchecked corruption, lingering should be concerned with is the promotion of good suspicions among communities and a myriad other journalism and that peace journalism is the wrong factors including competition for limited natural re- answer to bad journalism. sources. Without empirical research it may not be possi- As Fackler (2010) has observed: ble to estimate the impact of Kenyan media’s peace reporting. The question as to whether this approach ‘In East Africa, Nilotes, Cushites, Bantus, made any difference and changed the course of

Media Development 3/2010 59 the nation may not be known. However there are In spite of the introduction of the opinion leader enough voices in the media industry in Kenya who in this model it still supports, even if only to a lesser believe passionately that the Kenyan situation could extent, the notion of a strong or powerful media. have been worse but for the stand of the media and However the perception that the media are not pow- that this was one occasion when the media rose to erful, are mediated by opinion leaders is one that the nation’s service, and behaved responsively in is consistently contested through the promotion of advocating for peace. But there are also those on advertising which is the lifeline of the media indus- the other side of the divide, although such voices try. Both advertisers and media managers believe in are few in the Kenyan media industry, who think the power of the media to influence the behaviour that the media at that time subscribed to a miscon- of the purchasing audience in making choices. ceived notion of peace and adopted a partisan posi- It is against this backdrop that the debate respect- tion betraying the ideals of journalism. At the core ing the role of media in conflict situations should be of these questions is one debate that has character- explored. The question is not whether media have ized media studies over the years: what is the effect effect, but what effect, and the extent of those ef- of the media on its audience? fects, and whether the study attributes maximum or only limited effects to the industry. This is borne in The effects of media the scholarship and models of mass media. Lazars- Media effects dialogue is long standing going back feld’s model, who says what, through what channel, nearly seventy years in the history of media studies and with what effect already anticipated the effects beginning with the bullet theory. The magic or hy- of the mass media. podermic needle theory assumed media had direct, Charles Wright (1986) in his seminal study immediate and powerful effect on their audience outlining the role of mass media in society from with the capability to bring about social change. a functional point of view not only hypothesized The media, according to Lazarsfeld, Berelson and such roles as entertainment, correlation, surveil- Gaudent (1944/1968), uniformly shot or injected lance among others, but also considered the dys- audiences with appropriate messages that had ef- functional role of the mass media. We thus have to fect on the choices they made at elections. deal both with the functions and dysfunctions of It was not only the bullet theory that assumed the mass media and explore the extent of the func- a powerful effect model. Other understandings of tions and dysfunctions. media effect such as agenda setting, spiral of silence, diffusion of innovation, cultivation and other so- Media impact in conflict situations cial change theories suggest that media have an im- Hanitzsch (2007) demonstrates that there is a grow- pact on their audience. While scholarship provides ing school suggesting media impact on conflict situ- an empirical support to the powerful effect model, ations. Media impact vary depending on the stage of popular culture is equally inundated with anecdotal the conflict.. Students of this school divide conflict discourse that tends to agree with this position. into various phases and argue that the impact of However, the maximum effects school is tem- media is influenced by the stage of the conflict. They pered by other intervening schools of scholarship identify three phases of conflict: the low intensity observing that audiences do not automatically suc- stage or pre atrocity stage, the atrocity stage, and cumb to the power of media messages. This think- the post atrocity stage. At the low intensity stage ing led to the concept of the obstinate audience. The media have limited effect. The coverage has impact obstinate audience, studies determined, were not as as the conflict intensifies and such impact diminish passive as they had been perceived to be, and did after the intensity of conflict. not automatically succumb to the media content. In Obviously there are characteristics of media, seeking to explain this contrary thinking scholarship their operational philosophy, the structure of news evolved the two step flow theory of communication frame and news values that influence the impact that analyzed how messages were transmitted from of media at these varied stages. The very nature of the media outlet to the audience but through opin- news values conspire to make coverage vary at the ion leaders. various stages of the conflict. Journalism scholars

60 Media Development 3/2010 agree that an event’s newsworthiness is influenced structures are premised on Western value system of by many factors including proximity of the event, profit motive. magnitude of the conflict, nobility, bizarreness, and The newsroom structure through which news is bloodiness among others. processed is an elaborate mechanism that forms a At low intensity stage news values are typically cog within which the individual is only but a spike. missing and such events would in any case go unre- This structure has a systemic weakness providing ported. This characteristic is evident not only during little wiggle room for individual journalists. Begin- the low intensity stage but also in the post intensity ning from the point of training a potential journal- period. If media do not intensely focus on events ist is drilled on the values and ethos of the system. at these various stages then obviously the impact It is only to the extent that the individual conforms of the media would be limited. On average, by the to the laid down frame that the individual will be time the conflict reaches high intensity, the interven- admissible to the practice. Once they get into the tion if any would be too late anyway. industry the process of conformation continues Critical then to media’s interventionist role is a through which the enculturation that began in reappraisal of the very values of news stories as they training institutions is grounded. have evolved over the years of the history of western Some of the agencies of doing this include journalism. The late Michael Traber attempted to newsroom colleagues, the environment, the tradi- do just that. In the manual Reporting Africa (1985) tions passed on and so on. By the time a journal- Traber and his colleagues argued that western news ist becomes established in the system the process of values were not in consonance with the realities of grounding is already complete with the new entrant Africa. In Africa, the majority of the population is becoming the embodiment of the institution itself. in the rural, the concrete relational orientation of Journalists will then tend to see reality in the same the African suggest an approach different from the way and conform to the typical way of framing re- normative news processing frame of the West, the ality. This is the impediment that suggesting a new continent’s infrastructural spread dictated that pri- way of doing things runs counters to. A paradigm orities of the African media would be different, than runs counter to this tradition would then be As a result Traber, Kasoma and Mwaura, among dismissed. others thought of a different framework of news There is, however, a strong case to be made for for Africa. This framework required identification peace journalism model and especially in a region of alternative news sources, alternative framework such as East Africa. Research in international con- of time and other related frameworks that make the flict suggest that since such data began to be kept events relevant to the needs and worldview of the there has been, on average, an increase peaking, in African. Because such a model has not been exten- 2009, at 365 conflicts (Heidelberg, 2009). It means sively explored in Africa nearly two decades after it that in the previous year a conflict of varying in- was proposed it would be premature to speculate tensity was breaking out every day. According to on its potential. But there are variances of this that the Heidelberg Institute on International Conflict are emerging, for example, the interest in civic jour- Research sub Sahara Africa ranked second as the nalism in North America. most conflict prone region of the world. Their study places the northern part of the continent, the white Need for training in the local context Africa, in a different regional category, but it is Why has African journalists failed to explore these probable that if Arab Africa was categorized with alternative frameworks? The answer appears sim- the rest of the continent, then East Africa would be ple enough. African journalists are trained in the the most conflict prone in the entire world. West, or are trained by professors who were them- selves trained in the West. They have been trained How does East Africa fare? on Western technology with a Western value sys- Certainly, not very well in peace terms. There are tem that incorporates Western models. Internalizing multiple conflicts of varying intensity unfolding in the Western model comes easy to them. The Afri- Uganda, DRC is still unsettled, Rwanda is only be- can media houses are mostly African in name. The ginning to settle down with the outstanding ques-

Media Development 3/2010 61 tion of what happens to Rwanda after President model which must be transformed. The transforma- Paul Kagame. In Kenya the violence that charac- tion of the machine must be at its core – at the stage terized post elections has not been conclusively ad- where its values are formed, at the entry level, and dressed. To Kenya’s north in Ethiopia, Eritrea and with the hope that at some appropriate time a criti- Somali there is continuing conflict, only Tanzania in cal mass will emerge. It is this critical mass that will the region shows surface calm. wield the power to transform the institution. The potential of these conflicts escalating is cer- Training institutions in East Africa can be cat- tainly high. Elections are set to take place in many egorized into three along the lines of their incorpo- of these countries. There is increasing limited re- ration and longevity. In the first category are state sources in these nations, itself a source of conflict. institutions, in the case of Kenya, established by The limited resources include natural ones such as separate Acts of parliament. Among these institu- oil, land, water, grass and mineral deposits. Accord- tions include the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta ing to the Heidelberg institute the causes of conflict University, Egerton University and Moi University. in order of their frequency are: systems and ideol- Nearly every one of these universities has a depart- ogy, resources, power, regional predominance, terri- ment of mass media or media training. tory, secession, autonomy, international power and The second category is institutions founded un- others. The challenge in the continent, and which der and the same Act of parliament. In the case other parts of the world may not be facing, is the of Kenya these are the private universities. Again, consideration of power itself as a resource. nearly all these universities have departments of Across the continent the distribution of national mass media studies. In the third category are the resources too often favour those in power. As such mid level training institutions, some with question- a leadership position is not so much the question of able credibility. The training programs in these in- occupying an office to serve the public, but rather stitutions vary widely. a strategic position to influence the distribution of The training in these institutions is standard: resources in favour of the leader’s preferences. This training using western textbooks, faculty trained by leads to economic inequality and conflict. It is this Western scholars and even more importantly, cur- that raises the question of what role the media ei- riculum and models developed in the West. In one ther play in contributing to the conflict or to reduc- sense training institutions in Africa are invariably ing it. extensions of trainings in the West. None of these Do African peculiarities then demand that re- curricula incorporates peace. porting Africa observe a different approach to jour- nalism, particularly in light of the framework ad- Transforming journalism training vanced by Traber and his colleagues? Certainly. But Five years ago, the World Journalism Educational why have journalists not done so? There are several Congress developed a model curriculum of journal- arguments against peace journalism. On top of the ism a variation of which UNESCO published. This list is the notion that it is not the business of the me- model curriculum divides training into skills orient- dia to champion peace (Loyn, 2007). Students who ed courses and general courses then proposes con- study media are of that opinion since professional- tent based courses that inform the field journalists ism requires detachment and objectivity. specialize in. This broadly is the kind of curriculum This notion of objectivity is the second impedi- adopted by the more progressive programs in East ment. The news processing structure, with its myr- Africa. iad gatekeepers and massive wheels has a specific It seems to me that conflict sensitive journalism, model of considering newsworthiness of an event. or peace journalism should target the craft area In this model peace related events only make it to where the students’ value systems and assumptions press when the conflict has already reached atrocity are formed. This would transform the framework stage, and the conflict is already bloody. At this stage that journalists apply in their news formulation. At the conflict provides appropriate pictures and feed. the moment there is no institution in EA that has a It is not possible to change this paradigm without curriculum that incorporates this. attacking the heart of it – the news manufacturing Universities have recognized the commercial im-

62 Media Development 3/2010 portance for training in peace and conflict resolution References and increasingly courses or minor and even major Bauer, R. A.(1971) ‘The Obstinate Audience: The Influence areas of studies are developing in this critical area. Process from the Point of View of Social Communication.’ The Process and Effects of Mass Communication. Ed. Wil- Some of these courses and programs are found at bur Schramm and Donald F. Roberts. Urbana: U of Illinois Daystar University, the University of Nairobi, and pp. 326-346 at Makerere University among others. But these are Fackler, M. and Baker, E. (2010). ‘Journalism Makes You Kind not fully fledged peace journalism studies. of Selfless.’ Ethics and Evil in the Public Sphere. New York: There are only about a handful of universities Hampton. Hanitzsch, T. (2007). ‘Situating peace journalism in journal- in the world that have programs in peace journal- ism studies: A critical appraisal. Conflict and communication ism. In some of these universities there is a provi- online Vol 6 No 2. sion for students who have registered in journalism Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict Research (2009). programs to take minor areas of study in peace and Conflict Barometer 2009: Crisis, Wars, Coups d’Etat, Nego- conflict fields. But there is still a weakness with this tiations, Mediations, Peace Settlements. 18th Annual Con- approach. While the peace and conflict provide the flict Analysis. Heidelberg: University of Heidelberg. Kasoma, F. (1985). ‘News Writing I’. Reporting Africa. Ed. theory and content, it does not provide an inte- Ron Rowlands and Hugh Lewin. Harare: Thomson Founda- grated whole to enable students understand how to tion and Friedrich Naumann Foundation, pp. 8-17. frame the reporting process. This can be done at the Lazarsfeld, P. F.; Berelson, B.; and Gaudet, H. (1944).The Peo- first level of the WJEC paradigm. ple’s Choice: How the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presi- Some (Loyn, 2007) have argued that what is dential Campaign. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. Loyn, D. (2007) Good journalism or peace journalism Conflict needed is not peace journalism but good journal- and communication online Vol 6 No 2. ism. Good journalism is informed by the values Lynch, J., & McGoldrick, A. (2005). Peace Journalism. Glouc- held by the journalist. These values include neu- estershire, UK: Hawthorne. trality, which is not necessarily detachment but a McCombs, M.E., and D.L. Shaw. (1993). ‘The Evolution of balanced engagement with both sides of an issue; Agenda-Setting Research: Twenty-Five Years in the Market- a sound ethical framework, and observance of all place of Ideas’. Journal of Communication. Vol. 43, No. 2, p. 58 – 67 other values of news. These scholars argue that too Mwaura, P. (1985). ‘News writing II’. Reporting Africa. Ed. often journalism is simply bad journalism in the Ron Rowlands and Hugh Lewin. Harare: Thomson Founda- sense that it does not ask the critical question and tion and Friedrich Naumann Foundation, pp. 19-24 seek to provide relevant answers. Noelle-Neumann, E. (1974). ‘The spiral of silence: a theory of If the craft of journalism has failed to live to its public opinion’. Journal of Communication, 24, 43-51 Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New ideal and examination is necessary, it may well be York: Free Press. that its genesis needs to be in the educational insti- Schramm, W., & Ruggels, W. L. (1967). ‘How mass media sys- tutions. Once questioning is effected at the training tems grow’. Ed. Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm. Com- level, the structures and traditions of the industry munication and Change in the Developing Countries. Hono- equally need re-examination to consider whether lulu: East-West Center, . pp. 57-7). journalism is not unnecessarily conflict-oriented. Thompson, A. (2007). Journalism training and media freedom in Rwanda. http://www.waccglobal.org/en/20074-commu- It is this conflict orientation that ought to be re- nicating-peace/476-journalism-training-and-media-freedom- examined with a view to internalizing a peace ori- in-rwand.html. Accessed May 6, 2010 entation. How we call this peace orientation – good Traber, M. (1985). ‘What is news’. Reporting Africa. Ed. Ron journalism, conflict sensitive journalism – does not Rowlands and Hugh Lewin. Harare: Thomson Foundation matter so long as the overall goal is achieved. And and Friedrich Naumann Foundation, pp. 1-7. Waki Report. (2008). http://www.eastandard.net/downloads/ n that goal is harmonious coexistence. Waki_Report.pdf. Accessed October 26, 2009. Wright, C. R. (1986). The Nature and Functions of Mass Com- Paper presented at the Peace Journalism Seminar munication. In Mass Communication: A Sociological Per- organised by WACC Africa and held in Dar es Sa- spective. (3rd Ed.) New York: Random House: 3-27. laam, Tanzania, 26-27 March 2010. Dr Levi Obonyo teaches communication studies at Daystar University in Nairobi Kenya.

Media Development 3/2010 63 IN THE EVENT...

Religion Communication Congress 2010 National Public Radio, and Kenneth Irby, founder of the photojournalism program at the Poynter In- CC2010’s theme was ‘Embracing Change: stitute. R Communicating Faith in Today’s World’. Some Marty prefaced the discussion with a reminder to 650 communicators gathered for three days of pre- the audience that from the perspective of religious sentations and workshops during which WACC history, ‘it often takes 250 years to settle an issue.’ Global and WACC North America led five events. Eckstrom, who spoke of some of the difficulties RCC2010 took place April 7-10, 2010 in Chica- wrought by the social media revolution, said truth, go, USA, where participants heard sports journalist, objectivity and credibility can suffer because of the talk show host, and award-winning author Mitch speed at which information now moves through Albom open with two stories of faithful change. tweets, blogs and other new media. The first was Albom’s own return to religion hav- On the positive side, those same social media of- ing been asked to give a eulogy for his community’s fer writers more direct contact with spokespersons rabbi. The second was the story of Henry Coving- – from religious leaders to politicians and celebrities ton, a drug-dealer-turned-pastor ministering to the – whom they are able to access through social me- poor and homeless of Detroit. Both are the subject dia pages without having to rely on public relations of Albom’s latest book, Have A Little Faith. officers or agents. ‘It’s the choosing to have faith in what you can- Hagerty said her job at National Public Radio not see, the choosing to pray and believe in some- (NPR) is to wade through the mountain of ma- thing beyond your reach – that makes faith the terials available – she was recently asked to skim incredible, sometimes maddening, but ultimately 10,000 pages of court documents in 45 minutes for rewarding journey that it is,’ said Albom. a story – but that her best and most unique story In another plenary address, Rev. Otis Moss III, ideas still come the old fashioned way: from talk- pastor of Trinity United Church of Christ in Chica- ing to people about their ideas and experiences and go, suggested that older communicators should be finding a unique or interesting angle. ready to ‘remix’ their message if they want to reach Irby, who also is a pastor, said that in the age today’s generation. Moss contrasted the leadership of the ‘always on and the 20-second deadline’ the styles of Old Testament figures Moses and Joshua, role of journalists is to be ‘sense makers’. He be- beginning his story with the statement that ‘Moses lieves that community building can and does hap- is dead, Joshua is the new generation.’ pen through social networks, but that the danger ‘Joshua was able to remix because Moses gave of some networks lies in users accessing only links him the tools. We must be willing to do what Moses connected their Facebook friends, and not taking did: transfer power. We can advise, as Moses did, advantage of a wider diet. but we must let the new generation reach their own. In a separate keynote address, Diana Eck, pro- We should provide the mentoring.’ fessor and director of The Pluralism Project at Har- vard University, affirmed that, ‘Pluralism begins Undercurrents of pluralism pervade RCC2010 with difference. Real religious pluralism means our Martin E. Marty, professor emeritus of the Uni- engagement with one another requires building versity of Chicago Divinity School and renowned sturdy relationships.’ religion historian, moderated a panel addressing Identifying the challenges faced in the United the changing media landscape. Panellists included States with its complex religious landscape, Eck Kevin Eckstrom, editor of Religion News Service, noted that, ‘We are not all the same. Pluralism be- Barbara Bradley Hagerty, religion beat reporter for gins there. Trying to understand these differences

64 Media Development 3/2010 is a great human challenge... The world is changed Monteiro believes that, ‘Religious communica- with faith practices of those we know little about. tion needs to communicate a theology, otherwise How do we deal with religious differences?’ it is not different from corporate communication.’ Noting that diversity is a fact in our world and He challenged religious communicators to beware that borders are often only dotted lines on a map, presenting faith as a product. It’s important to un- she reminded listeners that in our electronically derstand that communication is a process, he told connected world, no one really speaks in private. workshop participants. ‘What we are trying to pres- Yet, ‘Pluralism is more than differences, more than ent cannot follow corporate paradigms, which are tolerance. It requires we know something of others. driven by quantifiable outcomes.’ It is based on relationships.’ WACC Deputy Director of Programmes, Philip The Pluralism Project was the subject of the arti- Lee, took as the theme of his workshop ‘Commu- cle ‘Crossing borders to common ground’, by Kath- nication Rights and the Millennium Development ryn M. Lohre in Media Development 4/2009. Goals’. ‘While there are critics of the MDGs, they are still being taken seriously by many governmen- WACC-related workshops tal and non-governmental agencies. Considerable Sarah Macharia, WACC’s program manager for Me- public resources are being applied to achieving dia and Gender Justice, gave a workshop on WACC’s them and – therefore – we need to look at the role Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP). Now in that communication rights might play in facilitating its fourth incarnation, the GMMP looks at gender their achievement.’ portrayal and representation in the news. Statistics Why, then, is it unlikely that the targets will be from the preliminary report tell a shocking story: met? Political and economic obstacles apart, one Only 24% of people interviewed, seen, or read in reason is the ‘conspicuous absence’ of attention the news are female; and only 18% of people heard to the role communication might play. Since com- as experts or spokespersons are female. munication lies at the heart of change, ‘In practical How does gender inequality get played out in dif- terms, and in direct relation to the MDGs, recogniz- ferent topics in the news? Politics, government, and ing, implementing, and building on communication the economy receive the most press, but these are rights will help create “enabling environments” in also the areas in which women are most invisible. In which structural, political, economic, and cultural contrast, issues of critical import to women such as obstacles to social change can be identified, ana- peace, gender-based violence, poverty, women’s po- lyzed, and action taken to overcome them.’ litical and economic participation receive negligible In this respect, communicators – including those attention in the news. from faith communities – can help in three key Macharia used visuals from WACC’s 2009 photo ways. They can: competition to underscore the potential for change: • Provide increased space for and attention to a woman working in her own tire shop; a team of the voices, perspectives, and contributions of those women rowers in India competing in an all-male most affected by poverty; race; a man coddling his child in a classically mater- • Improve understanding of the world’s cultural nal posture. Such images depict the kind of report- diversity; significantly expand public debate and age that not only challenges stereotypes but is more dialogue on the issues that are a priority in interna- gender-fair, equitable and balanced. tional, national, and local contexts; Preliminary results from GMMP 2010 are avail- • Advocate more open, participatory, and inclu- able at www.whomakesthenews.org. Full results sive processes of policy development that empha- will be available later in the year. size the perspectives of those most affected by the In his workshop, Basilio Monteiro, Associate Pro- absence of social justice. fessor of Communications, at St John’s University, New York, and WACC-North America Executive Screening of documentary Triage Committee member posed provocative questions. Participants at RCC2010 saw a WACC-sponsored ‘Is religion our “business”? Is it another commod- screening of the thought-provoking documen- ity to be traded in the open marketplace?’ tary Triage: Dr James Orbinski’s Humanitarian

Media Development 3/2010 65 RCC2010 was the setting for the installation of three new Honorary Life Members of WACC. From left to right: Rev. Dr William F. Fore, Mrs Shirley Struchen, and Rev. Ed Willingham (Photo: Erick Coll). Honor- ary Life Membership of WACC is awarded to individuals who have demonstrated a long involvement in Christian communication and had a long association with WACC. Further details can be found on WACC’s web site at http://www.waccglobal.org/en/about-wacc/honorary-life-members.html

Dilemma. The film, directed by Patrick Reed and answer that is often far more powerful than what produced in 2007, depicts the real-life work of the can be proven objectively.’ former president of Médecins Sans Frontières (Doc- He continued, ‘It is the answer that comes from tors Without Borders) in Somalia, Rwanda, and the a place of deep humility, and from that place of “si- Democratic Republic of the Congo. lence before the unknown” where you can listen – Orbinski’s story – also published in a book titled “if you have ears to hear” – and where you come to An Imperfect Offering – raises disturbing questions know with absolute certainty what is right.’ about humanitarian aid and global politics in the Orbinski said that the success of Triage could context of one man’s commitment to bringing re- be measured to the extent that it encouraged de- lief and a measure of stability to people whose lives bate about the essence of humanitarianism in all have been torn by conflict. its complexity and uncertainty. ‘Humanitarianism Unable to be present, James Orbinski sent a is not separate from politics but in relation to it, short speech introducing the film. He noted that, and is a challenge to political choices that too often ‘As communicators on themes religious, you are kill or allow others to be killed. Hopefully the film called to enter the most complex and ambiguous shows a different way of seeing and responding to of human questions. These most often have no ob- the world.’ jectively provable right answer, but they do have an An article about James Orbinski and his work

66 Media Development 3/2010 which organisations in Argen- tina have used the GMMP to understand gender inequality in news content and to lobby successfully for the adoption of gender-responsive commu- nication legislation. Panellist Bassem Maher from Egypt used the case of the Ibrahimia Media Centre (IMC) in Alexandria, Egypt, to expound on current religious approaches to radio and televi- sion. Maher located his discus- sion in the historical context of the influence of Christian groups on social practices. He said that broadcast me- dia are influential in the Middle appeared in Media Development 4/2009 under the East in general, while Christian broadcasting and title ‘On the borders of (in)humanity’. particularly Christian television lag behind secular broadcasting. Global partners discuss ICTs impact Panellist Wong-Wei Wang discussed new media A panel of global partners convened and moder- and protestant churches in China. He noted that ated by WACC President Dennis Smith and WACC China is at the forefront of new technologies yet General Secretary Randy Naylor (photo above) dis- new media are not reflected in the communication cussed the impact of communication technologies channels used by the church. Use of new media is on religious communication. imperative if more people are to be attracted to the Panellist Rolando Pérez from Peru discussed the church whose congregations are predominantly mediatisation of religious practices in Latin Amer- made up of the elderly. ica, a region which although becoming religiously WACC President Dennis Smith synthesized the diverse, remains predominantly Catholic. He pre- presentations. ‘One of the unique privileges of form- sented photos of public processions, gatherings on ing part of a global association of communicators is national days and various social protests to illus- to be able to witness our inter-connectedness, our trate the extent to which religion permeates all as- inter-dependence, but also our high degree of par- pects of Peruvian society. ticularity. Ours is not a single reality, but countless Perez advanced several arguments that religion’s realities – some more inter-connected than others.’ concern with social influence is more evident now Smith pointed out that religious communi- in diametrical opposition to concern for individual ties have become more audible as voices speaking conversion. Religious communication is interested against discrimination, exclusion and oppression, in ‘shepherding rather than converting political and resulting in a blurring of the divide between the social leaders.’ At the same time, he said, politi- political and the religious. He emphasized WACC’s cal leaders legitimate their authority and discourse own work to provide a minimum ethical agenda for through participation in evangelical rituals. social change through communicative practices that Panellists Mathilde Kpalla from Togo and Mar- build inclusive and participatory communities. n cela Gabioud from Argentina drew attention to gender in the news media through discussions of Report by Philip Lee, WACC Deputy Director of their experience in the Global Media Monitoring Programs. Project (GMMP). Gabioud explained the ways in

Media Development 3/2010 67 ON THE SCREEN...

films, this film shows the creation of a political Nyon (Switzerland) 2010 sculpture against anti-Semitism, nationalism and forgetting.’ The prize of the Interreligious Jury at the festival In addition, the jury awarded a Commendation Visions du Réel (www.visionsdureel.ch) held in to Electric Light Wonderland directed by Susanna Nyon 15-21 April 2010 went to Steam of Life Wallin, Great Britain 2009. The citation read: ‘A (Miesten Vuoro) directed by Joonas Berghäll and caring single father engages with the desires and Mika Hotakainen (Finland/Sweden, 2010). needs of his two adolescent sons. In a subtle visual The citation reads: ‘Through the sauna, a language and empathetic close-ups, the film talks cornerstone of the Finnish art of living, the co- about mutual respect and trust between father and directors present men who show them-selves naked sons.’ – in every meaning of the word. With the rhythm of a choral song, Steam of Life mixes tears and smiles, sorrows and joys, shared emotions, in a spirit of forgiveness, serenity and brotherhood.’ Cannes SIGNIS and INTERFILM have been present at the Visions du Réel Festival in Nyon (Switzerland) (France) 2010 since 2005 with an interreligious jury. From 2008 At the Cannes film festival 12-23 May 2010 the the jury has included a representative of the Roman Ecumenical Jury awarded its Prize to Of Gods & Catholic and the Protestant Church, and a member Men, directed by Xavier Beauvois (France, 2010). of the Jewish and the Muslim faith. This movie of great artistic value benefits from a The jury awards its prize to a film in international remarkable group of actors and follows the daily competition and possibly a commendation. This rhythm of work and liturgy. prize is endowed with CHF 5.000 by the Swiss It depicts the sacrifice of the monks of Tibhirine Catholic and the Swiss Protestant Churches (Algeria 1996) choosing to maintain their peaceful (Conference of the Churches in the French speaking presence despite surrounding violence. The deep part of Switzerland/CER and the ‘Reformierte humanity of the monks, their respect for Islam and Medien’ in Zurich). their generosity towards their village neighbours make the reason for our choice. The Jury awarded a Commendation to Another Oberhausen Year, directed by Mike Leigh (England, 2010). Along the rhythm of the seasons, friendship and (Germany) 2010 tenderness bring together ordinary people dealing with the joys and pains of everyday life. Clear At the 56th International Short Film Festival directing and great Oberhausen (29 April - 4 May 2010) the Prize of acting combine to express authentic relations. It’s the Ecumenical Jury carrying prize money of 1500 up to everyone to be responsible for their own life. Euros went to Mur i wieża (Wall and Tower) The Jury also awarded a Commendation to directed by Yael Bartana, Israel/Netherlands/Poland Poetry, directed by Lee Chang-Dong (South Korea, 2009. 2010). Through the charm of poetry, Mija, a decent The citation read: ‘A group of Jews follows the grandmother weakened by disease and culpability, call to re-establish Jewish life in Poland by building opens up to a contemplative perception of the a Kibbutz where the Warsaw Ghetto used to be. A world. n provocative satire and a parody on old propaganda

68 Media Development 3/2010 Why not join the World Association for Christian Communication?

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WACC promotes communication for social change. It believes that communication is a basic human right that defines people’s common humanity, strengthens cultures, enables participation, creates community and challenges tyranny and oppression. WACC’s key concerns are media diversity, equal and affordable access to communication and knowledge, media and gender justice, and the relation- ship between communication and power. Being WACC means ‘taking sides’.

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