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Cristina Marques Nogueira Knowledge and the Experience Of Journal of Social Science Education ©JSSE 2015 Volume 14, Number 2, Summer 2015 DOI 10.2390/jsse-v14-i2-1427 Cristina Marques Nogueira Knowledge and the Experience of Women Living Underground During the Portuguese Dictatorship “A course of instruction will be the more successful the more its individual phases assume the character of experience” Hugo Von Hofmannsthal Buch der Freunde This paper assumes that formative processes are not limited to the school context or model but that other life contexts and experiences, even if not intentionally, have educational effects. These informal formative contexts and experiences can play a key role individual´s development, resulting not only in superficial changes, but also in deep changes in terms of subjectivity and identity. Our research involves clandestine militants of the Portuguese Communist Party during the dictatorship, and explores the type of knowledge acquired during their hiding experience (1940-1974) that allowed them to resist and survive over long periods. As our focus is the experience of women, based on narrative discourses of women (or about them) we will consider the role and status of women in hiding. The discourses were collected through several published autobiographical narratives and mainly interviews where we tried to identify the learning processes, the people seen as significant for knowledge acquisition, and also how knowing, knowing how to do and knowing how to be were constructed during living in hiding. Keywords: ascertainable based on a purely theoretical calculation" Memory, experimental formation, resistance (ibid); this also implies a "rupture" in so far as it involves a critical commitment towards those who have been 1 Introduction "marginalized in history." It is a history in which the This article uses the biographical method as a way to "subject re-enters” through his/her life stories and that hear people’s voices, to bring their knowledge and their generates an understanding of the "lived" world different experience, their lives – often condemned to silence or at from classical historiographical perspectives. A similar best confined to the ghetto of profane knowledge – into view is assumed by Paula Godinho when she states that the space of erudite knowledge. Our topic was not looking at individuals as beings with the capacity to change the accessible in documents or archives. We wanted to hear course of history, seeing them as social agents that can take the very people who have lived underground talk about ownership of situations and alter them according to their own their training processes and their experiences, in short, interests is to recognize that inventiveness is a weapon in relation to about their life in hiding. Inherent to this option was also hegemonic incorporation. (2004, p. 91) our concern to understand the meanings attributed to living in hiding, from the point of view of their own Michelle Perrot (1998) states that “current education/training. However, the research process developments of the so-called ‘oral history’ are, in a way, involved, besides interviews, content analysis of docu- a women’s revenge” (p. 17), as women became more ments that the interviewees mentioned or shared with visible with biographical methods – the traditional us. historiographic narrative leaves little room for women by In this regard, the perspective of Ferrarotti (1983) is of favoring the public sphere (politics, war) where women particular interest by bringing both the researcher’s and are generally absent. Therefore, our approach also participants’ subjectivity to the ground of scientific seemed important to uncover the lives of the most research. Ferrarotti seeks to avoid a social fragmentation clandestine of the underground militants: women. Given and an exclusion of the meanings attributed by the relative absence of women in the existing research, individuals to social life. His broad vision of History as this is an exploratory research that involved interviews "historical life" (Ferrarotti, 1983, p. 183), not restricted to with underground women and the analysis of diverse the traditional view of the elite of history conceived as documents. political history, but "including the full dimensions – Our knowledge of a former clandestine women was the economic, social, socio- and psycho-anthropological – basis for a of snowball sampling as each interviewee that through complex intertwining give rise to a shared additional contacts. The only feature that we relational dialectic that is not predictable or considered essential was the existence of a broad period of life in hiding. Whenever possible, other features were Cristina Marques Nogueira has PhD in Educational heterogeneous – the specific historical period in hiding, Sciences by Oporto's University and is a Portuguese gender, and whether they assumed management or researcher from the FCSH- Universidade Nova de executive tasks – in order to grasp, as much as possible, Lisboa. unique point of views points of view. As already men- Email: [email protected] tioned some documents provided by the interviewees 40 Journal of Social Science Education ©JSSE 2015 Volume 14, Number 2, Spring 2015 ISSN 1618–5293 were also included. Some of the documents, were did play a key role in the resistance to the regime. Most published autobiographical writings that were read often, existing social struggles were triggered, coor- before the interviews as a way to prepare the interviews dinated and led by the PCP, and the movements of the and further our knowledge of a reality that was far in "democratic opposition" counted upon its influence and both chronological and anthropological terms. The the mobilizing work of its members. Hermínio Martins transcripts of the interviews and the documents were believes that: the object of content analysis to identify the main themes/categories. The 'resistance' is by far the opposition strategy that has higher On the whole, we interviewed nine people that added costs under an authoritarian regime. Repression against this oppo- sition mode is so severe and inevitable, and rewards so uncertain and up 164 years in hiding and 63 years, 7 months and 20 remote, that there are few organizational structures daring to adopt days in prison during the fascist regime in Portugal. it. With the exception of the Communist Party, only the 'national Periods in hiding ranged from 7 and 34 years, and in liberation' movements successfully have developed such a strategy. prison from 0 (as some were never in prison) to 17 years. (2006, p. 60) They were born in different historical periods, from 1914 to 1946, from diverse social backgrounds. They dived The underground referred to in this text is the underground – an expression they themselves use to talk clandestine political activity during "Estado Novo", more about starting to live in hiding – in the 1940s or 1950s precisely the unlawfulness that communists were forced even if some had already some political activity or were to carry out their political activity. The clandestine in prison for their political beliefs. organization of the PCP included a network of clan- destine safe houses; the number of houses is undefined 2 Women and the underground and difficult to estimate due to the constant mobility of The Portuguese fascist regime was established on 28 underground members. However, it was probably variable over time, depending on the greater or lesser May 1926 by a military coup. From 1933, with the ii approval of a new Constitution, the dictatorship adopts strength of the organization. the name of "Estado Novo" (New State); it was the Clandestine life demanded a mimetic stance according longest lasting in Europe, having come to an end only 48 to the environment where people would temporarily years later on 25 April 1974. For almost five decades, this settle in. For this camouflage to become effective, system managed to withstand several threats, including underground members played out a role in accordance the impact of the Spanish Civil War, the end of World to local customs and moral values of the “hosting” War II with the subsequent defeat of fascist regimes in communities. Therefore, it was common procedure for Europe, the removal of Salazari, who for decades was the the "clandestine settlement” to consist of a heterosexual face and spirit of the regime, a long colonial war (1961- couple, where the male element would assume a 1974) that has wasted a significant part of the country’s credible and plausible work activity for the hours and human and financial wealth, and also the resistance absences he was required to do, while usually the across the country, either through several coup attempts woman would take on the role of a "housewife". Daily or through social movements that over the years had life in hiding depended on a strict discipline of the taken various forms led by diverse layers of the organization, materialized into "conspiracy rules" that population. generated a normativity underlying all life situations in For 48 years, Portuguese people suffered repression, underground. Even the simplest of aspects, such as censorship, lack of freedom, illiteracy, child labour, and clothes or personal appearance, had to comply with an economic system that fostered poverty and hunger. In these rules. Men should always be well shaven and 1941, a survey conducted in rural areas by FNAT combed, wear a suit, tie and hat, according to the social (National Federation for Happiness at Work), a govern- status and style of the time. ment agency, on infant nourishing concluded that: Clandestine houses were generally on locations that would allow for good outward visibility, so that Infant nourishing is poorest and neglected. Even by the early few surveillance would be possible, as well as allowing for a months, infants are already given food used by adults. As the little possible escape if necessary, and they were equipped children do not have teeth to grind food, mothers, or even strangers, with the bare minimum, in order to allow a speedy often first chew the food, then take it out of their mouths by hand, "dismantling of the installation".
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