The Right to Inform and be Informed

Everyone has the right ... to seek, receive and im- part and ideas through any media. Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Over the last decade, there has been, among the media, the ministries of information and in the confer- ences, especially those of UNESCO, an increasingly heated and often acrimonious debate on what is now called the New World Information and Order (NWICO). The debate is of interest to all of us because what is at stake critically affects and shapes our daily lives and our futures. Participation in the debate should, therefore, be much wider than it is today, indeed open to all concerned, that is to all citizens. This issue of DEVELOPMENTDIALOGUE has been con- ceived as a contribution to this task. The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, alone or with a number of sister institutions, has been active in the field of communica- tions for almost ten years. The time has now come to take stock, to map out what needs to be done and to state or restate a number of principles and values which are necessary to give content to the right 'to seek, receive and impart information' as it is laid down in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Maldevelopment pervades societies, North and South, East and West alike. Another Development is required everywhere and by all. It is people-centred, geared to the satisfaction of human needs-both material and, in the broadest sense, political; it is self-reliant, endogenous, ecologically sound, and based on democratic, political, social and economic structural transfor- mations which alone will make possible the attainment of the other goals. Another Development also encompasses the search for so- cieties overcoming discrimination of any kind-be they social, sexual, ethnic or economic. It is a participatory and pluralistic process. To communicate is a uniquely human quality and a funda- mental human need. It is a crucially important part of the approach to Another Development-that is to a genuine democ- racy-both as a goal and as a means. It helps to define socially the other needs and to devise strategies to meet them. It is rooted in the culture of each society. 2 Editorial

The struggle for a fuller exercise of the right to inform and to be informed-the right to communicate-requires that the val- ues and principles which guide it be made explicit. They may be articulated in the following points: Pluralism. The principle of the 'free flow of information' is meaningless, in a social and democratic sense, if it is not based on the concrete exercise of the right of everyone to receive and impart information. This implies that the means to communi- cate-be they editorial, technical or financial in nature-should be available to all sectors of society, and that no particular group, whatever its values or constituency, should be in a position to control a predominant share of the flow. Pluralism in the flow of information should result in the full respect for and interplay of human differences. Direct flows. Societies and their constituent elements-the go- vernmental sector, the business sector and the popular sector with its many and diverse associations-should be able to communicate directly with each other without external control. This applies first of all to the Third World, in which direct South-South flows should be developed as a matter of urgency. But it is also valid for the South-North flows, since it enables the South to communicate directly with the North. Social function. Information is an element of the autonomous power of the people. It is neither a commodity nor . should not be controlled by the power struc- ture, be it that of the market or of the state. This does not mean that it is illegitimate for the governmental and business sectors to impart information, but that the interests of society at large must always prevail. There should be no unheard voices. The associations and individuals constituting the Third System* should be the prime beneficiaries of the realization of the prin- ciples of pluralism and direct flows. Those who have the power to inform must be held accountable for its use to society and, in particular, to those affected by such information. Another information. Factual reporting of events is important. Reporting and analysing their context and the underlying struc- The Right to Inform and be Informed 3

tures and processes which give rise to the events reported is equally important and should be further developed. Moreover, information is also education in its broadest sense, that is con- sciousness raising. It should contribute to reducing ignorance and preconceptions. The image of 'the Other' should reach each of us, stripped of ethnocentric biases. It should serve a genuine cooperation between societies in their cultural diversity. Another information should enhance the capacity of societies and individuals to control their own destinies and contribute to peace. Communication versus information. The right to inform and to be informed implies that the vertical dispensation of knowledge to passive receivers by those who have access to it should give way to a mutually beneficial exchange through horizontal inter- actions, each party being at the same time a provider and a receiver of information. This is communication in the proper sense of the term. Communication should therefore be depro- fessionalized to the largest extent possible. All those who feel the need to express themselves should be able to do so without unnecessary intermediation. Those who will continue to dis- charge specialized functions should become aware of this social requirement and their own learning process should reflect this need. Appropriate use of the new technologies. New communication technologies are both a risk and an opportunity. Those re- quiring heavy investment should be brought under social con-

* The Third System has been defined as those organizations and agents of change which endeavour to listen to people and reflect their views. These were said to constitute the Third System, not just by analogy with the Third World. The state (first system) and the market (second system) are the two main sources of the power exercised over people. But people have an auk - nomous power, legitimately theirs. The Third System is that part of the peop which is reaching a critical consciousness of their role. It is not a party nor organization; it constitutes a movement of those-free associations, citizen and militants-who perceive that the essence of history is the endless struggl by which people try to master their destiny (see Building Blocks for Alterna five Development Strategies, IFDA Dossier 17, May 1980; reprinted in Deve- lopment Dialogue 1981: 1, pp. 68- 101). 4 Editorial

trol so that they do not strengthen further the centres of power. Those which are financially accessible to associations and indi- viduals should be used in an appropriate manner. Both should promote richer and more diverse communication.

As already noted, the debate about the New World Information and Communication Order has been a lively and often bitter one. In the course of this debate, there has been a change in the perspective from which these issues are viewed and in the emphasis given to the different components in the new order. These changes may be summarized in the following way. From initially focussing on the problems posed by the domi- nance of the news flows from a few transnational news agen- cies, the debate has developed to consider the role of the communications structures in their entirety and their social implications. Among the new subjects that have come to be the principal objects of analysis are the following: the societal im- pact of the revolutionary changes under way in communication technology, the increasing role and influence of , the social functions and responsibilities of professional communica- tors, the interaction between culture and communication, and the increasing concentration of the control over the media exer- cised by private or public organizations. The issues raised above and the need for change implied by them cannot be analysed or dealt with exclusively at the inter- national level since they all have a national dimension. The analysis and questioning of national policies and institutions is an inseparable component of the efforts to achieve real structural changes in the global communications system. The approach described here goes beyond the problems posed by the North-South relationship and extends into the national and regional problems not only of the South but also of the North. This is exemplified by the current debate in many countries concerning, inter alia, direct satellite transmission, 'free ra- dios', the implications for social life of home computer termi- nals, the access of different social groups to publicly controlled media, the protection of the privacy of the individual and other issues related to the transborder data flows. The Right to Inform and be Informed 5

The demand for change at the national and international levels can be summarized in a few words as a demand for 'the democratization of communication structures'. There is a grow- ing frustration being voiced by people all over the world: 'We have no access to media'; 'They do not represent us'; 'They are only defending their own interests'. Although the level of popu- lar consciousness and the intensity of the criticisms vary from country to country, the demand for the democratization of communications is a truly world-wide social phenomenon. As already emphasized, there is a legitimate and essential space in the new information and communication order enabling the people to express themselves autonomously as individuals and through their associations. Furthermore, the debate, thus wid- ened, should result in immediate and concrete actions which would give practical content to the demand for the democratiza- tion of communications and to the establishment of the new information and communication order.

Since communication is part and parcel of their activities, Third System organizations have been active in the current debate about the New World Information and Communication Order both at the conceptual and at the practical level. At this stage, what is required is the drawing up of a kind of inventory of the many initiatives taken in all regions of the world. This would enable the associations which are engaged in the struggle for a new order to know each other, to exchange ideas, experiences and information, and thus mutually streng- then each other. As a very modest contribution to this task, it appears useful briefly to recall some of the initiatives taken, over the last ten years, by the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, the Latin American Institute for Transnational Studies (ILET) and some institutions close to them. The Dag Hammarskjold Foundation organized, in 1972, a seminar on applied communication in the Third World. This was followed by two further seminars as well as a number of publications by the seminar director, Andreas Fuglesang. In 1975, at the completion of the Dag Hammarskjold Project on Development and International Cooperation, the Foundation 6 Editorial

convened in New York, during the Seventh Special Session of the UN General Assembly, a seminar for Third World journa- lists. Not only did they cover, from a Third World point of view and for Third World media, a session which would have other- wise been reported essentially by Western media, but they also addressed themselves to the need for establishing a new com- munication order (both the text of recommendation 6 of the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold Report and the conclusions of the journa- lists' seminar are reproduced below, pp. 115- 118). In 1976, the newly created Latin American Institute for Transnational Studies organized in Mexico, in cooperation with the Dag Harn- marskjold Foundation and under the auspices of the Third World Forum (TWF), a seminar on 'The Role of Information in the New International Order'. It resulted, inter alia, in the publication of a number of relevant papers in DEVELOPMENT DIALOGUE1976:2.

During the following years, ILET carried out a multifaceted programme of work and has already made, through its publica- tions and meetings, a seminal contribution to a better under- standing of the communication problhzatique. Its Executive Director, Juan Somavia, was a member of the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems (the MacBride Commission). As far as operational activities are concerned, Third World (IPS), a cooperative of es- sentially Third World communicators, has extended its service to more than 50 countries, implementing in a very concrete manner the principles of the NWICO. The Director-General of IPS, Roberto Savio, was a participant in the 1976 Mexico semi- nar. IPS is described in some detail on pp. 98- 102 below. The International Foundation for Development Alternatives (IFDA), which has been associated with most of the activities mentioned above, contributed to the process not only through the publication of its Dossier but also, in cooperation with IPS, through the production of a bulletin covering UN development activities, which is distributed daily to missions of the Group of 77 in Geneva, New York and . The Geneva-based IPS The Right to Inform and be Informed 7

correspondent, who acts as the editor of the bulletin, Chakra- varthi Raghavan of , was a participant in the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold seminar of Third World journalists. ILET, with the cooperation of IPS, is currently finalizing plans to launch ALTERCOM, a service of exchange of devel- opment information material between alternative magazines and journals of Latin America. IFDA and IPS are trying to help a group of African communi- cators to set up an alternative, people-oriented system of com- munication for development in Africa. Initiatives have also been taken in the intergovernmental space, both outside and within the United Nations system. The non-aligned movement, for instance, has continued to develop the pool of non-aligned news agencies which provide for a direct South-South flow of information among national news agencies. In Latin America and the Caribbean, the Acciones de Sistemas Informativos Na- cionales (ASIN), which comprise 13 countries, also provide for a mutual exchange. It is worth noting that both systems use IPS as the carrier of their material. It should also be mentioned that SELA (the Latin American Economic System) has approved the establishment of ALASEI (Agencia Latinoamericana de Servicios de Informacion), a pro- ject promoted by UNESCO for the production of features. ALASEI provides for the presence of both non-governmental and governmental representations in its decision-making bodies. Some initiatives in the United Nations sphere also deserve to be mentioned here. UNESCO has established the International Programme for the Development of Communications (IPDC). UNDP has now decided to launch, as a contribution to Third World collective self-reliance, a major South-South network of specific, action-oriented development information (DIN), which was endorsed by the Group of 77 at its high level meeting in Caracas, last May. The UN proper has encouraged the publi- cation, by fourteen major world newspapers, of a develop- ment-oriented quarterly supplement which has provoked, on the side of the tenants of the status quo, an unusual degree of verbal violence. 8 Editorial

A sign of the relevance of, and public interest in, the opinions and activities of Third System organizations is the continuing steady demand for the 1976:2 issue of DEVELOPMENTDIALOGUE, containing a major section on 'Information and the New Inter- national Order'. Since this issue has been out of print for some time, the section on information is reprinted here with the exception of one article. Third System contributions of this kind continue to be made in the analytical field. In particular, the concept of the democra- tization of communications and its manifold implications has been closely examined. It is significant to note that the 25th anniversary conference of the International Association of Researchers, to be held in 1982, has chosen this as its theme. The democratization of communica- tions is also the principal subject matter of this issue of DEVEL- OPMENT DIALOGUE. In contrast to the reprinted section, the new material deals mainly with national rather than international issues. This is so because, in many countries, the obstacles to the democratiza- tion of communications are internal rather than external. This is particularly so in the Latin American context, where the media are largely controlled by big financial interests and, together with the authoritarian regimes in many cases, exercise an overt and covert censorship as a matter of course. It is this situation that Juan Somavia deals with in his article 'From Minority Social Monopoly to Majority Social Representation'. Democracy in communications is not only dependent on the socio-political situation, but also on a number of economic factors. Two such issues are dealt with in different time per- spectives. Noreene Janus and Rafael Roncagliolo show how media have become captives of advertising interests through their financial dependence on them. Juan Rada alerts us to the long-range implications of the microelectronics revolution for Third World countries. Tarja Cronberg and Inga-Lisa Sangre- gorio illustrate the dangers of the new technologies by telling us about two pilot projects carried out in Japan to computerize domestic life. They analyse in particular the implications for women. The Right to Inform and be Informed 9

But this issue is not conceived simply to decry existing prob- lems. It is also action-oriented, looking for spaces that will permit change, seeking for alternatives. No doubt, much can be done to promote alternative communication structures. Fer- nando Reyes Matta proposes for discussion an alternative mo- del for democratic communication that integrates at the policy and operational levels social actors who have up to now played a marginal role. He also develops methods and criteria for evaluating and assessing accountability. The opportunities offered by alternative media and the possi- bilities of using such media to transmit alternative communica- tions are also brought to attention. Thus, this issue presents the work of Inter Press Service Third World News Agency (IPS), the only Third World cooperative of journalists.

In line with the values and principles outlined above, a new institution was established in Malta in July 1981: the Commu- nication for Development Foundation (CODEV), an interna- tional, non-governmental, non profit-making organization (see also pp. 103-104 below for more information on its constitu- tion, sponsors and members of its Executive Committee). The initiators of CODEV believe that there is a space for Third System activities as complementary to, but distinct from, commercial and governmental ones; specific instruments are needed as servicing facilities for the emerging network of alter- native communication. In this context, it should be noted that the Swedish government has recently instructed its aid agency, SIDA, to support projects 'in cooperation primarily with non-governmental organizations and institutions'. CODEV is sponsored by six institutions-IFDA, ILET, IPS, AAWORD*, DHF and TWF-but it is open to all those who share its approach and feel the necessity to act. It is designed to help like-minded groups in the North as well as in the South to share experiences for their mutual benefit and to have access to the required resources. Just as IFDA, through its Third System

* Association of African Women for Research and Development. 10 Editorial

Project, served as a pool of resources and a forum for exchange for some 60 Third System organizations, CODEV could use its fund-raising capacity to facilitate the work of like-minded organizations. Activities which CODEV will promote and sup- port include projects and consultative services in production and transmission of information, action-oriented research, and conscientization of communicators. CODEV will essentially be an operational-as distinct from policy-making-institution. However, it will not normally exe- cute projects itself, but rather act through its constituent mem- bers and other like-minded institutions. CODEV will seek to cooperate with all those, either in the governmental or commer- cial sector, who recognize the need for effectively correcting present imbalances and lack of pluralism in information flows, the content of information provided and its sources. It could in particular contribute, from the specific vantage point of the Third System, to the pursuit of the goals set by the international community through the United Nations system, for instance the UNESCO-sponsored International Programme for the Devel- opment of Communications. CODEV is a tool. It will become what its users want it to become. As a nascent organization, it represents the commit- ment of a few individuals and institutions to build on what has been done so far-of which this issue of DEVELOPMENTDIA- LOGUE provides a modest snapshot-in order to widen the space of the Third System in communications. It does not claim to be perfect from the beginning. It is part of a process and intended to further this process.

This issue of DEVELOPMENTDIALOGUE is inspired by the belief that there are spaces providing opportunities for action both in the analytical and the operational field and that, within the area of Third System activities, there is ample scope for mutually beneficial cooperation between like-minded people, organizations and governments of the South and the North, who wish to promote change. For Workers in Adult Education, about Primary Health Care and Nutrition 23 1 pages, richly illustrated understanding :E 7r;g:-09-4 Published in 1982 by -ideas and observations the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation on cross-cultural Order from: Dag Harnmarskjiild Centre, U\ re Slottsgatan 2, communication S 75220 Uppsala, Sweden by andreas fuglesang

Over the last ten years there has been an ever growing importance attached to the communications problimatique. Most efforts to transform the present international information structures have been made in a rather abstract manner and at a fairly high political level. About Understanding represents a major contribution to the problem of communication at the grass roots level. In this updated and thought-provoking expansion of his earlier book A#- lied Communication in Developing Countries: Ideas and Observations, Andreas Fug- lesang introduces new and bold perspectives in his analysis of the role of communications in social and economic de~elopmcnt. Yet the book is no abstract discourse. As a practical guide to the issue of development communication it offers workers in adult education, primary health care and nutrition in the Third World many valuable observations and ideas which they can apply to their own situations. Andreas Fuglesang is an internationally recognized authority on informa- tion, cross-cultural communication and adult education in the Third World.

The Democratization of Communications From Minority Social Monopoly to Majority Social Representation By Juan Somavia

'There is today a minority social monopoly over the means of communication in Latin America. The property and control of the principal industrial instruments of information are basically in the hands of one social sector: the powerful private economic and financial interests which exert major influence in national affairs. Through direct ownership and a variety of other methods, they can orient the content and general direction of mass media and have the power to influ- ence significantly the total information agenda of the so- cieties in the region', writes Juan Somavia, the Executive Director of the Latin American Institute for Transnational Studies (1LET) in this sharply critical analysis of the commu- nications situation in Latin America. The author goes on to map out how it is possible to change the present situation and move towards a democratization of the communications systems by taking a series of concrete steps, based on the recognition of information as a basic human need and on the need for establishing socially legi- timate communication structures. He ends by emphasizing that it is necessary in this context to question the economic, cultural and political role played by advertising in contempo- rary society and suggests that public funding of communica- tion means, for instance along the lines practised in Sweden, should become a central component in the democratization of communications.

The exercise of effective democracy and its social structures. Under the guise of democra- fundamental expressions: lack of exploitation, cy, different forms of private and public au- equalization, generalized popular participa- thoritarian power structures roam the world. tion, the dignity of employment, adequate in- For instance, both Fortune's largest industrial come and individual and social creativity-is a enterprises, whose relative concentration and universal aspiration. All political systems power in the economy of the United States claim to express its values-yet reality shows have grown significantly,* and the authori- otherwise. The world is still seeking the para- meters of a fully workable combination of *Fortune's 500 largest industrial enterprises increased political, social, economic and cultural democ- their nominal sales ninefold from 1955 to 1979, while Unit- racy. The sense and of the democrat- ed States GNP grew six times, increasing the relation of their total sales to GNP from 40 per cent to 61 per cent in ic process have been interpreted in many that period. (1955-77: US Department of Commerce, Sta- different ways and its objectives have been tistical Abstract; 1978-79: IMF, International Financial applied through widely varying political and Statistics [GNP];and Fortune.) 14 Juan Somavia

tarian regimes of the South Cone of Latin The legitimacy of democracy is no longer America claim to be working for democracy. based exclusively on the existence of a repre- People, though, see things differently. Some- sentative political system originated in the thing is clearly wrong. regular support of the citizens. The long and However, this is not a paper on the present dramatic history of the evolution of the capi- and future destiny of democracy, although this talist system-within which the model of con- background has to be considered. It is a paper temporary Western democracy developed- on the democratization of a fundamental as- shows that the self-proclaimed 'industrial de- pect of society, its communication structures, mocracies' of today were, in a historical per- seen from the perspective of a particular re- spective, extremely undemocratic until rather gion: Latin America. This approach means recently. Citizens could vote (obviously ex- that three fundamental aspects must be kept in cluding women!), but they were also exploited mind: and were continually hampered in their efforts 1. In Latin America, the democratization of to organize themselves against the power of communications is an inseparable component the state and that of private monopolies and of the different national struggles to liberate trusts. Also, governments which were the and democratize both society at large, and the outcome of 'free' elections-thus formally present political systems so largely dominated legitimate-colonized other nations through by authoritarian structures. different imperial systems in the name of 'civi- 2. Unlike any other Third World region, Latin lization'. America has copied the United States model Such situations were not changed easily. of communications in terms of its commercial Much blood, repression and violence has gone outlook, its predominantly private ownership into the recognition of the social aspects of pattern (including ), the overpow- a democratic system, the expansion of civil ering presence of advertising, the use of 'im- and political rights, and the acceptance of the pact' criteria for selection of content and in- right to independence of formally colonized formation, and the links between communica- countries. tion power and national and transnational eco- Thus emerged the progressive consolidation nomic and financial groups. of the social and civil rights of citizens as a 3. The penetration of transnational communi- necessary corollary of their political rights. cation styles in the region is significant and This led to the incorporation into the constitu- widespread and is a determining factor which tional and legal framework of the right to reinforces present minority socio-economic work, social security, unemployment benefits, structures and affects cultural identity. subsidized education and health services, and the right to organize trade unions and to strike. All of this has taken place in a lengthy Democracy and communications-in search process of social struggle which is far from of each other being fully achieved.* To pose the questions involved in the democ- A seemingly uncontrollable process of mer- ratization of communications, it is useful to gers, concentration and conglomeration has identify the historical context in which both effectively limited the space of economic de- these issues have evolved. mocracy. The principle that social rights are The Democratization of Communications 15

inseparable components of a true democracy As a recent report of the Third System Pro- is generally accepted in theory, but the con- ject of the International Foundation for Devel- servative wave of thinking which has surfaced opment Alternatives (IFDA) states: in the wake of the present crisis criticizes it The only legitimacy is that of people ... Those who for being an obstacle to efficiency and eco- hold power must be held accountable for its exer- nomic rationality. cise. Mechanisms to enforce accountability must be More recently, the problem of the responsi- established .. . Accountability is part of the effort of ble exercise of power within a society has gen- people to regain their autonomous power.' erated a new wave of demands to perfect the actual functioning of a democracy. Here the In more political terms, contemporary democ- issue is not the question of the legitimacy of a racies need to respond adequately not only to social activity, be it a governmental function, the question of the legitimate origin of power, the production of goods and services, the pro- but also to the fundamental issue of the demo- vision of information, or other socially rele- cratic exercise of power. It is no longer suffi- vant operations, but rather the question of the cient for a political system to be legally de- potentially excessive concentration of power mocratic; it must also be so in practice. derived from the way these activities are or- This synoptic overview of the way that the ganized and carried out. This has raised the concept of democracy has evolved, from the question of accountability for the actions of recognition of political and social rights to the bureaucratic structures, large transnational need to regulate the concentration of power in conglomerates and powerful communication private or public hands, is closely linked to a means. All societies face these problems and corresponding evolution in the appreciation of are dealing with them in the context of their the functions that communications should play own social systems and evolution. Nonethe- in a democratic society. less, the central issue is posed everywhere in In this context, the recognition of freedom that there can be no rights without correspond- of and its operational consequence, ing social responsibilities. freedom of the press, became hard-fought democratic banners for those who had the means to exercise them. In their origins, they *Even today, Orwell's famous characterization that 'all were elitist, because they could only be prac- men are created equal but some are more equal than tised by the few, and individualistic, because others' is fully applicable in many respects to different aspects of most prevailing social systems. For example, they emerged from a liberal view of society. some consider the provision of free health services and They were considered basically as individual complete secondary education as fundamental human rights of all citizens, to be affirmed mainly in rights which a democratic society has a duty to satis- opposition to the prevailing public powers. fy; others consider that health and educational costs should be basically regulated by market forces, making Nonetheless, this function of 'watching over' them a function of income and not of human rights. In the public activities as an independent power im- same manner, for some social systems the concentration plicitly posed the social nature of the function of extreme wealth in few hands can live alongside the and raised questions of representation-in existence of extreme poverty without affecting the demo- whose name did the press speak?- and re- cratic tissue. For others, true democracy implies the elimination of extreme poverty and the disappearance of sponsibility-to whom was the press ac- extreme wealth. countable for its conduct? 16 Juan Somavia

This implicit 'social dimension' became par- tion-a business-oriented matter. Increasing- ticularly relevant from the perspective of ly, market considerations began to influence Third World countries and their historical decisions with respect to what information struggle for political independence. In Latin was all about. This process was accelerated America, the fight against Spanish domination when technological breakthroughs made mass was waged as much on the battlefields of the production possible and mass consumption in- continent as on the 'information front'. Boli- dispensable.* Advertising became an indus- var himself highlighted this when he said: trial requirement and the media appeared as a ' is the artillery of the mind.' On 'natural' information link between producers different occasions, he referred to the fact that and consumers. both printing presses and canons were needed At that stage, a central change took place. to achieve independence. Media no longer had to depend exclusively on This was indeed the case: a number of income from selling papers, as advertising re- newspapers and pamphlets which appeared venues began to play a major role in their throughout the Spanish colonies played a cru- financing. However, to be of interest to adver- cial role in promoting independence. The his- tisers, media had to become properly mass tory of independent journalism in the region media-they had to reach the widest possible has its roots in these publications, which were public. This had a profound impact on the committed to the ideals of nationalism and au- professional criteria applied to news selection. tonomy. They raised the level of peoples' News had to catch the reader's eye. It had to consciousness with respect to the oppressive have impact-to be exceptional, tragic or conditions under which they were living and morbid. With relatively few changes-except promoted the revolutionary struggle. They those resulting from technological innovation made up an 'opinion' press which found its and greater sophistication-this same model justification in being part of an overall political has continued, extended now to broadcasting process embracing the life of all patriots in the and other non-print media. colonies. It was a press that clearly knew Thus, while the concept of democracy which side it was on. Similar situations arose moved towards incorporating its social dimen- in other Third World as well as industrialized sions, the practice of communication moved countries at this time. The political context away from those aspects which were of a determined the social role of the press. The socio-political nature. similarities between its role in this case This was felt particularly in the Latin Amer- and in the contemporary struggle of many ican press, where a number of factors com- Third World peoples to achieve full internal and external political, economic and cultural *It is in the United States that this outlook has developed decolonization are evident and striking. in its extreme form. In and most Third World Later on a basic evolution occurred in countries broadcasting came into being as a public service communications. In the centre countries, the financed by a combination of public funds, service charges dominant model of information moved steadily and regulated advertising. In Sweden, a subsidy is given to towards commercialism. In short, what the second newspaper in each community in an effort to counter the logic of concentration of market forces and emerged as the exercise of a political right thus promote pluralism. Latin America followed the US became-in the process of its implementa- model. The Democratization of Communications 17

bined to change the nature of its initial libera- institutions based on widespread social parti- ting role: political instability led to the recur- cipation are being recognized as necessary in rence of dictatorships; border disputes and order to evaluate, assess and supervise the wars inherited from colonial demarcations manner in which communication structures changed regional nationalism into national are established and perform their social func- chauvinism; the commercial and economic tions. This has led to the idea that communica- classes which emerged after independence tions should be seen as a public service, dominated the press in their own inter- whether in private or in public hands, and ests; and the position of the region in the areas should be organized accordingly. of influence, first of the British Empire and Thus, we find that the historical itinerary of later of US hegemony, created strong links of democracy and communications naturally dependence on the communication models of leads to the issues involved in the democrati- these countries. With the growing overall de- zation of communications. Both have their pendence of Latin America on the United origin in a liberal affirmation of the individual; States, the commercial form of communica- both have evolved in different cycles towards tion became prevalent in the region. a recognition of their social dimensions; and The reactions to this situation have been today both are objects of concern from the widespread. They can be summed up in the perspective of the accountability of power. In idea that information is a social good and not a wide framework, these tendencies point to a merchandise. It is felt that the establishment the fact that democratic communications are of communication structures cannot be a part of a democratic society, but also that considered a business like any other, to be communications are a means for the democra- governed exclusively by profit criteria. They tization of society. Communications, being a are set up to implement an individual and col- part of democracy, are also an instrument of lective right of peoples and societies: the right its achievement. to communicate. As with democracy, the 'so- Social monopoly of communications cial' aspects of communications have become increasingly recognized as a fundamental di- There is today a minority social monopoly mension of their contemporary functions, but over communication means in Latin America. they are yet to be fully defined and put into The property and control of the principal practice. In many societies, such recognition industrial instruments of information are basi- continues to be conceptual, rather than a prac- cally in the hands of one social sector: the tical aspect of everyday life. powerful private economic and financial inter- Finally, the use and control of communica- ests which exert major influence in national tion means afford power. Power should be ac- affairs. Through direct ownership and a vari- countable. Accountability is a basic compo- ety of other methods, they can orient the con- nent of democracy. Having become so impor- tent and general direction of mass media and tant to individual and collective life at the lo- have the power to influence significantly the cal, national and international level, the mod- total information agenda of the societies in elling of communication structures can no the region. longer be left exclusively in the hands of pri- Furthermore, under present conditions of vate or public bureaucrats. Instruments and widely spread authoritarian conservative re- 18 Juan Somuvia

gimes there is a sort of 'natural marriage' of represented 83 per cent of installed capacity. interest between the repressive political power With the almost total elimination of dissidence of military government and the social power of in broadcasting, private and governmental prevailing information structures. channels transmit basically the same message Some figures in broadcasting might be use- with a few self-censored exceptions. ful as an empirical background to the analysis 4. In and Argentina, which developed that follows. Dr. Peter Schenkel, of the different efforts of public presence and social Friedrich Ebert Foundation has made one of participation in broadcasting under the gov- the most important contributions in describing ernments of Velasco Alvarado and Peron (se- property structures of media in Latin Ameri- cond presidency), there are now different ca.2 The examples given below have been pressures to privatize this sector. gathered by him: In the examples quoted, and according to 1. In Mexico City, Televisa controls four of the different national situations, the minority the six television channels and five cable vi- social monopoly operates independently and1 sion outlets (Televisa is a 1972 merger of 'Te- or through the management of state-controlled lesistema' of the Azcarraga/O'Farrill Group media. It is important to understand the na- with 'Television Independiente' of the Garza ture and functioning of this minority social Sada Group of Monterrey). Of the 707 com- monopoly because it sets the framework with- mercial radio stations, 565 (80 per cent) are in which the democratization of communica- administered by only 13 chains. tions can become a reality or will remain a 2. In , television is considered a pub- Utopia. The following are the main character- lic service but its programming is left to pri- istics of the monopoly: vate companies through leasing arrangements. 1. Its origin lies in an alliance of interests rang- Three enterprises (RTI, Punch and Caracol) ing from family inheritance of influential media control around 60 per cent of prime time to the emergence of new centres of industrial transmission through the two existing chan- and finanical power. The 'Gran Prensa' (Great nels. In 1978, of the 386 commercial radio sta- Press) of the Latin American capitals are al- tions, 231 (60 per cent) were owned by only most invariably in the hands of this alliance. four chains (Caracol, Todelar, RCN and The 'Deans' and oldest newspapers of the re- Super). gion belong to traditional oligarchic families. 3. In , all television channels are under Among them, La Nacion and La Prensa of the control of the military government. The are owned by the Mitre and Ga- largest one and the only one of national dimen- inza Paz families, El Comercio of by the sion is Canal Nacional, which is state owned. Miro Quesada, and the Diario de Hoy of San The other three belong to the universities, Salvador by the Viera Altamirano. Alongside which are presently under the control of gov- these newspapers, relatively new and more ernment-appointed rectors. There are strong modern media have appeared reflecting the pressures for the creation of private channels emergence of new dominant economic groups or the acquisition of existing ones by business often linked to transnational influence. In interests. In 1979, of the 208 radio stations, Peru, for example, two dailies were founded five private chains plus the state and universi- in the sixties: Correo reflecting the nascent ty radio system (under government control) fishing bourgeoisie and Expreso linked to the The Dernocratizution of Communications 19

Rockefeller group through its owner Manuel competition from without. Through time, this Ulloa (presently Minister of Finance in the means that some do better than others finan- government of President Belaunde). In Chile, cially and that different processes of merger, El Mercurio is a good illustration of the 'recyc- concentration and conglomeration take place, ling' capacity of old families. It belongs to the which change the relative importance of indi- Edwards family whose head has also been a vidual enterprises or groups. What is not per- Vice President of Pepsi Cola International. In mitted is the development of large-scale ideo- this way, oligarchic traditions and the thrust of logical competition, although smaller opera- new economic bourgeoisies linked to transna- tions without an industrial dimension are ac- tional interests are combined in the defence of cepted, or sometimes even promoted, as a group or class interests. show of democratic spirit. The guiding crite- 2. The situation has the characteristics of a rion for the protection of the monopoly situa- social monopoly because although there is a tion is the evaluation of the potential extent plurality of sources they produce uniform and impact that new operations with different messages, particularly in political matters. The political perspectives can have on their own problems, expectations, points of view and in- ideological pre-eminence. A good example is terests of large social sectors-such as trade the experience suffered by different media in unions, peasant organisations, women and Uruguay, such as Marcha, YA, Extra, De youth movements, progressive and re- Frente and Demomcia, which were treated volutionary political movements and grass- with ill-will and threatened by a suspension of root and popular opinion in general-are mar- the official import subsidies on paper to which ginalized from dominant information flows or all publications were entitled. They were final- are downright distorted in their presentation. ly closed down by governmental decrees Formal pluralism does not ensure diversity. It which accused their editorial line in defence of reflects a vision of the world as seen by an democratic rights, of being an 'instigation to affluent and powerful minority of society. subversion'. Further, it is quite significant to Ideologically, these communication means note that the adoption of such measures was transmit-both overtly and covertly-a politi- insistently demanded by such self-proclaimed cal philosophy which globally defends the so- 'democratic' newspapers as El Pais, Accion, cial status quo', they are open to only marginal El Diario and La Mahana, all of them linked adjustments and confront the forces fighting to the military government. for structural change. The values and political 4. The monopoly covers all sorts of activities, perspectives promoted are coherent with the from the more traditional ones-such as press, maintenance and furtherance of their relative broadcasting, entertainment, advertising and power situation in the economic, communica- -to more recent ones-such tion and political fields. There are many as informatics, data banks and information outlets, but a single general approach. processing. Practically no field of contemp- 3. The monopolistic dimension is properly so- orary communications is left untouched, thus cial and political, rather than economic. There disposing of complementary instruments and is acceptance of partial economic competition techniques to promote group or class interests. from within, that is from those sharing the 5. The predominantly private structure of same social views, while fighting political ownership and the prevailing commercial pat- tern of communication, highly dependent on is responsive to transnational interests. It is in advertising, ensure the survival of the monop- this perspective that the social monopoly can oly while limiting the possibilities for the con- be considered both a privileged host and an solidation of alternative communication integral part of the transnational power struc- means. In Latin America all the funding of ture. * commercial broadcasting comes from adver- 7. In general there is no central 'management' tising. In the Great Press, around 50 per cent of the different communication means of the originates in advertising. Through the control social monopoly. Its functioning does not res- of advertising the monopoly can virtually pond to any formulation of a conspiracy determine the survival or failure of those theory. It is a decentralized monopoly which means which might endanger its subsistence operates coherently in its individual decisions or take away part of its 'political market'. because the overall 'logic' of operations is sha- 6. In practical terms, the communication red by its components. They have the same means of the social monopoly are the real view of the world and they act accordingly. 'hosts' of transnational penetration. There is Nonetheless, it is important to mention that national property but transnational content. there are organizations where consultations The products offered are highly dependent on and exchange of views take place which lead material promoted by the transnational com- to joint actions in particular instances, but not munication structures and even those devel- on a day-to-day management basis. Among oped locally show this predominant influence them are press and advertising councils, in style and approach. Both in quantitative and owners' and professional associations.** Ex- qualitative terms, the many nationally con- ceptions occur mainly under two different sets trolled outlets properly become conveyor belts of circumstances: conditions of political of foreign interests and alien cultural values. change which endanger their common power There is a true integration of the social situation in a particular society and the emer- monopoly into the overall global perspectives gence or strengthening of alternative commu- of the transnational power structure. Commu- nication instruments which may weaken their nications is a field in which national property influence over communications. In these does not ensure national autonomy or self-re- cases, experience shows that different forms liance. Direct investment is not necessary for of concertedness and collective action are transnational penetration to take place. It is agreed upon, including understandings with present in three complementary ways: (a) foreign intelligence agencies and the place- through the control in the production of mes- ment of advertising according to clearly poli- sages (news agencies, advertising material, tical criteria. films, records, books, radio and TV program- mes)-an important part of the content trans- * Women's magazines are perhaps the best example of mitted is a mere distribution of transnational this situation as pointed out by Adriana Santa Cruz and messages; (b) through the control of transna- Viviana Erazo in 'Compropolitan', Editorial Nueva tional advertising which has a major influence Imagen-ILET, second edition 1981, Mexico City. on the financial structures of communication **The most important ones in Latin America are the So- means; and (c) through the promotion of a ciedad Interamericana de Prensa and the Organizasion model of information and social values which Interamericana de Radiodifusion. The Democratization of Communications 21

It is not difficult to conclude that the charac- growing concentration and power of national teristics of the minority social monopoly inevi- economic groups in different forms of alliance tably lead towards authoritarian communica- with transnational interests; the overt and tion structures. As stated before, these means covert ways in which existing political regimes of communication representing minority inter- exercise control over communications and use ests have the power to influence significantly the instruments of social monopoly for that the total information agenda and practices of a purpose; and the deformation in culture and nation. This amounts to private censorship values which results from the open-door pub- carried out under the guise of normal business lic policies vis-a-vis transnational penetration operations and in implementation of the prin- in communications. The interaction of these ciples of freedom of expression, freedom of three aspects ensures the sustainability and the press and freedom of enterprise. Social influence of the structures described. and popular organizations have no place in this The impact of the minority social monopoly structure. They are to hear, not to say; they are over communications is compounded by the to accept, not to propose; they are objects, fact that in many Latin American countries not subjects of the communication process. people are living under openly authoritarian An in-depth understanding of the instru- political regimes. Basic human rights are not ments and mechanisms through which the so- recognized and fundamental democratic free- cial monopoly implements a truly authoritari- dom~cannot be exercised. In this context, the an communications model and imposes private views and perspectives of large social sectors censorship is essential. This outlook is re- of the population are simply not represented in quired to pose in real terms the problems in- present communication flows. Workers, peas- volved in promoting the democratization of ants, women, students, political parties and communications. In this context, it is impor- dissidents in general cannot question the order tant to remember that repression is not only of things because they are forbidden to do so torturing or killing people; it is also silencing through their own information channels and them. The monopoly effectively silences the are excluded in a systematic manner from ex- majority of Latin American people, whose isting ones (Chile and Argentina are extreme voices are heard only exceptionally. In other examples of this). Under these conditions, words, a society need not fall under a dicta- the strength of the social monopoly becomes torship to live under oppression. The system even greater in practical terms. Worse still, itself can be so organized that it is in fact mass media become backers and allies of the authoritarian, although there may be different repressive regimes and constitute de facto in- forms of formal democratic expression. struments of political oppression. Their voices This leads to another basic issue. The social become weak and wavering in the defence of monopoly over communications cannot sub- communication freedoms and of democracy sist on the basis of its power alone. It requires in general. Since their economic interests are the continued support of the structures which well served by the system, their once high- it represents, from which it emerges, and pitched defence of freedom of the press and of which make it viable in operational terms. speech haunts them in a fundamental contra- Three interlocking circles of authoritarian diction which cannot be hidden. Their profes- power structures sustain the monopoly: the sional attitude under these conditions shows 22 Juan Somavi'a

the real nature of the way in which they under- which has expressed itself freely within a par- stand their social and political function. The ticipatory political system. Communication least that can be said is that they have lost processes cannot become truly democratic un- credibility for the future. You cannot side with less social relations become fully democra- the devil under dictatorships and with god un- tized. der democracies. * 2. Actions in the field of communications fall in the realm of political decisions and, much more so, the efforts for their democratization. The road to democratization: from private so- In this perspective, this is not a technical sub- cial monopoly to majority social representation ject to be left exclusively in the hands of those To think of the democratization of communi- 'specialized' in it (owners, managers, com- cations in real terms, it is necessary to sep- municators, researchers, and others). It is an arate ideals from possibilities, to distinguish issue which requires participatory political what is necessary from what is possible. Two debate as a basis for decision-making with main areas require attention if any progress is respect to the way in which communications to be made towards democratization: the de- should be organized in different societies and velopment of social principles which should social systems. guide the organization of communication pro- 3. In the Latin American context, democrati- cesses and the changes in structures which will zation has to confront the de facto social permit democratization in practice. monopoly which exists in this field, coupled The manner in which these topics will be with the pervading presence of authoritarian dealt with is based on certain assumptions regimes. which give coherence to the treatment of the For these reasons, any action in the com- subject: munications field has to take account of the 1. A full process of democratization of com- intimate relationship between the global pro- munications cannot take place within authori- cess of democratization of society, which tarian structures. We understand authoritarian must increasingly reach the instruments of structures to be those which have not been communication, and the contribution of com- legitimized by an ample social consensus munications to the democratization of socie- ty. When authoritarian regimes do not even *A classical case was the visit of Ranald MacDonald, in recognize the most elementary social and po- his capacity as President of the International Press Insti- litical rights, it is inescapable that the modifi- tute (IPI), to President Pinochet on July 3rd, 1979. After cation in the organization of communications the meeting he declared-in what to many appeared as cannot be approached as an isolated element deadpan humour-'Chile is moving towards a freer and of a more ample social process. In societies freer press', followed by 'I found the President's ideas on the role of the press very informed.' At that time the which already have diverse stages of demo- independent magazine Hoy had been closed down, a situa- cratic organization and in which steps for so- tion which he qualified merely as a 'disillusionment'. Not cial action are more abundant, concrete initia- a single word was said of the fact that progressive and tives can be developed in the present context, left-wing media were forbidden. In a dramatic contrast, IPI has been the most vocal opponent in UNESCO to the although their ultimate significance will al- ideas promoting the establishment of a New World Infor- ways depend on the attainments of a truly de- mation and Communication Order. mocratically organized society. The Democratization of Communications 23

Information is a basic human need and even more effectively, through the com- The point of departure, in order to promote the munications media, which influence both the democratization of communications, is to student population and the adult population recognize that information constitutes a basic which has already concluded its formal need, of a personal nature for individuals and schooling. This educational function is even of a collective nature for societies. Satisfying more evident with respect to the illiterate seg- the need for communication is as important for ments of the population. In their case, the a nation and its citizens as ensuring health, media are sometimes the only instrument food, housing, education and employment, to- through which they receive certain types of gether with all the social needs that make it knowledge normally acquired in the schooling possible for its members to develop fully in system. There is at present a total discrepancy justice and autonomy. The social need to in- between the social concern for the characteris- form and to be informed is one of the funda- tics and contents of the formal educational mental human rights, since it is an essential process and the relative lack of concern for the component in the improvement of mankind way in which the communications media exer- and in a society's capacity for development. cise their educational function, devoid of an This necessarily leads to a thorough question- explicit framework of social responsibility. ing of the profit-oriented model of transnational With the capacity to inform or misinform, to communications, in which information is show or hide significant facts, to evaluate posi- treated not as a social good, but rather as tively or negatively certain events, to offer or merchandise which is bought and sold accord- withhold certain kinds of entertainment, the ing to the 'logic' of the dominant market. In communications media have slowly become this context, the audience are treated as a prime moulders of national cultures. Being market to whom messages are 'sold' and not agents of influence with educational capacity as people who are exercising their right to in- means that we are no longer speaking of prob- formation. Indeed, in order to be informed lems of information flowsper se, but of a basic the public have to accept, as a natural con- instrument that is essential to the development sequence, becoming the primary targets of of all societies: education. This necessarily advertising. In this manner, the reader hirn- centres the debate on the democratization of self becomes a merchandise which is 'sold' to communications at a superior level, which the advertisers. Under the prevailing profit- poses serious policy problems if the de facto oriented model, the public are a captive audi- educational role of the minority social monop- ence for commercial campaigns which have oly is considered. nothing to do with the fulfilment of the human need to communicate and be informed. The social legitimacy of communicu/ior~ In the process, the social function of inform- structures ing becomes completely denaturalized. In order to move towards democratization it is necessary to clarify the bases of social legiti- Information is part of the educational process macy of the communication functions in so- The educational process does not end with ciety. Such a discussion should consider, formal education, whether at the school, tech- among other things, the following elements: nical or university level. It is also carried out, 1. In an overall sense, communication struc- 24 Juan Somavia

tures are legitimate if they reflect a demo- to communication, information and communi- cratically accepted social system in a country. cation structures wield power. That is why The social consensus with respect to the role they must respond to the people in the execu- and functions of communication must result tion of their tasks; they must be accountable from an open debate in the context of a par- to society for their actions. There cannot be ticipatory process. true democratic communications unless there 2. A second level of legitimacy stems from the is an open and publicly known framework of need for communication structures to be so- accountability for those responsible in the field cially representative of the major forces, clas- of communications. This is a generally valid ses and social movements which constitute the principle for any democratic society, but it reality of a given society. This is because of becomes particularly crucial in communica- the nature of the information product. Ade- tion matters. The power wielded in this field is quate representativity is not necessary to pro- enormous. It is well known that a number of duce shoes or aeroplanes, but it is necessary to editors and journalists have more influence produce information. Information has to do than many popularly elected officials, al- with values, perceptions, visions, understand- though the origin of their legitimacy is quite ings. From news dispatches to computer pro- different: one is elected by the people, the gramming, subjective elements intervene. other is appointed by the owners. None- Representative social groups and organiza- theless, both perform a public service and tions must be adequately present with their should be equally accountable for their ac- own perspectives, ideas and values. The right tions. The instruments presently available to to communicate is an individual and collective confront them with their responsibilities are right. It is a right of the people; a right to hear precise in one case and quite weak in the and be heard. When trade unions, political other. On the one hand, a publicly elected parties, women's movements, consumer de- official can be impeached, recalled or not re- fence institutions, youth organizations, reli- elected. On the other hand, you can write a gious movements, and other relevant social letter to the editors, shut off a TV channel, or organizations and independent media can ex- not buy a newspaper. One accountability has press themselves appropriately, then there is a clearly defined and socially accepted instru- pluralistic representation in the communica- ments, the other is left to the good-will of the tion structures. Adequate representation is the accountable party or to the workings of the opposite of the prevailing minority social market. Ratings and sales have become in monopoly. practice the criteria to judge the performance 3. A third instance of legitimacy is given by of the media. Thus, commercial success has the democratic exercise of the power of infor- replaced social responsibility as the parameter mation. Communication structures and means for the adequate performance of the public can conform to existing legislation and be ade- service of communication and information. quately representative, but still fall into the That, for all practical purposes, is no ac- trap of not recognizing their social responsibil- countability. Within each society it is necessa- ities. Because media perform a social function, ry to evolve those instruments of accountabili- which satisfies an individual and collective ty which are consistent with the prevailing so- need and puts into practice the people's right cial system. For example, the application to The Democratization of Communications 25

information of the Swedish institution of an enterprises (because it had no profit objec- 'ombudsman' could be considered. tives). Similar situations exist in the university television and radio systems of Mexico and Representative property structures other countries. In Peru, between 1968 and There is a need to put collective imagination to 1974, an effort was made, although without work in order to surpass an antinomy which final success, to develop forms of social pro- appears increasingly out of date; that is, the perty of newspapers by entrusting their admi- idea that there must be either private commer- nistration to appointed social groups. Each cial property or state property in the field of one of these initiatives has had limitations and communications. none can be considered as a formula with uni- Neither private nor state enterprise has af- versal validity, but it should be emphasized firmed itself per se as exclusively giving a that they constitute valuable attempts to sur- democratic material basis to the communica- pass the narrow limits of the debate between tion process. It all depends on what state we state and private spheres in the field of com- are talking about, and practice shows that the munications. democratic exercise of communication power 3. Whatever the actual form of property, is not the equivalent of either state or private which in the end depends on the range permit- property. Without denying the usefulness and ted by the prevailing social system, experience limitations of one form or another in the con- shows that in practical terms the central issue text of each social system and of the cultural is the actual democratic management of social- and historical evolution of each nation, it ly representative communication means.* This appears necessary to arrive at three basic leads to the issues of access, participation and conclusions: representation which we have discussed else- 1. Where a private commercial structure pre- where. dominates, state participation in a democratic These considerations, when located in the setting can be a means for the diffusion of Latin American context, give a fundamental communication power and the promotion of importance to the issue of property. The pluralism, particularly in the field of broad- minority social monopoly over communica- casting. Also, where state property is the tions which we have described is rooted in a prevailing system, communication means market economy concept of society which which stem from different forms of representa- permits or even promotes, for the sake of effi- tive social organizations have a legitimate role ciency, the concentration of the means of pro- to play. duction in few private hands. This is even more 2. It is possible to conceive new forms of pertinent in the communication field where property, particularly what has been called so- cial property, which is neither state nor priva- *The experiences of cooperative media, self-management tely controlled. The model of organization of and voluntary groupings are important contributions in Chilean television up to 1973 gave its mana- this respect. An interesting description of one such in- gement to the universities, which administered stance is given by Helan Jaworski in Development Dia- logue 1979:2, in his article on Rural Participation in the it in a way which was not characteristic of a Peruvian Press. There he relates the experience of El public entity (because they had full autono- Comercio of Lima during a period when it was adminis- my), or of the commercial outlook of private tered as a cooperative by peasant organizations. 26 Juan Somavia

there is practically no countervailing presence component of the real possibility of democra- of the state or organized social groups in the tizing communications. ownership of mass media. In practical terms, It is necessary in this respect to consider a and according to the political conditions of number of interlinked issues, including the fol- each society, this leads towards three com- lowing: plementary lines of action: 1. Increasingly, the proper realm to deal with 1. The struggle for a more ample democratiza- communication questions is that of public law tion of society through basic structural chan- (be it international, constitutional or social), ges in the prevailing social systems which will rather than private law. Freedom of the press have concomitant effects on the patterns of is not synonymous with freedom of enterprise. property in the field of communications. Information rights are not to be confused with 2. The development of alternative communi- commercial rights. A democratic communica- cation means which are linked to representa- tion structure is not synonymous-in present tive social groups in each society and which social monopoly conditions-with private can acquire the necessary industrial dimension control over information flows. Under condi- to express alternative views on a sufficiently tions of inequality in financial capacity, access large scale to become politically meaningful. and participation, 'laissez faire' policies simp- 3. The development of forms of social organi- ly increase social differentiations in this field. zation and participation leading to the estab- Public law is called upon to play a role in the lishment of a framework of rights and respon- defence of pluralism and adequate democratic sibilities incumbent upon owners, managers representation. and professionals working in communication 2. There is a growing divergence between the means in order to ensure that in practical characteristics needed by information prod- terms the minority social monopoly over pro- ucts so that they can be sold on the market, perty can move towards greater pluralism in and the diversified social needs of increasingly messages. complex societies. Developing further the concept of a public service implies a redefini- The legal challenge of contemporary tion of the normative categories under which communications such activities are legitimized by the existing The role and influence of communications social order. A public service is a service for have changed dramatically in the course of this the public-not for those who control or man- century. The technological capacities present- age it. The individual and the community are ly available indicate that greater changes are the initial depositaries of all information rights. already in the making. This significant evolu- The enterprises which organize the implemen- tion is in sharp contrast to the relative para- tation of these rights are acting under delega- lysis of the legal framework to cope with and tion and are accountable for the way they per- respond to these changes. While existing com- form their social function. Such an approach munication potential is gearing itself to ad- does not find a corresponding legal framework dress the realities of the twenty-first century, today. legal thinking on this matter is still wedded 3. The recognition of the social dimensions in to nineteenth-century ideas. The challenge is the communication and democratic processes clear and an adequate response is a central need to have a logical corollary in the legal The Democratization of Communications 27

sphere. There is a whole new area of social for representation and participation by the rights, a new generation of individual and col- organized public and social groups; the need lective rights which have not yet been fully to develop criteria of social responsibility developed conceptually, but which are an ex- which are democratically accepted by all con- pression of real demands of real peoples and cerned in the context of the particular circum- societies throughout the world. This points to stances of each society, clearly stating the the need to define and refine further the ana- rights and responsibilities of the communica- lytical underpinning and the practical forms of tion means; and the need to ensure the profes- implementation in different social systems of, sional and social autonomy of the communi- among others, the following rights: a) The cation means in the face of pressures from right of representation in the communication economic power groups or bureaucratic structures; b) the right to participation in the structures. different stages of the communication pro- cess; c) the right of privacy; d) the right to Financing alternative communications demand adequate publicity of the acts of gov- Any innovations conceived with respect to the ernments; and e) the right to demand informa- social legitimacy and property structure of tion disclosure from large transnational communications would be sterile if they did entities. not consider vigorously the antidemocratic 4. If information satisfies a basic need, consti- consequences derived from the present sys- tutes a delegated right and has become an tems of financing. Today, relatively large in- agent of educational change, it seems legiti- vestments are necessary to acquire a certain mate for societies to evaluate the concrete way industrial dimension. Also, access to impor- in which its communication means fulfil such tant flows of advertising is an inescapable re- important functions. If they are in fact quirement to permit the subsistence of the performing a public service, they should do so communication enterprise. At present, both within a social and legal framework of respon- these methods of financing are linked to pow- sibility which reflects the social consensus of erful economic and financial groups, with the each society. There is no right without respon- exception of public media and advertising in sibility. In this respect, there is growing certain fields. agreement that freedom without responsibility Thus there is a very real and concrete prob- invites distortion and other abuses. But in the lem in obtaining start-up capacity which is not absence of freedom there can be no exercise of linked to the economic and financial groups responsibility. that lie at the basis of the existing social mo- Today there are diverse legal instruments to nopoly over communications. The problem is protect the autonomy and independence of the compounded by the manner in which adverti- communication means in carrying out their sing has been managed according to political public function of providing information, but criteria: multiple experiences in Latin Ameri- there is no equivalent development in the ca show that when an alternative means of framework of social responsibilities for carry- communication questions with intelligence ing out this function. For this reason, freedom and ability the profound injustices which char- of information must be enriched with a triple acterize most Latin American societies, these perspective: the need to create mechanisms publications do not receive advertising from 28 Juan Somavia

the establishment. In practice, advertising has not be eliminated overnight. On that basis, become an instrument of political control used certain lines of action can be considered as of to block the emergence of means of communi- now. Among them are: a) Setting limits to the cation which are representative of alternative participation of advertising in overall funding views. It is important to be conscious of the of media; b) establishing mechanisms for bet- fact that this type of indirect private censor- ter distribution of advertising among different ship is at least as serious as bureaucratic cen- media; and c) developing further the possibili- sorship. ties of public subsidies as in the field of educa- To guarantee the sustainability of alterna- tion and health. tive communication means, a fundamental 2. Public funding of communication means prerequisite is the generation of new forms of should become a central component of the financing which can break the hold of the so- democratization of financing. In countries like cial monopoly on media revenues and provide Sweden public contributions have a mecha- for initial capital outlays and ongoing expendi- nism to guarantee, in practice, freedom of ex- tures. Two complementary aspects of finan- pression and pluralism in communication cing should be developed to ensure and permit structures. Similar mechanisms can be con- its democratization: ceived so as to eliminate bureaucratic control 1. A deep questioning is necessary with res- and indirect censorship. It is possible to think pect to the economic, cultural and political of a public fund to finance the development of role played by advertising in contemporary alternative communication channels. The ma- society. In so far as its financial dimension is nagement of such a fund would require the concerned, there is no theoretical reason to participation of such groups in order to ensure consider it absolutely normal for the media to its democratic operation. Income for such a depend on advertising for a major part of its fund would have to be stable and considered revenue. No doubt information on product dif- as a regular source of financing. Among ferentiation, qualities and uses is necessary in others, it could have the following origins: a) any society. But the fact of the matter is that annual contributions from the national bud- there has never been a really ample debate, gets; b) income from special taxes applied to nationally or internationally, on the financial advertising outlays or imports of foreign com- function acquired by advertising. It just munication material; c) contributions from in- evolved this way; it sort of 'happened'. But ternational cooperation, such as the Interna- there are a number of legitimate queries that tional Programme for the Development of should be posed. Is this really the most demo- Communications set up by UNESCO; and d) cratic way of funding media? What alterna- private contributions from foundations and tives are there? Can this situation be changed? other non-governmental sources which are not Shouldn't this issue be raised by different so- tied to any particular project. cial groups? What experiences have resulted from attempts to reduce the relative role of It is necessary to repeat that the question of advertising? No doubt there are no easy solu- financing is crucial for the democratization of tions, but these questions must nevertheless communications. In the majority of Latin be addressed. American countries, if the situation is left as it The financial influence of advertising will is and in the absence of public funding, only The Democratization of Communications 29

the powerful economic and financial groups Notes have the capacity to sustain ~ommunication 1. Building Blocks for Alternative Development enterprises at an industrial level. This means strategies. A Progress from the Third Sys- that most of the people are excluded from a tem Project, IFDA Dossi~r 17. May-June 1980, basic instrument for the practical exercise of p. 61; reprinted in Devrliiprtrpnt nui/og~1981:1, their right to information. New forms of finan- p. 99. cing are a prerequisite of democratization. 2. Cornrnunicaciot~ y Curnbio Social. This work covers Argentina, Colombia, Chile, Mexico and Pe- ru, has been updated to 1980, and will be published shortly by CIESPAAL. The New World Information and Communication Order Resolution adopted by the twenty-first session of the Unesco General Conference, 1980

Resolution 4/19 adopted on the report of Programme Commission IV at the thirty-seventh plenary meeting, on 27 October 1980.

The Generalconference ...... 14. Considers that: (a) this new world information and communication order could be based. among other considerations, on: (i) elimination of the imbalances and inequalities which characterize the present situation; (ii) elimination of the negative effects of certain monopolies, public or private, and excessive concentrations; iii) removal of the internal and external obstacles to a free flow and wider and better balanced dissemination of information and ideas; (iv) plurality of sources and channels of information- (v) the freedom of journalists and all professionals in the communi- cation media, a freedom inseparable from responsibility; (vii) the capacity of developing countries to achieve improvement of their own situations, notably by providing their own equipment. by training their personnel, by improving their infrastructures and making their information and communication media suitable to their needs and aspirations; (viii) the sincere will of developed countries to help them attain these objectives; (ix) respect for each people's cultural identity and for the right of each nation to inform the world public about its interests, its as- pirations and its social and cultural values; (X) respect for the right of all peoples to participate in international exchanges of information on the basis of equality, justice and mutual benefit; (xi) respect for the right of the public, of ethnic and social groups and of individuals to have access to information sources and to participate actively in the communication process; (b) this new world information and communication order should be based on the fundamental principles of international law. as laid down in the Charter of the United Nations: (c) diverse solutions to information and communication problems are re- quired because social, political, cultural and economic problems differ from one country to another and, within a given country, from one group to another. Advertising and the Democratization of Communications By Rafael Roncagliolo and Noreene Janus

To a greater extent than anywhere else in the Third World, advertising serves in Latin America as the principal source of income for financing the media. This dependence on adver- tising is, in addition, growing in Latin America-as in many other parts of the Third World. Advertisers and adver- tising agencies have thus acquired such a degree of influence over the media that they virtually control them. There are also in Latin America many examples of how this power has been used to punish 'misbehaviour' on the part of the media. In this context, it should be mentioned that two-thirds of the advertising revenues of the Latin American press come from 30 transnational corporations, most of them of US origin. 'The seriousness of these problems', write Raphael Ron- cagliolo and Noreene Janus in this article, 'suggest the opposite of the common liberal assumption that there is a direct relationship between private financing of the media and freedom of expression. On the contrary, this form of financing typically converts the media into a social monopoly of the dominant classes and transnational interests.' Raphael Roncagliolo has been Director of the Division of Communications Studies at [LET since 1981 and Noreene Janus is a consultant on communications issues for ZLET. In DEVELOPMENTDIALOGUE 1979:1, they published an ar- tide on 'Advertising, Mass Media and Dependency'.

Efforts to democratize communication have power that these advertisers enjoy must be emerged within the larger movement towards considered in the search for more democratic the democratization of nations and humanity forms of communication. ' as a whole. These efforts have emphasized the The role of advertising in democratic so- need to limit the monopoly control over the cieties, and more specifically its relationship mass media exercised by the media owners, to the democratization of communication, is and by the powerful economic interests as- complex and has received very little attention. sociated with them, and to break the rigid Even the term 'democracy' itself is fraught censorship imposed on the mass media in re- with confusion. A few words of clarification pressive political regimes. The source of pow- on this concept should precede the discussion er over the media has traditionally been locat- of advertising. ed in the actual owners and in the government First, it must be stressed that the concept of bureaucracies, while the power exercised by democracy should no longer be reduced to the those who finance the media is often over- traditional political definition associated with looked. In Latin America, since the principal suffrage within liberal contexts. The mass source of media revenues is advertising, the movements and liberation struggles in depen- 32 Rafael Roncagliolo and Noreene Janus

dent countries have brought about a redefini- the formal expressions found in the legal code; tion of the term, broadening it and revitalizing it must focus on the actual functioning of . it according to their specific historical context. communication at a specific historical stage of They have demanded a real and effective de- a given society. This type of analysis indicates mocracy that goes beyond political that the mass media in today's Latin American and legal abstractions to include economic and societies exhibit the following characteristics: social issues as well as political rights. 1. Freedom of expression is limited to those Furthermore, the concept must be extended who own or finance the mass media. to include not only national issues but interna- 2. Information is largely a one-way flow tional relationships as well. The proposed from those with power to the broad mass of New International Economic Order and New citizens, with little or no horizontal communi- International Information Order are efforts to cation. democratize the global community of nations. 3. Communications systems are not subject Similarly, the democratization of communi- to a public review process whereby distor- cation is a process which must proceed at two tions are corrected so that the information may levels: domestically, it calls for at struggle a- serve the needs of the majority of the popu- gainst the authoritarian and non-participatory lation. communication structures which reflect the 4. The concept of information for commer- economic power of those who own and control cial and political persuasion often prevails the media, and which in many Latin American over the concept of objective and unbiased countries are sustained by repressive govern- information. ments; internationally, it implies an attack on Within this context, the struggle to create transnational communication structures which democratic forms of communication leads in- perpetuate dependency and undermine the evitably to the issue of media financing. The concept of national sovereignty in Third World 'power of the purse' is as applicable to the countries. The international debates on com- mass media as it is in other sectors of society. munication, including those held at the Gen- For the commercial model of media financing, eral Assembly of UNESCO, those emerging advertising serves as the principal source of from the non-aligned countries movement revenue. This is especially true in Latin Amer- and the MacBride Commission Report have all ica, where because of political and economic concluded by rejecting the authoritarian model zones of influence the US model of commer- of communication-be it based on economic cial broadcasting has been widely adopted. Of or political power-in favour of the democra- the 31 countries in the world with commercial tic model.2 The democratic model allows for broadcasting systems, 16 are found in Latin free access and participation in communica- America, making its media the most commer- tion systems by individuals and groups at both cial of any region. Radio and television depend national and international level and serves as to an even greater extent on advertising than the conceptual framework for the discussion the printed media, since they do not receive a of advertising and its relation to the process of part of their revenues from news-stand sales democratization of communication. and subscriptions. Even more important, The analysis of communication systems ac- however, is the fact that this dependence on cording to these criteria must probe beyond advertising revenues has been growing. The Advertising and the Democratization of Communications 33

mass media are devoting increasing amounts advertisers. In both cases, however, free of time and space to advertising, especially in access and open participation by the majority Latin America but also in many other parts of of the population is limited. the world.* The liberal tradition has consistently Advertising and the capitalist model of claimed that this form of media financing en- development sures that 'freedom of the press' and 'free- dom of expression' will be upheld. If the The relationship between advertising and de- issues of control and participation are used mocracy extends beyond the mere number of as criteria, however, the conclusion is quite advertisers who with their advertising budgets different. Advertisers and advertising agen- contribute to the financing of the mass media. cies have acquired such a degree of influence The specific functions that advertising fulfils over the media that they virtually control within Latin American societies must be them. The group of advertisers and advertis- examined. These are as undemocratic as the ing agencies that exercises such a tremendous system which they serve. A historical analy- power over the mass media is small. Data sis of the growth and development of adver- from US, presented in Chart 1, indicate that tising shows that it has specific purposes: a the 100 largest advertisers account for more generalized advertising common to all types than half the advertising revenues accruing to of societies does not exist. Advertising re- the major media. The concentration of media flects the capitalist economic structures in advertising may be even more extreme in which it has developed. Latin America, but very little data is available Modern advertising is very different from on this subject. The control exercised over what de Girardin proposed 35 years ago as the the media by these few advertisers is especial- standard for a commercial announcement: ly apparent in those contexts where there are 'The advertisement should be concise, simple several media channels competing for limited and frank. It should never wear a mask. It advertising expenditures. This is true for should go straight to its objective, the head'.' newspapers, consumer magazines and radio. Today's advertising has little relation to In those cases where the media channels are frankness and objectivity. It has developed its limited in number and under monopoly con- own linguistic and iconic codes. It is no longer trol, as is often true of television, the media conceivable to develop advertising without the also enjoy considerable power vis-a-vis their use of psychological research to discover the most efficient methods of linking certain moods, lifestyles and social status to the pro- * There is a trend towards the replacement of the state-fi- duct, rather than emphasizing its utilitarian nanced model of broadcasting with the commercial model, for which the principal source of revenue is advertising. values. Advertising has grown in nearly all re- This trend may be observed especially in Africa and Asia, gions of the world. Table 1 shows the expan- where the media are increasingly accepting advertising. sion of advertising in Latin America between Even in Europe, the traditionally strong state media finan- 1968 and 1974. Associated with this growth is cing systems have one by one shifted to policies allowing the unlimited extension of advertising to many for some combination of commercial support. Britain, , Holland and Switzerland have all opened broad- parts of the social landscape. Using both the casting to advertising in the last decade. mass media channels as well as billboards, Chart 1 Relative share of US media advertising from 100 largest advertisers in 1976*

Newspapers

Total $1,502,000 0 Total $1,622,076 5 Total $2,991,61 1.l Total $3,001,213 7

Network Radio Spot Radio Outdoor All Seven Media** $34,212.9 ]$44,870.2 $254,899.7 l$?70,558.3 $71,475.4 1$143,487.0 $4,569,242.5 [$5,350,977.8

Total $79.083.1 Total $425.458.0 Total $21 4.962.4 Total for All Seven Media**

[__J 100 Largest Advertisers 0Other Advertisers Of $9.9 billion invested by national advertisers in eight media last year, more than half ($5.3 billion) came from the 100 leading national advertisers. Includes also farm publications. Sources: Leading National Advertisers, Publishers Information Bureau; Broadcast Advertisers Reports; Robert J Coen, McCann-Erickson; Radio Expenditure Reports; Institute of Outdoor Advertising; Outdoor Advertising Association of America; Radio Advertising Bureau Media Records.

beauty shops, curbstones, matchbooks, etc., Thus, advertising is a powerful tool in the advertising has become a cultural form 'par perpetuation of a specific type of society. In excellence'. From product information, adver- fulfilling this function, however, it has a great tising has become the 'parole culturelle' of impact on the people who make up that so- contemporary capitali~rn.~ ciety. A discussion of advertising and democ- Not only have the style and extent of ad- racy must therefore go beyond the overall vertising changed, however. From an activity economic effects to examine the specific imp- that was marginal to production and consump- lications of advertising for the majority of the tion, advertising has become a fundamental population. instrument in the accumulation of capital. It First, advertising has been used as part of a helps to open new markets and preserve old larger strategy of industrial management. In ones for the production of goods, it allows for the United States, during the labour unrest in increased turnover time of capital, it enables the first decades of the twentieth century, con- manufacturers to use such capitalist produc- sumption was used along with other forms of tion strategies as 'planned obsolescense' and control to diffuse protest. The function of ad- the differentiation of parity products, and it vertising, like welfare programmes, was to even allows firms to advertise themselves and promote the positive and beneficial side of the free enterprise system. modern capitalism by focusing on the con- Advertising and the Democratiz~zlionof Communications 35

Table 1 Growth of advertising expenditures in Latin doesn't matter what you buy, but buy some- America 1968-74 (in US millions of dollars)* thing' was the message of advertising of the post-war decade. Countries 1968 1974 Diff. % 1968-74 The period of rising consumerism has been Argentina one of limited democracy. Political participa- tion is generally limited to the act of voting Brazil once every four years and the voting rate Chile of the population has been alarmingly low in Colombia many industrialized countries. Costa Rica Advertising has emerged within a context of El Salvador labour conflicts, political struggles and mass Guatemala protest. It is the principal mechanism by which Honduras corporate and political leaders have tried to Mexico neutralize the ills associated with modern in- Nicaragua Panama dustrial organization with an ideology that Peru emphasizes hedonism, consumption and indi- Puerto Rico vidualism. 'Consumer democracy', as it has Uruguay been called, is meant to replace all other forms of political allegiance and participation. The problem of democracy, in this sense, is limited to the right to consume, and in most Third Figures are not given in constant prices nor have they World contexts the right to 'hope to consume'. been deflated against an index of prices in the advertising industry. At the international level, the concept of Source: Starch. INRA, Hooper & International Advertising 'consumer democracy' helps the transnational Association World Advertising Expenditures (yearly). corporation to attract the loyalties of workers, middle managers and political leaders. Its most powerful appeal for loyalty, however, is sumption of goods rather than the production to the general public. Barnet and Muller re- process. During this period of US history, the port that the Council of the Americas sug- creators of this strategy were very clear that gested 'Consumer Democracy is more import- 'the so-called democratic idea' should be ant than Political Democracy' as a slogan for avoided 'within such classe~'.~ their corporate member^.^ This concept helps In the post World War Two period in the them to legitimize their presence and promote United States, advertising was an important their products. Furthermore it helps them to tool in the promotion of consumption which achieve a 'world without borders', minimizing was thought to be the best way to maintain a the threat of nationalism. To the extent that healthy economy and prevent post-war de- the transnational corporation is able to create pression. During this period, the political as- primary identification with a product or life pect of consumption was made explicit for the style, rather than with a political community, first time. To consume was to be patriotic. it may diffuse political protest and ensure its Advertising of that period claimed that to sup- own survival. port the country in time of need was to buy: 'It Second, the price of the goods which are 36 Rafael Roncagliolo and Noreene Janus

offered to the consumer must include the cost tential consumers. Although the democratic of advertising. While there is disagreement idea is based on freedom of thought, freedom over the relationship between the cost of ad- to make one's own choices and freedom to vertising and the cost of the product, research decide one's own actions, advertising uses has shown that many industries with high ad- every available technique to restrict that free- vertising-to-sales ratios reap higher than aver- dom, reorienting it towards increased con- age profits.' Bernal reports that in several sumption. The most glaring assault on this Mexican industries, costs for advertising and freedom of choice is in the case of children, promotion may exceed production costs.8This whose free development is distorted and is especially true in the tobacco industry, constrained according to the logic of mar- which is at the same time one of the industries keting. with the highest relative penetration of foreign The control exercised by advertising in the capital. Excessive advertising budgets are ul- context of production and consumption is timately passed on to the consumer, limiting analogous to the coercion and repression of even further the access to 'consumer democ- expression in dictatorial regimes. Though they racy'. operate in different ways, and for different Third, the very production of goods in this purposes, they are both antidemocratic. model of development is antidemocratic. De- cisions about what should be produced are The mass media as advertising channels made by giant corporations according to their potential sales within the limited sectors with The mass media can only reflect the organiza- purchasing power. Production of goods is not tion of the system in which they operate. Since determined according to the needs of the ma- they serve as the principal channel by which jority of the population, but rather according manufacturers reach their potential consum- to the basic rule of capitalist development: ers, they have become indispensable market- highest returns on capital. ing tools. While there are several aspects to Those products which yield the highest the relationship between advertising and the profits are often consumer goods of marginal mass media, only the most important of these utility requiring large advertising budgets. will be treated here. They confirm the fact that The most heavily advertised products tend to the form and content of the media reflect the be detergents, tobacco, pharmaceuticals, media's role in capitalist accumulation rather prepared foods, beer and soft drinks. Further- than as a form of expression in a democratic more, Table 2 shows that this range of most and pluralistic model of communication. advertised product types varies little from This relationship between advertising and country to country. Advertising perpetuates the mass media began to emerge in the middle the antidemocratic system whereby manufac- of the last century, when the newspaper be- turers rather than consumers decide what came an effective advertising vehi~le.~Since should be produced. then, the mass media have become increasing- Fourth, modern advertising makes use of all ly commercialized. The non-commercial the scientific advances in the fields of parts of communication, including news and psychology, psychobiology and the social cultural materials, have become merchandise sciences for the purpose of manipulating po- subject to the laws of supply and demand and Advertising and the Democratiwtion of Communications 37

Table 2 Advertising expenditures by industry classification, 1974: Panama, South Korea, Taiwan and Austriak

Industrial A av total Industrial % of total Industrial % of total Industrial /Q of total sector advertising sector advertising sector advertising sector advertising

Clothing Textiles 39.3 Pharmaceutical Food 20.4 Food Food 20.6 Food Retail 15.1 Beverages Drugs 18.6 Department Household Detergents Beverages 8.5 stores products 11.0 Pharmaceutical Cosmetics 5.6 Electrical Services 10.6 Airlines Electronics 3.2 appliances Cars 10.5 Accessories Fats and Oils 2.6 Clothing Toiletries and Tobacco Others 1.8 Watches medical 10.4 Cars Stationery Detergent 7.1 Others Transportation Clothing 3.7 Machines Others 11 .l Others

Total advertising Total advertising Total advertising Total advertising in US$ million in US$ million 85.9 in US$ million 98.5 in US$ million 342.6

Strict comparison between countries is not possible since product categories are different in each case. "'Television advertising only Source: American Association of Advertising Agencies. The Advertising Agency Business Around the World, 7th edition New York, 1975. the maximization of profits. Even more seri- underlying relationship. More significant than ous, the mass media have become producers data concerning the time or space sold to ad- of audiences and potential markets which are vertisers would be data that measure the then sold like merchandise to advertisers. amount of power that such advertising affords. Empirical analysis of actual newspaper Schmid points out that as much as 80 per cent space shows the extent to which the media are of a newspaper's revenues come from adver- dependent on advertising. In Latin America, tising, which gives the major advertisers the advertising takes up more than half of the power to make or break the paper.l1 In Latin space in major newspapers. When the total America, there are numerous cases where this commercial space (including classified ads) is power has actually been exercised to punish considered, the part that is sold may reach 70 the occasional misbehaviour of the major per cent leaving only 30 per cent for news, newspapers. In the case of El Nacional of cultural materials, and other journalistic Caracas or El Comercio of Lima, the advertis- content. 'O ers removed their advertising and placed it in a However, the growing presence of adver- competitor's newspaper. This type of action is tising in the mass media is not simply a matter not possible when the paper contains a large of the distribution of space. Rather, the distri- amount of advertising by small businesses, bution of space is a mere manifestation of the trade unions and private individuals rather 38 Rafael Ruticugliolo and NormJanus

than a few large firms. In this case, the large directorship.* The case of Edwards, who firms and their political allies will often resort owns El Mercurio of Santiago and serves at to other forms of direct repression of the the same time as Vice-President of the giant outspoken newspaper, as has occurred many transnational firm Pepsi-Cola, is uncommon. times in Uruguay. It would follow, then, that control over Latin The case of radio and television in Latin American mass media is largely in the hands America is even more dramatic. These media, of Latin Americans-but nothing could be virtually entirely dependent on advertising for further from the truth. The transnational their revenues, are considered 'good' when power structure no longer relies on legal they attract large audiences with sufficient ownership to obtain control over the Latin purchasing power and 'bad' when their non- American media. Other mechanisms, includ- commercial programming interferes with the ing advertising, serve the same purpose. commercial objective of the advertising. l2 Schmid reports: Whenever possible, the political and corporate elite will avoid the use of open re- Normally the newspaper owners are anxious to col- pression of the free and democratic participa- laborate with foreign capital ... More than 80 per tion of the people. They prefer to limit these cent of newspaper, radio and television advertising freedoms without having to resort to violence. in Peru was (during the period 1967-70) done by Advertising in Latin America serves much the US advertising agencies. El Correo, one of the ma- jor newspapers of Lima, received 40 per cent of its same purpose as it did in the United States of revenues during the first half of 1969 from just two the 1920s and 1930s: a tool to regulate conflict transnationals, Sears and IBEC ... It has been esti- keeping 'freedom' and 'democracy' within mated that two-thirds of the advertising revenues of safe limits. It has become one of the most the Latin American press comes from some thirty effective modern strategies limiting free ex- transnational corporations, most of which are of US pression. In some cases, the financial control origin ... It is probably not an exaggeration to say exercised in liberal political conditions is as that most of the Latin American press is as 'free' as effective as the more covert ways in which these 'free enterprise' corporations and their adver- the media are regulated in more repressive tising agencies allow it to be." regimes. Neither method is conducive to a free, pluralistic and democratic form of com- Transnational advertising has virtually taken munication. over most Latin American media channels. A study carried out on the broadcasting media of Mexico, for example, reported that of the Advertising and cultural sovereignty 270 commercials transmitted by a popular radio station on an average day in 1971, 84 The use of the mass media as advertising channels enhances the control that the eco- per cent were for transnational products. Similarly, of the 647 commercials transmitted nomic and political elite exercise over the communication system and the audience, lim- * This is not the case with consumer magazines, however. iting free expression and participation of A large and growing number of the most successful con- those who own or finance the media. The sumer magazines in Latin America are published by US large majority of newspapers and broadcast firms or under contract to US firms. The number of Euro- networks are locally owned, with little cross pean and other foreign magazines is minimal. Advertising and the Democratization of Communications 39

by the five television channels operating in necessity to create a world consumption Mexico City, 77 per cent advertised trans- community that drinks, eats and smokes iden- national products.* l4 tical product^.'^ The US cosmetics firm Rev- In the major women's magazines of Latin Ion, for example, faced with rising advertising America, the transnational control over adver- costs, believes that one single advertising tising is even greater. Santa Cruz and Erazo campaign may be used successfully and more analysed the 25 largest women's magazines cheaply in all the foreign markets where their (by circulation) in six Latin American coun- goods are produced and distributed. Thus, the tries and found that they carried an average same campaign for 'Charlie' perfume, which of 60 per cent transnational advertising.I5 shows a blonde Anglo-Saxon woman on New The ratio is the same in practically all Latin York's Fifth Avenue, is used for both Latin American media. All the available data sug- American audiences and US audiences. The gest that the principal beneficiary of the com- message is the same everywhere: 'Consump- mercial model of mass media in Third World tion is the key to happiness and the global countries is the transnational corporation. corporation has the products that make life The mass media serve to generate consumer worth living.'" Through the image of 'Charlie' awareness of transnational brands.** More perfume, the viewer in any Third World importantly, however, they serve to promote country may associate that product with the 'transnational ideology' as a global cul- membership of the world consumption com- tural model. munity, even if that membership is, in reality, It must be emphasized that this drive to available to only a small minority of the popu- create a universal transnational culture re- lation. flects international marketing logic rather than a corporate strategy to subvert local cultures. Towards a democratic communication The standardization of production at a glo- The seriousness of the problems discussed bal level requires a parallel standardization of here suggests the opposite of the common lib- consumption and cultural characteristics. eral assumption that there is a direct relation- Global marketing techniques derive from the ship between private financing of the media and freedom of expression. On the contrary, * The term 'transnational advertising' refers to advertis- ing by corporations which are partially or wholly owned this form of financing typically converts the and controlled by foreign capital, for the purpose of pro- media into a social monopoly of the dominant moting their own products or company image. (See Juan classes and transnational interests. They have Somavia 'La Estructura Transnacional de Poder y La become authoritarian and manipulative tools Informacion Internacional' in Fernando Reyes Matta (d.)whose orientation and content represent the La Informci(jtr en el Nuevo Orden Intert~ucional,Mex- ico: ILET, 1977.) antithesis of democratic affirmation. ** A sample of television viewers in Indonesia, when The problem of the mass media in contem- asked to recall television advertisements of the previous porary society should, therefore, be separated week, responded with transnational brands exclusively. from the false polarities of public vs private; of (See Alfian, 'Some Observations on Television in Indo- de jure monopoly exercised by the state vs de nesia' in Jim Richstad (d.),New Perspectives in Inter- national Cornmunicution. Honolulu: East-West Center, facto monopoly exercised by the major eco- 1979.) nomic powers; of political authoritarianism vs 40 Rafael Roncagliolo and Noreene Janus

economic authoritarianism. In other words, 7. Comanov, William S. and Wilson, Thomas A., the task ahead consists of designing and im- Advertising and Market Power, Harvard University plementing a form of communication which, Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1974. like work, education and other basic rights, 8. Bernal Sahagun, Victor M., Anatomia de la Pub- may be integrated into the growing field of licidad en Mexico, Editorial Nuestro Tiempo, Mex- ico, 1974. social rights organized for participation and 9. Cathelat, Bernard, op.cit., pp. 33-37. oriented towards democracy. 10. There is considerable variation in the relative amounts of space devoted to advertising in Latin Notes American newspapers. In Costa Rica, the four newspapers analysed averaged about 42 per cent l. For a general background to the problem of ad- advertising with the largest percentage being 66 per vertising and the mass media in Third World cent. See Fonseca, Jose M., Las Politicas de Com- countries, see Janus, Noreene and Roncagliolo, Ra- municacibn en Costa Rica, UNESCO, , 1976, fael, 'Advertising, Mass Media and Dependency' in p. 47. In Peru, during 1958, an analysis of the seven Development Dialogue, Dag Hammarskjold newspapers with the largest circulation included no Foundation, Uppsala, 1979: 1. This includes basic less than 35.5 per cent advertising and in one case information concerning the expansion of the largest reached as high as 58.4 per cent. See Investigacibn transnational agencies, the growth of advertising in de 10s Medios de CommunicaciOn Colectiva, Pon- Latin America, and forms in which control exer- tifica Universidad Catolica del Peru, Lima, 1961. cised by advertisers over the media perpetuates Even higher relative amounts are reported in dependency. It serves as a conceptual and practical Schmid, Alex, 'The North American Penetration of framework for the discussion of the democratiza- the Latin American Knowledge Sector-Some As- tion of communication. pects of Communication and Information Depen- 2. See especially Juan Somavia's article 'The De- dence', Paper prepared for the Seventh Interna- mocratization of Communications', published in tional Peace Research Association Meeting, this issue of Development Dialogue, which is an Oaxtepec, Mexico. expanded version of his paper 'Democratizacion de 11. Schmid, Alex, op.cit. las Communicaciones: una perspectiva Latinoame- 12. Ibid., pp. 13- 14. ricana', presented to the UNESCO Commission 13. Ibid. for the Study of Communication Problems, 1979. 15. Bernal Sahaghn, Victor M., op.cit., p. 117. 3. Cathelat, Bernard, Publicit6 et SociitL Petite 15. Santa Cruz, Adriana and Erazo, Viviana, Bibliotheque Payot, Paris, 1976, p. 36. 'Compropolitan': El orden Transnacional y su Mo- 4. Ibid., p. 246. delo Femenino, ILET, Mexico, 1979. 5. Ewen, Stuart, Captains of Consciousness, 16. Barnet, Richard and Muller, Ronald E., op.cit., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976, p. 15. p. 31. 6. Barnet, Richard and Muller, Ronald E., Global 17. Ibid., p. 33. Reach, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1974, pp. 89-91. The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World By Juan F. Rada

This article attempts to show how the unfolding of informa- tion technology affects Third World countries and poses a challenge to traditional development strategies. It should, however, also be seen in the broader context of how devel- opments in science and technology affect the international division of labour. In summing up his detailed analysis of the many serious implications of the microelectronics revolution, Juan F. Rada states that 'data, information and new produc- tive infrastructure should benefit not only the few; we cannot have a world divided between information '"poor" and "rich". Data and information should not be used to infringe on a people's cultural identity and invade, by means of diffe- rent lifestyles, patterns of consumption and values, a world that is struggling to reach its own identity and development path. More than legislation andprotocols, a new atmosphere of social command of technologies should be developed. In this atmosphere, a participatory and plural discussion about the use of technologies could take place and the wonders of current change could help solve pressing needs and benefit all in a more interdependent rather than dependent world.' Dr. Juan F. Rada, a Chilean national, is a Faculty Member at the International Management Institute, (formerly the Center for Education in International Management) in Gene- va. He has teaching and research responsibility in the area of socio-economic and managerial implications of advanced technologies. He has worked for international organizations, European governments and numerous companies in the area of technology, with specific emphasis on socio-economic as- sessment and evaluation of technology trends. Dr. Rada is author of 'The Impact of Microelectronics: A Tentative Ap- praisal of Information Technology', published in 1980 by the International Labour Office. This article was initially completed for DEVELOPMENTDIA- LOGUE in the spring of 1980 and subsequently updated. Due to technical reasons, it was not published until now.

Introduction they are today. In the NI0 debate, technology When the discussion about a New Internation- has-by and large-been treated in two ways. a1 Order (N10) and alternative development The first relates to a more equitable distribu- strategies started, the implications of micro- tion of know-how, scientific and technological electronics-based innovations were not felt as infrastructure, and the questioning of restric- 42 Juan F. Rada

tive practices on technology transfers. The board, processes it, recalling elements from second relates to the need to tailor technology its memory if required, and displays the re- to particular socio-economic contexts and de- sults. It is essentially an information process- velopment aims, encouraging at the same time ing machine programmed to handle arithmetic the use and further sophistication of indige- operations. At the centre of these exchanges nous capabilities. of information are electronic components The importance of technology for develop- whose tasks are to process, store and manipu- ment and for a more equitable world system is late information which is carried through the commonly recognized today. The control of system in the form of electrical signals which technology often means the control of devel- can have only two values (binary): one and opment, the definition of its aims and even its zero. Thus a digital system enables the transla- pace. tion and codification of words, numbers and Given current conditions, the debate on other variables into strings of ones and zeros technology should be placed in a wider frame- for processing by microprocessors and micro- work; one which encompasses the very es- computers. This explains the most essential sence of commonly practised development characteristics of the technology and its revo- strategies and styles. lutionary dimension: the economic availability Today's technological innovations fore- of a coherent system to handle information shadow profound changes that will further al- using a uniform signal with binary values. A ter the perception of development strategies. complex design can be made with the aid of a We are confronted with the economic availa- computer, transmitted to another continent bility of a powerful technological package for through the telephone line and satellites, and the handling and processing of information: a picked up by a computer-programmed ma- 'good' as pervasive as energy. This develop- chine tool which manufactures a product ac- ment is not a sudden event, but the result of cording to the specifications transmitted. The decades of scientific discoveries. One could design, transmission and production are oper- say that it is the result of a synthesis of many ating in the same language. This has been scientific disciplines: physics of materials and termed digitalization of information. Thus in light, chemistry, optics, engineering, mathe- this article, the term information technology is matics, logic, etc. used, rather than microelectronics, since the Although the potential of information tech- abstract nature of the technology is related to nology has existed since the development of information exchanges. The above-mentioned the first computers in the early 1950s, realiza- developments also explain the convergence of tion is only possible today through the inven- electronic components, computers and tele- tion of the microprocessor and microcom- communications into one single sector: the in- puter. formation sector. All systems operate through some form of The microprocessor and microcomputer are information exchange (input-processing-out- produced in a standard form and can be pro- put), whether they are mechanical systems or grammed to perform different functions. In human intelligence functions. The commonly this sense they are universal components, used pocket calculator, for instance, receives which permit mass production and economies information and instructions through the key- of scale. (There are tailor-made circuits which The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 43

are not mass-produced; their design and pro- ly mortgaging the future. In the aftermath duction is different.) In fact, the same compo- of Cancun, it is clear that the prospect for nent used in a pocket calculator can be used fruitful North-South negotiations are bleak, in an aircraft landing system, satellites or while at the same time a dialogue becomes computers. more important than ever because more com- These information processing units are be- plex and intractable issues are emerging at a coming more and more pervasive as increasing speed that renders obsolete traditional insti- computation power is engraved on tiny 'chips' tutional arrangements and political cliches. of silicon. They have altered the watch, the One of these issues is, of course, the im- cash register, the sewing machine, the wash- plications of technology, that while they are ing machine, instruments, machine tools: they widely discussed in the advanced countries, are finding their way into the automobile en- their international dimension is not fully ac- gine and control panel; they are revolution- knowledged, except for a 'paragraph hom- izing the office with the introduction of word age' to the problem. The OECD Interfutures processing equipment; they are making photo- report, for instance, recognized the import- copying machines more 'intelligent' and of ance of the technology for the advanced coun- course, they have revolutionized the electron- tries, but failed to recognize the international ics industry. They alter products and proces- consequence of their own assessment. The ses by replacing mechanical components (as in Brandt Commission report, which inspired the the watch), electromechanical components (as meeting in Cancun, acknowledged in passing, in cash registers) and older electronic compo- when referring to countries with export- nents (as in computers). They permit the up- oriented development strategies (NICs), that: grading and redesign of products (as in word 'They may suffer new setbacks with the de- processors) and they transform control mech- velopment of microprocessors, which could anisms in many areas (as in machine tools). reduce some of their advantages.' The assess- The mastering of such an essential and basic ment stops here, and no further attempt is element of economic and human activities can made to follow through the potential implica- then be rightly compared to the mastering of tions implicit in the above statement. The another basic element: energy. The role of the topic was only slightly touched on by the steam engine as a reliable and permanent United Nations Conference for Science and source of energy helped substantially to unfold Technology for Development (UNCSTD) in the most expansive phase of the industrial . ' revolution, changing the face of economic ac- The readjustment policy of industrialized tivities and profoundly altering the interna- countries, together with their mastery of in- tional division of labour. formation technology, is reinforcing the pre- Given these changes, we reach a point sent international division of labour due to a where the development prospects of the South substantial increase in productivity and con- are not only conditioned by the ways and centration of 'information intensive' sectors in means of transferring technology but by the these countries. The increase in productivity very logic and dynamism of scientific devel- affects all economic activities, industry, office opment in the advanced countries. Failure to and service work. see this crucial issue is tantamount to severe- Historical evidence of how technological 44 Juan F. Rada

and scientific developments alter the interna- ternational division of labour. Today we are tional division of labour is overwhelming. Suf- faced with microelectronics, tomorrow bio- fice it to mention here England's increased technology and, on the horizon, the substitu- textile productivity during the nineteenth cen- tion of materials; all three have profound imp- tury and its impact on traditional producers, lications for Third World and industrialized the development of artificial nitrate which countries alike. These issues will change the ruined Chile's main source of external rev- very fabric of society and the future of the enues in the 1920s, and the development of social, cultural, economic and political life artificial fertilizers which profoundly affected within countries in the international system. the Peruvian economy in the last century; one can go on to enumerate artificial fibres, Microelectronics and information technology colourants rubber, etc. The advanced countries now control an all- The spectacular developments taking place in pervasive technology which, while changing information technology are posing questions at their productive and service infrastructures, is such a pace that, even before answers can be also reinforcing one of their traditional advan- found, a new wave of even more complicated tages; science and technology. issues emerge to confront policy- and deci- The use of comparative advantages, either sion-makers. natural or historical, such as low labour costs, The manifold consequences of information has always been a part of development strate- technology are explained by at least three in- gies. It seems, however, that today's compara- terrelated issues: (a) its economy, (b) the sec- tive advantages are increasingly man-made, tors and activities it touches, and (c) the con- brought about through the mastering of centration of the industrial and R and D capa- science and technology. 'Knowledge-intensive bility that pushes it. industries' are becoming the rule rather than the exception. A further polarization of the Economy international division of labour is not only pos- Information is a multifaceted 'commodity' as- sible but probable. This process should com- suming different forms and undergoing contin- pel Third World countries to search more ac- uous metamorphosis through its use and circu- tively for alternative development strategies lation. It constitutes the material base of based on indigenous capabilities and the need knowledge, the raw material of news, and an for more South-South trade, technological essential component of science, business and agreements, and exchange of experience and trade. Since World War Two, the number of managerial know-how; in two words, col- activities dependent on different forms of in- lective self-reliance. formation has grown exponentially (business This article will attempt to show how the decisions, research and development, political unfolding of information technology affects matters, legislation, consumption). The num- Third World countries and poses a challenge ber of people dealing with information has also to traditional development strategies. The ar- grown. ticle should, however, be seen in a much The presence of a large potential market for broader context-the study of how develop- information, coupled with the technological ments in science and technology affect the in- 'spill over' of the United States military and The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 45

space programmes (e.g. high performance At the heart of developments are the mem- integrated circuits, satellites, laser technology, ory chips, microprocessors and microcom- etc.), explains the increasing pricelperform- puters which together constitute the 'nuts and ance economy of the information 'package bolts' of the information revolution. technology', which encompasses components, Table 1 compares pricelperformance and computers and . the use of other auxiliary systems. By using photographic techniques, 65,000 In telecommunications and related equip- components are now packed in one 'chip', the ment, the economy has also been tremendous. size of a little fingernail; in the early 1960s, the A good indicator is the fact that, even taking density was ten per 'chip'. With electron beam inflation into account, it cost about 100 times and X-ray patterning techniques, the density more to call from the United States to per chip will increase to a forecast one million 50 years ago than it does today.3 The cost of components (Very Large Scale Integration- telecommunications is decreasing through the VLSI) with a corresponding reduction of cost use of satellites since the distance of a com- per function. The cost reduction resulting from munication has virtually no effect on the price. higher integration has been unparalleled. The In 1965, a single satellite carried 240 tele- electronic calculator is a well-known example; phone circuits; today they can carry 12,000. In its cost has been reduced by a factor of 500: 1 1965, the cost per circuit per year was US in the last eight years, while its performance, $22,000; today it is US $800. For 1985, the reliability and number of functions have in- next generation predict 100,000 circuits at a creased. cost per circuit per year of US $30. The cost of launching satellites will be considerably re- Table 1 Comparison of the characteristics of a 1955 duced by the use of the NASA Space Shuttle. computer and a 1978 calculator At the same time, the cost of ground stations

Characteristics 1955 Computer 1978 Calculator has been falling from about US $10 million in (IBM 650) (Tl-59) 1965 to about US $300,000 now. Small receive-only ground stations are being sold in Components 2000 vacuum 166,500 tran- Japan for US $200.4 tubes sistor equi- valents Decreasing costs have been accompanied by Power (KVA) 17.7 0.00018 a tremendous increase in the speed of trans- Volume (cu.ft) 270 0.01 7 mission due to the digitalization of messages. Weight (Ibs) 5,650 0.67 Thus the speed of transmission of the Satellite Air conditioning (tons) 5 to 10 None Business System (IBM, COM-SAT, and Memory capacity (bits) - primary 3,000 7,680 AETNA Casualty Insurance) is 6.3 million - secondary 100,000 40,000 bits per second or 200,000 words as compared Execution time (milliseconds) to nearly 10,000 bits per second for a normal - Add 0.75 0.070 telephone line. - Multiply 20.0 4.0 Price 200,000 300 Adding to the cornucopia of developments ($1955) ($ 1978) is the arrival of fibre-optics, which consist of a tube of self-reflecting glass no thicker than a Source: Texas Instruments, Inc., Shareholders Meeting human hair which carries messages in digital Report, 1978 form using laser beams. One fibre-optic cable 46 Juan F. Ruda

can transmit 30,000 simultaneous telephone cost of its development imply that it can only calls, as opposed to a package of copper wires be economically viable when aimed at a world ten inches in diameter. Once certain technical market. In the component, computer, tele- constraints are overcome, fibre-optics will be- communication, software and machine ser- come the standard cable.s vices, the industry is transnational and highly The concurrence of components, computer concentrated. The degree of concentration will and telecommunications will transform pro- most likely increase in the future, due to R and foundly many human activities. D costs and capital requirement^.^ Underlying this concentration is the integration of many Areas affected by information technology different activities under the heading 'informa- The digitalization of different forms of infor- tion processing'. Thus computer giants such as mation permits the use of technology in many IBM have moved into telecommunications areas.6 It is explicitly an organizational and (Satellite Business Systems). Office equip- production technology and as such it affects: ment manufacturer Rank Xerox is moving in 1. Production, by the transformation of pro- the same direction, while AT&T is moving ducts (watches, cash registers, etc.) and into computer terminals and related equip- processes (batch production, robotics, dis- ment. Some European PTT and private com- tributed intelligence, etc.). panies are also moving in this direction and 2. Office work, by further automating formal- manufacturers of components are shifting to ized work (billing, invoicing, word proces- finished products. sing) and by increasing the independence US supremacy in the field of integrated from traditional information channels for circuits has been decreasing due to price com- those who work in a less formalized en- petition from Japan. In Japan, Europe and the vironment (management, R and D, etc.) USA the industry is highly concentrated with 3. Services, by increasing self-service and by few companies controlling more than half of the replacement of human-to-human ser- total production. At the same time some of vices by goods. the biggest producers of integrated circuits 4. Information flows, due to the economic de- do not sell in the open market, such as IBM velopment of vast networks and easy ac- and Western Electric. There has been a trend cess to stored information. in the last few years for setting up captive The OECD Interfutures report characterized fa~ilities.~ the development of microprocessors as 'a de- The components sector is becoming even cisive qualitative leap forward' and states: more capital intensive than in the past, dimin- 'The electronics complex during the next ishing the proportion of direct labour cost in quarter of a century will be the main pole the total business cost. This is particularly around which the productive structures of the striking where automation of 'chip' testing and advanced industrial societies will be reorgun- assembly is introduced. The advantages of ;zed; ' off-shore installations are also being eroded for the same reason. The concentration of manufacturing and A similar situation already exists in the service capc~bilities computer industry, with only a few companies The nature of information technology and the controlling the business worldwide. At the The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 47

Table 2 Mainframe computer market* (share of mar- sector in the market economy countries. All ket based on the value of total units installed) major computer manufacturers have facilities

Company per cent in several countries and worldwide marketing and service networks. IBM US manufacturers supply almost 100 per Honeywell cent of their home market and it is only rela- Sperry Rand-Univac tively recently that some inroads have been Burroughs Control Data made by European and Japanese producers, NCR particularly in minicomputers and peripheral Others equipment. IBM alone supplies about 65 per cent of the US market. Table 2 illustrates ' For details of market shares in Western Europe and Japan. see Datamation, September 1976, pp. 63 and 93 respectively. the world market share of the major computer Source' Quantum Science Corporation, 1979. manufacturers for mainframe computers. The revenue of the main US computer com- panies more than quadrupled from $12.2 bil- same time, most of these companies are linked lion in 1972 to $53.3 billion in 1980. In 1980 through marketing, technological and manu- IBM's share of the industry's total revenues facturing joint-venture arrangements. This was 49 per cent.'(' convergence is bound to intensify along with The situation is similar in the telecommuni- business concentration due to the financial cations industry, with a few companies con- and R and D requirements. trolling and developing electronic switching The USA, Western Europe and Japan pos- and related equipment. sess most of the world computer population, A similar concentration exists in software though the dominating force is the US, which and machine services, data banks and bases. controls about 90 per cent of the computer Table 3 shows the concentration in services.

Table 3 Main companies providing software and machine services in 1978 (millions of US dollars)

Software Machine services

Computer Sciences (USA) IBM (USA) System Devt. Corp. (USA) CDC (USA) SOGETI-GEMINI (France) Automatic Data Proc. (USA) Informatics (USA) General Electric (USA) Planning Res. Corp. (USA) EDS (USA) Electronic Data Systems (USA) Tymshare (USA) SEMA (France) Mac-Auto (USA) SCICON (UK) GSI (France) CISI (France)

Estimate Source: Pierre Audoin Conceil in Le Sicob, Le Monde, September 19th. 1979, 48 Juan F. Ruda

Table 4 Reference data bases and data-base records: impact. The concentration of financial and geographic distribution, 1975-79 technological capital in a few companies and countries will increase dependence rather than Year interdependence between countries. For some Area 1975 1977 1979 time, this point has caused concern in Western Europe and the Third World countries and a United States Number of data bases 177 208 259 number of policies have been designed to Number of records (million) 46 58 94 counteract the trend. Other Developed Market Economies The impact of information technology Number of data bases 154 269 Number of records (million) 6 13 55 The implications of this powerful technologi- Total cal package which is just unfolding range from Number of data bases 301 362 528 the alteration of the productive infrastructure Number of records (million) 52 l4 to questions of cultural identity and depen- Source: Martha E, Williarns: Data Base and On-line Statistics dence. The aim here is to restrict the discus- for 1979. ASIS Bu//efin,no 7, December 1980. pp. 27-29. sion to some general issues directly pertinent to the Third World.

In the case of data bases and data base The productive infrastructure records, Table 4 shows geographic distribution The impact of developments in science and of bases, with about 49 per cent in the USA technology on the international division of la- holding nearly 64 per cent of records. bour has long been a neglected issue, although Data banks and bases have their origin in the innumerable examples exist. Many of them late 1950s and on-line information searches are show an erosion of comparative advantages by growing at a rate of 30 per cent per year. It is technological change which, incidentally, not difficult to locate the most important users shows how endogenous technology is to de- and 'owners' of the information stored in data velopment. banks: 75 per cent of the two million computer What we face today is the concentrated searches carried out annually originate in the force of two elements: the reorganization of US. The world's 'big two' data base hosts are the productive infrastructure based increasing- Lockheed and SDC (System Development ly on technology, which in turn is increasingly Corporation), which account for 75 per cent of dependent on scientific developments. This the European market and 60 per cent of the US has been called 'knowledge-based industrial market. In 1977, Lockheed possessed about capacity', applying especially to 'high techno- 100 of the 500 publicly available data bases in logy industries, e.g. nuclear, aerospace, com- the world." The tremendous concentration of puters, etc. It was argued-simplifying the manufacturing and service facilities poses cru- issue here-that while industrialized countries cial economic, social and political questions will preserve their lead in these sort of indus- that need to be addressed promptly. tries, the Third World countries will increas- The global scope of the information industry ingly take over 'labour-intensive industries', is an essential element in understanding its since their comparative advantage is low The Microelectronics Revolution: Implicationsj3r the Third World 49

labour costs. Most of the arguments for an indispensable to other industries, conditioning NI0 are based on such premises, as was the skill requirements and affecting employment 'Lima Target' of having 25 per cent of the levels? What will this mean for development world industrial capacity in the Third World strategy in terms of productive infrastructure? by the year 2000. What of the Third World's hopes of acquiring The Third World's capacity in science and a powerful industrial capability? Even under technology is a well-debated issue and the the most optimistic assumptions, it will not be world imbalance in this field is too well docu- possible to meet the 'Lima Target' by the year mented to be repeated. The point now is that 2000, without even considering present tech- most industries are actually in the process of nological changes and trends.I3 moving towards the 'high technology' cate- The industrialized countries have engaged gory or can potentially move in that direction themselves in a far-reaching policy of re- due to a combination of socio-economic and adjustment provoked largely by competition technological developments. among themselves, lower growth prospects, Due to the application of microprocessors, high and most likely higher unemployment in microcomputers, alteration of products and the future, higher energy costs, and compe- processes, office automation and other changes, tition from some Third World countries. One the productivity increase in industrialized of the most important tools in this readjust- countries is at or can potentially reach levels ment process is the use of new technologies, which are competitive with low labour costs. particularly microelectronics, for the upgrad- Automation, by reducing the importance of ing of products and processes. direct labour cost in total business cost, im- The Advisory Council for Applied Research plies that the incidence of this factor of pro- and Development (UK) summarized the posi- duction diminishes and others, such as capital tion by stating: 'If we neglect or reject it equipment, design and management, become [semiconductor technology] as a nation, the much more important. At the same time, there United Kingdom will join the ranks of the is a shift of skill requirements towards soft- underdeveloped c~untries."~ ware-based and system engineering skills Trends in several industries show changes in which are more difficult to attain and develop investment patterns and location of facilities, than those commonly used in basic industries and industries which were potential candidates in the past.12 to move South will remain in the North. The technical and international division of The electronics industry has traditionally labour is acquiring a new dynamism which used offshore installations for the assembling calls for a reconceptualization of traditional and wiring of 'chips'. Now, due to automatic thinking. The theory of comparative advan- techniques, the industry is developing its new tages was classically defined by Paul Samuel- generation of plants in the industrialized son when he said that it is 'better for fat men to countries. The companies see automation as do the fishing, lean men the hunting, and smart the only way to minimize costs, increase effi- men to make the medicine'. But what happens ciency, maintain employment levels in indus- when the fat men do the fishing, the hunting trialized countries and be closer to the major- and make the medicine? What happens when ity of end-users. electronics becomes a convergence industry, The latest main investments in the field of 50 Juan F. Rada

integrated circuits are in the US, Japan, Eng- plied in a joint effort to achieve higher levels of land, Scotland, Ireland, France and West automation. Germany.l5 Some operations will remain in Looking at these trends, a report by the ILO Third World countries in order to exploit re- states: 'The competitiveness of low labor cost gional markets or for the assembling and test- firms with labor intensive techniques is contin- ing of simpler 'chips' where the production ually being eroded by the installation of high volume does not justify automated plants. productivity capital-intensive machines in de- Additionally, some plants are moving from veloped and some developing countries.'I6 higher-cost Asian countries (Hong Kong, Long-term forecasts with a time-horizon to Taiwan, Republic of Korea and Singapore) to the year 2000 suggest that, by that year, textile Thailand and The Philippines in an effort to production will be so capital intensive that la- cut costs further. The rate of plant realloca- bour cost differentials will no longer play the tions will depend on the investment policy, decisive role in total product cost that they do amortization and financial constraints of each today.I7 This forecast was made in 1976, be- company. It is clear, however, that the trend fore the massive introduction of microelec- is well under way. tronics, and all the evidence suggests that Other examples of this trend are textiles and the timing of the change has been drastically garments, although the tendency is less appar- reduced. ent. The situation here might not be one of Nevertheless, erosion of labour cost advan- withdrawing plants from the Third World, but tages in some Third World countries will take rather to maintain current production in the much longer than in others. One study of 20 North and recuperate terrain in some fields. countries shows that in textiles, the lowest The readjustment policies of industrialized labour cost (Pakistan) was one-thirtieth of the countries have greatly encouraged the automa- highest (Belgium). However, it should be ad- tion and updating of industry. Automation ded that, in this industry, proximity to the is seen as the only way of maintaining indus- main markets and end-users is a considerable try in the North, albeit with reduced employ- advantage because of the incidence of trans- ment. At the same time, this process is lead- port costs in the final price. Is ing to further industrial concentration through Protectionist measures, particularly the mergers and takeovers and, inevitably, to an quota systems, have forced exporters from uneven distribution of the technology. some Third World countries to move up-mar- The combined effect of automation and ket in order to obtain more value for the same electronic-based innovations is reinforcing the quantity of products, thus forcing their own transistion of industry as a whole towards the industry to upgrade and enter a market where 'high technology' category, strongly oriented their advantage is the lowest. Those countries towards R and D and software. There will be and territories with the capacity to upgrade improvements in the design of products and successfully will tend to monopolize the ex- processes, quality, planning and marketing, ports of Third World countries by decreasing already traditional advantages of industrial- the competitiveness of others. It is already ized countries. In fact, the links between becoming evident that, in the upper part of the end producers, machine manufacturers and textile and clothing industry and also in new electronic/computer firms have been multi- products. competitive edge is now provided by The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 51

technology and not by labour costs. Over the avoid transfering technology unless they can medium term, this will permeate the industry get technology or market entry in return. as a whole. In this industry, as in all advanced techno- Given the state of research on these prob- logy industries, what is important is to be lems, it is not possible to provide a precise part of the innovation process rather than time scale or quantification of side effects. have access to the technology of a given pro- What is clear, however, is that this industry duct. This is because of the short product will not enjoy the same importance in Third cycle of products. The only way to have ac- World countries as in the past, nor will it be a cess to the process of technological change low investment short-cut for employment pro- is through participation in equity, which is vision and external revenues. Once technolo- what many European and US corporations gy becomes the industry's competitive edge, it have done by taking over small innovative is only a question of time before reallocation of companies. plants starts taking place. One of the important new developments in Preliminary evidence shows that similar the industry are joint R and D programmes trends might be under way in the footwear and particularly in basic research. This is an exten- leather industry. The possibility of combining sion of joint manufacturing or marketing ven- low labour costs with high technology is also a tures. Joint R and D has been a characteristic doubtful alternative, except perhaps where of the Japanese industrial strategy but this is highly sophisticated machine tools are used. In being imitated in the USA and Europe.I9 this case, precision engineering can be substi- To turn to another aspect of the new tech- tuted by parts assembly which may not war- nology, microelectronics is software-based rant investment in automation but which may and requires a set of skills which are more so- profitably use cheap labour. A candidate might phisticated and difficult to obtain than tradi- be the watch and clock industry in the lower tional skills of a mechanical nature. Particu- segment of the market. However, in most larly important in this respect is the shift to- cases the alteration of products leads to in- wards the design of production systems rather dustrial concentrations and economies of scale than separate items of machinery; this calls rather than deconcentration. A more general for systems engineering skills which are only obstacle to the low labour costs/high techno- acquired after high-level training and long ex- logy solution is that the technologies are con- perience. The distinction between mechanical trolled by a few transnational companies with and electronics engineers is tending to disap- worldwide production and marketing policies. pear at a time when Third World countries In the field of integrated circuits, there is an are reproducing this now obsolete division of explicit policy against technology transfer. skills. Even in industrialized countries, the The process of transfer of technology is transition to electronics in formerly mech- extremely complex since the industry relied anical industries, such as watches and office very heavily on trade secrets and what has equipment, has shown that the retraining of been called 'intangible knowledge'. In addi- personnel is almost impossible and involves tion much of the state of the art of techno- high cost and risk, especially when dealing logy is not transferable due to national secu- with older workers.20 rity regulations. Companies in general try to The efficient use of software, besides being 52 Juan F. Rada

a highly sophisticated skill, depends on expe- driving force of the reorganization of the pro- rience gained in solving programming prob- ductive infrastructure is precisely science and lems and is thus a further contribution to un- technology. equal development between industrial market However, this science and technology has economy countries and Third World been increasingly controlled by corporate countries, which is likely to be maintained. organizations which do not necessarily ensure There may be a few exceptions to this general socially valuable uses of technology or heed rule, however, where creation of software its economic disadvantages to the Third may provide some employment. World countries. Furthermore, the techno- In the product cycle of software, its initial logy as such has an inbuilt organizational con- development represents about 20 per cent of cept and its design caters for needs, skills and total revenues, the rest being created in the social forms seldom encountered in the Third maintenance, which involves a close relation- world. ship with end-users and a vast service net- At the productive level, the claim for an work. This suggests that software developed NIEO must be based on the acknowledgement for export by Third World producers will of those tendencies and the likely possibility most likely take the form of subcontracting that the gap between North and South will be by the emerging software industry of the in- even wider in the future. dustrialized countries, rather than autono- The use of these technologies in Third mous businesses. It is in these countries World countries has the effect of decreasing that most of the software market lies. labour-creation potential or producing labour In the two sectors briefly examined, micro- displacement. Thus, the reinforcement of the electronics will have a significant effect by present international division of labour is eroding the advantage of 'cheap labour'. In coupled with internal effects on employment addition to these trends, the existence of a and obviously on the balance of payments.22 single information system provides the capaci- Nevertheless, in the analysis of benefits ty to transmit blueprints and specifications di- and cost, it should be borne in mind that from rectly to machinery, concentrating knowledge an employment point of view, the mechaniza- and skill with the prime contractor rather than tion of agriculture has a dramatic effect on duplicating them in an off-shore plant.21Office employment, as compared to industrial or automation, on the other hand, permits further service automation. The conditions in most increases in the overall business productivity Third World countries are so different from which, in some cases, might be more valuable the advanced ones, particularly in relation than shop-floor increases.* We are witnessing to the labour market, that the experience in the beginning of an important change. Histori- relation to employment cannot be extrapola- cal evidence shows how developments of this ted. In addition, in Third World countries nature can render obsolete 'comparative ad- the equipment is more expensive while labour vantages' and this is particularly true when the is less costly, which makes automation an option that is not often followed. * The use of word-processing equipment increases typist productivity by about 100 per cent (new words typed). The present informatic order This does not necessarily mean the same increase in terms of final products. For the Third World, the policy alternatives in The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 53

the communication field are becoming more political, cultural and economic importance. complex. While these countries need to em- Strings of ones and zeros can be used to phasize self-reliance and independence, and transmit documents, voice or image over tele- protect themselves against further domination phone lines, microwaves and satellites; they of their economic, social, cultural and political can be ciphered and manipulated, and the life, they also need to participate in the inter- sheer number of users makes monitoring dif- national exchange of views, knowledge and, ficult. 23 indeed, commodities. This is a difficult, if not There are two main issues here. The first impossible, balance, made all the more deals with the type of information being used complex by the changing information infra- and the second deals with transborder data structure. flows that will be treated later. The first type Digitalization of different forms of informa- of information can be tailor-made, specialized tion creates a tremendous potential increase in information that can be retrieved through productivity, but it also affects the forms and electronic systems without the use of tradi- means of information flows. tional means such as newspapers, radio and In the first place, the digitalized network the mass media in general. The alternative is produces a fusion of print, voice and video, the specialization of these traditional means blurring the traditional distinction between the of communications through increasing frag- different means of communication. All mes- mentation with local and specialized items sages are transmitted in indistinguishable taking most of the coverage, while editorial, strings of ones and zeros; each node in the political and international news are beamed to network, as in the telephone system, can be an the local press from a central location. originator and receiver of messages in multiple The first alternative is the one most used by forms. This is no longer a possibility but a business and government, with specialized reality reflected in services such as teletext organizations producing and storing informa- (Viewdata or Prestel), integrated office sys- tion in central data banks and bases. This is tems and on-line data networks. often more influential in determining policy In the second place, this fluid network has than the traditional media and escapes tradi- no and the insensitivity to distance of tional forms of social control and monitoring. broadband bitstreams does not allow national The second alternative creates the possibi- segmentation. lity of a more concentrated control of the 'con- Transborder Data Flows (defined as the tent', with a 'mother-newspaper' dictating the transmission of machine readable information editorial line to many provincial or even across borders) and the development of inter- foreign newspapers. active international networks is one of to- The concentration of data banks and bases day's crucial developments. These networks in the hands of a few companies and countries provide 'real time' access to information re- aggravates the issue. The 'biased' character of gardless of location. Information can be international press agencies is well document- stored in remote computers and retrieved ed, but we now need to consider the 'biased' from many places. Information is, however, character of the background information used an intangible 'good' which is extremely diffi- to produce the analytical news. Computerized cult to monitor and which possesses great information leads to a different form of ex- 54 Juan F. Rada

change and interpretation. Figures and data do Left to others, e.g. American banks, the task of not provide for the social context or political organizing this 'collective memory', and putting up realities. Nevertheless, the computerization of with delving into it, is equal to accepting cultural references and data leads to a further normali- alienation. The location of data banks constitutes zation and quantification of the socio-political an imperative of ~overeignty.~~ analyses. The growth of GNP as a standard of The second main issue concerns Transborder progress, and the balance of payments as a Data Flows (TDF), which increases the depen- standard of economic soundness, regardless of dency of the Third World due to the concen- required structural changes, permeates the tration of data processing facilities in the in- technocratic 'bias' of such information sys- dustrialized countries. This, in turn, makes the tems. The database entry word for 'democra- Third World vulnerable to decisions taken in tic movements' could easily be 'subversion'. the country holding the data. Third World 'Intervention in Third World countries' could countries tend to use the data processing facili- be listed as 'Democracy ... defence of and ties of the industrialized countries for several 'Arabian oil' as 'National interest ... strate- reasons: routine data processing can be done gic'. The normalization of information does more economically, the data centres may pos- not lead to its 'objectivization'; on the contra- sess expertise not available locally, and their ry, it leads to an apparent scientificity in the data bases contain vital information not ob- same manner as using an average leads to a tainable in the Third World.25 figurative representation and to false repro- Data flows in the direction of short- andlor ductions of reality. long-term economic advantage, and most of Interactive information systems should not this exchange of data relates to intercorporate be opposed to, but rather geared towards, a requirements. The worldwide manufacturing, more balanced and diversified expression of marketing and financial policies of transnation- news and realities. As telematique progresses, al corporations imply that data providing the this sort of system will be the main source of bases for decision-making (raw data) flows to- information for news, education, scientific wards the headquarters and data containing work and political decisions. The present decisions already taken flows towards the sub- control, concentration and organization of da- sidiaries (policies). ta banks and bases, and of information But this is the tip of the iceberg. What is in technology hardware, not only make the use of fact taking place today is a process of growing these information networks inadequate for the information content of goods and services. Third World's needs but also reproduce the Traditionally the service sector has been con- old patterns of dependency and domination sidered the place where most 'information between North and South. The Nora Report, processing' takes place, but this traditional officially endorsed in France, stated: concept is changing due to the 'information intensity' of consumer and capital goods. Information is inseparable from its organization and Brazil has been one of the first Third World form of storage. In the long term, it is not only the advantage that the knowledge of one or other piece countries to react to the changing situation. of data provides. The knowledge will end up by The Executive Secretary of the Special Sec- modelling itself-as it always has done-on the retariat for Informatics sees the issue as stocks of information. follows: The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications/or the Third World 55

TDF, given its fast growth, is an essential compo- This, of course, is not a hypothetical question; nent of a more embracing process: the informatiza- its implications are largely political. The risk tion of society. This is the back-cloth to which of retention or selective release of data is real. all of us who operate in the informatics or commu- Under conditions of economic war, deteriora- nication field are submitted. The consequences tion of the international political climate or, of this process to nations are not yet known- indeed, by unilateral decisions, a country can as neither were the effects of the industrial revo- lution at the end of the last century. However, withhold data with extremely harmful conse- there exists a constant aspect: the feeling that the quences. In the US, the transfer of know-how union of telecommunications and informatics will software, equipment, etc. can be regulated by have a strong impact on the culture of the next the State Department (Jackson Amendment, generation. Some countries have already even 1974) and effectively used as a tool in foreign established institutional models to prepare their policy. Recent international events show how populations, for example Japan and France. TDF effectively this can operate and Third World as an indicator of this process should have its so- countries realize through past experience that cial effects evaluated. The Brazilian Government this sort of mechanism operates to influence intends to establish a mechanism for this purpose. their internal economic and political decisions. He later states: The power of those who control data ser- In international trade a new mechandise has vices, hardware, manufacturing, machine and emerged-information-without material consist- software services increases in direct propor- ence and containing its own characteristics, chal- tion to the diffusion and widespread use of lenging even the basis of western economic po- information technology. licy, property, the right to exclusive use and the From an economic point of view, the ship- competitive set-up. The political frontiers which ping of data to industrialized countries for pro- a short time ago surrounded physical areas and cessing-mostly intracorporate-leads to a protected the nation's privacy have begun to be- loss of jobs or job-creation potential and con- come ~cattered.~~ centration of capabilities in the information Brazil has implemented a number of measures 'rich' countries. to minimize adverse effects of current change A case in point is , where a govern- while trying to exploit the new opportunities ment report in 1977 asserted that 7,500 data that are open. processing jobs and about $300 million in re- The Canadian Minister of State for Science venue were being lost because data processing and Technology, opening the Congress of the was done abroad. The projections for 1985 International Federation of Information Pro- estimate losses of 23,000 jobs and $1.5 billion cessing in 1977, summarized the issues when in revenue.28 This study refers to directly he stated: related jobs and was published in 1978. Since then the trend has been confirmed by a recent The problem of transnational data flows has created report submitted to the Canadian Department the potential of growing dependence, rather than interdependence, and with it the danger of loss of of Communications. The Canadians suffer legitimate access to vital information and the danger severe dominance by foreign capital in their that industrial and social development will largely industry and services and many corporations be governed by the decisions of interest groups ship their data abroad for processing. Foreign residing in another country.27 capital is also dominant in many Third World 56 Juan F. Rada

countries. This is a growing pattern, curtailing consequences. When dealing with TDF, one progress in the development of local data encounters a reality that affects in a very con- processing facilities. The pressure on the crete form the economic, social, political and balance of payments relates in this case to a cultural life of countries and people. service as well as the hardware and infra- A 'free and balanced flow of information'- structure required to receive the service. For to use the jargon of the trade-is indispensable example: France spends about US $2.5 mil- not only to the Third World but also to most lion a year consulting US-based data banks Western European countries. and data bases.29 This debate is encompassing more areas due Furthermore, due to the decreasing cost of to the possibilities of direct television broad- communications and the concentration of 'in- casting via satellite, where transmission is formation intensive' sectors in industrialized beamed directly to individual receivers. There countries, it is becoming cheaper in many ca- is as yet no test case to evaluate the concrete ses for Third World enterprises and institu- implications and consequences, and its reali- tions to send their design problems, calcula- zation would involve complex and unique tions, research and routine data abroad rather technical undertakings. The application is limi- than to assemble and develop local teams. ted at the moment to domestic systems using a What happens, in fact, is a sort of 'electronic common receiving station and passing the brain-drain' produced by reducing the oppor- message through cable to individual television tunities for local development. The ever-grow- sets. ing dependency of many countries on large From a legal point of view, the question was data networks will increase the importance of apparently settled by Regulation No 428A of these issues. the International Union in Of particular importance in the overall ques- 1971, which stipulates that all technical means tion of TDF, besides the issues already men- should be used to reduce the radiation of the tioned, are those relating to the protection of satellite beam over the territory of other privacy and cultural identity. The use of vast countries 'unless agreement has previously pools of information to monitor individuals been reached with such countries'. Neverthe- and store information about them is not only less, the United States, for instance, regards real, but has already prompted legislation in the regulation as a purely technical require- several countries and many studies by interna- ment, having no bearing on the content of tional organizations. Privacy is a fundamental transmissions. Furthermore, it would like to human right and the necessary legislative tools consider itself free to take advantage of the need to be devised and international standards potential of satellites, if necessary, without the established to ensure that this right is respec- consent of the recipient country. ted.3" Because of the US insistence on the princi- Those who today have the leading edge and ple of unrestricted free flow, the United Na- benefit most from TDF are using the argument tions Outer Space Committee has been unable of 'free flow' of data as it is used for the 'free to reach agreement on whether the prior con- flow' of information and commodities. Never- sent of the recipient country is required for theless, the unrestricted flow of data needs direct satellite transmission to take place." to be qualified because of potential negative It is self-evident that the power of protocols The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 57

and agreements 'in principle' is minimized What is needed is a socio-economic com- when the time comes to voluntarily renounce a mand of the development of science and tech- commercial, cultural and, indeed, powerful nology. It is obvious that the issues being political weapon. This calls for closer attention confronted today, which will increase in com- and monitoring of developments by the Third plexity in the future, demand a global ap- World. For the time being, the unique techni- proach. This is also true for science and tech- cal complexities of this type of transmission nology (S and T). make their materialization unlikely in the me- The implementation of such an approach dium term, but it is one area where anticipa- will undoubtedly take many years, but it is tory policy is required in order to be prepared unavoidable. In the economic, social and cul- to handle such developments when they reach tural fields, a number of regulations exist and maturity. established mechanisms feed back social con- cerns; in the future, S and T must also be governed by such mechanisms, as it is be- Information technology and development coming increasingly important for every as- Information technology poses a formidable pect of human activity. challenge to development policy. There are Policy- and decision-makers in the Third three main reasons for this: World could accelerate this process by putting 1. Production factors are increasingly condi- it on the international agenda. Nevertheless, tioned by scientific and technological the process should start within the Third change, i.e. the industrial and service in- World countries themselves. The need is to frastructure is becoming independent from define areas of particular S and T concern, geographical location, natural or traditional national priorities for their immediate and economic advantages. future needs, and a well-defined timetable of 2. Concentration of the manufacturing and concrete action. This could serve as a starting service capabilities of information tech- point for joint efforts at the sub-regional, nology in a few companies and countries regional and continental levels and as the makes the danger of growing dependency basis for proposing programmes and ex- greater due to the all-pervasive character changes to the industrialized countries in of the technology and the fact that electron- areas where collaboration could be most fruit- ics is becoming a convergence industry. ful. These steps could be building blocks for 3. The concentration of 'information inten- a global S and T strategy. The World Con- sive' sectors in industrialized countries and servation Strategy is an example of such a the increase in productivity of commercial global effort. 32 and economic transactions further rein- Unless Third World countries-through forces the traditional advantages of these their existing political tools-start moving in countries. the direction described, they will not have Information technology is a reality, and a rap- much hope of establishing a New International idly expanding one. The question, therefore, is Order but will rather be reinforcing the pres- how to master the changes and deal with these ent one. issues to the best advantage for development The essential starting point is the develop- strategies. ment of a system of scientific and technologi- 58 Juan F. Rada

cal assessment, forecasting and policy design. changes, while avoiding the undesirable ef- There is no time to waste, as changes are al- fects of technology. In fact, microelectron- ready under way with the increasing economy ics-based innovations can be of great benefit if of devices such as robots, the possibility of properly applied. complex direct verbal input, direct satellite Three general principles apply to the use of links, etc. In addition, the first significant in- technology within countries. First is the need vestments are paying off in biotechnology, for a based on the selectivity which has been called 'the living micro revolu- of applications aimed at overcoming bottle- tion', and considerable research and invest- necks and optimizing the use of resources, ment is taking place in areas such as compos- rather than using the technology to replace ites for the substitution of metals. labour or increase efficiency which could be Just as microelectronics is related to the increased by other means. This undoubtedly mastering of intelligence functions, the devel- calls for policies that strike a careful balance opment of biotechnology would seem to be between pros and cons. related to the mastering of biological cycles Selectivity and conscious planning can, for and mechanisms. This will, of course, have a instance, minimize hard currency expenditure considerable impact on industrialized as well if data banks and bases are developed for do- as Third World countries. Furthermore, in- mestic use and export. By avoiding imports of formation technology increases enormously S services, the foreign exchange savings could and T and R and D capacity by providing be greater in the medium term than the cost of easy access to information and interactive installing the equipment, while at the same relations. This in itself could accelerate the time developing local expertise and capabili- rate of discoveries and innovations. ties. It will also have the added advantage of The Third World can no longer remain a organizing a system which meets the needs passive observer of changes that were fore- and culture of the country. Selectivity can also seen, digested and transformed into policy in gear applications to areas where it is benefi- the industrialized countries before the South cial for the country as a whole to maintain in- took notice of their existence and impact at the ternational competitiveness. proper level. The Third World requires a for- Additionally, selectivity implies a policy on malized or ad hoc instrumentality to assess the technical obsolescence and upgrading of types of changes described in this article, and equipment, together with clear technical crite- also to monitor closely and forecast develop- ria on the types of equipment that should be ments such as substitution of materials and used. This, of course, applies differently to biotechnology . each sector and area. More often than not, The capacity for prospective assessment equipment is upgraded according to new tech- permits not only a better bargaining position, nical breakthroughs rather than based on a but also puts the elaboration of development careful evaluation of the alternatives. Old strategies on a more solid basis by developing equipment can often be useful and economi- a more refined conceptualization of short-, cal, within the objectives of a development medium- and long-term comparative advan- plan; there is no need to replace old equip- tages. ment each time a new product arrives on the We must learn how to harness current international market. The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 59

Second is the need to assure diversified plicit policy of no transfer of technology. The sources of supply in the market and to avoid United States and Japan are so far down the becoming dependent on a few companies semiconductor industry's learning curve that it which can greatly distort prices and applica- might be impossible for European newcomers tion criteria because of their disproportionate to catch up, let alone for the Third World. marketing power. This must be accompanied Third is the need to monitor the national by a policy on software. The reservation of integration of locally assembled or partly market segments for nationally or regionally manufactured electronic-based products. This assembled equipment is also an important is important because, due to technological consideration here. The diversification of change, the picture is distorted. In general, suppliers benefits the economy by encour- countries use an index of national integration aging pricelservice performance of producers combining weight/volume/value to measure or importers, thus minimizing their margins how much of a given product is nationally and the outflow of profits. made in compliance, in some cases, with local On the service side, the 'technological pack- legislation or plans. age' should be unwrapped in such a way that Today, integrated circuits which are the conversion software and other services could heart of electronic-based products have a very be produced locally, providing that an ade- low weight/volume/value, but they incorpo- quate manpower policy is followed to train rate all the 'real' value of the product from the and develop local personnel and firms. point of view of technology and know-how. If The diversification of suppliers is the only the purpose of a country is to upgrade slowly way to minimize dependency, given the fact its own national capability in this area, it is that it is highly unlikely that Third World important to monitor national integration in countries could develop their own manufac- the light of current change. This is also related turing capabilities. The possibility of manufac- to the fact that many 'intelligent' products ap- turing exists only when the adopted criteria of pear under traditional or very general descrip- obsolescence differ from the international tions of import classifications or the SITC market and the system is developed behind (Standards International Trade Classification), strong protective barriers. The technical speci- which not only could decrease the capacity of fications of the equipment would, however, be local industry to compete, but also implies that several years and generations behind the lead- many products escape general guidelines and ing producers. Under these conditions, the automation policy. For example, in one Latin manufacturing alternative is only justifiable American country where a regulatory policy within a large potential internal market (e.g. and supporting legislation exist for data pro- India) or within a regional market that could cessing, it is 'technically' feasible to exclude permit appropriate economies of scale. word processing from the policy and leave The difficulties that European manufac- it unregulated. turers are encountering when trying to jump Given the trends described, it is advisable to on the integrated circuits bandwagon show devise wider information policies rather than that the possibilities for Third World countries computer policies on their own, although, as are practically nil, especially because in this has been explained, the computer is pene- area, as well as in computers, there is an ex- trating all areas and many products. 60 Juan F. Rada

In order to be more explicit concerning the 'obsolete' equipment can become available at beneficial use of the technology in the immedi- scrap value and remain economically viable ate future, certain areas need to be examined. when combined with lower labour costs, ap- The benefits are related, as mentioned earlier, propriate skills, and managerial and govern- to the capacity to implement national policies ment policies. which can balance pros and cons to the advan- In many of these new areas of development, tage of the population as a whole. some skills are not difficult to obtain (conver- sion software, simple programming, etc), al- though mastering the programming needs of Possible economies standard types of equipment is not equal to the The decreasing cost of the technology, as men- creation of innovative capacity and systems tioned earlier, in itself permits more economi- engineering skills. It is one thing to learn how cal applications. Nevertheless, the cost of la- to drive an automobile or a tractor and another bour in most Third World countries means that to know how to make it, repair it or upgrade it. equipment is less competitive and amortiza- The 'core' of the software is generally part tion takes longer. Therefore, many traditional of the producer's package and, as the competi- technologies and organizational forms will re- tive edge will be increasingly on the software main competitive for a long time. rather than the hardware content, we are wit- In many cases, the use of information tech- nessing a shift whereby the 'incorporated nology in products or processes saves capital technology' will become even more important per unit of output although it increases capital while becoming intangible. 'Reverse engin- per worker employed. As the saving of capital eering' in this context will be even more dif- is a crucial factor for the Third World, the ficult. It was not at random that many power- technology could be used beneficially, provid- ful companies, instead of manufacturing their ing that the application complies with a well own self-contained systems in the computer thought-out plan aimed at fulfilling the needs field, opted for producing IBM plug-compat- of the majority of the population. ible equipment, which uses IBM software, In addition, the use of the technology can be due to the sophistication, cost and service in- skill-saving in many cases in areas where the frastructure required to implement complete development of local skills would be a costly software packages. long-term venture; thus, a form of leap-frog- Transfer of technology, patents and licen- ging can take place. This is particularly true in sing will therefore be much more complex in the case of precision engineering, where reli- as much as one is dealing with a good as in- able, sophisticated and economical machine tangible as non-materialized knowledge. At tools are becoming available in which most of the same time, one needs to bear in mind that the skills required are in-built in the programme current changes are accompanied by increas- of the machines. At the same time, traditional ing concentration, vertical/forward integra- equipment is rapidly being pushed to obso- tion, and global marketing and production pol- lescence, not because it is intrinsically out- icies. dated, but because industrialized countries The technology also carries with it certain need to use the latest equipment available to diseconomies. Forecast losses because of in- be able to compete among themselves. This adequate use of computerized equipment or The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 61

losses due to equipment failure could run ex- trial safety and pollution control, which serve tremely high. The growing dependency on au- to solve important problems without increas- tomatic equipment and the rigidity introduced ing the 'capital intensity' of the health sec- because of it call for careful evaluation of its tor.34It must be borne in mind, however, that use and convenience. there is a danger in using the information pro- cessing capabilities of computers in the health, Social and government applications banking and social control areas. Computers Computer technology has long been used by can communicate in an interactive network government services in Third World countries, and therefore an insurance company or bank especially for statistical purposes. This could computer can, if arranged, interrogate a health increase further, improving the accuracy, relia- data bank computer concerning the health of a bility and timing of statistical information particular client seeking a policy, credit or valuable for decision-making and planning. mortgage. Third World countries have been The time lag between eventslpolicy implemen- slow in enforcing privacy laws and the right tation and its proper evaluation can be shor- of individuals to have access to information tened considerably, thus increasing the effi- stored about themselves, which might be in- ciency of decisions, policy design and the correct, incomplete, out of context, or related monitoring of the performance of different to events which have already been corrected. measures. With a solid information base, the This is important at national and international technology can be used to optimize the allo- levels, since the technology can be and has cation and use of resources, which in itself already been used for massive violations of could mean considerable economies. A tight- human rights. er control of commercial stocks, imports and In education, information technology can exports, and tax collection could be of great serve to enhance economically the capability benefit, while saving foreign exchange in. of the traditional system, integrating remote many areas. and isolated sectors with national life and in- Although employment could increase mar- creasing the diversity and national content of ginally when new or supplementary services programmes. For instance, the economy of are created, in general the technology will di- audio-visual equipment and production can minish job-creation potential. Thus a careful boost national programmes for schools, televi- evaluation is needed to combine traditional sion, village education and rural extension, as and modern methods between desirable in- the mimeograph boosted the local press and formation and employment results. atomized the production of educational mate- Countries can further their planning and rials. This could help to avoid the alienating bargaining capacity if they are capable of as- tyranny of imported canned programmes sembling the relevant information. which are foreign to local culture. Other important areas of application are However, this potential needs to be quali- those which enhance social services, particu- fied. Information technology is accompanied larly health and education. One of the most by its own sub-culture and an apparently neu- beneficial applications of information techno- tral concept of efficiency and organizational logy is in health, particularly as aid for the forms, a universal technical language and a handicapped, prevention of accidents, indus- functional language: English. Most data 62 Juan F. Rada

banks, bases, keyboards, instructions, litera- ment developed here and the angle of this ture, etc. related to the technology are in Eng- article that 'the perpetuation and repetition lish. This means that only those with an ade- of the trajectory of industrialized countries quate knowledge of the language can have ac- is both impossible and unde~irable.'~~ cess to many services. There is a tremendous This being the case, the 'quality' of S and T need here for cultural diversity not only lin- developments must, in the last instance, be guistically, but also in terms of content and epistemologically and contextually different. format. Third World countries should collec- Information technology can serve not only to tively implement the storage of the 'collective store and manipulate information but to inte- memory' in their own language and according grate science and production, upgrade tradi- to their own interests. How much information tional technologies, collect information about is stored and easily available on appropriate local materials or experiences, etc. The pos- technology and the different alternatives to a sibility of economically combining and inte- given production process? How much is grating different layers of knowledge and stored on traditional medicines and organiza- experience can serve to bridge the gap be- tional experiences of rural extension prog- tween the theoretical potentiality of a given rammes? Will a Latin American country be local technology and the concrete study of its forced to go to a computer in the USA-im- viability in mass production. This will serve porting a service-to find out import-export to link more closely production, S and T, and possibilities to India or Nigeria? Will the Third R and D. World newspaper industry be forced-as with Policy-makers will need to devise measures the news agencies-to rely for information on to cover all the links from research to devel- data banks and bases in the industrialized opment, production, marketing. They will countries? need to understand how S and T systems link and interact with the social, cultural and Science and technology ecological environment. They will also need The development of S and T is based on to develop forms of social command of tech- stocks of knowledge and also on the way the nological and scientific change. Technological information is kept and transmitted. The same assessment is not just a 'technique' but a information transmitted differently can yield participatory process that involves those entirely different results. The proliferation of affected, producers of technology, and a care- pedagogical techniques and educational ful evaluation of the links with imported methods bears testimony to this-in brief, the technologies. abysmal qualitative difference between a In science and technology, great benefits teacher and a master. It is in the light of these could also accrue due to the optimization of types of consideration that access to the vast the use of scientists and the creation of 'criti- pool of data which information technology cal masses' through interactive systems within creates needs to be looked at. The develop- countries and across borders, without the need ment of S and T is a qualitative process para- for costly, and sometimes undesirable, geo- llel to, and conditioning the quantity and na- graphical concentration. This could serve also ture of, the stock of information and the form for a more rational division of labour among of its transmission. It is clear from the argu- scientists in countries and across borders. At The Microelectronics Revolution: Implications for the Third World 63

the same time, easy access to scientific and al Trade Classification) as an initial guideline. technological information could eliminate one Additionally, joint or coordinated efforts can of the causes of the brain drain. The flow of be facilitated in areas as diverse as transport, scientists to the North, particularly in the na- marketing consultancy, managerial practices tural sciences, is often caused by the impossi- and expertise, and so on. bility of obtaining the necessary information The second and third areas referred to in and feedback essential for their career devel- the above-mentioned report relate to the de- opment. velopment of an autonomous financial capa- city and monetary system. This is, of course, International dimensions closely linked to the first area; it is also heavi- There are many areas where Third World ly conditioned by information exchanges and countries are called upon to act collectively. data processing. The increased productivity These could be facilitated by the use of infor- of commercial transactions could benefit mation technology. Third World countries if used by their own Five broad areas were initially identified by institutions. the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold Report What The fourth area is the 'strengthening of Now: Another Development, prepared on the technological capacities', This point was large- occasion of the Seventh Session of the United ly covered earlier. Diversified and efficient Nations General Assembly and put forward as technologies offering flexibility of scale, re- the minimum practicable steps towards Third source utilization, labour-based product mix World collective self-reliance.36 and participation already exist in many places, First is the 'coordination of industrial and as for example with energy generatinglsaving agricultural development'. The technology can devices. The use of fluid information could be invaluable here to monitor policies, plan serve to identify this base and develop chan- and allocate resources. At the same time, the nels to make it readily and economically simple fluid exchange of information could al- available. low massive horizontal links in the field of This aspect is closely linked to the fifth area: trade. The lack of marketing capacity of indi- 'Towards Third World Communication'. Al- vidual countries can be lessened by informa- though the report refers essentially to the tion networks where country A will know questions of news agencies and the need for what is available in country B, rather than a different 'Information Order', changes in relying exclusively on the marketing and in- technology make this much wider. In effect, formation drive of companies in industrialized the whole information infrastructure is suffer- countries and their battery of advertising aids. ing profound changes. If the Third World The development of these types of information does not develop its own data banks, bases networks is an important step towards in- and networks, information relevant to re- creasing collective self-reliance. search, science, or the mass media will be The first step will be for countries to com- further concentrated and the system will suf- pile such information under generally agreed fer even more acute problems and disparities rules. The information should then be assem- than those it faces today. At least two ele- bled regionally, and finally globally, using the ments are of importance here: the question of codification of the SITC (Standard Internation- cultural identity and diversity mentioned 64 Juan F. Radu

earlier, especially in relation to language, of a local, peripheral newspaper connected only and the classification, codification and sorting to the New York Times would obtain a picture of systems of present banks and bases. News- French political history which, while interesting, papers (such as the New York Times) organ- deserves to be compared with some other slant. A ize their news banks according to their own second one has to do with history proper, where editorial line, principles and the character- clearly the way information is structured is al- istics of the news the paper carries, and based together fundamental, and at research level is responsible for many of the conclusions which largely on their own past news and files. are drawn. In our opinion this means that here What appears relevant to Third World coun- again data banks should provide a dual picture tries, in terms of items or content, is not in relation to our own model of cultural develop- necessarily represented and, furthermore, ment. ... I do argue, very definitely, in the case of the analysis will not necessarily conform with anything which seems closely to affect our cultural the development policies and priorities of the model and cultural identity. A sort of hard national Third World. There is no need to underscore core is involved here, one which we all have and here the shortcomings of these systems in which, unless we are careful, data banks can cause the light of the long debate about the New either to shift or to change." International Information Order. Unless action is taken, the Third World will The issues involved here also concern buy not only the news but also the background industrialized countries, for basically the same information to produce it and the 'news about reasons. Mr A. Minc stated the point of view the news', ranging from abstracts of magazine of France in an OECD meeting in September articles to book reviews. 1978: Finally, in summary, collective action should be taken in four main areas: What we do claim is that there are non-technical 1. Joint efforts to develop technological and fields generally having to do, say, with the human scientific assessment and forecasting in those sciences where data banks are being built up, main- areas likely to affect most profoundly. Third ly in the United States, and that in this regard the World countries and the international division possession of data banks is a problem of an alto- of labour. Social command of scientific and gether different kind, since that of a cultural model technological development is thus broader is involved. Today, most French newspapers are than mere control; it assumes an orientation of being connected to the best existing news data S and T development rather than a regulatory bank, which is that of the New York Times. Thus if and reactive position in regard to changes. this bank is questioned regarding certain episodes of French political history, a very interesting pic- This, of necessity, requires a formalized body ture is obtained, one which of course very natural- responsible for assessment and policy recom- ly depends on the views which reporters of the mendations. Its task should be short-, Ncir York Times may have held but which is not medium- and long-term assessment and policy exactly the same as ours concerning our own his- recommendations as a service to Third tory. We do not claim that the latter should be the World countries for planning and negotiation only view, but there should at least be two ways of purposes. looking at our history. We already have one inter- pretation, that of the Nenx York Times; we should 2. Joint efforts to evolve a common infor- now arrange for also providing a French view- mation policy, based on a development of point, since within the next ten years any journalist building blocks that could stem from the as- The Microelectronics Revolution: Implicationsfor the Third World 65

sessment provided by the body or networks of Data, information and a new productive in- institutions described above. This policy frastructure should benefit not only the few; should encompass data banks, bases, net- we cannot have a world divided between in- works in the economic, S and T, R and D, formation 'poor' and 'rich'. Data and informa- cultural and mass media fields. The Third tion should not be used to infringe on a peo- World should also evolve a common policy ple's cultural identity and invade, by means of towards communications, transborder data different lifestyles, patterns of consumption flows, satellite links and transfer of techno- and values, a world that is struggling to reach logy. Particularly important in this field is to its own identity and development path. More work towards an international agreement to than legislation and protocols, a new atmos- deregulate as much as possible software phere of social command of technologies copyrights, especially in products. It could should be developed. In this atmosphere a par- also evolve into common facilities for manu- ticipatory and plural discussion about the use facturing in selected areas, applications and of technologies could take place and the won- R and D, with special emphasis, at least ders of current change could help solve pres- initially, on software. sing needs and benefit all in a more interde- 3. Common policies on regulatory interna- pendent rather than dependent world. tional protocols about privacy, monitoring of Information is a 'social good', embodying in flows of data, and on information require- its content and form of transmission cultural ments about the type of data that any given patterns, social organizations, complex and institution should hold in a country andlor ship subtle forms of social reproduction and eco- abroad. This is an area where much progress nomic value. has been made among OECD countries, but We are confronting a change, as profound as the Third World has not participated actively major changes in the past, which masters an in the debate. essential component of economic activity and 4. Joint efforts to obtain preferential treat- human interaction. The outcome of this ment for access to data banks and bases as a change will depend on society's ability to har- way to mitigate the growing gap between ness the technological cornucopia which is un- North and South in areas such as S and T. folding, in order to avoid the creation of an Free access to these sources could be part of order which might take decades to dismantle. aid and transfer of technology agreements. Present change could lead to planetary uni- At this stage, a warning is necessary: the formization and greater dependency for the potential benefits of the technology, as with Third World or it could serve to manifest the other technologies, could remain paper and basic unity of humanity in the diversity of its words, as they have in many cases. The bene- expression. fits assume a short- and long-term direction, i.e. the active search for alternative develop- ment strategies. This in the final analysis is relat- Notes ed to the power structure within and between 1. See Independent Commission on International countries. If this structure is not altered in most Development Issues (Brandt Commission), Nortt'l- countries and internationally, there is little South: A Programme fur Survival, London, 1980, hope that desirable benefits will materialize. p. 53 and OECD Interfutures, Facing the Future.: 66 Juan F. Rada

Mastering the Probable and Managing the Ut7- firmatisatiot7 de la Socikte, Vol. 11, Annexe No 7, predictable. OECD, Paris, 1979. Paris, 1978. See Rada, J. Structure and behav- 2. These points have been developed in greater de- iour ..., op.cit. tail in Rada, J., The Impact i)fMicroelectronics: A 10. International Data Corporation in Fortune Ma- Tentati~sc,Appraisal of Information Technology, gazine, June 5th, 1978, and Financial Times, Feb- ILO, Geneva, 1980. See also Ide, R., Micro- ruary 6th, 1979. electronics-The Technologicul Thrust, Infor- 11. Nm13 Scientist, January l lth, 1979. Also see mation & Communications Technology, , La guerre des donnees', Le Mode Diploma- Canada, 1979. ticfue, November 1979. Beca, R., 'Les Banques 3. Merrit, R.L., 'The Revolution in Communica- des Donnees' in Nora, S. and Minc, A., op.cit., tions Technology and the Transformation of the Vol. I, Annexe No. 2. International System' in Mendes, C. (et al.), The 12. See on this point Jacobson, J., Technical Control of Technocracy, Brazil, 1979. Change, Employment and Technological Depen- 4. Ide, R., op.cit. See also Branscomb, L.M., denw Research Policy Institute, University of 'Computer Technology and the Evolution of World Lund, Discussion Paper No. 122, August 1979, and Communications in International Telecommunica- Rada, J., op.cit. tion Union (ITU)', Third World T~li'~o~nn'i~ti~t~13. See the outcome of 'Scenario A' in the OECD Forum, Geneva, 1979, Pan l. Interfutures Report, op.cit. This is the best possible 5. For details on the economy and applications of scenario and the Lima Target is not accomplished, fibre-optics see Chang, K.Y., 'Fiber Optic Inte- even though the exercise does not consider the grated Distribution and its Applications' in Inter- technological changes described here. national Conference on Communications, Con- 14. Advisory Council for Applied Research and ferme Record Vol. I, Boston, Ma., June 1979, Development, The Application of Semicondudor and Coi-field, K.G., 'Optical Fibres in Commu- Technology, London, 1978, p. 7. nications-A Review of the Benefits in ITU', Third 15. This is the case of Inmos, GEC-Fairchild and World Telecoit~tni;t~i(,(itionForum, op.cit. ITT in the UK, Thomson-Motorola in France, Mos- 6. For details, see Rada, J., op.cit., and Friedrichs, tek in Ireland, National Semiconductors, Motorola G., Microelectronics: A Nor Dimension of Techno- and NEC in Scotland and Hitachi in West Germany. logical Change and Automation, Vienna Centre See Roessle, H.F.L., 'Prospects for the European Conference on Microelectronics, September 1979. Semiconductor Industry' in Financial Times Con- Important material is compiled in a pedagogical fermce: Tomorrow in World Electronics, Con- form in National Extension College, The Silicon ference Papers, London, 1979. Factor. London, 1979. 16. ILO, Programme of Industrial Activities- 7. OECD Interfutures, op.cit., pp. 114 and 336. Textiles Committe, Geneva, 1978. Report 111, 8. Most US semiconductor manufacturers (the p. 43. 'pioneers') have been acquired either wholly or 17. Hardt, W., Die Textilindustrie im Jahr 2000. in part by large US and European corporations. International Wool Conference, Basel, June 8th- In Europe, a process of concentration is also 12th, 1976, mimeo, quoted in ILO, Proframmv of taking place through mergers, takeovers and joint Industrial Activities, op.cit., Report 11, p. 9. ventures. The EEC Commission has devised a plan 18. Economist intelligence Unit, World Textile to streamline the European electronics industry. Trade and Production, EIU Special Report No. 63, Also see Rada, J. 'Structure and behaviour of the London, 1979, p. 37. international semiconductor industry', UNCTC, 19. See Rada, J., 'Structure and behaviour ...'. New York (Forthcoming 1982). op.cit. 9. See Fabre, J.M. and Moulonguat, T., 'L'lndus- 20. See, for instance, Lamborghini, B., The D$- trie Informatique' in Nora, S. and Minc, A., L'ln- jksion of Microelectronics in Industrial Companies, The Microelectrot1i(~.vRevolution: Implications for the Third World 67

Vienna Centre Conference on Microelectronics, maximum extent practicable, the radiation over the September 1979. territory of other countries unless an agreement has 21. For details on the type of applications, see been previously reached with such countries.' In- Colding, B., ef al, Delphi Forecast of Munufuctu- ternational Telecommunication Union, Radio ring Technology, London, 1979, pp. 23-25. Regulations, Edition of 1976 revised in 1979, Gene- 22. For details on this point, see Rada, J., 'The va, 1979, Vol. 1. See also McLeod, N., 'TV Culture impact of ...', op.cit. particularly Chapter 7. Invasion from Space', New Scientist, February 23. Numerous studies exist on this point. Parti- 28th 1980, p. 645. cularly important are two OECD Series: OECD 32. International Union for the Conservation of Informatics Studies and OECD Information, Com- Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), with the puter, Communication Policy (ICCP). cooperation of United Nations Environment Pro- 24. Nora, S. and Minc, A., op.cit. p. 72. gramme (UNEP), World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 25. See Carrol, J.M., Tlzc Problem of l'runsna- FAO and UNESCO, World Conservation Strategy: tional Data Flow, OECD Informatics Studies No. Living Resource Conservation for Su.st(1i11ahle 10, Paris, 1974, p. 203. Development, Switzerland, 1980. 26. See Transnational Datu Report, Vol IV, No. 7, 33. See Gilpin, G.P., 'The Computer and World North Holland Publishing Co., 1981. Affairs' in Dertouzos, M.L. and Moses, J. (cds}, 27. Quoted by Gassman, H.P., 'New International The Computer Age: A Twenty-Year View, Cam- Policy Implications of the Rapid Growth of Trans- bridge, Ma., 1979, p. 239. border Data Flows' in OECD Information, Compu- 34. In relation to the 'content' of health systems ter, Communications Policy No. 1, Transborder Da- and services in Third World and industrialized ta Flows and the Protection of Privacy, Paris, 1979. countries, see Development Dialogue, 1978: l, 28. See Datarnation, November 1st 1978, p. 67. Another Development in Health, Uppsala, 1978. Also see Transnational Data Report, Vol. IV, 35. Development Dialogue, 1979: 1, Towards No. 6, North Holland Publishing Co. 1981. Another Development in Science and Technology, 29. Le Monde Diplomu~ique, November 1979, Uppsala, 1979, p. 61. op.cit. 36. What Nobv: Another Development, Dag Ham- 30. See OECD, Transborder Data Flows and the marskjold Foundation, Uppsala, 1975, pp. 78-84. Protection of Privacy, op.cit. 37. Minc, A., The tnformatization of Society in 31. The text of the ITU resolution adopted in the OECD Information, Computer, Communications Space Conference of 1971 in Geneva is the follow- Policy No. 3, Policy Implications of Data Network ing: 'In devising the characteristics of a space sta- Developments in the OECD Area. Paris, 1980, pp. tion in the broadcasting-satellite service, all techni- 155- 156. cal means available shall be used to reduce, to the More of the Same: The Impact of Information Technology on Domestic Life in Japan By Tarja Crotzb(~rgand Ingu-Lisu Sangregorio

-- The revolutionary changes in information technology during the past decade have serious implications not only for the Third World and the international division of labour but also ' for lifest* in the industria1i:d countries. Technological changv and progress' is not necessarily the same as human development çn social und economic progress. 11;order to study the impact of the new information tec'hno- logiex on the Iifostylex und domestic life oj a to(,ht;ologi- cdlly hhlyiu/~~anceil socit~ty, Turin Cronb(>rgand law-Lisa .Y(ingwgorio went to Tama New Town anii Higashi-Ikoma in Japan, where a series of full-scale experiments have been carried out in two housing areas. They found that the new technologies were used to reinforce existing social patterns rather than to test out in an imaginative manner the possibili- ties for social change. Thus they were surprised to find, to take one example, thai thcro was no mention ofthe po.~sibif- ity of using the new data and communication technologies to decentralize work, although work places are concentrated in the metropolitan centres involving in the case of , up tofours hours daily travel to andfrom work. Tarja Cronberg, D Eng, has specialised in housing, tech- nological development und planning as seen from a woman's perspective. She has served with the UN Centre for Housing, Building and Planning in New York and is noK?working at the Danish Building Research Institute. Ingo-Lisa Sangr~oriois a Swedish writer und freelance journalist and is e.~pecially interested in housing rind women's questions. Tarju Cron- berg and Inga-Lisa Sangregork) have together published two hooks on technology anit social development.

Technology assessment is not only a question course of events appears to be 'spontaneous'. of the technology itself. The impact of a par- This choice should not be dictated by technol- ticular technology is highly dependent on the ogy (e.g. 'a car for every family' or 'a com- social context into which it is introduced and puter in every kitchen'), but rather spring from in which it is used. a holistic view of man and society. How do we Assessment must first take account of the want to live in the future? What are our goals? goals we intend to achieve by the application Nor should the consequences of technology of the technology in question. Technology be measured only by such macroeconomic solves the problem we ask it to solve. There is criteria as the balance of payments or energy always a choice of goals, even when the consumption. It is at least as important to The Impact of Information Technology on Domestic Life in Japan 69

identify and evaluate the impacts of a particu- period studied (circa 1900-75). Activities and lar technology on the organization and content equipment had been moved into the home, of everyday life. making fewer reasons to leave it, and so Today, we stand at the threshold of a major opportunities for contact with people outside technological change: the widespread applica- the family had diminished and the immediate tion of microprocessors. Some call it a revolu- environment hade become impoverished. Mat- tion. Experts claim that this technology, at erial needs ('to have') had no doubt been satis- least in the industrialized world, will radically fied, but individually and in a way which change working life during the eighties and seemed to have made it more difficult to satis- domestic life in the home in the nineties. It is fy non-material needs, such as those for social primarily the applications in information and contact and self-realization. communication technologies which may trans- In a recently completed study, we followed form daily life. The number of information up the earlier work and analysed the probable services available in the home is expected to consequences of introducing the new data multiply rapidly. People may also be able to do processing and communication technologies personal errands, and even their jobs, without into the home.2 In the autumn of 1980 we visit- leaving home. ed Japan in order to study their experiments It is high time a discussion began on the with advanced information technology which possible consequences of this trend on domes- are explicitly directed toward the 'com- tic life. Industry is ready to launch the pro- puterization of domestic life' and the intro- ducts. The technology is fully developed, and duction of the necessary equipment into the commercially viable (or expected soon to be- home itself. Our objective was to analyse the come so). The question is whether it is also interrelationships between technology and socially desirable? How will 'the computeriza- lifestyles. We met and interviewed not only tion of everyday life' affect the home and the those involved in the technical experiments, family? What effects will such technology but also specialists in studying lifestyles in Ja- have on the ways people use their time and pan, in an effort to gain insight into not only money, on relationships between family mem- the technology and its applications but also bers and between the family and society? How the social context in which it is being used. will it affect the distribution of work within the In this article, we will describe and evaluate family, and between the family and other these experiments from a social perspective members of society? and draw some general conclusions on both These are a few of the questions which we the evaluation of technology and a desirable have discussed in a study of the impact which course for future developments. technology has had so far on everyday life and lifestyles.' In this study we analysed the ways that innovations such as TV and washing ma- New technology on trial chines had affected living patterns. Our con- clusion was that technological development, In many countries, the new computer and or rather the way new technology hade been communication technologies are hailed as a implemented and its diffusion organized, had solution to the economic crisis. Microelectron- encouraged privatization in society during the ics, it is hoped, will breathe new life into an 70 Tarja Cronberg and Ins-Lisa Sangrqorio

industry suffering from overproduction crises Both systems also allow a limited amount of and create a whole new range of attractive two-way communication. In Tama New products for the mass market. Town, questions can be answered by press- Japan is the country which most deliberate- ing a button (quiz games or questions on ly, and as part of an explicit government poli- local matters such as traffic circulation). In cy, has promoted this technology. In the late Higashi-Ikoma, the equipment includes a TV sixties, the government, the universities and camera, allowing people in the household to the electronics industry collaborated in the be on TV-programmes without leaving home. working out of a national development plan. The experiments are being conducted with Even though this plan has subsequently been the close collaboration of government and in- revised, the thought behind it remains the dustry, a typically Japanese phenomenon. The same: only a large domestic demand can make government finances the R and D for the sys- an industry competitive on the international tems and pays the salaries of the project staff. market. Other participants came from various electron- Japanese industry has been very successful ics companies and from the commercial TV in developing applications for use in the home. broadcasting corporations. The evaluation The household sector is a much larger poten- committees are composed of professors of tial market than that of business or industry. electronics and representatives from the manu- For many products, only household consump- facturing companies, the Ministry of Trade tion will allow mass production. and Industry, and the broadcasting compan- There is little evidence of official concern ies. All of them are men. for the social consequences of a rapid 'compu- The design of the projects and the composi- terization' of society. In a government review tion of the committees indicate clearly that the the goal for industrial policy in this sector is primary purpose of the experiments has been described as follows: 'The purpose is to to test and further develop the technology and accelerate computerization in individual life to explore the possibilities for commercial ex- and promote the formation of regional com- ploitation. However, a number of social goals munities. '3 were also stated. The HI-OVIS project, for It is primarily in the field of information example, is expected to contribute to: transfer systems (e.g. via optical fibres) that a sense of local community; Japan is a world leader. To test these systems, 'restoration of subjectivity'; full-scale experiments have been initiated in life-long education; two housing areas: Tama New Town outside the welfare of children and of the aged. Tokyo, and Higashi-Ikoma near Kyoto. The first goal was to be achieved by an In Tama New Town, 500 households were emphasis on local programmes and local infor- provided with equipment which gave access to mation; the second by the system's provision local TV programmes and to a large number of of the option to select desired information; and information service^.^ In Higashi-Ikoma, 158 the third by education programmes. How the households were provided with similar ser- technology could achieve the fourth goal was vices based on a advanced optical fibre not immediately obvious from the design of transmission system: HI-OVIS (Highly Inter- the experiments. The official video presenta- active Optical Visual Information Sy~tem).~tion of HI-OVIS, in which the speaker talks of The Impact of Information Technology on Domestic Life in Japan 71

'a historical mission for humanity', indicates dom be able to get a job with any potential for clearly that expectations for this new technol- professional advancement. The age of twenty- ogy are by no means modest. five marks the point at which a 'proper Considering these aspirations, it seems all woman' should have the good taste to leave the more remarkable that 'humanity' apparent- professional life. If she does not, she will be ly consists of those who are at home between 2 exposed to the many direct and indirect sanc- p.m. and 6 p.m. on weekdays, since most tions reserved for those who break a society's broadcast time is scheduled for these hours. unwritten laws.6 This means that the experiments are directed Attitudes towards women and work change primarily toward housewives (and to some very slowly. In a survey made in 1973, 77 per extent children). The project is thus a matter cent of those questioned thought that a woman of experiments planned, directed and evalua- should confine herself to the home after mar- ted by men, with women as the primary target riage, and only 20 per cent thought it proper group. (It should be mentioned that this cir- for her to continue working after the birth of cumstance was not brought out either in the her first child. In 1978 the corresponding fig- official presentations and evaluations of the ures were 70 per cent and 27 per cent. Be- experiments, or in the reports of visiting dele- tween 1968 and 1977, the number of women gations which we studied before our visit.) who had never worked outside the home but Bearing in mind the necessity of evaluating who, on being questioned, responded that technology in its social context, we will now they would like to work if they had the try to portray the social situation of men and chance, increased from two million to nearly women in modern Japan. four million. This indicates a growing dissatis- faction with their role as a housewife. What shape, then, does the housewife's day A society divided take? Even though there are a few signs of change, it In spite of the fact that homes are small and is still basically accurate to state that Japanese the number of children low, a large part of the society is divided into a man's world and a housewife's day is occupied with housework. woman's world, and that the two have very On average, a Japanese woman spends almost little in common. 5; hours per day doing housework, a figure which changed only slightly between 1960 and Home, sweet home-the world of the 1975. During the same period, the amount of Japanese woman time spent watching television increased rapid- A married woman in Japan is nearly always a ly. The average for all adult women in 1960 housewife, particularly if she has children. was 1 hour per day, in 1975 over 4 hours per After she finishes her studies, she works for a day.' For housewives the figures are even few years before marriage, maybe until the higher-5 to 5+ hours per day.* birth of her first child. Neither she herself, her employer, nor anyone else around her expects * For comparison, television watching in Sweden aver- her to continue working all her life, and these ages between 11 and 12 hours per week. In contrast to expectations naturally affect her career. Even Japanese women, Swedish women watch less TV than if she has had a good education, she will sel- Swedish men. 72 Tarja Cronberg and Inga-Lisa Sangregorio

The fact that Japanese women spend so sun day^.^ They thus watch television less much time watching TV does not prove that than women, not surprisingly since they spend they prefer watching TV to other activities. so little time at home. They also watch differ- Research indicates that it is rather a question ent types of programmes. Whereas women of not having any alternative ways of using learn flower arranging or cooking in the morn- their time. Japan differs from the US and other ing hours, the 'Men's Hour' features a master countries where many women have tradition- of ceremonies in a white tuxedo, surrounded ally been housewives, in that there is no cor- by beautiful hostesses. responding tradition of women's active partici- The gulf between men and women is also pation in community volunteer work such as found in leisure time activities; men (besides PTA associations, charities or local organiza- watching TV) devote their spare time to tions. In Japan, only 1 or 2 per cent of the sports, hobbies and gambling. That there are entire population spends time on such activi- not many topics of which cross ties. the sexual border is hardly surprising. One This is the social situation into which the study found that the preferred topics when new communications technology is being in- 'salaried men' talk with friends and colleagues troduced. The experiments are directed prima- are hobbies, sports and gambling, work, and rily toward women, who already watch about gossip about other people in the ~ompany.~ 5 hours of TV per day and rarely participate in Topics of more general interest, such as poli- activities outside their own home. tics or news events, take up only 3 per cent of the conversation. My office is my castle-t/z(~ world of the The roles of father and husband take only a Japanese man minor place in the daily life of a Japanese man. If the home is the woman's world, the office is These are roles which he must neglect if he is the man's world. It is in relation to his work to succeed professionally. A manager of a that the Japanese man defines his identity and large corporation expressed his attitude to- his social relations. This applies particularly to ward the family life of his employees in these the men who have managed to gain entrance terms: into the most desirable part of the employment market, the large corporations, where em- For me, an employee is like a soldier, and a mana- ployment generally means lifelong security. ger is like an officer. When I hire someone, I de- Work and the companionship of fellow mand that he choose between his family and the workers characterizes not only the working company. If he gives his family priority, that's his day, but also a large part of leisure time. After business, but then he will never amount to more work, men often go out for a drink and perhaps than an ordinary employee. If he wants to become a dinner with colleagues. It may be as late as 10 manager he has to sacrifice home and family, and or 11 p.m. before a husband reaches his home work must be his only interest.lU in the suburbs-just in time for 'Men's Hour' on the commercial TV channels. There are, however, signs that these 'ideal The average amount of time a Japanese man employees' are becoming harder to find, even spends watching TV is a little over 2 hours on in Japan. In 1967, when the Japanese Broad- weekdays and about 4 hours on Saturdays and casting Corporation asked people what they The Impact of Information Technology on Domestic Life in Japan 73

regarded as the most important thing in life, two experiments. Our conclusions, which are 54 per cent said work. By 1978 this had based on both the social context and the goals dropped to 37 per cent." However, this re- which had been set for the projects, will con- duced interest in work does not mean that centrate on the following three areas: men are willing to accept more responsibility 0 the need for more information (at any for housework and child-raising. Their in- chosen time) in the home; terest is instead directed more toward their the need for 'two-way communication' and free time, and the personal satisfaction they for active participation in programmes and can gain from leisure activities. programme production; If it is correct, as most observers agree, that 0 the opportunities which the new infor- a smaller work force will be needed in the mation technology provides for the creation future, it seems more probable that the man's of a 'local community', or at least a local desire for more leisure time will be realized identity. than the woman's wish to find a job outside the The experiments can hardly be said to have home. provided evidence that the households (i.e. women) have any major unsatisfied needs for And never the twain shall meet ... information. In fact, the need for a wide selec- To sum up, there are not many signs that the tion of information available in the living room strict segregation between the man's world at any time doesn't seem to be as large as and the woman's world is breaking down. The anticipated. Surveys in both the Tama New Japanese woman is still securely tied to the Town and HI-OVIS (Higashi-Ikoma) projects home by many invisible bonds. The strongest indicate that neither the availability nor the ones are the lack of opportunity for profession- content of information was valued very high- al activity and the lack of child care facilities ly.I2 In Tama New Town, half of the services and other social services. Other problems are offered initially were discontinued after the the long working days and the tiresome com- first phase. muting in metropolitan areas. And last but not The lack of interest was also reflected in the least there is social pressure; and its effect on a willingness, or rather unwillingness to pay, Japanese woman's expectations of her role which was noted in both projects (during the and behaviour. experimental period the services had been The Japanese man, on the other hand, is free). In Tama New Town, 60 per cent of the heavily burdened by the pressures of a de- participants in the experiment (primarily manding career, but this is not without its ad- households with a woman at home) were wil- vantages. Not only does he receive a salary ling to pay up to 500 yen per month. To cover which rises with the number of years of em- costs, at least 5000 households in the area ployment, but there are also a large amount of would need to be connected to the system. fringe benefits. Most important is the feeling of Ten per cent of the households, primarily belonging to a group, and of having a place and young working couples, were simply not in- an identity. terested in information for a fee. (According to later reports, the Tama New Town project 'Tie her with optic fibres' has been discontinued after the completion of This is the background to our evaluation of the the two experimental phases, due to the fact 74 Tarja Cronberg and Ingu-Lisa Sangregorio

that it was not commercially viable). The As already mentioned, the two experiments reluctance to pay has not led those respon- offer completely different opportunities for sible to question whether the services are 'two-way communication'. In Tama New necessary or whether the information system Town, 100 of the participating families can is itself justifiable. The people we interviewed answer questions by pushing a button. The indicated that this lack of response would more advanced HI-OVIS system includes a mean at most that it would take a little longer TV camera as part of the household equip- before the systems were introduced on a large ment. A person at home can thus participate in scale, and explained that other sources of a programme and be seen by the other finance (such as rental fees and local adverti- viewers. Participation along these lines was sing) were being explored. particularly high among children. During our The new information systems differ from visit we saw an English lesson with the teacher ordinary television in that they offer some in the studio and the children participating opportunity for 'two-way communication' from their own homes. and for active participation in programmes and It is obvious that the opportunity to take programme production. How do the test fami- part in a programme becomes smaller as the lies regard these options? number of participants increases. The impor- In both areas, programme planning commit- tance of a sensitivity to changes in scale ap- tees had been formed, members of which pears to have been underestimated in the offi- could influence the content and formulation of cial assessments. The programmes which most programmes and submit their own programme interested the households participating in the proposals. However, these committees lack experiment were those in which someone from both decision power and independent re- the household (preferably a child) or some sources. Their ideas are only suggestions, and close acquaintance took part. In a fully devel- according to those we interviewed, usually too oped system, which has enough participating expansive to be realized. In HI-OVIS, how- households to make it economically viable, the ever, the committee produces with profes- chances of this happening will of course be sional assistance, a one-hour programme greatly reduced. each week, which is broadcast during prime Seeing an acquaintance on the TV screen time on Sundays. seems to be the thing which the participants in In Tama New Town, most of the local pro- the experiments appreciated most. In Tama grammes are made by semi-professional New Town, 49 per cent of those questioned 'housewife reporters'. These women, who said that this was the reason why they consid- often have experience in the mass media, live ered the project 'significant'." In Higashi- in the area and know it well, making it easier Ikoma, 32 per cent of the participants reported for people to contact them to discuss pro- that they had found friends via the system.I4 grammes or programme ideas. Although these After seeing your next-door neighbour on TV, women can not be said to be representative of it is easier to begin a conversation in a shop or the viewers, they nevertheless constitute an on the street. interesting example of how people in such This is an interesting and important result, residential areas can contribute to a realistic which indirectly indicates the shortcomings of depiction of their own environment. modern housing schemes. Without any infor- The Impact of Information Technology on Domestic Life in Japan 75

mation system to tell you who your neighbours neighbours are and does increase interest in are and where their interests lie, it is difficult local matters, and in this way contributes to to make contact with them. The the creation of a local identity, which was one seem to have managed to fill this vacuum, at of the goals of the experiment. The question least when they are used on the small scale of which arises is whether it might not be pos- these Japanese projects. sible to achieve the same effect through other, We have the impression that these results somewhat simpler and less expensive, means. came as somewhat of a surprise to the decision The experiments-not by design, but in makers. Although one of the stated social practice-have had women as a target group. goals was to foster 'sense of local communi- From the woman's point of view, this applica- ty', this apparently meant knowledge of local tion of technology doesn't imply any revolu- affairs. (When was Tama New Town built? tionary structural changes. Woman's place is When do the shops close? How do you call the still in the home, to which she is now tied not fire department?) rather than contact with the only by all the invisible bonds we described neighbours. The purpose of the experiment earlier but also by ultramodern optical fibres. was to spread practical knowledge of local She gets more of something she already has a matters ('Most people aren't interested in surplus of: household appliances and TV ser- what happens far off, anyhow,' as one of our vices. The only positive factor is the chance to interviewees expressed it) and, in fact, interest see the neighbours on TV, and in that way to in local matters did increase somewhat. How- get to know somebody else in the area where ever, the isolation of women in the home was a she spends 24 hours a day. problem unknown to those who planned the Seen from the male viewpoint, this applica- experiment-or at any rate was a problem they tion of technology makes little difference. It ignored. The way the project is designed is does not threaten his professional standing or actually likely to make women even more iso- his lifestyle. It may even have a positive ef- lated in their homes; with more appliances fect. His wife may be more satisfied with her and more information available at home there lot if she no longer feels a stranger in her home is even less reason to go out, to participate in environment. She can be a better homemaker courses, etc. ('Think how convenient-she and mother if she knows more about her im- doesn't need to find a baby-sitter!'). That the mediate environment. The man can remain result, in spite of everything, seems to be just free from housework and from responsibility the opposite bears witness to the-ignored- for home and children. need for personal contact and a social network in the neighbourhood. The limits of imagination Evaluation of the experiments with regard to the stated goals and to the social situation in At least as interesting as seeing to what extent which the technology will be used thus yields a the goals set up for the experiments have been clear picture. The technology hardly fills any met, is noting which goals were not selected in unsatisfied information needs for women, and the first place. there is little interest in two-way communica- We have already pointed out that the tech- tion. But the system does provide new (and nology in question has been developed, and unexpected) opportunities to find out who the its use planned and administrated, by men, 76 Tarja Cronberg and Inga-Lisa Sangregorio

while those who enjoy its blessings are prima- against the Japanese character. The life-style rily women. The goals selected reflect a spe- of the Japanese man would be seriously cific male perspective. In good faith, they threatened if he couldn't place a safe distance have tried to make life a little easier for wom- between himself and home every day. en, while keeping their own lives basically un- The male visions of the future follow a affected. Technology solves the problems we completely different direction. One of the ask it to solve. leaders of the HI-OVIS project described his What other problems in Japanese society vision to us. In his 'brave new world', men could have been solved with the help of the would spend four days per week in the sky- new technology? scrapers of the inner city's office district. We were particularly surprised that there Since the central city would consist only of was no mention of the possibility of using the offices, there would be little need to worry new data and communication technologies to about the environment or to waste expensive decentralize work. One of the major problems land on parks for children, etc. On Thursday in Japan is that the workplaces are concen- evening or Friday morning, the hard-working trated in the metropolitan centres, and many man would leave his office to enjoy a three- people have long and tiring journeys to and day period of rest in his home, far from the from work-in Tokyo sometimes up to two pressures of the city. His vision included hours each way daily. The new communica- nothing on what would be going on at the tions technologies facilitate access to informa- periphery while the men were busy making tion wherever it may be and offer the possibili- decisions in the city centre. ty of performing a wide range of jobs away from the city. Theoretically, people could easi- Towards another organization of everyday life ly be employed in the same company and even in the same department without necessarily We have chosen the Japanese example be- being located in the same building. cause it illustrates so clearly how new tech- We can imagine several ways of decentral- nology can be used to reinforce existing social izing the workplace. The most extreme, to patterns. Its potential for change is not ex- quote an American magazine, would be to plored and so the limits of imagination, not place a computer terminal in every living technology as such, determine its future app- room.15 A better solution would probably be lications. a local office where people who aren't neces- That the social outcome of the technologi- sarily employed by the same company but cally-advanced Japanese experiments is so who live in the same area would be able to trivial, is no doubt a result of their being work with the aid of computer terminals and planned and directed by men who reflect the other technical equipment. Without taking a prejudices of their time, their country, their position on whether a development in this social class and their sex. This is not to imply direction would be desirable or not, we did that a corresponding group in another country find it surprising that nobody we met had could come up with better solutions; we are even considered the possibility. When we well aware that it is easier for us to point out took up the question in our interviews, every- Japanese idiosyncracies than to pick up simi- body (all men) dismissed the thought as being lar biases in cultures closer to our own. The Impact of Information Technology oil Domestic Life in Japan 77

The Japanese experiments do, however, Together these trends could be the catalyst for make an important contribution by indicating a dynamic development in the local communi- the trend of a desirable future development. ty and contribute to the gradual transformation What did the participants in the experiments of today's 'bedroom towns' into living com- appreciate most? Not the intended ef- munities. More time spent in the residential fects: more information or entertainment or area (thanks to shorter working days and re- even the opportunity of two-way communica- duced, or nonexistent, commuting) should, tion which the new systems placed at their with proper organization, stimulate the devel- fingertips. No, it was instead an unanticipated opment of social networks in the neigh- side-effect: the opportunity to get to know the bourhoods, which could cooperate in solving neighbours, itself an incidental result of the common problems and sharing work outside extremely small scale of the projects. the formal economy. There could also be If, as a great deal of other research indi- small-scale production for local use, which cates, isolation is an urgent problem in mod- would lead to greater self-reliance and reduced ern society, it would of course be sensible to vulnerability. In countries where the distance, organize society in such a way as to facilitate both physical and mental, between home and contact between neighbours, and preferably in work is presently large, the gulf could be re- a way based on something more substantial duced or completely eliminated; in countries than an information system. which have not yet experienced this separa- The new microelectronic technology is not a tion, it can perhaps be prevented. necessary condition for such a development, This, of course, will not happen automatical- but it could make matters easier in several ly. It is indeed highly improbable that it will be ways: encouraged by those who presently control 1. The new technology will increase produc- development (and this certainly refers not only tivity and lead to a reduction of manpower to Japan). The reason is not that they are par- needs, which should in turn make it possi- ticularly evil, but rather that such a develop- ble to reduce the length of the working day ment is a complete departure from the lives in the formal economy. they themselves lead and from their accus- 2. The new technology will reduce the length tomed ways of thinking. Only a widespread of the working day in the formal economy. debate at the grass-roots level, not solely or 3. The new technology will reduce the need even primarily about the potential of technol- for transportation in general and for com- ogy, but about how we should organize socie- muting in particular. It will be (is) pos- ty in order to lead better and more fulfilling sible for people to work together with- lives than today, can contribute to breaking out being in the same place and to obtain the trend towards 'more of the same' which immediate access to information stored characterizes the present development of elsewhere. technology. 4. The new technology can help to break the economy of large scale at a time when in- Notes creasing transportation costs are further reducing the profitability of the currently dominant centralistic models. 78 Turju Cronberg and Inp-Lisa Sungregorio

livsstilen-Boendvt som e.xempel. Sekretariatet for 5. HI-OVIS Project, HardwareISoftware Experi- framtidsstudier och STUs konsumenttekniska ments, July 78-March 79, Interim Report; Kawa- forskningsgrupp, Stockholm, 1978. A mimeo- hata, M., 'HI-OVIS Project-Towards Future Op- graphed, abbreviated version of this study has tical Information Society', Studies of Broadcust- been published in English: Cronberg. T., Sangre- ins. No. 16, 1980; and interviews. gorio, I.-L., Within Our 0w Walls: Ncir Techt~o- 6. Terue, o., 'The Marriageable Age', Feminist Iogy at~dIts Impact on Lifestyle. Report transmit- International No. 2, Tokyo, 1980; and interviews. ted by the Government of Sweden to the Regional 7. A Report on 'How Do People Spend their Seminar on Alternative Patterns of Development Time Survey' in 1976, NHK Public Opinion Re- and Lifestyles in Ljubljana (Yugoslavia), December search Institute, Tokyo, 1976. 3rd-8th, 1979. 8. Ibid. 2. Cronberg, T., Sangregorio, I.-L., Du skonn 9. Woronoff, J., Japan. The Coming Social t~yuvurdug (Brave New Everyday Life), Prisma, Crisis, Lotus Press Ltd, Tokyo, 1980. Stockholm, 1981. 10. Le Nouvel Observateur, No. 832, October 3. Computer White Paper, 1979 Edition, Japan 20th-26th 1980. Information Processing Development Center, To- l.Public Opinion Research of NHK, NHK's kyo, 1979. Public Opinion Research Institute, Tokyo, 1979. 4. Report on Tarn CCIS Experiment Project in 12. See notes 4 and 5, above. Japan, Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, 13. Jipdec Report (Japan Information Processing Tokyo, 1978; Tamo CCIS-Experiment for Devel- Development Center), No. 24, Nichigai Associates oping the Living Information System, Living- Inc., Tokyo, 1978. Visual Information System Development Associa- 14. Unpublished survey, mentioned interview. tion, 1979; and interviews. 15. International Management, October 1979. A Model for Democratic Communication By Fernanda Reyes Matta

'In order to raise educational levels for a better understand- ing of the communication process and to create true parti- cipation based upon adequate social awareness', Fernando Reyes Matta, in this article, proposes a model for democratic communication based on the assumption that communica- tion is a social good. The model has mainly been developed for the Third World and its current needs, in the hope of stimulating greater creativity in the search for social change and the promotion of Another Development. Fernando Reyes Matta is the Director of the Division of Alternative Development Projects at the Latin American Institute for Transnational Studies (ZLET). In this capacity he serves as Project Director of ALTERCOM, a service for exchange of development information material between al- ternative magazines and journals in Latin America. From 1976 to 1980, Fernando Reyes Matta was Director of the Division of at ZLET.

'In creating new models, rather than trying are other ways to improve the quality of com- to find faults with those of the past, our munications. Experiments in 'alternative endeavour must be to describe the new conditions of communication.' communication'-a process in which partici- Michael Buhler pating constitutes an active and creative ele- ment-demonstrate the fundamental differen- The seventies have taken on special signifi- ces between traditional and alternative com- cance as the decade of debates among those munication. The first is a system in which the seeking to change the structure of communica- contents and nature of information are deci- tion in contemporary society. A very impor- ded upon by a restricted group; the second, a tant feature of these debates has been consis- system in which the audience can actively tent and harsh criticism of communication sys- participate in the process of communication. tems that are unidirectional and non-participa- The lack of effective participation affects tory in character. These objections, which communication systems in all social and polit- arise at both national and international levels, ical development models. In fact, verticalism have had a tremendous impact. The most im- is predominant in large communications sys- portant aspect of the debates, however, is the tems. This is due to the fact that economic search for new forms of access to and partici- power imposes certain restrictions, thus limit- pation in social communication. Recent inter- ing the exercise of communications to restric- governmental conferences and academic ted groups, and also to the fact that authorita- groups have formulated specific suggestions rian limitations impede the free flow of com- and resolutions which should help to achieve munications. At the end of the seventies, a this objective. Furthermore, the experiences new and distressing trend began to emerge: of certain grass roots groups prove that there international capitalism began to admit that 80 Fernando Reyes Matta

there is an unfair and unequal situation in in- tries, for instance, a limited organization of the formation at national and international levels. audience is officially stimulated, but these But the proposed solution, which offers an organizations lack the necessary mechanisms increase in technology and training-un- in order to have an effective influence upon doubtedly necessary and useful tools-will communications. In other countries, organ- only help to reinforce verticalism and lack of ized social groups are able to exert some in- participation if the basic concepts of commu- fluence upon the content and policies of nication are not modified. Thus, this is not a mass media programmes, but lack education technical or professional problem but a politi- for communication. Yet in others, specific ef- cal and social one. The issue is to make com- forts are made to educate people for commu- munication a constructive and positive ele- nication and make them aware of its possibili- ment which will help to improve the quality of ties by teaching this subject at elementary life for the individual and society in general. school level; however, the necessary mechan- However, in spite of the efforts to under- isms to implement this knowledge are non- stand the problems of communication in con- existent and thus cannot be combined with temporary society, certain fundamental ques- others to provoke changes in the prevailing tions still remain to be answered: How should situation. It is therefore necessary to take all communication policy be implemented so as to these elements into consideration and to find guarantee adequate participation in and access the way to incorporate them into a model to the communication process? What are the which will ensure the democratization of necessary political, professional, educational, communication. institutional and training requirements which should be met in order to change current A model based on active social participation communications systems? What changes should be made in current communications Definition of participants systems in order to transform the traditional Based on the issues mentioned above, we pro- and passive role of the receiver into one of pose a model which incorporates, expands and active participation in each stage of communi- revises elements contained in traditional inter- cation activities and policy-making? What pretations of communication, as well as re- should be done in order to create a system in cently developed concepts regarding the multi- which journalists and social communicators directional and multidimensional nature of can fulfil1 their role while simultaneously en- communication considered as a 'social good'. suring that all social groups participate active- This approach has led to the development ly in the communications process? And how of a Model for Democratic Communication, can individuals and groups be made to acquire which should ensure active social participation a critical awareness of the nature of current for all social sectors. Its purpose is to restruc- communications in order to contribute to its ture the communication process so as to pro- improvement? mote dynamic interaction between the partici- This paper approaches some of these issues pants. The following list describes the partici- from a Third World perspective, but it also pants and the roles assigned to them by the takes into consideration certain experiences model in order to create a democratic and in- from industrialized countries. In some coun- dependent communication process: A Model for Democratic Communication 81

1. The receivers, with varied interests and number of copies printed or coverage, are motives, organized and prepared for ac- some of the classical instruments whereby the cess and participation. media assure themselves that they are impor- 2. The emitters, who vary in terms of profes- tant and responsible in the social context. It is sional skills and message-transmission imperative to modify this situation. The model techniques. we propose is based on the analysis of ex- 3. The entrepreneurs and administrators, both periences in the search for improvement. It private and public, whose positions within arises from the analysis of attempts made to the communication and mass media frame- change society in certain Third World work have been established by community countries; from community experience in in- consensus. dustrial countries; from documents and de- 4. The educators, who create the necessary bates on the need to establish national com- awareness for a broad understanding of and munication policies; from the possibilities de- participation in communication. rived from the concept of permanent educa- 5. The evaluators, who from academic, pro- tion and the role of the media therein; from the fessional, technical and political positions formulation of principles regarding the social contribute to the improvement of the com- responsibility and role of communication; and munication system by providing guidance finally, from the reformulation of the right to and direction. information, which is not only an individual 6. The political representatives, who must but also a collective right. develop policies for the implementation of prevailing social trends regarding the Objectives nature of communication, its role and con- In view of the foregoing, the objectives of the tribution to society. Model for Democratic Communication are the Effective and respectful collaboration between following: participants-who carry out the responsibili- 1. To define communication as a social func- ties assigned to them and make use of their tion, carried out within a given socio- rights-can produce a new communications political structure which determines the structure which will lack the vices of the pre- nature and influence of the communication vailing structure, particularly certain myths process. on access and participation. Some of these 2. To define the right to information as an myths on access and participation have been individual and social right, which is dele- created by the current nature of the media in gated to appropriate group, community, industrialized countries, especially in those technical and professional representa- where the main organizations which handle tives. transnational communications are located. 3. To establish that the organization and ad- These myths might lead us to think that certain ministrative structure of the media should relatively passive phenomena registered emerge from a consensual formulation among the receivers are evidence of access adopted by society. and participation. Audience polls, ratings and 4. To determine that the processing of na- the struggle to increase the number of buyers tional and international information con- of a given newspaper or magazine and the stitutes a social responsibility, and takes 82 Fernando Rews Malta

Explanation of the diagram 1.4 Processing of international information: the re- The diagram shows the interaction between the lationship between local media and interna- participants in the communication process. The tional agencies which shall provide infi~rn~a- informative current appears in a horizontal per- [ion in accordance with local and international spectiw. It goes from the whole of society to the regulations. specialized and prqfessional sectors, who deliver 2. Messages: information concerning events, their message to the receivers. Furthermore, the conceived, produced and transmitted in ac- receivers operate through collective organizations cordance with the definition of information as 1i,hic/7 may be of a political, cultural, communica- a social and individual right, previously deter- five or social nature, in which the outflow of the mined at a social and global level. This infor- media is discussed, analysed and processed. The mation will thus portray an analytical view of activities of organized audiences generate two society in its proper context. operational currents: access to the messages 3. R: receivers of messages, previously trained in transmitted by the media and access to the media in order to he capable of adopting a critical atti- order to broadcast the messages of organised tiu- tudr towards the messages they receive. This diences: and participation in education fur com- training should help them to become active munication, in decisions at media level on prog- subjects it7 the communication process. rummc content, und in decisions on national cotn- 4. Education for communication: the use of tnunicution policy. The existence o,f organized au- traditional educational resources at all levels, iliences also generates nro currents which gnu- to enable recc~iversto fi~rrnan opinion regard- runtee the possibility qf participation in the evaliia- inf infi~rmationand the role of the media as lion of the actual operation ofthe communicution transmitters of knowledge and information. pofiq model; and access to instances of appeal 5. Organized audiences: the rec<_~i~ji>rsas a whole, (iguinst omissions or tndlfunctioning ofthe systc7tn. conceived neither indi~~iduallynor quantitative- The model pro~,idc~.snot only tin explanation of the ly as tin amorphou.~muss but rather as orgunic, informative current \\'/rich goes,f;.orn the top of so- groups .str~~turallyconnl~cted to the rest of so- cicty to the audience. It also dt:f;ne.v the contribu- ciety through their work and social and com- lion of organized and conscious audiences to the munity organisations. con~municationprocesss. 6. Access process: the concept and implementa- tion of information as a right of the receiver, Definition of the elements of the model cis well as the Iatter'.~potential access to use 1. 1 Social organization for communication: the the media to supply information. model proposes the creation of a coordinating 7. Participation process: mechanism which per- entity: it di$nt~s the iidtninistrutive structure mits access of organized audiences to &c;- within which the media should operate and en- sion-making and internal planning structures sures the possibility to communicate for all so- within the media, as well as to organisations do1 sectors. who deliver education for communicatiot~. 1.2 Media: (in orgutii~i'ii set of instruments for 8. Right to appeal: lqal bodies created to sup- i'onnn~o~icutionid transmission of inthrmci- port the receivers' right to critical information [ion. determined by each county's organization. and to organised participation in the media. 1.3 Processing of national information: the niechci- 9. Evaluative body and positive action: institu- nism H'herehy the mcdiu obtain, for themselves tional m~~chanismsdesigned to ensure the and for the receivers, a critical panorama of operation of communication as a social right niitiontil reality, drtertninnl by their internal und obligation, and to offer guidance for its and national norms. itnprovement . A Model for Democratic Communication 83

8

Instance of appeal

Â¥

Processing of national Society, groups, information

Processing of interna- tional in- formation

Education for communication

Evaluative body 84 Fernando Reyes Matta

place within a given institutional and legal 1. Emitters and receivers interacting in an framework, thus creating specific rights effort to enrich current possibilities of and obligations. communication. 5. To strengthen the role of the receiver, 2. Messages and contents produced by the in- considering him or her as the subject of teraction between the media and society, in the communication process who, as such, which audience participation plays a fun- must be organized and prepared in order damental role in the improvement of the to achieve greater participation in and ac- informational and cultural values employed cess to communication. by professional communicators. 6. To establish that education for communi- 3. Messages received by the audience, trained cation currently constitutes an indispen- to evaluate, use and interpret the contents sable element in every individual's educa- of the information flow. tion, hence the need to create a regular 4. Access to messages and to the media, and extracurricular context for this special which operates in both directions-either training. by receiving or by broadcasting informa- 7. To define organized audiences as the sum tion. of institutional experiences in which re- 5. Participation designed to influence, through ceivers interact in order to criticize, ana- appropriate spokespersons, institutions lyse and participate in communication which design and deliver education for processes. communication, decision-making related to 8. To establish that access and participation media contents, and political circles which are the means whereby organized receiv- establish the guidelines for the communica- ers may actively relate to the levels at tion process. which political, informative, educational 6. Organization of audiences at different so- and evaluation decisions are made. cial levels so that critical and analytical de- 9. To define communication as a dynamic bates on communication may take place, process, ratified or modified when neces- thus creating the means whereby access sary by evaluation, which is a fundamental and participation may fully reflect the di- instrument of society. verse nature of the receivers. 10. To emphasize the importance of entities of 7. Representative mechanisms, in which the appeal to which organized audiences and interests of society as a whole are coordi- those responsible for communication may nated with the delegation of society's right resort in order to improve the mechan- to information, and which create the fields isms and methods of access and partici- of operation for professional and technical pation. communicators. 8. Adequate structures for evaluation and ap- peal, designed to provide society with an How the model operates activating and multidirectional process of The way in which the model operates reflects communication. previous experiences and the objectives stated A fundamental part of the proposed model above, and includes the following compo- stems from current social needs. It is based on nents: four areas which, if well balanced, will create a A Model for Democratic Communication 85

dynamic communication process. These areas Technological development, economic con- are: centration and political interest in communica- 1. The social function of information, under- tion, along with the expansion of communica- stood as a delegated right. tion activities, have distorted the nature of this 1. Social organization, coordination and pro- 'delegation'. The media, while advocating fessional structures. principles inherited from nineteenth-century 3. Access to and participation in the commu- liberalism which conform to current transna- nication process for organized audiences. tional principles, have gone so far as to claim 4. Education for communication at formal and that if freedom of expression and the right to extracurricular levels. information are currently in vogue, it is thanks An analysis of each of these areas is given to them and their own free choice. below, taking into consideration data and pos- It is necessary to modify the media's activi- sibilities derived from previous experience; ties within a social context with regard to ac- they provide the basis for a communication tive participation because 'the existence of a model which ensures active social participa- free-enterprise system has become synony- tion. mous with individual freedom'. As Herbert Schiller says: 'The system of industrial ex- ploitation of culture claims that the system Delegating the exercise of a social right itself keeps freedom of expression alive thus From 'delegation' to 'appropriation' denouncing the danger in any attempt to con- One of the basic principles to be taken into vert communication and information into a so- consideration is that the right to information is cial right." a social right, and that society necessarily dele- In industrialized countries as well as in gates the execution of this right to experts, to certain parts of the Third World, we are faced the media, or in broader terms to 'those in with a situation in which restricted groups charge' of seeking, processing and delivering possess the power to inform and influence so- the information to which'society is entitled. cial communication. They have converted the But it seems that this principle has been for- 'delegation' of the right to information into an gotten. Mass media and communicators fre- 'appropriation' of this right. quently behave as the initial depositaries of the Towards the end of World War Two, a large right to information, entitled to act according movement postulated the principles of infor- to their own will. The right to information-of mation and expression which have been in force society and individuals-is thus limited to ever since. Even then, some expressed con- messages whose contents and characteristics cern about the consequences of these prin- are decided upon by communicators, self- ciples. In 1945, in an article entitled 'Free- instated as the 'fourth estate'. Our model in- dom of the Press for Whom?', Earl Vance tends to modify this situation by restoring the asks: 'Will freedom of the press be a personal principle of the right to information as primor- right belonging to all citizens, as conceived dially an individual and social right. Commu- by the Founding Fathers? Or will it be a prop- nicators, as individuals, also possess this right, erty right belonging to the owners of newspa- but in their role of experts fulfil1 a task dele- pers and others publications, as we have in- gated by society. creasingly come to believe nowadays?'* The current nature of mass communication, nication times, and which confers upon this the concentration of economic, political and super-power an incalculable margin of free- social power which is reflected in the media, dom'. and existing forms of control intended to fa- vour certain elite sectors, may serve as a reply The recovery of a right to Vance's question. Undoubtedly, the prin- The search for active participation channels ciples of 'free flow' and freedom of expression tends to place communication in its proper have served to uphold the current system of context-as a social phenomenon based upon communication control, and the economic and the need to know, upon man's natural desire to political sectors which support these princi- be informed, and upon the fact that the world's ples in turn. significance increases as we know more about Urho Kekkonen, then President of Finland, it. Communication nowadays has the social said in 1973: 'The traditional concept of free- responsibility of providing the daily back- dom in the Western world, by which the ground upon which each individual shapes an State's only obligation is to guarantee "laissez awareness of the historical process in which faire", has signified that society has left it up he or she is involved. The essence of demo- to each individual to enforce his freedom of cracy implies that each individual should be expression by whatever means he has at his aware of the society in which he or she lives disposal'. And, regarding the consequences of in order to uphold the ideas and interests of this fact, he went on to point out: 'Thus, in the community. The social role of the media practice, freedom of expression has actually involves obligations and responsibilities. So- become the freedom of the rich ... On an in- ciety itself should also create conditions to ternational level, it will be found that the promote the development of this type of ac- ideals of free communication and their imple- tivity, based upon the need to regard informa- mentation are truly distorted for the rich on tion as a fundamental social need. the one hand, and for the poor on the other.'3 These concepts apply to national and inter- Some experts, such as Antonio Pasquali, national media. The latter are accepted at cer- have pointed out that as a consequence of this tain social levels because of the need for in- policy of 'laissez faire' freedom of information formation regarding other countries and to in- is now concentrated in new communication- form people of different national situations information oligarchies, which contravenes upon which the international structure is society's right to be informed. 'Free informa- based. Following this principle, the presence tion', says Pasquali, 'exists only along the ir- and activity of a transnational information reversible vector that goes from the informer agency, for example, is functional only if it to the receiver; democracy, as well as the re- recognizes the nature of the social function ciprocal action of public opinion, is reduced to delegated to it and its inherent responsibility. a mass opinion authoritatively manipulated Consequently, participation in and access to with the help of imported te~hnology.'~Pas- the communication process by society leads to quali also points out that the handling of in- the recovery of the right to information. In- formation and communication constitutes a formation as a 'social benefit' rationalizes ac- super-power which 'often operates in a legal cess and participation, and re-establishes the vacuum due to legal liberalism of pre-commu- right to information as a delegated right, A Model for Democratic Communication 87

through which the community may guide, en- panies, for instance, function in such a way rich, demand or criticize the communication that programme planning is not restricted to process and the media. the management, but includes the participa- tion of photographers, stenographers and edi- tor~.~ Social organization, coordination and The Constitution of Yugoslavia states that professional structures communication is a public service and is based Relevant experiences upon the concept of reciprocal exchange be- The rationale of the proposed model requires tween manual workers and . This the creation of institutional mechanisms concept may be implemented by planning pro- whereby the interests of sectors in charge of grammes in advance, based on consultation gathering, selecting and processing current and discussion with the body of social repre- events may be made compatible with those of sentatives at their work and educational insti- the social sectors that benefit from this daily tutions, and other centres of Yugoslav social information. It is also necessary to create life.' In Great Britain, among other innovative mechanisms to coordinate 'active social parti- documents, we find the proposals made in cipation' in communication and offer guidance 'The People and the Media' and the results of if access is to be easily achieved. Undoubted- the 'Open Door' programme/ ly, the creation and operation of this mecha- Interesting experiences of this type have al- nism will reflect existing social conflicts and so taken place in Third World countries. Peru, contradictions. But consensus about specific for instance, designed legal formulas which, activities will arise from democratic debates in regardless of the way they have been applied, which all participants in the communication provide the possibility for different social sec- process are represented. tors to participate directly in communication In recent years, there have been several sig- mechanisms, especially in the press. The Ex- nificant efforts to coordinate institutional preso, for example, was a newspaper that re- control over the communication process in flected the participation of the education sec- order to promote the type of social responsibil- tor, with its specific interests and contribu- ity described above. In March 1973, a proposal tions to the community. Representatives of was made to the Canadian public regarding teachers, parents, students, workers and Canada's future communication policy. In community institutions met with information March 1977 Law C-43 was approved, delega- professionals (in this case two members of the ting to the provinces the responsibility for newspaper staff) and together they appointed a communication policies. In Canada, commu- governing body to determine the contents and nication, education and cultural tradition zeal- editorial line of the newspaper. The reponsibil- ously guarded in the provinces are closely ity for implementing this course was left to the linked to one another. It was logical, there- newspaper Director, elected by representa- fore, that communication control should be in tives of the educational community. the hands of regional institution^.^ In Sweden The approval of the Chilean National Tele- greater participation has been accomplished in vision Act in 1968, during Chile's democratic the media through democratic and collective period, provides another significant example. action. The Swedish radio and television com- This law created a National Television Council 88 Fernanda Reyes Malta

and established that television broadcasting tors which receive communication from dif- was the responsibility of Chilean universities ferent sources. and of an autonomous state corporation The basic purpose of these institutions known as 'Television Nacional de Chile' should be to guide and harmonize various which controlled a nation-wide network. The components brought together for communica- law permitted both entities to be financed by tion purposes. Essentially, they should guar- commercial sponsors. The National Television antee the balance between social freedom and Council was basically composed of communi- responsibility-a binomial composed of cation experts and university and community complementary rather than conflicting con- representatives, designated by democratically cepts-since complete informational and so- elected legislative bodies. Thus, different cial responsibility implies authentic freedom. political tendencies, labour sectors and labour This balance requires due representation of organizations, as well as other social forces, the sectors which make communication pos- had direct access to the Council. The content sible, that is: and nature of Chilean television, with particu- a The creators of basic ideas who propose lar emphasis on its contribution to the national possible courses of action for society. development programme, was determined by a The mediators, who generally include com- this Council. munication specialists, attitude processors and message producers. a The receivers, or the general audience in its Social coordination and responsibility diversity. These experiences, among others, confirm the In this multilevel institutional organization of fact that the coordinating institutions con- the model we could perhaps apply the proposi- tained in the proposed model are valid and tion made by Jorge Xifra Heras in his book necessary. The specific characteristics of entitled La Infirmaci6n: 'It is imperative to these institutions will depend on the social develop a statute or law of information, in and political situation within which this model addition to the "right of information" (which is applied. These institutions will help to im- entitles people and enterprises to inform) and prove the methods used by entrepreneurs, the "right to information" (which entitles the professionals, and administrative and execu- public to be inf~rmed).'~The same spirit is tive sectors of communication organizations. reflected in the resolutions and recommenda- Another function of the coordinating body tions approved in in 1976, especially will be to establish a relationship between the one which refers to the participation and manifold political decision-makers and the contribution of the popular masses to cultural media, in order to define the specific nature of life. In the second section, on legislative the media in national and international devel- measures pertaining to regulations, it was re- opment programmes. commended that 'the mass media be granted a These political decisions should be based statute guaranteeing their autonomy and en- upon background information provided by the suring the effective participation of the crea- evaluative body which delivers specific data tor and the public."Â on the contribution of communication to so- Specific responsibilities are thus outlined for ciety, and on the participation of multiple sec- the institutional aspects of the proposed mod- A Model for Democratic Communication 89

el. Its fundamental responsibility should be to ference on Communication Policies in Latin ensure that multidirectional and useful infor- America and the Caribbean, held in San Jose, mation is produced for all sectors of society Costa Rica, in July 1976 - a meeting which and that active participation should enrich the became famous for the debates on the resolu- communication process, as well as the con- tions. The conference specifically recommen- tents and values handled by those in charge of ded that member states of Latin America and information. the Caribbean should 'create National Com- munication Policy Councils in which interest- From responsibility to action ed groups and basic social sectors will partici- If we were to identify specific activities for the pate in accordance with each country's intem- institutions indicated in the proposed model, a1 laws; these councils will have the necessa- we might select some from the resolutions ry authority to advise on the formulation of approved in Nairobi in 1976: communication policies that the competent legislative bodies might wish to approve'.'* Promote ample use of audio-visual media so that Paragraph 7 of our model's basic character- broad sectors of the population can have access to istics proposes the creation of institutional the best of the past and the present including, mechanisms to defend the interests of different whenever possible, the use of oral traditions which sectors involved in the information process. the media may help to retrieve. This is based on current theoretical trends Promote active public participation through partici- which support the creation of these institu- pation in programme selection and production; and tions and seek to develop the principle of encourage a permanent exchange of ideas with ar- communication as a social responsibility. tists and producers and stimulate the creation Consequently, all social sectors should partici- of local and community production centres for pate in the definition of the content, scope and public use. raison d'etre of communication. Encourage communication organizations to in- Raymond Williams, who writes about simi- crease and diversify their programmes in order to lar experiences in Great Britain, emphasizes provide a wide selection, taking into account the the need to create this new type of institutional heterogeneity of the audience; improve the cultural organization. His opinion is valuable since the quality of broadcasts addressed to the general pub- lic; choose an easily accessible visual and spoken British are already aware of the social respon- language; assign greater importance to information sibility involved in establishing norms to gov- and education than to propaganda and advertising; ern communication and its effects. Williams take special care in protecting national cultures states: 'I believe that we shall only have res- against the possible pernicious influence of certain ponsible institutions when the programmes to types of mass production. be followed must be justified in regular, open Promote comparative studies and research on the and fair debate. That is the only way to reciprocal influence between artists, the media and achieve authentic change. This might be un- society; and on the relationship between the pro- dertaken by a Radio and Television Council. duction and the reception of cultural programmes. '{ But, although undoubtedly useful, a Council of Radio Listeners and Televiewers would These suggestions also appear in Recommen- mainly be a step toward a broader distribu- dation No. 7, approved at the Regional Con- tion of re~ponsibility.'~~ 90 Fernanda Reyes Malta

Access and participation: a requirement character; this in turn, presupposes the need for communication to adopt measures with which to fight the per- nicious influence of a "commercial culture of Actual meaning and myths the masses" which is a menace to national Access to communication may be defined as cultures and to the cultural development of the right to receive and emit messages through humanity, in so far as it degrades personality the appropriate channels and as efficiently as and, above all, has an ominous influence on possible, according to the conditions under youth.'I4 which the media operate. We have already referred to the myths on Active participation in communication im- access and participation created by the media plies the right to participate in decisions on the and the industrial exploitation of information. contents and nature of messages, and to influ- Because the public makes a daily choice, the ence decisions regarding communication poli- media assume that they are participating in the cies approved by the community for internal communication process. The media are the and international purposes. Paragraphs 5, 7 senders, while the receivers are merely rated and 8 of the model's objectives, as well as according to commercial interests; between paragraphs 6 and 8 of its basic characteristics, the two, the phenomenon of communication is are based on both these definitions and on the produced. This attitude falsifies the concept of following analysis. authentic participation and, even more so, that Overall development may be promoted by of truly efficient access. The problem lies in ensuring access to and participation in the the fact that, by definition, the commercial communication process in so far as communi- concept of communication excludes participa- cation is an important element of development tion, since in the final analysis the media select strategies. The media, in one way or another, the information to be transmitted to a captive put forward development models which are audience which is presented with a limited becoming an increasingly significant variable number of options, the final selection being in the process of 'socialization'. left to a toss up between the interests of the As indicated in the recommendations of the media executive and the sponsor. Thus, the Nairobi Conference, 'mass media can play an receiver only appears to be playing an active instrumental role in cultural enrichment, by role. affording unprecedented possibilities for cul- Current communication problems in indus- tural development; by contributing to the trialized countries reflect an imperative need liberation of the people's cultural potential, to to create authentic forms of participation in the safeguard and popularization of traditional and broad access to communication. The ex- cultural expressions, to the creation and dis- pansion of television does not seem to be semination of new manifestations: and by creating a mass of receivers who are better in- turning to groups and facilitating the direct in- formed, more involved in the problems of tervention of the population'. Within this con- their society, or willing to participate in solv- text, 'the ultimate objective of access and par- ing them. ticipation is to raise the cultural and spiritual Jar01 Manheim points out that 'independent- level of society upon a human value basis, and ly of the degree to which people accept the to give culture a humanitarian and democratic idea of participation, a substantial majority of A Modelfor Democratic Communication 91

the American population seems relatively it is questionable from the receiver's stand- aloof toward everyday political events (except point, since no social mechanisms exist which when it comes to the elections); far from being enable receivers to be recognized as influential involved, they consider that the political pro- groups in the process. The atomization of the cess in general is something foreign to their audience is probably a consequence of the lives .. . Evidently, for most Americans, poli- very way in which the communication process tics is barely more than a succession of images takes place. that go through their living-rooms, and then A television station might claim that its mes- vanish into the subterranean world of history. sage reaches ten million viewers, but this does It is something that is contemplated, probably not mean that those ten million people are mistrusted, but rarely worthy of profound socially integrated and capable of actively par- considerati~n.'~~ ticipating in the communication process. Based on extensive research undertaken in The concept of mass communication is valid recent years, Manheim concludes that a great for the media, but it is misleading from the and increasing number of Americans depend audience's standpoint. on television for their political information. If the media could get millions of people to Confidence in television increases daily and rush to their windows and shout 'I am mad', as thus he concludes that 'there is reason to be- in the film Network, we would still not be lieve that the inhabitants of the United States witnessing a mass phenomenon of active par- are beginning to depend more and more for ticipation in communication. We would be their political information on a media that is witnessing a mere extension of the unidirec- giving them less and less.'I6 tional message, multiplied by the number of From a Third World point of view, these motivated receivers. How do the receivers re- statements cannot be dismissed lightly. They late to one another? They generally don't! Do confirm the validity of the proposition of 'al- they react collectively to the message and crit- ternative, endogenous and participatory de- ically analyse the situation in which the diver- velopment' and confirm that the social prob- sity of the audience is evident? The answer is: lem posed by the creation of new and authen- only rarely and within limits. tic forms of access must be resolved not only It is dangerous to assume that participation in Third World countries but also in the main exists merely because certain media offer industrialized powers. broad and simultaneous coverage. The conse- quences of this assumption are evident: its Mass communication and technological intention is to prove that, in future, access to development adequate technology will enable individuals to Conventional definitions of communication participate simply because technology is usually imply the presence of the masses, as available. The following proposal by McHale, receivers or emitters. This provokes a distor- for example, refers to this type of assumption: tion which affects the definition of the right to access and participation. Could the functions of television and computers be Mass communication actually exists in so integrated in a new apparatus which would help to far as the emitter simultaneously issues infor- develop the human intellect? One could imagine an mation to thousands or millions of people. But apparatus similar to a TV set, capable of generating 92 Fernando Reyes Matta

a wondrously rich variety of images, as well as 2. The qualitative change which will trans- symbolic forms; simultaneously, it would also be form information media into communica- like a computer, as it would invite the spectator to tion media will be possible when the au- participate actively in the production and control of dience stops acting as a consumer-receiver the information presented. Then, for the first time, and starts to act as creator-perceiver. man would easily be able to create visual images to 3. Schools (institutions which many people communicate ideas that previously were practically impossible for him to express.I7 feel are undergoing a crisis) in their efforts to meet the challenge of the times, will in- Such proposals must be viewed with dis- evitably come into contact with the meth- trust. Although technological development is ods and consequences of communication, valid and necessary, the key question in this since the media and schools are linked development process is man's capacity to through the use of a global semiotic lan- converse with others. To what extent can the guage. development of communication technology 4. The comprehension of the multiple dimen- modify the current situation in which our sions of communication implies the discov- standpoint, dialogue and interaction between ery of the authentic meaning of messages, indi12iduals and groups are basic to the thus enabling man to distinguish values and achievement of participation in conzmunica- antivalues in a process which creates great- tion :) er awareness and liberty. 5. The current social phenomenon of commu- nication shows, paradoxically, a smooth and accelerated expansion of the media, Education and organization: requirements for but in inverse proportion to the communi- participation and access cation that takes place between one human Justification of a need being and another. The need to make receivers active agents in These observations, sustained by theoreti- communication requires education for com- cians such as Francisco Gutierrez of Costa munication, a process which up to now has not Rica, and Lauro de Oliveira Lima of Brazil, been given sufficient attention. demonstrate the need for imaginative new Isolated and almost insignificant experi- approaches regarding the relationship between ments, generally initiated in the industrialized education and communication. The role of nations, are the only record of attempts made education is to help man develop his analytical to satisfy this need, which we consider to be ability and acquire knowledge on diverse mat- basic today. The reasons why these formative ters; it would thus be logical to design an ade- processes must be improved include the quate training system to understand the na- following: ture, influence and uses of communication. S. The media currently constitute a powerful Some people, however, remain sceptical culture-creating mechanism, which surpas- about the results that can be achieved, and ses the range of traditional education pro- those disenchanted voices which speak up cesses; yet adequate training to enable us against change often come from the media. to rationalize its influence and uses is not 'Actually, only those who run the newspa- available. pers or similar organizations have an idea how A Model for Democratic Communication 93

indifferent, stupid or disinterested the great pedagogical field. In most Third World majority of the British public is regarding any countries and some industrialized nations, tele- sort of education,' declared Cecil Kind, Presi- vision screens are meant to transmit mes- dent of the 'Mirror' group. Norman Collins, of sages created by commercial systems as well the British network ITV adds: as educational programmes. The consequence is a totally visual culture where commercial If the public were given exactly what it wants, the and pedagogical images are indistinguishable. service would be perfectly dreadful ... It is quite Educational programmes add prestige, rein- evident that the level of education in this country is force the validity of television's educational deplorable . . . The overwhelming number of letters potential and ratify the supposed veracity of that we receive come from ignorant people who its messages, all of which benefits commercial know nothing of grammar, who write poorly, and programmes. Commercial television is further what's worse, reveal attitudes that I believe would hardly be considered admirable. All they want are validated whenever it appears to be sharing photographs of movie stars and television celebri- time with educational programmes. ties; or they ask us why we don't devote more time Evidently, educational television has not to jazz or music hall. I believe professors are re- encouraged awareness regarding communica- sponsible for this attitude which is so common tion. It has merely used television in an at- among teenagers.lX tempt to extend the classroom. To teach re- ceivers to develop their own analytical abili- Obviously, Norman Collins is overlooking the ties implies giving them the possibility to media's share or responsibility in shaping the distinguish between the commercial and edu- attitude of teenagers. These opinions show, cational contents and use of television. however, that the belief that education can The media reflect an external world, and in give communication a new social perspective so doing, offer an alternative cultural exper- is not only present in the Third World. Fur- ience which exceeds that offered in school, thermore, they indicate the need to create especially if the latter maintains the tradition awareness among communication specialists of classroom walls and rigid discipline. The regarding changes and new possibilities. The media tell children and young people, in a opinions expressed by King and Collins pos- dazzling and attractive language, that learning sibly reflect the real situation in their unidirec- and education can take place anywhere and at tional relationship with the receivers. But the all times. This is precisely one of the means fundamental issue is to find, in just such a state through which the transnational power struc- of affairs, clues that might indicate what edu- ture has easily been able to achieve ideological cational action can be taken in order to con- and cultural penetration. vert the public's interest in movie stars into a Schools generally do not prepare young broader, more global interest and an adequate people to understand the uses and effects of appreciation of multiple aspects of current the media. The media educate people in spite events. of the fact that society has not assigned them that role nor defined the media's educational Mass media and schools activities (whose scope exceeds that of the Education for communication is also justified television classroom, which is of questionable by the growing use of media techniques in the benefit). The challenge is to integrate both 94 Fernando Reyes Matta

formative processes-education and commu- its media. After all, this would perhaps be the nication-in such a way as to find a rationality best way to unite communication and educa- for joint social action. Louis Porcher, a French tion in order to create a joint formative phe- expert, has pointed out: The only way to help nomenon. students find their way through the maze of This training should begin at the elementary information fed to them is to bring the mass level, and increase at high-school level, where media into the classroom. Only then will stu- students tend to adopt their first critical atti- dents be able to guide the media and the true tudes. purpose of education will be achieved, enab- ling us to benefit from the enormous potential Education in and for communication of mass media.'19 The incorporation of systematic communica- According to Ben Bagdikian, who has dili- tion training in the school curriculum is part of gently analysed communication phenomena, a much broader process. If the audience be- one should be concerned because technologi- gins to develop an increasingly critical outlook cal changes will affect social forms of educa- towards the media, towards education for tion sooner whan we expect, at least in some communication not only in the school context societies, such as America: but also in the entire social system, this type of training will become increasingly important to It is conceivable that there will be a day when basic communication. communications devices will be required in all In the case of the Third World countries, dwellings the way running water and electricity are work centres, women's clubs, community required in all urban homes. Tax-supported educa- centres and students' unions could be places tion could be the basis for this. New machines will where receivers might learn, through open and be useful for preschool, adolescent, and adult edu- critical debate, about the nature of this social cation, often as a scheduled part of normal function and their role as participants from the schooling. It may be less expensive for a commun- ity to install certain kinds of computer-assisted tele- planning stage onwards. vised teaching systems in homes than to attempt to Similarly, we must incorporate the media in expand conventional systems of classrooms and the education in communication. Television teachers for all subjects for all students.20 should have a free or open-camera time, where several community representatives might ex- The technology and simultaneous action of press their opinions on what television offers the media are inevitably becoming attractive society, and what it could offer in the future. to education planners. They are tempted to Perhaps the quality of radio broadcasts should believe that it will be sufficient for education improve, inviting listeners to participate more to absorb the techniques in order to achieve actively than by telephone. If the media un- the communication-education symbiosis. derstand the social importance of their activi- They do no realize, however, that there is an ties and that their daily task of providing in- inmediate need to understand fully the true formation to the public is a 'social good', meaning of communication. The educational they will discover that if they use their capaci- process, instead of striving to incorporate new, ty to communicate in training the receiver to communication methods should accelerate the participate actively in the communication pro- process of understanding communication and cess, the quality of their endeavour will im- A Model for Democratic Communication 95

prove, not only to the receivers' benefit but Thus, we are faced with an educational also to their own. The ability to enrich a mes- problem of multiple aspect. The press will sage with new points of view based upon the also have to learn how different sectors of the receivers' demands and contributions re- population speak and choose to communicate inforces the role of communication profes- in an effort to get their message across. In sionals. spite of the fact that this is a first priority in One of the major problems in the implemen- Third World countries, in order to achieve au- tation of the proposed model is how to estab- thentic communication, it does not imply that lish a relationship between different social sec- professionals will be less important; quite the tors and communication professionals in or- contrary, it means that they must realize the der to ensure active social participation. communication potential of a dialogue with The basic challenge for the coordinating audiences who have always been passive re- bodies established in the system, as well as for ceivers of what they have been offered. the professionals and organized receivers, is to In this general context, education for com- find an adequate method of mutual coopera- munication may help to develop the following tion. The purpose of access to and participa- skills: tion in the communication process is to enrich 1. Critical judgement of the media, their influ- it by broadening the communicators' criteria, ence and social organization. values and processing methods. 2. The capacity to analyse and evaluate the Undoubtedly, the change from unidirection- contents of messages. al communication with passive participation to 3. Development of a more analytical approach communication with active receiver participa- towards communication phenomena and tion involves many profound modifications. the media. Communication professionals must accept 4. The capacity to criticize the negative that their method of codifying reality is not effects of foreign media and messages on unique. In many cases, classical methods of national reality. determining what is news and how to present it 5. The capacity to propose alternatives for the reflect commercial interests rather than the programme structure and content of com- needs of society. The average citizen is often munication. well aware of this situation. 'Reporters would 6. The capacity to participate in decisions on rather speak with those on top, the managers communication policy. and the ministers, perhaps because they feel 7. The ability to participate directly in pro- more at home with them, or perhaps because ducing alternative content and messages. the worker is going to tell a reporter how In a broader analysis, we find that this type of workers talk, and then he'll feel bad, because training should provide people with the neces- the reporter is on a different level-he has a sary criteria to accept or reject foreign cultural different type of background. On the other models. The absence of this training has per- hand, he hasn't done anything to learn how to mitted the appearance of neocolonialism, chat with the worker.' This illustrative obser- which encourages passivity, if not compla- vation came from a Chilean poblador (Santi- cence, in the face of cultural penetration. ago slum dweller) in a survey conducted in This, in turn, has facilitated ideological in- Santiago early in 1973.21 vasion by the transnational power structure. 96 Fernanda Reyes Malta

The changes proposed for international com- munication. We are not aware of the benefits munication, particularly the search for bal- and potential influence of this process, particu- anced and multicultural flows, require the par- larly if it is considered as part of a general ticipation of critical national audiences. Based development policy. upon the demands and proposals of the au- It is probable that many people will still diences, the nature of international communi- consider our suggestions as a utopian formula- cation could be modified so as to contribute to tion-a model with slim chances of applica- international dialogue. tion. But perhaps their doubts will be dis- Education for communication-a task pelled with the help of the following words by which involves communicators and educators Paulo Freire: 'Utopian does not necessarily alike-also leads to new horizontal models of mean unattainable, it is a process of organization and social action. Adequate denouncing and announcing; denouncing the training can give organized receivers a better dehumanizing structure and announcing the opportunity to use the social apparatus, and humanizing structure. That is why the pro- ensure efficient participation and timely cess of gaining awareness compels us to as- access. sume a utopian position when faced with reality .'22

Conclusion Notes The structure of the Model for Democratic 1. Schiller, Herbert I., 'Freedom from the Free Communication to ensure active social parti- Flow', Journal of Communii.ution, USA, Winter cipation incorporates the elements described 1974, pp. 110- 117. above. 2. Vance, Earl L., 'Freedom of the Press for In order to raise educational levels for a Whom?' Virginia Quarterly Review, USA, Summer better understanding of the communication 1945, p. 30. Quoted by Luis Ramiro Beltran in 'Poll process and to create true participation based ticas Nacionales de Comunicacion en America La- upon adequate social awareness, we propose a tina' in Nu~vi1Sociediid, No. 25, July-August model of communication policy based on the 1976, Ed. Nueva Sociedad Ltda, Venezuela, 1976. 3. Kekkonen, Urho, Speech delivered at the assumption that communication is a 'social Symposium on the International Flow of Television good'. The search for dynamic interaction Programmes in Tampere, Finland, May 2nd-23rd, between the elements mentioned in the 1973. Proceedings, Tampere, University of Tarnpe- preceding pages is aimed mainly at the Third re, 1973. Quoted by L.R. Beltran, op.cit. World and its current needs, in the hope of 4. Pasquali, Antonio, 'Danza y contradanza de encouraging greater creativity in the search for un politico nacional de comunicacion', Caracas, social change and the creation of 'alternative Venezuela, Universidad Central de Venezuela, development'. ININCO, 1975, p. 19. Undoubtedly, the lack of both adequate 5. Canadian Communication Research Informa- tion Centre, Comrnuniquk, Ottawa, July 1977, training and an awareness of the nature of pp. 1-5. communication are grounds for distortion, 6. Furhoff, Lars, Jonson, Lennart and Nilsson, manipulation of information and cultural Lennart, 'Communication Policies in Sweden', A alienation. Furthermore, they prevent us from study undertaken by the Swedish School of Jouma- seeing the multiple positive aspects of com- lism, UNESCO Press, Paris, 1974. A Model for Democratic Communication 97

7. See Special Edition of Theory and Practice- op.cit., Nairobi Conference, UNESCO. RTV, No. 1, 1979, Radiotelevizije, Beograd. 15. Manheim, Jarol B., 'Podra la dernocracia 8. Quicke, A., Tomorrow's Television, Lion Pub- sobrevivir a la Television?', In Cuadernos de Co- lishing, London, 1976. municaciijn, ano 2, No. 14, p. 23 August 1976, 9. Xifra Heras, Jorge, La inforrnaci(jn, Andisis Mexico. (Translated). de una Libertad Frustrada, Ed. Hispana-europea, 16. Ibid, p. 24. , 1972. 17. McHale, John, 'Comunicacion', El fuluro dv 10. Recommendation relative to the participation la comunicuci(jn a1gunu.s consideraciones teoreti- and contribution of popular masses to cultural life, cas, Cuadernos de Cornunicaci(jtz. ano 2, No. 14, Minutes of the General Conference, Volume 1, August 1976, Mexico, tr. Antonio Alatorre. Resolutions of the nineteenth meeting in Nairobi, 18. Williams, Raymond, op.cit. October 26th-November 30th. 1976, UNESCO. 19. Porcher, Louis, 'Education', Li's Communi- 11. Ibid. cations de Masse, compiled by Jean Cazeneuve, 12. Recommendation No. 7, Intragovernmental ed. Denoel, Gonthier, Paris, 1976. Conference on Communication Policies in Latin 20. Bagdikian, Ben H., 'The Information Ma- America and the Caribbean, San Jose, Costa Rica, chines', pp. 290-91, Harper and Row, New York, July 12th-21st, 1976, UNESCO. 1971. 13. Williams, Raymond 'Los Medios de Comu- 21. Mattelart, Michel and Pichini, Mabel, nicacion Social', Ed. Peninsula, Barcelona, 2nd edi- 'Communicacion y Cultura', No. 3, Buenos Aires, tion, 1974, p. 163. (Translation). 1974. 14. Recommendation relative to the participation 22. Freire, Paulo, 'Pedagogia del oprimido', and contribution of popular masses to cultural life, Tierra Nueva, Montevideo, 1970. IPS- An Information Alternative for a New International Order

Inter Press Service especially through its treatment of information Third World News Agency as a social right, rather than a marketable com- modity like any other, and through its promotion Inter Press Service is the world's newest interna- of 'horizontal' news exchange directly between tional news agency, and the only international the 'actors' and information bodies of the Third cooperative of Third World and other journalists. From its establishment in 1964 as an 'informa- World countries. tion bridge' between Latin America and Europe, the agency has steadily grown, and has come to The development of an alternative news be closely identified with the attempts to build a agency new international information order. Since its establishment in 1964. IPS has seen IPS has its own extensive network of bureaux and correspondents in the Third World and four major stages of growth. many industrialized countries. It also exchanges 1964-1968. IPS developed as a cooperative of news and promotes the services of many Third journalists supportive of processes of reform in World national news agencies, and provides di- Latin America, whose aim was to provide an 'in- rect 'south-south' telecommunications facilities formation bridge' between Latin America and for Third World media which have traditionally Europe. The agency launched a special techni- been dependent on information structures dom- cal service for the distribution of bulletins from a inated by the large transnational agencies. number of Latin American countries, preparing IPS pioneered the introduction of new formats the ground for a wider network. of news and information which are not solely event-oriented, but take account of the complex 1968-1971. During this period, IPS broadened processes of development. Its service empha- its perspective and its focus widened to include sizes contextualized, analytical, background and the whole process of struggle against under- feature material as well as standard news items, development. in order to provide full and timely information about a wide range of development issues and 1971-1977. Finding many points of common processes. concern between Latin America and other re- IPS' basic daily service is transmitted in Span- gions, IPS extended its network on the interna- ish, English, Arabic and Portuguese. A German tional level and widened its focus to include service has recently been launched, and a other regions as well. It established close links Frenctxservice is planned in the near future. with national news agencies in different parts of The agency also provides its subscribers with the Third World, notably in the Arab states and a wide range of special services, and has some countries of Africa. The agency estab- launched a number of initiatives outside the trad- lished links with the non-aligned movement and itional news field. It has also undertaken an am- entered into a working relationship with bitious feasibility study for the UN Development (the national news agency of Yugoslavia) and Programme, proposing the establishment of a later, through TANJUG, with the news pool of the global Third World development information non-aligned nations, and was invited to provide network to promote technical and scientific co- official coverage of the 'Group of 77' conference operation between Third World countries. A de- in Lima, Peru. cision on the implementation of this project is expected in 1982. 1977-present. IPS adopted as its major objec- IPS claims to have made important steps to- tive the creation of direct 'south-south' links in a ward filling a part of the gap left by the transna- global Third World strategy. In addition to in- tional news agencies in international news flows, creasing its cooperation with Third World na- IPS: An Information Alternative 99

tional news agencies, IPS began to make a se- IPS promotes a larger Third World voice in the ries of special agreements with international international information system by providing a and regional organizations concerned with de- structure and telecommunications network velopment. The number and range of the agen- which permits national news agencies to circu- cy's services was increased. The agency began late and exchange information directly between to regionalize its own news-gathering and dis- themselves. With its own network of satellite tribution structures, and to develop plans for teleprinter channels, linked via regional centres the extension of its network on a regional basis, to the 'IRICON' computer switching system in including major new projects in Africa and Asia. Rome, IPS has been one of the major pioneers in IPS also began to operate a regional news ex- building information bridges directly between change (ASIN) for 13 national news agencies of the countries of the Third World. Latin America and the Caribbean, and to extend Unlike commercial carrier services, IPS also its support for national news agencies beyond promotes national news agency material to its the simple exchange and distribution of news own customers and provides distribution ser- to the provision of professional and technical vices to the news media. In all cases IPS re- training and support. transmits other agencies' material intact and with the original credit, allowing their own voice to be heard. In the course of the development of this policy The role of IPS n the New International of horizontal communication, IPS has reached Information Order cooperation and exchange agreements with The demands for a New International Informa- some 30 national news agencies of the Third tion Order, which are supported and promoted World; acts as carrier for the news pool of the by IPS, are based on a fundamental rejection of a non-aligned nations to a number of regio- number of major imbalances in the existing in- nal redistribution centres; and also acts as formation order: operational secretariat for 'accion de sistemas more than 85 per cent of the international informativos nacionales' (ASIN), a regional news news flow is controlled and dominated by the exchange network of 13 national news agencies transnational news agencies; in Latin America and the Caribbean. dominant news flows take place in a north- Recently this cooperation has been further ex- south direction, and there is little exchange tended to provide professional and technical south-south, or south-north; training and support. Creation of the ASIN net- Third World news media are given little space work has involved IPS in support and technical for participation in the international informa- upgrading of a number of recently-formed na- tion system; tional agencies, such as those of Guyana, Ja- the focus of the transnational news agencies maica and Panama on 'spot' or event-oriented news leads to the exclusion of development-oriented coverage: As regards its own services, IPS provides infor- Transnational news agency coverage, linked mation with a content and function devised by as it is to the interests of northern news mar- Third World professionals for the Third World. kets, often means that the realities of the Third IPS emphasizes the solidarity of the Third World World countries are misreported or distorted, countries by examining common interests, prob- and can lead to negative reporting; lems and perspectives-without neglecting indi- information structures are dominated by a vidual national concerns, but seeking to avoid small number of powerful interests, and there the disjointed and sporadic approach of the is little or no participation by other groups. Western agencies. 100 IPS: An Information Alternative

Table 1 Third World and non-aligned news agencies tural Organization (UNESCO), the UN Food and linked with IPS Agricultural Organization (FAO) and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF); regional bodies such ACI Congo AI M Mozambique as the Latin American Economic System (SELA) ANA. Peru and the Third World Economic and Social Stu- ANGOP Angola dies Centre (CEESTEM); and non-governmental ANN* Nicaragua bodies such as the World Council of Churches * Bolivia (WWC) or the International Foundation for De- CANA Caribbean velopment Alternatives (IFDA). COLPRESS* Colombia IPS is also concerned to reverse the dominant CRI* Costa Rica north-south flow of news by improving outlets DOMPRESS* Dominican Republic GNA* Guyana for news from the Third World in the industrial- I NA Iraq ized countries. Both in North America and in JAMPRESS* Jamaica Europe, IPS' services are regularly transmitted to JANA Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah northern news media; the agency's own out- LANKAPUVATH Sri Lanka reach has been extended by distribution agree- NOTIMEX* Mexico ments with news agencies such as APA (Aus- PANAPRESS* Panama tria), ANOP (Portugal), ANP (Holland), EPD P.L. Cuba (Federal Republic of Germany), MTI (Hungary) PNA Philippines and PAP (Poland), In Federal Germany, IPS has SENDIP* Ecuador also launched a unique project, with support SNA" Surinam TANJUG Jugoslavia from the Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, to translate TA P Tunisia and edit IPS news for German-language media; VENPRESS* Venezuela a similar venture for the Netherlands is under WAFA P.L.O. study. In the United States of America, IPS col- WAM U.A.E. laborates with a sister organization, Interlink Press Service, to secure alternative media out- Member of ASIN lets in cooperation with a wide range of non- governmental organizations. The major themes on which IPS focuses are: The needs of the mass of the people and the IPS news services efforts being made to meet them; potential factors contributing to autonomous Like any other agency, IPS' basic output is a and self-reliant development (including such daily news transmission, currently available in factors as economy, technology, culture and five languages (a French-language service is art); being planned), as follows: the efforts being made (short- and long-term, partial or total) to transform socio-economic Spanish: 14 hrslday with 42.000 words averaging structures. English: 8 hrslday with 24.000 words averaging In part, this coverage is supported by a series of Portuguese: 3 hrsfday with 9.000 words averaging Arabic: 3 hrslday with 9.000 words averaging agreements with regional and international German: 2 hrslday with 6.000 words averaging development organizations. These include UN bodies such as the UN Development Programme The IPS international network (UNDP), the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), the UN Fund for Population Activities The current IPS international network is shown (UNFPA), the UN Educational, Scientific and Cul- in Table 2. IPS: An Information Alternative 101

Table 2 The IPS international network Europe Belgrade Jugoslavia Africa Bonn Fed. Rep. Germany Algeria tx Belgium Brazzaville Congo tx Romania Maputo Mozambique PP Hungary Nairobi Kenya tP Geneva (UN) Switzerland Salisbury Zimbabwe tP Portugal Tripoli Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah tp London U.K. Tunisia Spain U.S.S.R. Luanda Angola Paris France Rome Italy Asia and Arab States Stockholm Sweden Abu Dhabi United Arab Emirates The Hague Netherlands Baghdad Iraq Vienna Austria Beirut Lebanon Poland Colombo Sri Lanka Copenhagen Denmark Jerusalem Manila Philippines North America Damascus Syria Montreal Canada Kuwait Kuwait NewYork USA New India Oakland USA Riyadh Saudi Arabia New York (UN) USA Latin America and Caribbean Washington USA Asuncion Paraguay - Bogota Colombia tp=teleprinter; tx=telex; 1=IPS bureau; 2=full-time corre- Buenos Aires Argentina spondent: 3=part-time correspondent, 4=link with national Caracas Venezuela news agency only: 5=translation centre only: rczregional or sub-regional communications centre, ic-international Georgetown Guyana communications centre; +=bureau to be opened in 1981 Cuba Kingston Jamaica Bolivia Lima Peru Managua Nicaragua IPS Special Services Mexico City Mexico Special services include: Montevideo Uruguay Panama City Panama Women's feature services: with support from Paramaribo Suriname UNESCO, IPS currently operates and distri- Quito Ecuador butes two regular feature services produced Rio de Janeiro Brazil by women journalists in Latin America (Orga- San Jose Costa Rica nizacion Informativa de la Mujer) and Africa San Salvador El Salvador (African Women's Feature Service). These fo- Santiago Chile cus on the role of women as seen by women. Santo DomingoDominican Republic Special features: the IPS daily transmission Bridgetown Barbados Grenada Grenada includes a number of features on development Guatemala CityGuatemala issues of global concern, including women, Port of Spain Trinidad and Tobago the environment, the north-south dialogue, St Lucia St Lucia the non-aligned movement, science and tech- Tegucigalpa Honduras nology, information and communications, 102 IPS: An Information Alternative

human settlements, natural resources, health, Asia population, education, transnational corpora- In Asia, IPS has developed plans for a regional tions. network linked via satellite channels (where Specialized bulletins: each Sunday, IPS available) to a computer message switching and transmits a series of weekly bulletins on editing system in Colombo, in a joint venture themes of particular interest. At present, these with the Sri Lanka National News Agency (LAN- are focused mainly on Latin America and cov- KAPUVATH). An IPS bureau is well established er economic issues, agriculture, petroleum. in Colombo, and more recently a further link church affairs, minerals and the environment. has been made with Manila, under the terms of Special UN service: together with the Interna- a bilateral agreement with the Philippines News tional Foundation for Development Alterna- Agency (PNA). The agency expects soon to tives, IPS produces a daily bulletin for mis- open a line to , and negotiations on sions of the 'Group of 77' (Third World cooperation and exchange agreements are countries) to the United Nations in New York under way with a number of other agencies in and Geneva. These contain a selection from the region. the IPS transmission of news on negotiations in UN and other fora, the activities of the Institutional structure and finance UN system, and other items of importance to Third World moves toward greater self- IPS is the only international cooperative of Third reliance. World and other journalists. The cooperative, registered under Italian law, also works through IPS Third World, a wholly-owned subsidary reg- Future plans istered in Panama. The IPS network, strongest in Latin America and The cooperative is directed by an 11-member the Caribbean and in the Arab region, is current- board of directors, the executive committee of ly being expanded in Africa and Asia also. which is currently made up as follows: Chair- man: Gabriel Valdes (Chile); Vice-chairman: Africa Piervincenzo Porcacchia (Italy); Marc Nerfin IPS has already established links with some na- (Switzerland); Juan Somavia (Chile); Mahrnoud tional agencies, and has bureaux in Nairobi and Triki (Tunisia); and Esmond Wickremesinghe Tunis. The agency is currently involved in the (Sri Lanka). Director-General: Roberto Savio preparation of a three-year project for the crea- (Argentinalltaly). tion of an African network of communications IPS is a non profit-making organization. All for development, the plans for which were dis- profits are, by law, used to increase the coopera- cussed at a meeting held in Nairobi in January tive's working capital and are ploughed back 1981, which reviewed the structure and organi- into it. Moreover, the agency receives no state or zation of the network, training plans and budget. other subsidies. It has maintained its operations With its focus on development-oriented news as an independent professional body, despite and information, this project represents a major working with limited capital. Its budget for 1981 potential contribution to the improvement of is in the region of US$ 5 million. news flows within Africa and between the conti- nent and other regions of the Third World. CODEV Communication for Development Foundation

CODEV: Communications for Development is an tion is in Malta. The Constitution of CODEV international, non-governmental, non-profit affirms the non-governmental and non-profit foundation which has been set up to encourage character of the foundation and its orientation alternatives to the present structure and content towards the problems and needs of the of information and communications, and thus Third World. contribute to a new world order in this field for The rationale underlying the creation of CODEV, the benefit of the people of all countries. and the interests of its sponsors, are reflected in Communications are a central element in the the aims of the Foundation, as set out in its processes of development. When they are de- Constitution. These aims are: mocratic and diverse, communications broaden to contribute to the establishment and devel- the horizons of thought and the options for ac- opment of a new world information and tion, for societies as well as for individuals. communication order; When monopolized and manipulated, they hin- to facilitate direct communications between der personal and societal development. Third World people, and new flows of Third World generated information to people in CODEV is committed to democracy and plura- industrialized countries so as to give interna- lism in communications and to the perception of tional relations a fuller human dimension and communication as a social function, not as a to promote a genuine cooperation between commodity nor as propaganda. It believes that peoples on the basis of equality and recogni- there is a space for third system action in com- tion of their cultural diversity; munications. In this spirit, CODEV will seek to 0 to promote communications between devel- remedy shortcomings in the present state of in- opments actors~organizedgroups and indi- formation and communications and support the viduals-as both receivers and providers of efforts of others to this end. information, thereby contributing to more di- The initiative to set up CODEV was taken by versified and pluralistic information flows; people working in and associated with six other 0 to encourage another journalism, both written international, non-governmental, non-profit in- and audiovisual, which would focus on the stitutions: description and analysis of development pro- International Foundation for Development Al- cesses, be they cultural, social, political, tech- ternatives (IFDA), 2, place du Marche, CH-1260 nological or economic, and their interrela- Nyon, Switzerland; tions; Inter Press Service Third World News Agency 0 to promote understanding of the role commu- (IPS), Via Panisperna 207, 00184 Rome, Italy; nications play in contemporary society in the Association of African Woman for Research Third World as well as in industrialized and Development, P.O. Box 3186, Dakar, Se- countries. negal; The methods which CODEV may use to achieve Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, Ovre Slotts- its aims include: gatan 2, S-75220 Uppsala, Sweden. providing training, consultative and other ser- Institute Latino American0 de Estudios Trans- vices in support of initiatives, especially in the nacionales (ILETI), P.O. Box 85025, 10200 Third World, to establish and develop local, Mexico DF, Mexico; national, regional and inter-regional comrnu- Third World Forum, P.O. Box 43, Orman nications systems; , Egypt promoting technical cooperation among Third CODEV was established by notarial deed in Mal- World countries in the field of communica- ta on 30 April 1981. The legal seat of the founda- tions; 104 CODEV: Communications for Development Foundation

encouraging research in the field of commu- communications links among Third World nications and the new world information and countries (at least 60 in the first six years) and communications order. to use this to stimulate the exchange of cur- rent and reliable information oriented to the While CODEV may itself undertake such activi- development needs of Third World subscribers. ties, it will normally operate through its constitu- ent members or through other like-minded The members of the Executive Committee are groups. It may contract to carry out projects on the following. They serve in their personal capa- behalf of funding institutions, thus acting as a city. Institutional affiliations are given for the channel of resources between the latter and the purpose of identification. Isma'il-Sabri Abdalla growing network of alternative communications. (Egypt), Chairman, Third World Forum; Salah AI-Shaikhly (Iraq), Director, Centre for Research CODEV may receive contributions, gifts, grants on the New International Economic Order; Wil- and bequests to enable it to carry out its work. liam J. Maeda (Tanzania), Director-General, Posts The organs of CODEV are the Executive Commit- and Telecommunications Corporation; Jan tee and the Council. At least two-thirds of the Meijer (Netherlands), Adviser to the Minister for members of each of these organs must be citi- Development Cooperation; Ernst Michanek zens of Third World countries. (Sweden), Chariman, Board of Trustees, Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, President, Swedish The Executive Committee directs the work of the National Committee for UNESCO; March Nerfin Foundation and takes all decisions necessary for (Switzerland), President, International Founda- the achievement of its aims. The Council is to tion for Development Alternatives; Manuel Perez comprise eminent persons, reflecting the cha- Guerrero (Venezuela), Chairperson, Adviser to racter, scope and aims of the Foundation, whose the President on International Economic Affairs, function is to advise the Executive Committee. Chairman of the 'Group of 77'; Marie Angelique The Committee may seek the advice of Council Savane (Senegal), Co-chairperson, President, members individually or collectively. Association of African Women for Research and The Executive Committee of CODEV has been Development; Roberto Savio (Italy), Director- constituted and held its first meeting at , General, Inter Press Service Third World News Malta, on 27th and 28th July 1981. Its second Agency; Juan Somavia (Chile), Executive Direc- meeting was held in Rome on 1st and 2nd De- tor, Latin American Institute for Transnational cember 1981. The Council of CODEV is being Studies (ILET); Gabriel Valdes (Chile), Chairman formed. of the Board, Inter Press Service Third World News Agency; Tarzie Vittachi (Sri Lanka), Co- The work programme of CODEV is being elab- chairperson, Contributing editor, 'Newsweek' orated by the Executive Committee. Two pro- magazine; Michael Zammit Cutajar (Malta), jects are at present under consideration: Executive Secretary, Consultant on develop- an inventory of alternative communications: ment matters. This project would aim to identify the commu- nications actors and facilities with which CO- The headquarters of CODEV are at: Pjazza Indi- DEV could work and to help them to commu- pendenza 112, Triq il-Punent, Valletta, Malta, nicate with each other; phone: (356)29066. For the time being, corres- a development information network: This pro- pondence should be addressed to: ject, which would be initiated under the auspi- Executive Secretary CODEV, c/o IFDA, 2, place ces of the United Nations Development Pro- du Marche, CH-1260 Nyon, Switzerland, phone: gramme with support from a number of go- (41-22)618282, cable: fipad geneva, telex: 28840 vernments, aims to build a network of tele- IFDA CH Communications at an Impasse: A Plea for Humanized Communication By Gail M. Martin and M. Patricia Hindley

The work of the Canadian scholar Harold A. Innis, who made a fundamental distinction between 'time-binding', and 'space-binding' communications technologies, forms the basis for this thought-provoking article. The increasing dom- ination of space-binding communications, a result of the rap- id technical development during the last decades, has had two unhealthy effects. The first is that every advance in high- speed technology has destroyed some elements of the human community and the second is that inequalities in speed of communications has led to monopolies of knowledge, serving the interests of those who control the technology. This has led to a situation where the structure of the communication systems is such that it is easier for North Americans to find out what is going on in Washington D.C. than it is tofind out what is happening six blocks from home. Thus, 'high com- munications technologies project the human consciousnesses further and further away from the local centres in which most people have to live out their lives. They "leapfrog" neigh- bourhoods, communities and towns to plunge people, rootless and impotent, into a maze of "information" about events they cannot otherwise evaluate, places they will never visit, and people they will never know.' Gail Martin and Pat Hindley are both Associate Professors of Communication at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Over the past fifteen years they have worked in rural communication projects with the in- digenous people of the B.C. coast and in Africa and the South Pacific. Specifically, they have studied rural educa- tional communications projects first-hand in Niger, the Ivory Coast, Tanzania, Australia and American Samoa. They par- ticipated in the design of the rural communication network in the Cook Islands in the South Pacific and are currently collaborating with staff of the University of Juba in the southern Sudan on a rural development education programme.

The work of Harold A. Innis deals with the Since Innis died as long ago as 1952, it is now consequences for society of following a high left to others to demonstrate how apt to to- communications technology policy-a policy day's world of satellite and computer com- which determines that any technology which munications are the principles and interpreta- can further extend human communications tions of social phenomena that he derived space will be developed and implemented. from his of history .l 106 Guil M. Martin and M. Putricia Hindley

Time-binding and space-binding modernization, Innis might well have asked: communications Why the rush?' He saw that cultures bound by an oral tradition to their own historical Innis viewed all developments in communica- roots provided their members with at least two tions technology-from smoke signals to tele- valuable assets that have proved elusive in vision-as efforts to extend the range of hu- industrialized societies: stability and commu- man communications over time andlor space. nity. Some technologies he saw as more useful in Against the oral or time-binding forms of extending the range of the human voice over communication Innis placed the mechanical time-these he called time-binding. (presumably electronic) or space-binding Like the oral tradition and cuneiform writ- communications, which he defined as all ing, time-binding communications bound a those-from paper to satellites-that enable culture to its past. man to extend his voice, and hence his con- Innis was openly biased towards the values trol, over larger and larger geographical areas. of time-binding communications and oral cul- Innes sees this extension of power or influ- tures rather than towards those of the space- ence as a dominant characteristic of Western binding culture within which he lived. He said: society and a direct outcome of the imple- mentation of a high communications techno- 'My bias is with the oral tradition, particularly as logy policy. reflected in Greek civilization, and with the neces- sity of recapturing something of its spirit. For that Centralization-decentralization purpose we should try to understand something of the importance of life or of the living tradition, The effects of the increasing domination of which is peculiar to the oral as against the mecha- space through communications technology nized tradition, and of the contributions of Greek are twofold. The first effect is self-evident: civilization. space-binding communications yield greater The results were evident in complexity, diversity, decentralization, that is, empires and nations and perfection in a wide range of cultural achieve- can spread over larger territories. Secondly, ments. The significance of the oral tradition was and almost paradoxically, they also breed shown in the position of the assembly, the rise of administrative centralization. Each increase in democracy, the drama, the dialogues of , and the speed of long-distance communication al- the including the funeral speech of Peri- cles in the of Thucydides ... The Greeks lows a person ever further away to gather in- produced the one entirely original literature of formation about the far-flung reaches of the Europe. The epic and the lyric supported the empire or state or multinational corporation. drama. Democracy brought the comedy of Aristo- When communications are slow, authority for ~hanes.~ day-to-day decisions must be delegated. When they are at the speed of light, headquarters The oral tradition, in the sense Innis defined it, can handle everything, since the staff there still predominates in large areas of the Third can often know before the man in the field World. Where the advocates of development what is taking place in his region. Western-style have rushed in to replace oral From these principles flow two corollaries cultures as rapidly and efficiently as possible that Innis regarded as particularly unhealthy with literacy and mass media, as essential to and that seem germane to the problems we Communications at an Impasse 107

face today: (a) every advance in high-speed suggests that 30-75 per cent of the prime communications technology destroys some time television programming for countries of elements of a human community, and (b) ine- the capitalist world is provided from foreign qualities in speed of communications lead to sources, predominantly British and Ameri- monopolies of knowledge. can.

Destruction of local communities Monopolies of knowledge Innis pointed out that as communications Anyone who receives information before technology promotes administrative centrali- others automatically enjoys advantages that zation and geographical decentralization, it are often measurable in financial terms. Alex- simultaneously destroys the interpersonal ander Dumas illustrated how monopolies of communication patterns that had previously knowledge work when he described how the defined smaller units in the social organiza- Count of Monte Christo sent a fake message tion. For example, the street car destroyed the along the semaphore line from Spain to France community (long before the automobile got the and the financial establishment, making use of chance). Ordinary patterns of buying and sel- its 'advance knowledge' of disaster in Spain, ling, interchange and interdependence that dumped its Spanish holdings at a severe loss. previously defined a neighbourhood were ab- The Count's revenge was complete, and the ruptly altered as the street car siphoned off establishment was chagrined, when the next shoppers, workers and gossip companions into day's newpapers reported to the world that all a distant 'downtown' core. The telephone's was well in Spain. impact, while more subtle, is similar and more Monopolies of knowledge are both the ins- pervasive. For people accustomed to the tele- trument and the outcome of political domina- phone, 'neighbours' can live across town or tion. Throughout Western history communica- halfway around the world.3 tions have been appropriated to the extension In television entertainment programming, and maintenance of political andlor religious the centralization-decentralization phenome- organizations. Innis points as an example to non can be seen to be taking place on an inter- the enduring compulsion of nations throughout national basis. 'Dialogue' within the commu- history to collect together known written nity, the region, the nation, is bypassed with- documents in libraries in their capital cities: in a broadcasting structure that is global in Ninevah, Alexandria, Rome, Paris, Berlin, scope and controlled almost entirely from one London, Moscow, Washington. centre-Hollywood, California. The structure Protection of the monopoly of knowledge and its products are oblivious to regional and exerted by the eighteenth-century press was, national distinctions in culture, language, according to Innis, the real purpose of the mores and dress. This statement is at once First Amendment to the US Constitution. As more accurate and more ominous than it ap- James Carey has summarized his position, In- pears from a casual look at the world televi- nis argued that: sion scene and we will return to a discussion In granting freedom of the press, the constitution of the data and their implications in the con- sacrificed, despite the qualifying clause, the right of cluding section of the paper. Suffice it to say people to speak to one another and to inform them- for now that analysis of the data available selves. For such rights, the constitution substituted 108 Gail M. Martin and M. Patricia Hindley

the more abstract right to be spoken to and to be programming quality is lower than the stan- informed by others, especially by specialist, profes- dard the public have been accustomed to from sional classes. He [Innes] refused to yield to the professional television, and local programming modem notion that the level of democratic process is scheduled during prime evening time when it correlates with the amount of capital invested in must compete with high-budget, adventure- communication, capital which can do our knowing laden entertainment productions from the US for us, and fervently hoped that his work would break modern monopolies of knowledge in commu- networks. nication and restore faith in the political power of The structure of the communication systems the foot and t~ngue.~ is such that it is easier for North Americans to find out what is going on in Washington, DC than it is to find out what is happening six A New World Information Order blocks from home. They spend more of their A clearer perception of this distinction be- waking hours in contact with distant events tween time-binding and space-binding cultures and occupied with the activities of fictional might be useful in conceptualizing what a New characters living in communities distant from World Information Order might look like. Will them than in talking to their own neighbours. it mean simply a more equitable sharing of the The consciousness of the average North same kind of communication system as indus- American is thus filled with news, information trialized nations have devised? The West has and fantasies that have peripheral relevance to tended to assume that any 'advance' in long- their daily lives and over which they have little distance communications technology was in- control. In effect, the communication systems deed that-an advance. Educational television are designed to give them most information networks, telephone exchanges and satellite about what they can do, least information earth stations were unquestionably to be about what they can do most about. sought after, financed and made operational as This is the bias of communication to which soon as possible. The cultural bias of the in- Harold Innis was sensitive. High communica- dustrialized nations affects basic planning de- tions technologies project the human con- cisions and shapes information. sciousnesses further and further away from The price exacted in human and community the local centres in which most people have to terms for each such advance has seldom been live out their lives. They 'leapfrog' neigh- considered, even within Western society it- bourhoods, communities and towns to plunge self. For example, people in Vancouver, Can- people, rootless and impotent, into a maze of ada, can at present receive nine television 'information' about events they cannot other- channels-five American, three Canadian, wise evaluate, places they will never visit, and and one recently established 'local origination' people they will never know. or 'community programming' channel. The Focus for a moment on the 'information' in latter services, via a coaxial cable, only the entertainment programming-Mannix, I Love 140,000 people in one section of the city. It Lucy, Dallas, or Walt Disney. Entertainment provides informational programming, mostly or drama programmes represent complex pat- of localized interest, for three hours a day, five ternings of information in which value judge- days a week. Probably less than 10 per cent of ments and behavioural norms are interwoven the residents watch it, since the technical and in a culturally determined package. Canadians Communications at an Impasse 109

are acutely aware of the idiosyncratic and par- them further. We are consequently in a posi- ticularist nature of these messages, even those tion to be sensitive to what a global electronic who live only 2,300 km. due north and share invasion can mean to the other nations of the the 'West Coast culture' of the place from world. which most of them originate. Those prog- In the fifties and early sixties, fears were rammes can 'make sense' i.e. have the same expressed that global communication systems meaning for their viewers as for their origina- would be the vehicles for 'cultural homogeni- tors, only within a radius of at most 500 km. zation', for the creeping Coca-Cola culture to of Hollywood, California. In that particular envelop the globe. Recently, however, it has region, there has been enough time and been suggested that television programming enough interaction between the film-generating alien to a community or culture may in fact industry and the community surrounding it for have the opposite effect of sensitizing people similar values, behaviours and expectations to to their differences and uniqueness. Recent shape the programming and the lifestyles of emphasis on ethnic identity and preservation perhaps a majority of the people. The same is of minority languages and cultures has been not true of the audiences viewing those pro- viewed as a reaction generated at least in part grammes in Dubuque, Iowa; , Austra- by exposure to foreign messages on the TV lia; Accra, Ghana; and Teheran, Iran. tube. This can remain but a negative step un- However, these programmes, under the in- less a people have a means of communication fluence of a high communications technology at their disposal that allows them to interact policy, can now be marketed and distributed with and learn from one another as they seek to people whose cultures provide almost no to express themselves in new ways adapted to experience against which to evaluate the bias the changing conditions around them. What of the communication. They can only assume Innis called the oral tradition must be allowed that North Americans-with all the generaliza- to persist wherever it can for as long as it is tion and abstraction that distance and unfamil- possible if communication development is to iarity facilitate-behave, think and live like be just that-development, rather than disin- that. The 'like that', of course, hides a com- tegration, aimlessness and new-colonialism. plex and nebulous communication process. People from the Third World often regard We know that the 'message' in a fictional tele- observations like this as subversive, designed vision programme or film is multilevelled and to keep the Third World nations from moving multivalent, dependent on the perceptions of into positions of equality and competition with the viewer as well as on the redundancy and the industrialized countries. But too many of richness of the data it makes available. us are genuine in our disaffection with the In Canada, we are acutely aware of the near poverty of tradition, loss of community, disaf- impossibility of using television for our own filiation and anomie, which life in industrial- cultural and national purposes, so choked is it ized nations now comprises. We have a firm with imported programmes on Canadian sta- conviction that Africans, Polynesians and In- tions as well as with directly imported signals. dians can return to the richness of their socio- Because of our proximity to the United States, cultural tradition at the same time as they we can receive US stations over the air in most move into greater participation in economic cities. Cable television services distribute development. We are also convinced, follow- 110 Gail M. Martin and M. Patricia Hindley

ing Innes, that they will not maintain their oral communications space in which I can hear heritage if they uncritically pursue a high everything you say and you everything I say, communications technology policy as their where we can talk at the same time, using route to a New International Information common language and concepts stemming Order. from common experience. In analysing the It will require vigilance, resistance and wis- characteristics of human communication in dom to protect and foster the diversity of cul- its basic mode-face-to-face conversation- tures that characterize human life in the world Thompson and his colleagues are making more today. Evolutionary biologists suggest that the precise some of the qualities that Harold Innis survival of the species has depended on varia- valued in referring to the oral culture. By this tion in lifestyles. When one way of life be- criterion modern television, and the uses to comes non-viable, another lifestyle can con- which it is put, is not a communications ad- tinue. Some, of course, maintain that all cul- vance at all. It is, in fact, destroying communi- tures must eventually be assimilated to that of cation at the level where communication and the industrialized nations if all are to share in human interchange is still possible. The third the benefits of economic development. From criterion identified is the degree to which the this point of view, global one-way television technology facilitates the discoveryI oj' concen- traffic makes sense. sus, of shared feelings and attitudes towards a Others would argue that assimilation is an subject. Again, television as we are using it oversimplified and repugnant concept, that in- fails completely. No assistance is given to any dustrialization can be adapted by a people to of us in discovering what our near or distant their way of life and not vice versa. They neighbours feel, think and value. We are all would also maintain, particularly the young of made recipients of what is thought, felt and the industrialized nations, that if the richness valued elsewhere. and diversity of human cultures are destroyed, Implementation of a New International In- Western society will have nothing left to draw formation Order, that is indeed 'new', will be from and will indeed be culturally bankrupt. possible only if its architects start by a careful Gordon Thompson and his research col- drafting of the socio-cultural goals of such a leagues at Bell Northern Research Lab in new order. In the United States, television Ottawa, Canada, have identified three criteria replaced radio as a mass-marketing device. by which to evaluate whether an advance in Centralized production for a one-way trans- communications technology is really an ad- mission system is an efficient means of reach- vance in human communications terms.s First, ing a mass of consumers. This model has the new development should make access to dominated the worldwide extension of com- stored human experience easier. We can easi- munication technologies. But mass marketing ly see how this has been the case from the is seldom the major goal identified by leaders' book to the computer. A second criterion is of Third World countries for their communi- that the value of the technology can be as- cation systems. The goals are more likely to sessed in terms of the size of the common include, for example, alleviating rural isola- information space shared by communicators tion, eradication of illiteracy, adaptation to using the system. Face-to-face conversation is modern industrialized living, and better assim- the standard to be met here-the basic human ilation of information about national goals Communications at an Impasse 11 1

and policies. Television, with its powerful relatively inexpensive two-way radios have visual impact, is often identified as the de- been found useful in achieving national goals sirable means by which to achieve the goal. of literacy, contact with rural groups, and im- Grants and loans are made available and provement in health and medical care. Not foreign technical and programming expertise much thought or experimentation seems to is provided-for a time. have gone into ways to make these radio ex- Then the nation finds itself equipped with an changes an integral part of national-and in- elaborate communication system that is diffi- ternational-communication linkages. It can- cult to maintain and prohibitively expensive to not be assumed that bigger and better com- programme. Consequently, there are hours of munication systems will contribute towards empty time that need to be filled. The cheapest better cross-cultural understanding. On the way to do this turns out to be by buying Amer- contrary, experience has demonstrated that ican programmes. The US producers have high communications technology, specifically characteristically recovered their considerable television and satellite transmission, fosters costs from one domestic showing; all expo- one-way communication patterns with the sures after that are profit, no matter how most powerful nations providing the input, small. So they can afford to sell a half-hour the others receiving the output. It is hard to programme that cost perhaps $100,000 to pro- see how much advance can be made in such a duce to a small nation for $300. The spiral structure towards the understanding of one continues. Audiences become accustomed to culture by another. In fact, little progress can the polish and professionalism that $100,000 be made by a culture towards understanding can produce. Domestically produced shows its own position in the contemporary world. operating on tight budgets cannot compete for Community and local concerns are lost sight audiences, so more foreign programmes are of, as Innis pointed out, in the face of a high imported. Domestic capability shrinks as the communications technology policy like the already limited budget is paid out abroad and one we have followed in Western society. the original goals for which the system was Whatever else a New International Informa- introduced are lost from sight. tion Order may aim to achieve, it will have to Television programming and the satellite start by emphasizing the need for each nation systems which will transmit it are high com- and each culture to maximize its capacities to munications technology. Given the present generate its own messages and programming. economic structure, they can be related only When a nation has provided its inhabitants in a token manner to minority cultures within with the means to communicate among them- North America. It is even more difficult to selves and with one another, it will be in a harness them to the purposes of other nations position to generate information messages to which are not rich. The solution for these share with its neighbours-wherever they countries, if they are to avoid becoming little may be. Some efforts, then, are directed to more than marketing targets, may be to look counteracting the considerable forces working for ways to incorporate simpler communica- towards a high communications policy and to tions technologies into their new information backing up those directed towards the rein- orders. For example, in countries where the forcement of the style and values of surround- oral tradition admired by Innis still survives, ing oral cultures. In the continuing discus- 112 Gail M. Martin and M. Patricia Hindley

sions over a New International Information Hindley, M.P. and Martin, Gail M,, 'A Radio and Order, including those over spectrum (the Visual Educational Network', Ekistics, Vol 30, WARC conference), Third World nations will No. 179, October 1970, p. 309, and Lyman, Vianne be attempting to gain control of a larger share and Martin, Gail M., 'Access by Community of world communication potential. Let us Groups' in A Resource for the Active Community, Canadian Radio-Television Commission, Ottawa, hope that they are able to devise better ways 1974, pp. 13-20. to use this than we in the West-not just for 4. Carey, James A., op.cit., p. 39. economic progress and political control but 5. Thompson, Gordon, 'Moloch or Aquarius: also for socio-cultural enhancement, the Strategies for Evaluating Future Communications maintenance of a sense of community, and Needs', in Studies in Canadian Communicatiot~s, the enrichment or preservation of all the va- ed. Gertrude Jock Robinson and Donald F. Theall, riability which constitutes the heritage of McGill Programmes in Communications, Montreal, modern nation-states and will enrich the 1975, pp. 63-66. world communication environment. References Notes Dickson, David, Alternative Technology and the 1. See Carey, James A. 'Canadian Communica- Politics of Techni(,ul Change, Fontana, London, tions Theory: Extensions and Interpretations of 1974. Harold Innis' in Studies in Canadian Communica- Guback, Thomas H., The International Film In- tion's, ed. Gertrude Jock Robinson and Donald F. dustry, Indiana University Press, London and Theall, McGill Programmes in Communications, Bloomington, 1969. Montreal 1975. This is an excellent introduction to Innis, Harold A., Empire and Communications, the work of Innis, a Canadian political economist University of Press, Toronto, 1972. (Origi- who worked at the . nal edition: Oxford University Press. 1950). 2. Innis, Harold A., Bin's oj Communication, Martin Gail M., RAVEN: 'Intermediate' Com- University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1951, pp. 9 munications Technology and Rural Isolation, in and 190. Studies in Canadian Communications, ed. Ger- 3. The authors have developed elsewhere the trude Jock Robinson and Donald F. Theall, McGill idea of neighbourhoods formed by communications Programmes in Communications, Montreal, 1975, link-ups rather than geographical proximity. See pp. 163-174. Reprints from Development Dialogue 1976:l and 2

Document

Statement by the Participants in the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold Third World Journalists' Seminar

1 The satisfaction of human needs and the structures must be seen as a precondition for creation of a habitable environment on the peace and security tomorrow. basis of self-reliance and harmony with the values and aspirations of each society are the 4 This common interest cannot be ade- main purpose of another development, which quately perceived unless communication implies a new world system through the patterns are also liberated from the market- establishment of the New International oriented sensationalism approach to news. Economic Order. Such reporting will never permit public opinion in the industrialized world to have full information about the Third World, its true 2 The New International Economic Order reality and its urgent needs. requires a new framework of world informa- tion and communications. As the 1975 Dag 5 The Third World nations must protect Hammarskjold Report on Development and themselves from the distortion of their cultures International Cooperation states, and ways of life implicit in present communi- A near monopoly of international communications cations dependence. Information is a non- -including those among Third World countries material commodity that is bought and sold -by transnationa, corporations, linked to their in a highly oligopolistic market. This must dominance of many and influence in almost all be changed. An end to such a system and Third-World-country media, is a basic element thus a widening of the capacity to inform is of the present hierarchical pattern of Centre ideological and cultural domination. a fundamental component of the New Inter- national Economic Order, permitting a valid interplay of different cultures and national 3 This situation cannot continue. True realities. political liberation is endangered and efforts for economic liberation will continue to be 6 The structural and substantive deficiencies strongly handicapped unless steps are taken to of the United Nations system in general are break the hold that news agencies reflecting particularly noticeable in its information1 interests which are not those of the Third communication sector. World have on the information sent to or originating in Third World countries. For the 7 To redress the situation, action has to be New International Economic Order to taken at different levels, including: emerge, peoples of both industrialized and National and collective self-reliant action Third World countries must be given the by Third World countries. opportunity of understanding that they share Action directed towards the true reflection of a common interest in creating international the interdependence of nations. conditions that will permit another develop- Changes in the policies and structures of the ment of societies in all parts of the world. information services of the United Changes in the present unjust international Nations system. 116 The Dag Hutn~nat.sk/'ijldThird World Journalist's Semit~ar

I The right to inform and be informed

8 The participants at the seminar endorse international relations their human dimension Point 6 of the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold Report and to promote the establishment of genuine on Development and International Coopera- cooperation between peoples on the basis of equality and recognition of their cultural, politi- tion, which reads as follows: cal, social and economic diversity. The image Citizens have a right to inform and be informed of the Other should reach each of us, stripped about the facts of development, its inherent of the prevailing ethnocentric prejudices, which conflicts and the changes it will bring about, are the characteristic feature of most of the locally and internationally. messages currently transmitted. Under present conditions, information and edu- Such an effort should be concerned both with cation are only too often monopolized by the information and with education in the broadest power structure, which manipulates public sense of the word; it should be directed towards opinion to its own ends and tends to perpetuate 'conscientization of citizens to ensure their preconceived ideas. ignorance and alienation. full participation in the decision-making A global effort should be made to give the new process.

I1 National and collective self-reliant action by Third World countries 9 On the basis of collective self-reliance, 12 National governments should take urgent Third World nations as a whole, at the regional steps to implement the programme of action and interregional levels, should take steps to agreed upon at the meeting of foreign ministers ensure that information and communication of the non-aligned countries, held at Lima, in networks are used to further and promote the August 1975, in the resolution on cooperation establishment of the New International Eco- in the field of diffusion of information and nomic Order and the objectives of another mass communication media, particularly in development. part three of that resolution:

10 To facilitate fundamental transforma- 'I\) revise cable tariffs for the press and to facilitate tions to this end, governments should take more economical and faster in~ercornmunica- action within their own countries to create, tion. foster and strengthen national structures. To cooperate in the reorganization of communi- based on self-reliance, for information and cation channels still dependent or which constitute a colonial inheritance and obstruct communication that will enable them to direct and rapid communication among non- change existing systems in this field. aligned., countries. To exchange and disseminate information on 11 National news agencies of Third World mutual national achievements through news- countries should cooperate directly with each papers. radio, television and news conimunica- other through bilateral arrangements and tion media. through multilateral exchanges already in To share experiences in connection with informa- existence or to be set up. tion media. The Dug Hat~ztrzarskjijld Third World Journalist's Semitzar 117

13 Early steps should be taken to set up a (Mexico City) to initiate a research project Third World information centre to serve Third covering the principal aspects of information World needs and to help in the dissemination and communication dependence of the Third of information on the Third World in both World and to prepare, in that connection, a industrialized and Third World countries. It set of concrete proposals in order to redress should also organize a research and develop- the present situation.* A progress report could ment effort in order to achieve the objectives be made available to interested countries in of the New International Economic Order in the context of the preparations for the meeting the field of information and communication. of heads of state of non-aligned countries in 1976. The seminar calls on governments of 14 All these actions indicate the urgent need the Third World, the Third World Forum, for a high-level investigation which should be international institutions and progressive supported by interested organizations. Spe- industrialized countries to back and support cifically, the seminar requests the Latin Ño a priority basis-this and other research American Institute for Transnational Studies efforts undertaken in this field.

I11 Action directed towards the true reflection of the interdependence of nations 15 A massive effort must be made in indus- 16 Links with institutions established in trialized countries to explain and make known the industrialized world that promote, in their the legitimate nature of the aspirations of the own public opinion, the ideas and values of Third World countries for the establishment another development for all societies should of the New International Economic Order. be created and their activities supported. Third World communications networks should Specifically, the International Centre for be prepared to create direct relationships Development Alternatives should contribute with any interested group and to supply all in creating conditions for the understanding data, information and analysis that might be of interdepence. required for their work.

IV Changes in the policies and structures of the information services of the United Nations system 17 The United Nations system's informa- understanding among societies and nations tion/communication sectors, concerning both in their rich cultural and socio-economic media and non-governmental organizations, diversity. should be transformed so as to: Promote a dialogue, beyond purely inter- Ensure that its activities are geared to the governmental action, among the peoples primary goal of promoting a better mutual of the United Nations. 118 The Dug Hatntn~;rs~/ddThird World Journalist's Seminar

Promote in particular a real awareness in the information on the research activities of industrialized countries of the realities of the many institutions and bodies of the the development process, including the system. role of the transnationals. which should be Redirect its financial and staff resources and controlled in the interests of the peoples of its productive capacity to serve the above- both industrialized and Third World na- mentioned objectives. tions. Contribute to the attainment of self-reliance 18 The Ad Hoc Committee on the Reform in Third World countries, through inter of the Structure of the United Nations system alia the promotion and systematic utiliza- should give serious attention to the informa- tion of horizontal links between Third tion/communication sectors of the secre- World countries and regions. tariats. Improve drastically the flow of concrete

V Acknowledgement 19 The participants in the seminar express directly the proceedings of the Seventh their gratitude to the Dag Hammarskjold Special Session of the United Nations General Foundation, to the United Nations Environ- Assembly. They also express the hope that ment Programme and to the Governments of the Foundation could continue its useful role the Netherlands and of Sweden for having as a clearing-house in the immediate follow-up sponsored the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold to the seminar. Report on Development and International Cooperation, and particularly to the Founda- 20 The participants appeal to all journalists, tion for having organized the seminar, which both individually and collectively, to work gave them an unique opportunity to cover towards the achievement of these ends.

C/zor//Abtroun GfrinUt~Curnero Rod Fridu Moddk ,Wi>r~,/'ynPcrerii (Alpriu) (Ft~ru) (ChilelMexic 0) (Sri Lanka) Alcino Louis Da Cm Fred tie 5ilrci Chakruvarti Raghavun F. Ruhindu (Senegal) (Sri Lanka) (India) (Tanzania) Jose Antonio Muyobre Machudo (V~~tl~~7~~ela)

(This Statement is reprinted from Develop- ment Dialogue 1976: 1, pp. 106- 109.) Moving Towards a New International Information Order

Are the Third World nations moving 'towards a more restricted press' as an emerging international campaign would have us believe? Statements of this effect have been prompted by inter alia the confer- ence in New Delhi, in July, of the ministers of information of non-aligned countries, at which agreement was reached on the constitution of a pool of the press agencies of the non-aligned countries. In fact, this is only one of the recent examples of a reaction to a process which has been noticeable for quite some time at both intergovernmental and non-governmental levels. In the early seventies some Third World countries began to express in Unesco their concern that the principle of the 'free flow of information' was being used as an ideological smokescreen to cover a one-way flow of information, that information was in fact a vehicle to bring about cultural and political dependence on the models prevailing in the centre. 'Free' information, in this sense, it was argued, was not different from other mystifying concepts, such as the 'free market' or 'free enterprise', which signify the freedom of those who are powerful to exploit those who are powerless. The movement towards a changing concept of information acquired political momentum as a result of the September 1973 Algiers Non-aligned Summit, which pointed out that 'developing countries should take concert- ed action to. . . reorganize existing communication channels which are a legacy of the colonial past and have hampered free, direct and fast commu- nication between them'. The non-aligned movement followed up this direc- tive at the Lima meeting of foreign ministers (August 1975) and at the Tunis symposium on international information (March 1976). which prepared, at the technical level, the New Delhi conference referred to above. Building on the service organized since early 1975 through Tanjug, the national press agency of Yugoslavia, the New Delhi conference decided on the constitu- tion of the press-agency pool and this decision was endorsed by the Colombo Summit. At the non-governmental level, and parallel to these intergovernmental actions, the 1975 Dag Hammarskjold Report (What No)\,:Another Devel- opment) devoted one of its ten main points to the need to improve public information: Citizens have a right to inform and be informed about the facts of development, its inherent conflicts and the changes it will bring about. locally and internationally. Under present conditions, information and education are only too often mono- polized by the power structure. which manipulates public opinion to its own ends and tends to perpetuate preconceived ideas. ignorance and alienation. A global effort should be made to give the new international relations their human dimension and to promote the establishment of genuine cooperation between 120 Moving Towards a New International Information Order

peoples on the basis of equality and recognition of their cultural, political, social and economic diversity. The image of the Other should reach each of us, stripped of the prevailing ethnocentric prejudices. which are the characteristic feature of most of the messages currently transmitted. Such an effort should be concerned both with information and with education in the broadest sense of the word; it should be directed towards 'conscientization' of citizens to ensure their full participation in the decision-making process.

The Dag Hammarskjold Third World Journalists' Seminar which met in New York during the Seventh Special Session of the UN General Assem- bly (September 1975) in turn insisted that 'for the new international econo- mic order to emerge. peoples of both industrialized and Third World countries must be given the opportunity of understanding that they share a common interest in creating international conditions that will permit another development of societies in all parts of the world' (the full text is printed in D~VHOPMFNTDIALUGUI, 1976: 1). In October, the Centre International pour Ie Developpement held in Nice a meeting of journalists on world public information and the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, at which it was agreed that reporting on Third World realities was not adequate and at which were listed a number of obstacles to a 'fuller and more balanced information'. In the context of these discussions and decisions, the Institute Latino- americano de Estudios Transnacionales (ILET), in cooperation with the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation and under the auspices of the Third World Forum, organized in Mexico City, from 24 to 28 May, a seminar on 'The Role of Information in the New International Order', whose main object- ives were to develop further the conceptual framework within which these questions should be analysed and to examine practical solutions for the improvement of existing information channels and to develop new ones in the spirit of self-reliance. The present issue of DEVELOPMENTDIALOGUE carries a number of the papers arising out of the Mexico seminar. The effects of cultural domination and dependence fostered by most of the prevailing information patterns are much more penetrating than those of purely economic domination and dependence. Many and strong vested interests, those of the transnational power structure and of the local eli- tes-in terms of power, finance and professional complacency-stand in the way. Therefore the battle will be a fierce one. It will be all the harder for those who need and want change in that the chief vehicle for alerting and mobilizing public consciousness to the realities of information subservience Mol9ing Towards a New It~ternationalInformation Order 121

-the press-is itself the tool and the principal exemplification of this subservience. The nascent campaign suggests that mystification and distor- tion of the facts and positions will be used as weapons in this 'discussion'. It is therefore important, as a preface to the research and political work which has to be pursued-and to which this issue is a contribution-to emphasize three fundamental points:

1. Just as another development, centred on the satisfaction of peoples' needs, endogenous, self-reliant and ecologically minded and based on a profound transformation of the social structures at the national level, is the only justification of the New International Order, any new International Information Order will be legitimized only in so far as it contributes to the promotion of another information, one which will fight preconceived ideas, ignorance and alienation, and facilitate the 'conscientization' of citizens to ensure their control over decision-making. Change will require major con- ceptual and practical advances in both the content and methods of inforrna- tion, since the relationship between the 'professionals' of information and the 'public' is also one of subservience.

2. The present situation in the field of information is largely a legacy of the past and of the continued oligopolistic position of four transnational news agencies. The scope for self-reliance in this field is, however, vast. In addition to the creation of the news agency pool and the implementation of a Third World feature service and other indispensable practical measures, it requires a change of mind on the part of many journalists, who do not perceive critically or are unable to resist an information model permeating cultural, political and economic behaviour. Self-reliance in the field of information implies a higher degree of political awareness on the part of those who produce news.

3. Another information requires that the principle of free flow of information be given its full, meaningful and democratic content. This means that the domination of the transnational news agencies over the media should be curbed, but this is not conterminous with governmental control over infor- mation. While it cannot be said that there is no role for governments in information, a role that is as varied as the circumstances, it should be remembered that societies are permanent, and governments-though they may be devoted to the public good-are transient. Societies and the individ- 122 Moving Towards a New Internation(11 Information Order

uals who constitute them are richer in their diversity. needs and aspirations than the states and their bureaucratic machineries-which should only be their servants. A New Information Order and another information are not designed to replace the domination of the transnationals by that of national bureaucracies, however well intentioned; they are not a move towards 'a more restricted press', but towards a freer one, which would really meet the need to inform and to be informed-one of the fundamental human needs. The Role of Information in the New International Order Seminar organized by the Institute Latinoamericano de Estudios Transnacioni~les.in cooperation with the Dag Hamn1arskj6ld Foundation under the auspices of the Third World Forum. Mexico City. 24 to 28 May 1976

The 1976 Mexico Seminar on the Role of Informatiot~in the New Internutio- nu1 Order was held at the Mexican Foreign Trade Institute and attended by (J number of leading journalists, specialised researchers, social scientists and government o./'ficials in the field of information, predominantly from the Third World (a list of participants and seminar papers is print(>d below on p~ig1~76). Tlie seminar was orgunid on the initiutiri.~of the Instituto Lutinoam- ricuno dc Estudios Transnucionales (ILET),in accordance with its mandate to conduct action-oriented research on, inter alia, the activities of the transnational corporations and on the related questions of in/ormatiott and dependence. In view of the ku role played by the transnational news ugoncirs in the relationship 0.f domination and dependence between centre and periphery countries, it was felt that their origins, nature, means of operation and influence should be closely studied. For this purpose, two basic documents we're prepared by [LET.The first was on the historical evolution of the transnational news wncies. The second, by Juan Somav'i(i, the director of ILET and also the director of the seminar, dealing with the transnational power structure and international inforinution, is published here in a form amplijied to take into consideration many of the views expressed in the seminar and also recent developments in the discussion of these issues in the Third World. In addition, an ana1y.s-is of the international information available in Latin America, on the basis o,f a sample of Latin American newspapers, was made by Fernando Reyes Matta, the coordinator of activities on information and dependence of ILET, and this is also published here. The broad agreement of views of three Third World journali.sts from Asia and Africa is reflected in a further three papers printed here. These papers include a plcafor U new international communication and informa- tion structure, free of governmental and bureaucratic controls; a proposal for a Third World Feature Service; and an expose of a centre language as a vehicle of dependence. A final paper in this section of the journal is devoted to an alternative UN information model. The seminar dealt at longt11 with the issues of information and the trunsnational po)t.er structure, in particular through thv role of the interna- tional news age/ide's, and considered the elements involved and specific measures desirable in restructuring links between the centre and the peri- phery and in establishing alternative channels of information, especially for 124 The 1976 Mexico Seminar on the Role of Information on the New International Order

the Third World. A number valuable suggestions were made for future research to be carried out by ILET and other organizations concerned with these matters. Final discussions aiming at elaborating a summary analysis and conclusions are available from the Institute Latinoamericano de Estu- dios Transnacionales, Apartado 8542.5, Mexico 20, D.F., Mexico. The seminar was officially inaugurated on behalfof the President of the Republic of Mexico, Luis Echeverria, by the Under-Secretary of the Presi- dency, Lie. Mauro Jimenez Lazcano. It concluded with a visit to the President, on which occasion he affirmed his belief that the problem of information should constitute a fundamental element in the context of the new international order, as defined by the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, expressed his full support for the seminar initiative, and also underlined the need for practical measures. The Transnational Power Structure and International Information Elements of a Third World Policy for Transnational News Agencies By Juan Somavi'a

A few transnational news agencies have a de facto near monopoly of the flow of international information, including information on and between Third World countries. Although most countries in the Third World have achieved their politi- cal independence, they are still not economically indepcn- dent and in the field of information they arc almost totally dependent on the news provided by the transnational agen- cies, which is often of a biased and distorted nature, serving predominantly the interests oj'the transnational power struc- ture. Juan Somuvia In this paper analysefi the causes of this continued dependence and outlines the elements of a Third World policy aimed at the establishment of a framework of legal and social accountability/or the a( tirities of the agen- cies. The author, who is dire( tor of the Institute Latinoame- ricmde Estudios Trc~~z~nc~c.iona/esand served as director of the Mexico Seminar, was formerly permanent represen- tafive of Chile to the Andean Group, president ofthe Com- mission of the Cartugcna Agreemoiit and L hairman oj the board oj file Andean De\ elop~neittCorporation. He 11 OA the rupporteur for the 'Group of Eminent Person\' appointed by the United Nations to study the transnatIonal( orporutions.

The context: world communications control period, with the explicit or tacit approval of by the transnational power structure the small group of countries that made up the Most Third World countries are inserted in a 'world' community at the time. This world system whose rationale has been laid arrangement has been perfected and adapted down by the industrialized countries and over the last thirty years to form a cohesive whose operation inevitably favours the latter. whole, in which the central instrument of Its origins are to be found in the various forms domination emerges clearly, namely, the of colonial domination and exploitation that transnational power structure, which acts historically characterized relations between internationally and operates internally in the centre and the periphery. Today the nearly every Third World country. system is operated according to a set of prin- The transnational power structure manifests ciples and practices that were elaborated after itself through operational forms with different the Second World War, in the global and functions which, taken together. constitute a regional organizations created during that complex apparatus whose central objective is to consolidate and expand its capacity to act those who have the income available to con- and exert influence throughout the world. As sume. thereby consolidating development its letter of introduction it invokes a combina- styles associated with the most privileged tion of values and aspirations which it is sup- sectors of society and relegating the great posed to stand for: political stability, econo- majorities of the Third World to the margin of mic efficiency, technological creativity, the the economic and social process; and in the 'logic' of the market, the virtues of consumer- name of freedom, it blocks, intervenes in and ism, the defence of freedom, and others. destabilizes the actions, policies and pro- In practice, the way in which the transna- grammes of progressive governments, by tional power structure actually behaves is weakening or supplanting them and by backing quite different from what it claims. In the name regimes based on systematic repression and of political stability, it defends the status quo the violation of human rights. and those regimes, the most conservative, To attain these objectives it disposes of an which are most active in thwarting vital struc- arsenal of diverse but converging instruments tural changes in Third World societies; in the which reflect the various dimensions of the name of efficiency, it promotes the expansion transnational power structure. of transnational enterprises, originating in the 1. The politic (il-military-intelligence 'icn-ice centre, as the 'technically' ideal solution to the dimension (North Atlantic Treaty Organi- problems of growth and economic develop- zation, South-East Asia Treaty Organiza- ment, promoting a 'homogenization' of con- tion, Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal sumption patterns that often critically disre- Assistance, links between intelligence ser- gard both basic needs and local cultural reali- vices, etc.), expressing itself in overt and ties; in the name of technological creativity. it covert threats, in attempts to promote concentrates vast resources on research and changes in its interest or prevent changes development related to the requirements of its adverse to its interest in power relations industrial-military apparatus and the interests within Third World countries, in different of its transnational enterprises, which have forms of military intervention and political little to do with the real needs of the Third penetration, and in the implementation of World; in the name of the 'logic' of the market. policies to ostracize certain progressive it advocates abdication by governments of governments internationally. their basic responsibility, that of setting the 2. The i'conomic.-indi(.~trial-tradedimension guidelines for and orienting national develop- (promotion of transnational enterprises, ment in favour of the majorities, implicitly pro- strengthening of structures and agree- moting forms of social organization that leave ments favourable to the system, such as decisions on what, how much, and for whom GATT, the IMF, the World Bank; efforts to produce in the hands of large private enter- to weaken instruments that challenge prises; in the name of the virtues of consu- aspects of the system, such as UNCTAD, merism, it directs production only towards producers' associations, measures to con- The Tramnational Power Structure and International Information 127

trol transnational enterprises, and regional ulating in toto the consumers' desire to attain organizations; encouragement of 'mimetic' forms of social organization and life styles development models: use of economic in- imitative of the industrialized capitalist coun- struments to block and weaken policies of tries, which, experience has shown, can only progressive governments). be applied in the Third World on the basis 3. It is only recently that the comminica- of high and increasing concentration of income tions-advertising-culture dimension has in the hands of a few and of untenable social begun to make itself evident as an integral inequality. At the same time, the 'information part of the transnational instrumentality. It pressure' from so many seemingly unrelated is becoming increasingly clear that the yet substantively coherent different sources transnational communications system has gradually vitiates the ability to react to the developed with the support and at the ser- message, slowly converting the individual into vice of the transnational power structure. a passive receptor without critical judgement. It is an integral part of the system which The communications process almost becomes affords the control of that key instrument for people something like 'theatre watching'. of contemporary society: information. It is The public thus becomes convinced that the the vehicle for transmitting values and life transnational consumption and development styles to Third World countries which model is historically inevitable. In this stimulate the type of consumption and the manner, the communications system fulfils its type of society necessary to the transnatio- main function: the cultural penetration of the nal system as a whole. human being, to condition him or her to accept Politically, it defends the status WO, where the political, economic and cultural values of this is in its own interest; economically, it the transnational power structure. creates the conditions for the transnational It is for these reasons that communications expansion of capital. Loss of control over the policies are an integral part of development communications structure by the transnational policies. If information is communicated in the system would mean the loss of one of its most interest and at the service of the transnational powerful weapons; this is why it is so difficult power structure, the sovereign capacity to de- to bring about change in this field. termine and implement national development The transnational communications system policy is shackled, because the international is a whole, comprising news agencies, adverti- communications structure directly conditions sing agencies and data banks, and supplying and determines individual and social reactions information retrieval services, radio and tele- within a country. vision programmes, films, radiophotos. maga- Within the complex ramifications of the zines, books, novelettes and comic papers transnational communications system, the with world-wide circulation. The various news agencies of greatest penetration in the components, originating mainly in the indus- Third World play a special role and deserve trialized countries, reinforce each other, stim- particular study. Although there is conceptual 128 Juan Sornavia

awareness of the structural dependence of the trol structures that link them to their own gov- Third World in this area, it is important to ernments. Their form of organization close- study quite closely the many expressions and ly resembles that of commercial enterprises the empirical nature of the phenomenon, in with world-wide interests to prime and defend. order to draw up counterpart policies to devel- The nature of their activities is such that they op alternative and complementary channels of have to operate outside their own country, information on the basis of national and collec- with an immense impact and influence on the tive self-reliance. very many countries in which they operate. Their operations are interlinked with other Transnational news agencies branches of the transnational production sys- tem-advertising, magazine and television- The purpose of this paper is to bring together programme production in particular-and and develop existing analysis on the activities also with transnational enterprises. For this of the large transnational news agencies with reason the conceptual framework developed major influence in the Third World, for use in for analysing and formulating policy towards drawing up the counterpart policies. The the operation of transnationals is applicable, summary of the structural characteristics of with certain changes, to news agencies. They the agencies and of their resulting conduct is are. however, one of the least-studied features intended as background material for determi- of the transnational phenomenon. ning policy . Their structure and links with the rest of the transnational system, their ownership, their Structurai charaderistic's private-enterprise rationale of seeking con- stant expansion and long-term optimization of The main agencies of importance in Third profits, together with the values that govern World countries, to which we refer, such as the present training of communicators, lead United Press International (UPI), Associated these agencies to treat information as a com- Press (AP), and Agence France- modity and to regard their main aim as that of Presse (AFP), are not in any real sense 'inter- selling their product more successfully than national' enterprises; they are transnational their competitors. The 'logic' of the market enterprises, each operating out of its head- becomes the criterion for their conduct. quarters in an industrialized capitalist coun- In order to assure their expansion and try. By definition their ownership structure is growth with absolute freedom of action totally vested in their home countries. All the throughout the world, the United States news members of the boards of directors of U PI and agencies, in particular, with the full support of AP, for example, are nationals of the United their government, postulated in the late forties States of America, as well as must of the bur- the international application of the principle of eau chiefs, at least throughout Latin America. the 'free flow' of information, for which the AFP and Reuters have ownership and con- approval of the world community was ob- The Transnational Pi)~t,erStructure adInternational Information 129

tained.' This concept has been used as the their financial capacity but in the way they conceptual cornerstone to justify the 'inde- 'handle' the basic variable, information. in pendence' of the news agencies and to enable contemporary society. It is for this purpose them to carry on their activities without natio- that they are to be found operating throughout nal or international social accountability of the world. Their role within the transnational any kind. In this way, the seal of legitimacy system may be compared to that of the head- has been placed on their right to act exclusive- lights on an automobile: to light up the road, ly in their own interest, transmitting their par- pick out the danger signals and changes in the ticular view of events according to the political route, inform those steering the system about and economic determinants of the transnatio- everything that concerns their interests, and nal system of which they form part. As a result help find a sound and stable road to follow. of the failure to question in practical and con- Like the headlights, they are small but decis- ceptual terms the manner in which the princip- ive; without their valuable information the sys- le of 'free flow' has been applied, the agencies tem loses operativeness and efficiency and are currently neither socially nor juridically runs the risk of crashing into unforeseen responsible for their acts either to the foreign obstacles. countries in which they operate or to the inter- The current situation is such that a few national community. agencies have 'dde jucto near monopoly of the In practice, the principle of 'free flow' flow of international information, including in- means that the agencies can determine what is formation on and between Third World news. They have been accorded the right to countries. This has its origin in historical con- select from among the various national and tinuities the effects of which. in other related international events what shall be transmitted areas, in international trade, development fin- for the world to know. They are thus made ancing, exploitation of raw materials, manage- into arbiters of existing reality. ment of the monetary system, and control of Because of their background and structure, technology, have been denounced internatio- the criteria they apply to news selection often nally by the Third World. However, prior to reflect neither the interests nor the social reali- the recent formal approval of a pool of news ties of many Third World countries. This is agencies of non-aligned countries, there has most strikingly evident in the reporting of not been a similar degree of conceptual aware- events in w,hich progressive governments or ness of or an in-depth political reaction to the movements are seeking to change dominant phenomenon of information dependence. structures or to question the traditional status qno. Compared with other transnational en- terprises, the transnational news agencies are small. The UP1 operational budget in 1972 As a result of this structural situation the be- was USS55 million and that for AP in 1973 was haviour of the transnational news agencies is US$78 milli~n.~Their power resides not in characterized by a variety of practices that run 130 Juan Sotnuvia

contrary to the needs and interests of Third tural differences or quarrels that have their World countries; in particular, those countries origin in the colonialist past. The dissemina- trying to carry out basic structural changes tion of concepts such as the 'fourth' and 'fifth' internally. This is equally shown in the nature world goes in the same direction. of the reporting on the activities of national The use of 'labels', adjectives and persua- groups that are struggling to change conserva- sive definitions to stigmatize targets of the sys- tive or repressive regimes. Some of the ways tem is another political method that is employ- in which this is done are described below. ed. Reference is made to the 'marxist' Presi- Criteria for selecting the news are con- dent, Salvador Allende, without any agency sciously or instinctively based on the political thinking or willing to speak of the 'capitalist' and economic interests of the transnational President Richard Nixon or Gerald Ford. system and the countries in which this system Progressive political leaders in the Third has its roots. They have become a central World are described as 'extremists' or 'rebels' mechanism of the national and international in- but conservative or reactionary politicians are struments deployed to maintain the status quu unlabelled. The international negotiators of and prevent real changes. Politically, informa- progressive countries are 'rhetorical' while tion that tends to show that the crucial ele- those of the industrialized world are 'pragma- ments of the system really 'function' is high- tic'. Semantics serve to evoke the image of lighted while that which implies criticism or what is 'normal' from the standpoint of the need for changes in the existing state of affairs 'order' the agencies represent. Anything that is played down. The best recent example of departs from this normality is treated in such a this, at the international level, has been the way that by inference it becomes obvious that way in which the actions of the OPEC coun- it must be rejected. The alleged objectivity of tries have been presented (as responsible for news presentation is belied by an arbitrary use world inflation, as wrecking the international of language. economic system, as irresponsible in the use Distortion of the news has become a regular of power conferred by the possession of oil) device of international information. Distortion with scarcely any substantive description of does not necessarily mean a false presentation the true global dimension and historic implica- of events but rather an arbitrary selection and tions of the OPEC decisions for the balance of a slanted evaluation of reality. Such distortion world forces. For anybody relying exclusively has various forms of expression: on international dispatches, OPEC actions have practically no positive elements in them 1. Overemphasizing tJvcJtztsthat have no real and much transnational reporting of this theme importance. The anecdotal, the irrelevant and has the flavour of anti-OPEC propaganda. what the centre countries consider picturesque The same is the case with information about is woven into the transmission, giving it an Third World rifts and contradictions, which unwarranted appearance of national signifi- are played up by the cultivation of minor cul- cance. The Trunsnational Power Structure and International Infortnution 13 1

2. Putting isolated facts together and present- New York, February 27, (UPl).-A meeting of a ing them as a whole without this 'whole' ever number of the main bauxite-producing countries having existed ('making' news). A sum of par- scheduled tentatively for March 5 in Conakry (Guinea) has caused understandable concern in tial truths is presented in such a way that it Washington. Some experts feel that the conference appears to constitute an overall truth. could be the first step in the establishment of a series of international cartels for controlling raw 3. Misrepresentation by 'implication', churac- materials essential to the industrialized nations ~'/lic/icould set the United States' economy buck terized by the presentation of facts in such a more than 40 years. way that the implicit concl~~sionsro he drawn from them are favourable to the interests of Cables like this create the image in industri- the transnational system. For example, the alized countries that the increasing organiz- negative aspects of events in progressive ational capacity of raw-material-producing countries are stressed and their achievements countries is a 'threat' to their own develop- are minimized, while at the same time the vir- ment. tues of the key instruments of the system, such It is inferred that it is "legitimate' for the as transnational enterprises, are subtly extol- industrialized countries to defend themselves led. and to seek by all the means at their disposal to The widespread and repeated dissemina- obstruct the organizational capacity of the tion throughout the Andean Group of the Third World. At the same time, the cable negative reaction of the 'Council of the Ameri- warns the countries meeting in Conakry that cas' (an organization of private United States Washington's concern is 'understandable' and companies with headquarters in New York) to that, consequently, if they should come to an Decision 24, establishing common regulations agreement on bauxite, it would be logical that on foreign investment in the region, resulted reprisals might be forthcoming. in the creation of the implicit image that the Andean governments had made a 'mistake', 5. Distortion al3o by s'ilcrn v. by failure to re- that the flow of foreign investment would port on s'it!i(ition'i fhcit an, no longer of interest contract 'drastically', and that nationalistic to the agcm io Y' home o~intrit'5. Viet- Nam and liberating attitudes in the economic area ceased to he news (except for sporadic artic- led to economic stagnation.3 les) after the United States v as defeated, des- pite the fact that its reunification and efforts to 4. Distortion by 'precond'itioni~of events. develop, follo~ingsuch a devastating war, are Facts having a specific dimension are present- of worldv ide significance. It cannot even be ed in such a way that unfounded fears and argued, as is sometimes the case, that this is a misgivings are created, conditioning future little-known country in which there is not action on the part of individuals, companies, much interest; on the contrary-even in pure- social groups and governments. UP1 filed the ly commercial terms-the years of struggle following dispatch on 27 February 1974: created a 'market' in an interested public. Elements for determining policy The selection and adaptation of events for the market means that information is directed The formulation of policy regarding the agen- to meet the 'demand' of such a market. We cies calls for action at various levels, need to determine what makes up that demand beginning by a critical examination of the and who decides what the market wants. The conceptual basis of their activities. answer directly links the news agencies to the dominant transnational power structure. Information is a social good not (1 commodity The first element is that a large number of International information today is a commodi- 'users' of the agency services are in the indus- ty sold on the market. The agencies deal in the trialized capitalist world, logically requiring observation and evaluation of events. In a information in accordance with the rationale of sense they 'appropriate' reality and its charac- that system. Second, there are the primary teristics, simply because only they possess the users (newspapers, magazines. television and infrastructure and technical know-how for its radio) in the Third World, most of which are publicization. Their 'marketing' modifies the connected with the local bourgeoisies which, nature and relative importance of events. in turn, are related to the transnational power which do not in fact 'happen' for the wider structure through a variety of links. The third public unless they are chosen for publication element is advertising. The communication by news outlets. The agency thus t,'i k es an structure in the centre as well as at the periph- event, whose scope and specific meaning are ery is such that the primary users of inform- given by its context and the circumstances ation depend upon it for their existence. Ad- surrounding it, and converts it into 'news', vertising, in turn, is guided by the values and which to be such requires a presentation that practices of the large transnational advertising will make it a saleable commodity. There is agencies and is subject to their direct influ- thus, in the commercial concept of news, a ence. Moreover. the advertising placed by the built-in systematic discrimination against transnational enterprises is an important per- those events that cannot be 'sold',which there- centage, often the lion's share, of the income fore, in accordance with this rationale. are obtained by primary users of information in not 'news', because the controlling market has this area. Therefore, advertising presented as no interest in them. At the same time. there is being merely a commercial requirement is, in a tendency to distortion by the projection of fact, an instrument of financial and, often, those aspects of events that make them more political control of the means of communica- marketable. In this process. the social nature tion. That there is a direct relation between the of the occurrence and its proper significance, political orientation of the communication deriving from its historical and cultural back- media and the volume of advertising they re- ground. are completely lost sight of. giving ceive is borne out by the experience of the way to an out-of-context message whose con- more progressive television channels, radio tent is determined by the 'logic' of the market. stations. newspapers or magazines, which are usually avoided as outlets by the advertis- ing agencies and transnational enterprises. Fourth, there is the fact that the primary users of international information. in most Third Providing information is a social function: it World countries, operate in the context of de- should not be a business transaction. Like all velopment policies that follow closely the con- other social functions carried out on behalf of sumption patterns of the industrialized world. and for the service of the community. its exer- As a result the contents of the 'package' cise should not be left to the exclusive judge- (news, advertising, entertainment, political ment of those involved in the activity in analysis. cultural aspects) offered by the pri- question. For the transmission of information mary users are, in one way or another, influ- confers power and every society should be enced by the consumerist pressures of the organized so that those holding power are model and the needs and opinions of the socially responsible for its use. Guidelines sectors in which the highest incomes are con- have been developed for this purpose in other centrated. human activities to define the responsibility of So the circle is closed. Information origin- those with power. Sufficient justification ates in a few agencies. all from the industrial- exists for applying similar social criteria to the ized world, is received in the Third World transnational news agencies. mainly by primary users, who are related to the Transnational news agencies are foreign transnational power structure and is. finally, organizations to the country they are operating placed on a market dominated by consumption in. Every country has the sovereign right to styles defined by the needs of only a minority establish a framework of responsibility for the of the population. In the process, information activities of 'foreign entities' operating on its as a social good. significant in terms of its territory. No foreign institution has the right roots and framework of origin. is lost and it per \v to act, work or produce in another becomes a commodity stripped of all social country; this right is granted because its pre- value. Even the capacity for 'political partici- sence is thought to be of value to the country pation' is affected because information caters and to international understanding. This holds also to a sort of 'entertainment' model by true even for foreign institutions enjoying which people are distracted. but not informed. extraterritoriality, such as embassies, because The need to understand events against the a service is rendered by them to the interna- background of their own reality is replaced by tional relations of the two countries, but whose the need to sell and to ensure that the product rights are automatically abrogated when dip- is accepted by the market. This situation for lomatic relations are broken off. With respect the most part prevents the large agencies, to the agencies, the nature of the mutual bene- those with greatest penetration in the Third fits their activity confers should be better de- World. from satisfactorily fulfilling the social fined; this should be understood in the broad function of providing information. sense of creating the conditions for secure and 134 Juan Somavia

responsible information to flow both ways, Nations. This was an attempt to establish towards and from a given country and not minimum conditions of political security. exclusively according to the views of a particu- In spite of its evident flaws, this develop- lar government. The legal framework should ment nevertheless somewhat obliged the recognize the agency's freedom of action but, European colonial powers and the United Sta- at the same time. orient the exercise of the tes to pursue the exercise of power indirectly freedom of information within a context of through economic levers rather than directly standards that will make it possible to elimi- through political and military actions, although nate or redress the sort of harmful conduct there were still many flagrant instances of that has been described. these (in Algeria, in the Dominican Republic, The right to establish a framework of re- in Egypt over the Suez Canal, and in Viet- sponsibility for the activities of the agencies. Nam, among others). Progressively this shift- on the basis of the foregoing considerations, ed the main confrontation between the centre has an even broader context; the process of and the periphery to the economic field. It has political, economic and cultural liberation in ranged from the denunciation of the GATT which by varying means and at different rates principles and the Bretton Woods agreements, of progress a large number of Third World to aqualitatively different level with the OPEC countries are currently involved. The process actions, the approval of the Charter of Econo- of decolonization which began towards the mic Rights and Duties of States, the declara- end of the Second World War has gone tion on the establishment of a New Internatio- through a number of stages, in which the spe- nal Economic Order and the creation of initial cific content of the struggle has changed as mechanisms to negotiate the new economic new areas of confrontation have emerged suc- order (such as the conference on international cessively in the fight to reduce external de- economic cooperation and UNCTAD IV). pendence and increase self-reliance. . This experience has progressively led to the At first, the struggle was a purely political conviction that it is necessary for Third World one. In Africa and Asia, it was a struggle for countries to strengthen their economic securi- territorial independence. In Latin America, ty. nationally and collectively, in order to be the objective was the establishment of legal able to exercise effectively their political sove- structures that would put a stop to the direct reignty. This battle for political and economic military interventions that have characterized security is aimed primarily at ensuring condi- the policy of the hegemonic power in the tions that will put an end to situations in which hemisphere. A political framework was Third World countries are compelled to act created for universal acceptance of the prin- according to the will of major powers. ciple of the self-determination of peoples and In this context, there is increasing evidence non-intervention into their affairs; both were that in addition to force or economic pressure, consecrated as central guidelines of interna- a supplementary instrument exists which is tional relations by the Charter of the United less contentious and more subtle, but equally effective. This is the capacity for cultural The need to challenge the current domination and transfer of consumption and application of 'free flott- of information' development styles which incorporate the peoples of the Third World, both psycholo- The need to satisfy the social criteria des- gically and practically, into the value system cribed above-information considered as a of the transnational power structure. Without social good, the responsible exercise of social apparent political or economic pressure these power by the agencies, and the efforts to gua- countries are made to act in the interest of the rantee security of information-inevitably lead transnationai system out of 'their own free to the question of establishing a framework for will' by means of cultural penetration that the responsible exercise of the activities of offers them life styles that will transform them news agencies. This will require, in turn, into 'developed peoples', liberated from the acceptance of the idea that what is needed stigma of 'underdevelopment'. In this task is an equilibrated free flow of responsible there is an alliance of interests between Third information. World internal bourgeoisies and the transna- The link between US transnational interests tional system. The complicity derives from the and the heavy pressure brought to bear in the fact that both are equally motivated in promo- post Second World War years by the United ting styles of consumerist development that States to have 'free flow' accepted as the conform to the transnational model. Minor guiding principle in world communication contradictions arise as to how the market have been clearly and precisely delineated by . should be divided but not with respect to the S~hiller.~ need for creating it. For this operation to func- The operational practices of the agencies tion efficiently it is essential to control the show that. in the main, they have placed their instruments of social communication, and this ability and professional know-how at the ser- has been accomplished. In this framework, the vice of the transnational power structure and international communications media and their this points to the need to demonstrate concep- local appendices practically become Trojan tually the limitations, implicit discriminations horses for the transnational styles of consump- and flaws in the principle of 'free flow' as it is tion. now applied. Today we find ourselves in the third phase As implemented by the transnationals, the of the struggle for liberation (which is still principle of 'free flow' is the formal consecra- clearly tied up, however, with the two pre- tion of laissez-faire in the information field. vious ones): to establish conditions for the cul- Under its cover a news agency can abuse its tural security of information. Such security is power to provide information without respon- as yet impossible because of the way trans- sibility to anybody for the excesses, omissions national news agencies apply and utilize the or distortions of which it may have been guil- principle of the free flow of information for ty. 'Free flow' gives carte-hlanche for infor- their own benefit. mation to be slanted in the form most conve- nient or of most interest for a news agency. teria on the basis of which they intend with the sole proviso that it should satisfy the to carry on their work. demand of the news-agency market. The uni- Their central ownership and control lateral vision of the agencies is legitimized as structure, and the nature of the opera- the correct one, since it is the only one that is tional policy orientation received from made known throughout the world. Socially. the main office. free flow insures the impunity of misrepresen- Their overall financial and commercial tation and the preponderance of the strong structure, giving sources of income, over the weak in the area of international in- banking connexions, links with advertis- formation. The result is patent: the monopolis- ing and transnational communications tic concentration and consolidation of four enterprises. transnational news agencies in control of the Their desire to cooperate in a positive way flow of information from. to and within the in studies undertaken by official or Third World. Acceptance of continued ex- academic organizations with respect ploitation of the principle of 'free flow' in its to the content, forms and characteristics present form would be equivalent to acknow- of their activities. ledging the free use of economic power to put 3. Recognition of the right of the agencies to a pressure on Third World countries as a legiti- critical analysis-positive or negative--of mate guiding principle in international rela- national events, linked to the establishment tions. of the right to reply similar to that already 'Free flow' in the cultural and information accepted in national legislation. spheres is the key instrument in the structure of transnational domination in the area of Final remarks communications and it cannot remain viable if it continues to be put into practice as it has The conceptual approach in this paper is been up to now. We are not advocating its focused upon the implications of the activities elimination, rather its incorporation into a con- of the transnational news agencies in the Third text in which the information role of the agen- World. It should also be pointed out that many cies is governed by certain social standards of of the medium-size and small industrialized conduct. In this context the following issues countries are in a similar situation of informa- should be given particular consideration: tion dependence regarding the large agencies l. Establishment of a framework of legal and referred to here. This means that in some re- social accountability for the information spects there is no clear-cut NorthISouth or activities of the agencies. centrelperiphery dichotomy in this field but 2. Presentation by agencies of information re- rather, on the contrary. that some areas of garding: common interest exist between the countries Their standards of professional conduct, of the Third World and a number of industri- operational practices and journalistic cri- alized countries. This is a significant political The Transnatiot1~ilPower Structure and International Information 137

pointer to innovative forms of cooperation that and strengthening collective self-reliance in would be of mutual benefit. this field among the Third World countries. The practical political application of these Actions of this nature were proposed in the ideas will not be easy and there are abundant declaration of the non-aligned countries at the pitfalls ahead. We are not advocating govern- conference of Heads of State in Algeria ment control over the agencies' news flow. We (1973). and at the meeting of ministers of for- are against the ethnocentric monopoly of news eign affairs in Lima (1975). in the recent sym- flows and the lack of social accountability of posium on information in Tunis (1976). in the news agencies for their actions. We believe New Delhi meeting of ministers of information that between these two extremes policies will (1976), and fundamental decisions were taken emerge in which it is recognized that access to at Colombo by the Heads of State of the secure and responsible information, together non-aligned countries (August 1976). with a substantive participation by the indivi- The Colombo summit represents a funda- dual receptor in the communication process, mental, political and conceptual breakthrough are an integral part of the exercise of human in the appreciation of the international com- rights. If access to information is a human munications structure. As in the past with right. then the social function of communica- other issues, the non-aligned countries have ting it must be considered a service to which brought forcefully to the international negoti- individuals and the community are entitled. ating tables a subject for too long forgotten: and the function cannot be exercised solely information dependence. according to the exclusive interests or values Decisions taken will set the political frame- of the owners of the media or journalists or work for the work of elaborating further a governments. In this context, a social function sound empirical and conceptual basis on must respond to social criteria. As with devel- which to build future proposals and policy opment strategies, diversity and pluralism will actions. Thus, Colombo will have a fundamen- characterize information models and the man- tal impact on Third World research institutes ner in which they respond to national needs. active in this area. It will serve to highlight the political importance of the issue and spur The foregoing analysis is conceived as a con- analysis in order to develop the tribution to the delineation of a conceptual conceptual tools to counter, in all its mani- framework to focus on the activity of transna- festations. present information dependence. tional news agencies. The general proposals Many concepts will have to be refined and presented-particularly the proposal to estab- elaborated further, such as: cultural sovereign- lish a structure of legal and social accountabili- ty, security of information. information as a ty for the information activity of the agen- social good not as a merchandise, new princip- cies-should be supplemented by other mea- les to govern international information flows. sures aimed at creating and perfecting comp- development of a juridical framework to orient lementary alternative information channels international information, the right to informa- tion as an exercise of basic human rights, de- Colombo has reaffirmed and stimulated the velopment of different 'information models' need for such autonomous thinking. It is also a (participation, velocity, selection, qualifica- challenge to Third World researchers. tion criteria), the role of information at the service of the transnational power structure. and refcrcJnc'es and forms and forums in which to negotiate a l, Cf. the United Nations conference on freedom new information order. of information, held from 25 March to 21 April This is a new area of interaction between 1948, in Geneva, under the auspices of Unesco. political decision-makers and research institu- 2 AI Hester, 'International News Agencies'. in Mass A tes. As was stated in the analysis and conclu- Allan Wells (ed.). Corntn~~t~ic'atioiis: World Weir, p. 208. sions to the Mexico seminar, 'a key element in Decision 24 was approved in December 1970 achieving a new international order in the field and has constituted up to now the political back- of information is the generation of autonomous bone of the Andean Group. It is at present thinking. No changes will take place without under very strong attack by conservative ele- concepts that will bring about a confrontation ments linked to the transnational power struct- ure within the Andean region. with predominant ideas and practices. Metho- Herbert Schiller. 'La Libre Circulation de dologically and intellectually innovative for- 'Information et la Domination Mondiale', Le mulations are required.' Monde Diplomatiyue, September 1975. The Information Bedazzlement of Latin America A Study of World News in the Region By Fernando Reyes Matta *

Tuesday, 25 November 1975 was the date of birth of a new independent state in Latin America, Surinam. The event went largely unnoticed in the major Latin American newspapers. This, and many other examples in the following study of a representative sample of sixteen Latin American newspa- pers during part of a week in November 1975, reveal that apart from the domination of the information market by a few transnational news agencies, those who actually make the newspapers are still the prisoners of an alien information model that bears no relationship to the development infi~rina- tion needs of the continent and indeed contributes to the persistence of dependence. Political awareness is the be- ginning of self-reliance in this field. Fernundo Reyes Malta, who has been both a journalist and an academic, is coordi- nator of activities on information and dependence at the I/zstit~/teLatinoumericano de Estudios Transnacionales.

In spite of technological advances and re- of a sample of sixteen Latin American news- search carried out in the theory of communica- papers from fourteen countries published dur- tion, Latin America continues to be dependent ing a four-day period in November 1975. The in the field of international information servi- research results are still substantially the same ces. Transnational press agencies-particular- as those obtained in studies carried out in the ly UP1 and AP-set the trends of knowledge 1960s. If some progress has been made in the for public opinion in the region. In addition, handling of international information, it has there continue to be signs of information iner- been the result of using a greater variety of tia in the presentation of events. By this we sources and of the use of articles from such mean that certain regions, countries and per- internationally influential newspapers as the sonalities assume the dominant role in genera- New York Times or the Washington Post. ting an information framework for reports on These are reproduced in either news or editor- international relations that determines which ial pages. In addition, some newspapers have information on foreign affairs shall be made significantly increased the use of their own available to the public everywhere. correspondents. These conclusions emerge from the analysis Two main approaches to the problem of in- ternational information may be said to charac- * The author is indebted to the sociologists Sra. Alicia terize this study. The first is a quantitative and Espinosa and Sna. Perla de la Parra for the statistical calculations. percentile analysis of activity by transnational press agencies and international media in amnesty decree that provoked opposition both Latin America, together with some assess- inside and outside Spain; and the left-wing ments of the importance in the region of news military revolt in Portugal which was crushed from the Third World and from industrialized between Wednesday and Thursday of the countries. The second is an evaluation of the week. information, analysing its characteristics and Both events can distort the overall analysis drawing attention to the way in which some of since the information, mainly that from Mad- the news is overemphasized while other news rid, has an exaggerated importance when is played down or simply not reported at all. compared with the usual international news The criteria utilized in this analysis are value of events in Spain. This has been taken based on a commitment to the positions of the into consideration in Table 2, in order to ob- Third World as developed over the last few tain percentages that in content and balance years. That is why the conclusions of this pa- are nearer a normal news week. per could not remain exclusively quantitative. In Latin America, the week is noteworthy The paper also attempts to present a political for the birth of a new republic on the conti- interpretation of the context in which Latin nent. Surinam. In addition, during this week. American newspapers select and present the there was the US decision not to apply to news. The actual consequences for Latin Venezuela and Ecuador the tariff preferences America of the practical application of the for Third World products. Among other ex- principle of 'free flow of information', for ex- ternal events were the international coffee ample, has meant that, whereas the region is agreement, reached in London, which affected significantly ignorant of its own realities, it is Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica and other Latin flooded by information which either is irrele- American countries, and the announcement in vant or has little bearing on its future. Similar- Washington of some relaxation in the restric- ly, there is much ignorance about what is tions on trade with Cuba. In the region a num- happening in other Third World regions, par- ber of events occurred which are reflected in ticularly about events, recorded in the indus- the media in a cursory or minor way. Among trialized world, that are of special importance them we find the ministerial contacts between to the struggle for self-reliant development in Peru and Bolivia, and between Venezuela and Third World countries. Argentina, as well as the strong attitude taken in Panama by the Torrijo government to the The character of the period chosen negotiations with the USA about the future of the Panama canal. The period studied was from 24 to 27 Novem- News of the Third World was mostly about ber 1975. Two events in Europe were the most the Angola situation, the conflict over the noteworthy news during the week: the funeral Western Sahara. the crisis in Lebanon and the of Franco and the accession to the throne and Middle East conflict. But apart from these first acts of King Juan Carlos, including the events, which were reported, events of direct The Information Bedavdement of Latin America 141

interest to the Third World were recorded in careful processing of the press material that New York, Geneva and other capitals that, comes into their offices. These are Lima's La though reported, received a low-profile treat- Prensa, whose ownership had recently been ment hardly matching their importance for the transferred from the private to the public sec- development of Latin American and Third tor, and La Critica of Panama. World countries-which will be reverted to Thus the final list of newspapers for the later. study was as follows: La Prensa and Clari'n, Buenos Aires (Argentina); El Diario, La Paz (Bolivia); 0 Estudo, S5o Paulo (Brazil); La Selecting the newspapers Nation, San Jose (Costa Rica); El National, The basis of the study was a representative Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic); El selection of South and Central American Comercio, Quito (Ecuador); El Impartial, newspapers, along the lines of previous stu- Guatemala City (Guatemala); El Tiempo, dies, and in the light of the personal experi- Tegucigalpa (Honduras); Excelsior and El ence of the author of the evolution of the Heraldo, Mexico City (Mexico); La Prensa, Latin American press in its treatment of inter- Managua (Nicaragua): La Critica, Panama national news. This meant the inclusion of City (Panama); La Prensa, Lima (Peru); El newspapers that retain a traditional attitude to Dm, Montevideo (Uruguay); El Nucional, the treatment of international information. as Caracas (Venezuela). in the straight reproduction of news cables largely derived from the transnational agencies Sources of international news that have most influence in the region. In addi- tion, newspapers are represented that have The study shows that the international infor- developed a more flexible treatment of inter- mation available to Latin American newspa- national news by using a variety of sources, pers today offers more possibilities of choice cables from different information agencies. than was the case in the 1960s. Nevertheless, material from various internationally influen- the predominance of certain news agencies, tial newspapers or, more important, by print- particularly of North American origin, is still ing the dispatches of their own correspon- very clear. dents. This is the case of newspapers like the Out of 1.308 news items, we found that 506 Excelsior in Mexico, the Brazilian 0 Estado came from UPI, 39 per cent of the internatio- (S5o Paulo), and to some extent El Nucional nal news in the study. In second place came in Caracas and Clah in Buenos Aires. AP, with 270 news items, some 21 per cent of To complement these. there are two news- the total news quantified. Thus the two agen- papers whose ideological posture could be ex- cies supplied 60 per cent of all the world pected to reveal a different approach to the news published in the sixteen Latin Ameri- treatment of international news. in their can journals during the period studied (see sources for it and in the likelihood of a more Table 1 ). Table 1 Sources of news items studied upon total international news in spite of the fact that they have made big effort>, for more Agency newspaper etc Number of items Percentage than a decade, to enter the Latin American UP1 506 market for information. A P 270 AFP 132 A new element on the Latin American in- Reuter-Latin 123 ternational news scene, compared with earlier EFE (Spain) 111 ANSA (Italy) 55 studies, is the reproduction of material from LATIN1 49 newspapers that are internationally influential. New York Times 3 1 Le Monde 12 The New York Times in particular has an im- Washington Post 7 portant role among those newspapers that are (Cuba) 4 Others 8 qualified as 'big' in Latin America. Although it Total 1,308 is true that, of the news studied, the New York 1 An agency of large Latin American newspapers Times contributed only 31 news items (2 per cent), these were concerned with important The figures show some progress since the events and were given some prominence in CIESPAL study was made in the 1960s. newspapers like Excelsior (Mexico), La Pren- which revealed a dependence on these agen- sa (Managua), 0 Estado (S50 Paulo) and El cies of nearly 80 per cent. However, there is Nacionul (Caracas). For example, the Madrid no significant shift in the preponderance of news concerning the coronation of Juan foreign criteria, as may be seen from the way Carlos and the circumstances of General in which the UP1 and AP operations analyse, Pinochet's visit from Chile, with the lack of rate and quantify the news. Next in order sympathy that the Spanish monarchy showed comes Agence France-Presse (AFP) with 132 for it, were published by the New York Times news items, 10 per cent of the total. Reu- and prominently reproduced in 0 Estado (S20 ter-Latin follows with 123 news items (9 per Paulo) and La Prensa (Managua). In the latter cent). Irrespective of the events in Spain dur- newspaper the news appeared on the first ing the period under study it is worth noting page, supported by a wire-photo and a banner that, compared with previous studies, the headline. Spanish agency EFE has gained some weight The number of agency and other news items in the total information studied. It contributes published on 24 November 1975 on the front 8 per cent of the total recorded news items, page of the newspapers studied was as fol- more than ANSA's 4 per cent and the 4 per lows: cent of LATIN. Other agencies of more independent charac- UP1 20 A P 14 ter and showing a better understanding of Reuter-Latin 4 Third World problems are the Cuban agency AFP 3 EFE 1 Prensa Latina and Inter-Press Service of ANSA 1 Rome. They have very little significant impact New York Times 1 The It~formationBeda::lement of Latin America 143

Among the variety of sources for international The difference in these two techniques can information, Le Monde (Paris) should be be appreciated by comparing, for example, the noted, with 1 per cent of the total news repro- editing of international affairs by Cldn and 0 duced, and also the Washington Post. Estado. In the latter all the material is clearly It is true, in spite of earlier qualifications, rewritten using a wide range of techniques, that there has been some progress in the giving it a particular editorial and ideological search for greater diversity in world news tone; in Clorin we find a tendency to accumu- sources. Dailies like 0 Estado (S20 Paulo), late the dispatches, using in most cases two or print a note like the following one on their three international agencies as sources. front page: 'The international news service of In contrast to this picture of new techniques 0 Estado is produced with cables from AFP, and innovations for a broader view of interna- ANSA, AP, DPA, LATIN, Reuter and tional events, we find old shortcomings of UPI.' These agency sources are complemen- dependence still persisting in the rest of ted by material from newspapers and magazi- the press. This is almost the general rule nes of international influence. Mexico City's throughout Latin America. Newspapers that Excelsior also acknowledged seven sources in come into this category are of two types: (a) a rather better balance of news agencies and those that simply reproduce news bulletins newspapers for its news. from Madrid, of from the agencies, selecting from the output of Wednesday, 26 November: 'Information from two or more teletype machines; and (b) those the New York Times,Le Mot~dv,Washington that reproduce cables sent by a single agency. Posi, AFP. AP, ANSA and Reuter-Latin.' thus depending absolutely on that agency's The analysis reveals the existence of certain viewpoint on current international situations. journalistic methods that provide a more Examples of the first type are newspapers rounded and better balanced picture of the like El Cotncrcio (Quito). El Di'a (Montevi- news, drawing on the different perspectives of deo), La Naci6n (San Jose), El Diurio (La the various news agencies at work in the re- Paz), La Prensa (Lima) and, to a large extent, gion. This seems to be the normal approach of El Ncicion(11 (Caracas). newspapers like the Excelsior and El Horczldo Newspapers of the second, even more de- from Mexico, Clarin from Buenos Aires, and pendent type include the long-standing and occasionally Lima's La Prmu and the Cara- influential conservative newspaper La Prensu cas daily, El National. There are two styles in of Buenos Aires. whose sole source of foreign this approach: (a) the world news is rewritten news is UPI. {Lu Pret~suwas the first link in by the newspaper in its own perspective, the chain of penetration of UP1 in Latin Ame- drawing on the accounts of earlier events, rica. when the latter managed to break the quotations and figures provided by a variety of monopoly cartel of European agencies in the news agencies; (b) the dispatches and news 1920s, getting its first contract in Buenos bulletins are accumulated in sequence and Aires.) Guatemala's El In;p~;rcinl and El published without being reworked. Tienzpo of Honduras are also exclusively de- 144 Fernando Reyes Mafia

pendent on UPI. This sort of information de- process under way in the country, were unable pendence is quite common in the news outlets to escape from the behavioural inertia genera- of small towns and cities in Latin America. ted by the information model imposed by the There are hundreds of examples of local agencies. newspapers that are the prime source of news The geographical bedazzlement in their area. They paint a one-sided picture of world affairs and they have a powerful influ- Years of news supply from the dominant ence on the local community, which they agencies have created a pattern in which cer- shape into an ideologically conformist mould. tain place names turn up in the news again It should also be noted that, even after changes and again. What happens in these places deter- in ownership structure, information depen- mines the importance and choice of news. dence lingers on. Lu Prvnsu. the Lima daily, In the period studied, examples are provi- illustrates this. Despite recent changes in ded by New York's financial crisis, a big fire control, as mentioned above, and working in Los Angeles and the transport strike in To- within the ideological framework developed in kyo, which receive considerable attention in Peru. it is strongly dependent on UPI, the Latin American press. Such is the inertia choosing UP1 cables for its main reports and created by the dominant information system selecting themes that reflect the character that that New York events-the launching of a bal- the transnational news agencies give to reality. loon in a demonstration organized by munici- Chile's experience during the Unidad Popu- pal employees, for example-are prominently lar period provided further confirmation of featured. This draws the Latin American rea- this. In spite of the atmosphere of change pre- der and journalist away from local news. about vailing in the country and the efforts to break his own affairs. as well as away from the major with economic dependence, the old methods trends underlying international events. were continued. It is surprising, and disap- The news classified in the study (items run- , that newspapers which gave mili- ning to 10 or more column/centimetres) made tant support to the movement led by President reference to eighty-four different geographical Allende, like Pure Chile, Clarin and Ultima locations. Eighty-three per cent of the total Hora, continued to draw most of their world news flow concerned twenty-one of these news material from the transnational agencies, places (see Table 2). UP1 in particular, without any processing or Madrid plays an important part in this week. real perspective. Both the choice of important as mentioned earlier. because of the funeral of news themes and the focus on the facts have Franco and the coronation of Juan Carlos. followed the market-inspired criteria laid Table 2 also includes the percentages of news down by the agencies that for decades have obtained by omitting Madrid, in order to ob- dominated information in the region. tain a geographically 'normal' distribution. Thejournalists and cable editors, in spite of The first twenty places account for 79 per cent their personal ideological commitment to the of the total news, in this adjustment. The Information Bedazzleinent of'Latin America 145

Table 2 Places receiving most attention in the news studied (including and excluding Madrid)

Amount of Percentage of news Number Average Place news Including Excluding of news length of item (in column/ Madrid Madrid items (in column/ centimetres) printed centimetres)

Madrid Lisbon Washington New York Beirut London Buenos Aires Moscow Paramaribo Rome Santiago, Chile UN, Geneva Detroit Jerusalem-Tel Aviv Bogota Paris Lima La Paz California Hong Kong Dallas Subtotal Others 3,958 17.5 21 TOTAL 22,831 100 100

The figures confirm the pattern of depen- their participation in the Angola conflict. Dal- dence revealed by other studies during the las was present because of one saleable news past decade. The importance of Madrid and item: it was twelve years since the assassina- Lisbon is understandable in view of the news tion there of President Kennedy. This was originating there, which was typically good accompanied by long news dispatches assess- sales material in the information market. But ing the investigation, continuing the debate the week in the USA was not any more or less about the circumstances of the assassination newsworthy than any other. Nevertheless, out and its authors, following up an affair that of the total news from eighty-four different continues to be attractive news material for places, over 20 per cent was from the USA, the Latin American press which, because of chiefly from Washington, New York, Detroit, the influence of the dominant culture/informa- California and Dallas. tion system continues to be fascinated by the The significance of Detroit resulted from Kennedys. the speech there in which the US Secretary of These main US news centres are represen- State admonished Cuba and the USSR for tative of others habitually reported, making up an information whole in which events in the those in charge of selecting what should be USA take priority, thus distorting what should published in the continent's newspapers: the be a balanced view of world affairs. Such dis- birth of the Surinam Republic on 25 Novem- tortion is not only present in the material ber 1975. coming over the teletype, but also in the total How is it that the declaration of indepen- volume that the news media supply to their dence of a country as large as Uruguay or public, with the effect that the persistent Ecuador and the world's third largest producer journalistic bombardment has had on the be- of bauxite, a neighbour of Brazil and near haviour of those in charge of selecting and neighbour of Venezuela, received so little handling the international news in Latin Ame- attention in the Latin American press? rican newspapers. Why did none of the newspapers surveyed This situation is further exemplified by the consider it important enough to send a special fact that the 779 items under study, which add correspondent to cover the news and why did up to 22,831 column/centimetres, are geogra- they all limit themselves to the news-agency phically distributed as follows: bulletins, mostly UPI. once again? Underlying such behaviour is an informa- Region reported Colurnn/centimetres of news Percentage of total Western Europe 9.264 40.5 tion model that needs to be totally changed. USA 4.634 20.2 The Surinam case exposes the continent's in- Latin America 4.479 19.6 Middle East 1,579 6.9 ability to look at itself, and its failure at self- Asia 837 3 6 interpretation. The easy option was taken, to Africa 806 3.5 Eastern Europe 701 3.0 reproduce a version of the news whose politi- UNECLA 531 2.3 cal character was obviously different from that which motivates the Third World countries. We need to recall that the news of Western On 24 November, some newspapers pub- Europe is overweighted by the events of Mad- rid and Lisbon. The table brings out clearly lished cables giving background information the weight of news originating in the USA, the on the new country. Most bore the stamp of total flow of which is even greater than that UPI, as the following figures show: Agency Column' Number Which originating in Latin America. The poor news used centi- of page metres columns standing of Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia La Prensa (Argentina) UP1 56 3 2 El Impartial (Guatemala) UP1 38 2 1 are equally eloquent. Asia is low down La Prensa Reuter- because Viet-Nam is "no longer news'. (Nicaragua) Latin 27 5 3 La Nacion (Costa Rica) UP1 27 1 25 La Prensa (~eru) UP1 24 4 15 Surinam, a glaring example El Dia (Uruguay) UP1 20 1 2 La Critica (Panama) UP1 15 3 2 During the period under study, there was one In the other newspapers studied, there was no episode which dramatically exposed the dis- information whatsoever on the new country torted character of internal information and about to be born in Latin America. Could this the lack of political awareness on the part of be explained by the fact that according to the The Information Bedaxlement of Latin America 147

dominant information practice there is little chief of police is given more importance. On interest in providing 'advance news'? Let us another page, a wire-photo from The Ha- see what the picture was on the day after the gue, showing Queen Juliana signing the dec- event. On Wednesday, 26 November, among ree of independence. The same photograph the newspapers studied, the picture, as far as appeared in some of the other newspapers. Surinam was concerned, was as follows: Excelsior (Mexico): Publishes an AP wire- Clari'n (Argentina): The Surinam news was photo on page 1. Inside is a good news given relatively moderate importance; the summary, based on Reuter, AFP and AP. same coverage as the news of cooling rela- The only newspaper to report the Third tions between Pinochet and Costa Rica. World content of Premier Henk Arron's La Prensa (Argentina): Two columns of UP1 speech. news, inside page. La Prensu (Peru): UP1 and AFP news on El Diario (Bolivia): AP news, reduced to 6 cm inside pages. although on the front page (at the bottom). El Dia (Uruguay): Two columns of UP1 mat- Given the same importance as a disaster in erial with a picture, but of relatively less Tijuana, Mexico, in which twenty houses importance than e.g. a warning cable from were destroyed by fire. Israel to Syria. 0 Emdo (Brazil): Rewritten news but with El Nacional (Venezuela): The cable sent by evident preponderance of Reuter and UPI; President Carlos Andres Perez appears as three columns on an inside page of minor home information on the first page. Page 2 importance. An item reprinted from the carries an average piece, with AP news and New York Times gives much more impor- a U PI wire-photo. tance to programmes in the USSR for deve- El Nacional (Dominican Republic), El Impar- loping its eastern territories. Similarly, news cial (Guatemala), La Pma (Nicaragua) of a New York jewel robbery is given and La Critiw (Panama): No news. greater importance, as well as the Western In these circumstances, we must ask ourselves Sahara situation. Yet Brazil is one of the how long will it take for Latin American public immediate neighbours of Surinam. opinion to realize the importance and implica- La Nacibn (Costa Rica): AP news on an inside tions of the existence of another sovereign page, over three columns. country on the continent. Worse still, maybe El Comc,rc io (Ecuador): U PI news, front those who have been informed will understand page, 45 cm. the event in the light of the views transmitted El Tiempo (Honduras): News from UP1 over by the agencies. five columns, but on page 16, an unimpor- On the one hand. in the search for conflict tant page in the newspaper. as news, the European agencies, especially El Heraldo (Mexico): AP news cable over 2 AFP, stressed a 'racial tension that clouds the columns (15 cm). Obviously a low-tone future of the new country'. On the other hand, item. News about the murder of the Oregon however, an agreement between the govern- 148 Fernando RepMatta

ment and opposition regarding a political and premier's statement that the new state would electoral programme apparently did not have adopt a Third World policy with more direct the same 'news value' as the theme of racial consequences for Latin America and the conflict on the doorstep. This confirms the Caribbean. Similarly, the following declara- persistence of colonial stereotypes in the treat- tion was not recorded: ment of the news. For UPI, the racial question was a matter of We shall not let the riches of our land serve to 'some disquiet', but it put the accent on the confer greater benefits on others and leave us poor. Our natural resources and our human energy. the country's main natural resource: bauxite. The capital we dispose of, will be used exclusively for stress was, of course, put on the interaction of the economic growth of the whole of the nation. North American interests with the Latin Ame- rican reality. The result was the following text: Paramaribo's place in the international geo- graphical list with 629 column/centimetres of SURINAM'S LCONOMY RI:L.IhS MAINLY ON [HI' LXPORI.4- news (3 per cent of the total-see Table 2) T10N OF 7 MILLION I'ONS OF BAUXI I L 4 YhAR. WHICH RI;- should be seen in this light and also in terms of PRfcShNIS ONL-l't.Nl'H OF WORLD SUPPLILS AND PROV1DI.S THF GOVhRNMhNT \\HH AN t.STlM.4'l't.D YEARLY INCOMh the content and form of its news, not merely OF US $30 MILLION IN FAXLS PAID BY AI C'OA A1.I'MINl.M the figures. Furthermore. since then Parama- COMPANY AND Ol'HLR PRODUCLRS ARRON'S GOVt.RN- ribo has not appeared much in the internatio- MRNT H4S ADOPTtD A LIBtKAL ATTlTUDt. TOWARD kOR- nal news. KIGN 1NVI STMFNTS IN SL'KINAM. MAINLY NORTH AMtRIC- This example serves to underline two ele- AN. WHlt'H TOT41 SOMt LSb30(l MILLION. Nt.Vt.RTHt.LI-SS ARRON HAS INSIS11 D I H4I' ALL NLW LN ILRPR1Sl.S MUST ments in the present analysis: (a) the prepon- OBTAIN PARIILII'AIION AGR1:LMLNTS ' derance of the interpretation given by the transnational news agencies, particularly from Again the classical stereotypes are reiterated. North America. to current events; (b) a recep- The activities of the North American compa- tive and unreflecting attitude by the media. in ny-not the work of the people of Suri- general. towards the flow of news that the nam-constitute the basis of the economy be- teletype pours out as international truth. cause they 'provide the government' with a Ignorance of the Third World large income. The government's attitude to- wards foreign investments is described as In the circumstances. it is easy to understand 'liberal'. why little or nothing is known about the vari- This use of language is now so common that ous events. occurring during the four days, it is not rejected by the reader. It is taken as that were the expression of the dominant normal. But UPI, in its main bulletin, which is themes and preoccupations of the Third the most important, did not record the new World. Thus, for example, during the four days, the * It should be noted that all q~iotationsfrom ne\ts agcn- following news was released from UN head- eies have been retranslated from Spanish. quarters in Europe: The Information Bedazzl~tn~ntof Latin America 149

GtNEVA (AFP1.-THL MAJORITY OF PHARMAGEUriCAl. technical dependence is here coupled with a PRODUCTS ON SA1.k; IN THE WORLD ARE L'SELESS OR THEY cultural dependence through which consump- IMITATE ONE ANOTHER. ACCORDING TO 4 REPORT PUB- tion is stimulated by a strong advertising sys- LISHED HERE BY THE UNIThD NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE 4ND Dh.VILOPMhNl~lUNCTAD!.THt RkPORT DRAWN tem. UP AT THl. RLQUk.ST OFTHL L'NCTADSht RI-. l *\RY-Gt Nl.R.4L. What happened to this news in Latin Ameri- WAS MADL BY DOCTOR SANJAYA LALL. OF THL OXFORD can newspapers? UNIVERSITY INSTITUTh 01' ECONOMICS AND STATISTICS Except in Mexico, the statement went prac- tically unnoticed. In Quito (Ecuador), El Co- This cable goes on to reveal that, although rnercio printed it over two columns which re- medical needs in India can be met by 116 produce part of the AFP cable. In Lima, La medicines, as many as 15,000 are on sale Prensa gave it only a modest 14-cm column, there. It went on to report that in Brazil, a printing the Prensa Latina cable in part. basic list of 116 products was made, of which In this case, the news agencies covered the only 52 were considered essential, whereas story. The act of rejection came from the 14,000 were on sale. media, from those in charge of selecting inter- The information is important. Besides AFP, national news. Possibly the story touched Prensa Latina and AP take up the data from internal interests very strongly and they pre- the document. AP presents the facts this way: ferred to ignore it. This may explain why 0 Estado (S60 Paulo) did not report it, although GENEVA l.4PI.-DhVhI.OIJING COUNTRIES SHOL'L'D COMBINL this journal does use the AFP and AP services THEIR RES0URLT.S IN ORDKR TO SIT UP A PHARMA- and the story referred directly to Brazil. In the CEUTICAL TRADh OF THEIR OWN THAT CAN ADJUSI TO THE HEALTH NEkDS-AND PURCHASING POWER-OF THE other cases, the explanation can be common- THIRD WORLD. PROPOSES A REPORT PUBLISHED BY THE place: development themes are not 'news' UNITED NATIONS LONFERENC'h ON TRADli AND DEVt.I.OP- and. therefore, they are not interesting. Be- MENT. cause of this stereotype, however, stories that are directly linked to the situation of domina- Using the same basic document, the Cuban tion and dependence of centre and periphery agency Prensa Latina transmits this: are rejected for lack of 'colour'. There were other cases of this type during GENLVA (PI.),-TRANSNATION AL MANUFAC'I LiRt RS 01- the week in question. PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS INUNDATt CAPITALIST MARKETS WITH 25.W MEDICAI. PRODUCTS OF WHICH ONLY The agency EFE transmitted on 23 Novem- ONE PER C't,NT IS REAL1.Y USEFUL. ber a cable. also from Geneva, about the nego- tiations between oil-producing and Third In different ways, the three news dispatches World countries. La Prensa (Nicaragua) pub- bring out the essential elements characterizing lished it on Monday the 24th. The text was as the market approach to health of the transna- follows: tional laboratories. This is a subject ofgrowing G1 NtVA (I H-!-THI Rt PRtSLVTADVLS Oh 48 CHIRD disquiet in the Third World; scientific and WORLD NAHONS ARL CARRYING OUT FRLITFUL NFGO 150 Fernando Rqes Malta

HATIONS WITH OIL-PRODUCING (.UL'NTRIkS AT THI: L'NIT- ting countries to define a common stand in the t.D NATIONS PALAC'k IN GhNI-VA, FIRSI. TH1.Y H \\l I *\Ill international market. Because this dimension DOWN THt FGNDAMLNTAL ThRMS OF C'OOPKRATION 'AI IH THIRD WORID COUNTRIRS WHIH DO NOT HAVh OIL RL- to the story is not understood, the news is not SOLIRCI-S. BY WHICH [HLY WILL MAK1. INTkRhST-I-'Rt.l. published: such is the effect of engrained atti- LOANS FOR THF ACQUISITION OF CRL'Dl: OIL. H) INSIIRI tudes. THEM FROM LACK 0FSUPPLIl:S IN ADDITIUN. DhVL.I.OPING The same thing happens upon the announce- COUNTRILS WILL BE HtLPhD TO INThNSIFY SHI.IR I.X- ment and signature of the general system of PLORATIONS IN SLARLH OF OIL. AND ALSO IN FHl': RI-~ FINLRY AND hULTRANSPORFAI'ION St.< TORS. tariff preferences made by the US President on 24 November. This excludes Ecuador and None of the other fifteen newspapers refers to Venezuela, countries which, naturally, obtain this event. Possibly no other agency transmit- a version of the fact through a news decision ted it-which is doubtful. Even if this were so, of the agencies, chiefly AP and UP1 in New there are six newspapers in the study which York. However, except for Excelsior, not a make considerable use of EFE for their inter- single newspaper in the study has its own national pages. Once more, we have to blame correspondent's account of the matter. traditional news criteria for this lack of infor- mation. With such criteria. the agency and Ignorance of Latin America media wire-men do not hesitate to give greater importance to the New York opening of an Examples of news dependence, like those illu- exhibition of eighty photographs by Caroline strated above, are innumerable. Latin Ameri- Kennedy than to the oil agreement. can countries, although territorial neighbours, The same news treatment is given to the communicate the news between themselves meeting of the Group of 77 at the United Na- according to decisions made by international tions, organized as part of the preparations for agencies outside the region. UNCTAD IV. Among other things, it is at The uneasiness expressed in 1972 by the this meeting of the Group of 77 that the idea is Andean Pact countries, when pointing out put forward, by Mexico, of creating a Third their concern because the greater volume of World Economic System. international information circulating in their This is news of which Latin America re- countries was processed outside the region, is mains ignorant. still felt. The news about the International Coffee This is a problem which cannot be dealt with Agreement, signed in London during the at the level of action and decision of the agen- week, finds some echo in the newspapers of cies that operate in Latin America. It has to be the coffee-producing countries. faced at a political level, with a serious attempt The news does not reach countries like to break the atomization and dependence. For Peru, Bolivia or Argentina, however, although this reason, the start that has been made the agreement is in harmony with the efforts within the framework of the Latin American made by other groups of raw-material-expor- Common Market is important, as a point of The Information Bedazzletnent of Latin America 151

departure towards setting up an information not give this sort of news the status or system that will provide the content of 'an- coverage that automatically indicates its other news', in harmony with what has been importance to those who choose the cables: called 'another development', independent of it has a 'low profile'; it doesn't figure in the the model that is imposed by the centre on the headline statements periodically transrnit- periphery. ted by teletype. 2. To those who are responsible for deciding To the examples given earlier, we may add what is to be printed, this sort of informa- some more events of the week that were disre- tion is not 'news', as they know it, or else it garded in Latin America, receiving little or no contains material that they think they had coverage in the newspapers studied: better not make known, to avoid compli- Costa Rica (San Jose). Meeting and expert cations. seminar on problems of human rights, orga- The conclusion is that there is an obvious nized by the United Nations, attended by manipulation of the international news made high-level judges, prosecutors and magistra- available throughout the continent, that serves tes from the Third World and the USA. only to perpetuate the dominant structure. Ecuador (Quito). Andean Group meeting on Professional shortcomings and distortions the protection of the artistic heritage, under persist in this area of journalism more than in the auspices of UNDP and Unesco, atten- others, in spite of the importance that interna- ded by officials and experts concerned. tional news has for political attitudes which Guatemala. Fifth conference of ministers of are necessary to the search for a more inde- labour. On the agenda, a round table entit- pendent development. This external news led: 'Transnational Enterprises and Their domination is the common experience of Latin Impact on Labour Relations and the Role of American countries. Ministries of Labour.' In all but a few newspapers there is no capa- Panama. General Torrijo's declaration, telling city for an independent interpretation of world US negotiator E. Bunker to bring a serious or regional affairs. proposal 'or don't come back'. This news Few newspapers have correspondents of figured prominently in the Panamanian their own in key capitals or send reporters to press. cover important events. Why was this news not reported in the Latin There is no capacity for relating the many American press? Wasn't it transmitted by the regional or international events. The atomiza- agencies? This is doubtful, since much of it tion of information that the agencies have was newsworthy and of more than limited instituted is not questioned. interest. There is subjection to dominant models in Two interpretations are possible: the overemphasis of events of little or no 1. The agency transmissions-especially importance to Latin America. those from the major transnationals-do In short, if we consider the extent to which the front page is dominated by agency material terns. The persistence of this stereotyped be- (see Table l), or the monopoly of photogra- haviour confirms the news agencies in their phic news material by AP and UP1 wire- belief that 'this is what the media want'. So the photos, we must conclude that the pattern vicious circle of domination perpetuates itself, of information has changed very little. condemning Latin America to ignorance of its There is a bedazzlement which conditions own affairs and cutting it off from the profound the practice of editors and wire-men. The old changes that are unfolding in the Third World. inertia makes them follow certain editorial pat- [Translatedfrom Spanish] A New World Communication and Information Structure By Chukruvurti Rughuvan

The importance and need for a new international cotnmuni- cation and information structure transcends the needs of the new international economic order, writes Chakravarti Rag- havan, the distinguished Indian journalist. The transnational neMs agencies and some of the leading orguns of public opinion of the transnatzonal power structure have misused their 'freedom of information' in the Third World to present a distorted picture of the Third World both to the industrialized countries and also to the Third World itself. The temptation will he for Third World governments to use the arguments against he abuse' of the 'free flow of information' for their own ends. But the operation of providing 'another news' as the essential prerequisite to '(in other development' will need to be completely professional and not politicized and bureau- cratized. The author is a past president o.f the United Nations Correspondents' Association in New York and the former chief editor of the , recently m~>rgr~dwith . This paper was prepared for the Mexico Seminar on the Role of Information in the Nut International Order. wich the author was i/i~ahlcto attend.

A new international economic order requires Basic to the present structure is the role of and entails a new world communication and the mass media in a modern industrialized na- information structure. The raison d'etre for tion. Unprecedented in scope and power, be- this is not argued at length here, as it has by cause of technological advances, in their main now been generally accepted, at least among function the mass media are the central chan- the Third World countries. However, there is nel through which we learn about what exists, no clear conceptualization and formulation of what is important and what is right with the what is meant by a new communication and world.' They are part of our culture, and re- information structure and what its implications flect and propagate it. And the basic culture of are. It is obviously intended that such a new today's prevailing economic order is the em- structure should represent an improvement on phasis on the individual as a distinct entity and the existing state of affairs in which the mass repository of human values. However, and media are dominated by a few transnation- paradoxically, the mass media have created a als belonging to the western industrialized false consciousness of this through a dimin- countries. ished view of human potential and worth in general, while seeming to insist on the intrinsic In addition, the survival of the present value of each separate human being. order-the consumer society and an expand- It has been pointed out that US television, ing industrial system-depends upon the cul- for example, tivation of a false consciousness of social, economic and political realities. This false- is directed at a large but well-defined audience. hood is essential if the present order is to re- and its symbolic function is the reinforcement main stable with constantly expanding produc- of the conviction that the United States is a democ- tion and consumption. Expectations must be racy (the leaders act in accordance with the wishes of the people), its economy is based on free market held at a reasonable level and demand must be competition (governed by the laws of supply and directed into appropriate channels. The sine demand), and most likely God is alive, White. Male qua non of such a system is an economically, and pro-American. The middle class is the messa- socially and politically pliable population; the ge. The reality that these truths are (with the excep- tion of the existence of God) demonstrably false is function of education and information within the reality which will not appear in the world of it is the creation and maintenance of such a television. The reality of the concentration of population. wealth and power in the hands of a white and male Complementary to the emphasis on the in- but very small elite; the reality of the vacuous irrele- dividual in the modern industrialized society is vance of the 'democratic' process in the determina- the concept of scarcity. What is scarce has a tion of the most important political issues; the control and manipulation of consumption by the higher market value, is saleable and gives imperatives of endlessly expanding production; more profits. The individual or group that is these are the realities which are not conveyed by able to control it is more successful and ulti- the Communications Media.? mately has more power. This concept applies to natural resources, goods and services, and What is true of US television is even more true even information and knowledge. of the image that is created by the flow of These concepts and modes of the industri- information from the centre to the periphery. alized society are also propagated in the peri- Within the industrialized world, North Ameri- phery, through the present international com- can society is depicted as the end objective munication and information structure. Within and the most desirable; in the periphery the the nation, and among nations too, the empha- attainment of the state of western industrial sis is on individual ability. A skill that every- society is the end objective to be achieved, one possesses would not qualify as a measure through an imitative development process, of the individual's ability. The value system of and everything in the periphery that is differ- the industrial society promotes those skills ent from that in the centre is a matter for that differentiate rather than those that unite. ridicule. This is why, nationally and internationally, This springs from the value system of that the present concept of information puts a pre- society and its yardsticks to judge merit and mium not on what unites or is common but on achievement. what deviates or is scarce. Whence the belief A NPH.World Communication uiid Information Structure 155

that men biting dogs are news but not dogs structure is fundamental to the preservation of biting men. the pluralistic cultures of the world and to sus- This is so for a monocultural nation. and tain and foster them rather than destroy and more so for the pluralistic cultures prevalent in remould them in the monoculture of the west- the Third World nations. ern (industrialized) world. The present structures of international The new international communication and communication and information, all controlled information structure must perform several by the centre, perform two jobs. First, they functions: propagate within the periphery the false con- l . The information f~;nction. Individuals and sciousness or image of the centre. The fact that groups of individuals, whatever their social those who propagate it have themselves been unit, all require in today's interdependent brought up on it and therefore believe it does world a constant flow of information, not make it any the less false. Second, they giving warning of imminent dangers and look for what is deviant in the cultures of the indications of rewarding opportunities, to Third World-for that alone is saleable-and enable them to take meaningful decisions spread it to other parts of the Third World and in their everyday life. to the centre. The basic task of the new structure is to There is also a third function that is per- provide this information, and to recognize formed; that of 'feedback' from the periphery the importance of providing specialized or to the centre. Modern power structures do not technical information in a language that is only channel a flow of information from the understandable to those who need it. centre to the periphery, they also provide for Such purveying of information must the centre a flow of information on the reac- therefore be free from the temptations and tions and changes or new situations in the opportunities of manipulation by an elite, periphery. This is a kind of 'surveillance of the whether governmental or non-govern- environment' in the Third World-monitoring mental. the various changes in conditions taking place 2. The social function. The primary emphasis that would have an impact on the power of the here has to be on the promotion of basic centre. This feedback is for the benefit of the common norms and values, to be under- governments and managements in the centre. stood and adopted. These have to be the A similar service from the centre to the peri- concepts and norms of the new internatio- phery is not, however, available. nal economic order, which has both natio- All this is conducted under the umbrella of nal and international dimensions. 'freedom of information'. This necessarily means that there are In this context, the importance and need for social responsibilities, and social norms a new international communication and infor- and codes, to be observed by those in the mation structure transcends the needs of the communication and information structure. new international economic order. The new 3. The cultural function. The new structure must help to preserve and foster traditions the emphasis (from the cradle) on western and cultures and recall the accomplish- values and norms. ments of the past, and thus enhance natio- At the same time. there would of course be a nal identity and social confidence. At the temptation, among Third World government same time it must promote innovation. leaders and elites, to use the arguments for a It must foster international understand- new structure to justify the much narrower ing by transmission of information on objective of control, for the purpose of main- other cultural forms and styles, linking the taining and exercising power for its own sake. national with the worldwide dimensions of This has to be resisted. Between a new com- the culture of man. munication and information structure-to The new international communication and in- bring about a new national and international formation structure also has other functions. egalitarian order-and control of cornmunica- such as that of encouraging governments to tions to manipulate and hold power in an elitist inform administrators and the public about order, the dividing line is thin but nevertheless policies and decisions and to provide for feed- sharp. back to ensure public participation in govern- What is needed is a definition of the broad ment itself, and of promoting the supply of social and cultural milieu and its norms, and information to management (in administration, the creation of legal, administrative, political industry, trade and elsewhere), for economic and economic instruments towards these ends. affairs. in education and so on. But within these norms, the widest freedom The first and foremost task of the new struc- must be given to the practitioners. Attempts to ture is to generate among those who function control or manipulate the media, outside these in and shape the mass media-and among norms and for extraneous purposes, whether policy-makers in general-the will to use the overtly or covertly, are ultimately self-defeat- media to these ends. ing and in the long run cause harm even to There will undoubtedly be an outcry that all those wielding power. While broad social con- this would be management or control of news. straints for social purposes are justifiable, they There will be arguments that it will take away cannot be the excuse for separating the media freedom of information-a shibboleth that was from the masses. 'In reality. whatever the ex- made part of global thinking in the immediate cuse for the attacks made upon them, the post-war era, when the dominant influence amount of freedom which the media enjoy and was that of the USA. manage to defend is a yardstick of the amount It may be pointed out to those who would of genuine democracy which the people en- raise such an outcry that even in the western joy." It is clear that without the willing parti- industriali~ed societies, with their fhiunted cipation, at every level, of the vast majority, 'frecdoms', the social mores of modern indii- no new economic order, whether nationally or stnitl uiltiir.~hiivc ;ilrc;icly brought about :I internationally, can be established. Such parti- (western.)rii;in:igcn~-nl iirul control ol'ncws by cipation is surely fundamental to the whole A New World Co~nmiinicotiot~and Information Structure 157

concept of national and collective self- converted. Moreover, the effect of the printed reliance. word is less ephemeral than are the effects of The freedom of information and right to in- radio and television. And to the illiterate and formation have to be balanced with the right to the semi-literate, the literate is something bet- communicate and the right of privacy. These ter; what is printed and can be read by the individual rights are recognized within most literate has more value and authenticity than societies, though there may be differences the audio-visual, that everyone can see, hear over where the balance should be struck. But and, we hope, understand. what is true of individuals is equally true of societies and cultures and nations. Egalitari- This need for education and reorientation for anism of the new international economic another news, true within the national scene, order is inseparable from egalitarianism natio- is equally true in the international sphere. nally. Similarly, concepts applicable within countries in the field of communication and Changes must not only be made in the value information also have validity internationally. system to bring about the presentation of such What does all this mean in practice? We Other News. but this news must also be may draw the following conclusions: available internationally.

Both within and among nations, the present The existing channels for the flow of news concepts and value systems in which the devi- across national frontiers do not serve these ant is the news have to be changed. This goes purposes. beyond merely the communication and infor- mation structure and calls for changes to be It is now generally accepted that transnational brought about through the educational system. economic enterprises have obligations not and, of course, by the mass media too. in so only to their countries of origin, but also to far as they also serve as a source of informa- host countries; they are subject to the laws of tion, knowledge and continuing education. host countries and must subserve the interests For this, high professional skills, higher of those countries. than ever before. will be needed to make this Since transnatiunals in the field of news deal 'other news' interesting and not dull, and cre- with it like any other commodity in trade, sure- dible to the public. ly the transnationals in this field. too, owe In the Third World. because of massive illi- obligations to host countries. teracy and semi-literacy, audio-visual media The freedom of information has to be bal- play a very important role. But the prefi and anced with the right to communicate and the the other printed media. too, have an impor- right of privacy. Like individuals. societies. tant role to play that should not be underrated. nations and cultures too have a right of priva- For they alone reach the middle classes and cy. While a balance should be struck. interna- the ruling elite structures, ho too have to be tionally as well as within nations. the right of freedom of information cannot overstep the impediments in the technical and technological obligations flowing from other people's right communication facilities and the present colo- to privacy or right to communicate. Host nial dependency structures. These should be governments are thus entitled to impose bind- carefully studied and remedied to facilitate ing obligations on such transnationals. flow of information between the Third World countries and even from the Third World to The non-aligned countries at their meetings in the industrialized countries of the centre. Algiers and Lima have envisaged the creation One of the characteristics of the present of a non-aligned news pool to serve the pur- situation is that, even within the industrialized pose of an alternative channel for the flow of world, a number of countries have been as news across international frontiers. However, much at the mercy of the transnationals as the such a channel should not be an imitation or Third World, and have been equally ill served. duplicate of the five major existing western agencies. The naive idea in the past that understanding will be certain to follow better communication Thus the new international channel envisaged facilities is no longer accepted or prevalent. should provide the conceptually different type But while better communication may not of news or, rather, the various national struc- necessarily lead to better understanding, there tures should provide this other news for ex- can be no understanding at all without com- change with or supply to the others and also munication. The structuring of the communi- foster and publish within their country such cation channels among Third World countries, 'other news' about other countries. The new and of the Third World with the centre, must channel can only be a vehicle for the bilateral be looked at from this viewpoint. and multilateral exchange of this news. At present, as in trade in commodities, ser- vices and goods, flow of communication from The new international channel must of course the metropolitan centre to each of the periphe- have the support, both political and financial, ry countries is cheaper and easier than inter se of the Third World countries. But if it is to be in the periphery or from the periphery to the effective, it must be freed from the govern- other industrialized countries of the centre. mental or bureaucratic controls, direct or indi- rect, that have come to characterize the inter- Cable costs, and particularly press cable costs governmental institutions and structures of the between the Third World countries, inter- and UN system. intra-regionally, need to be brought down. It must be run by professional men and Third World countries may even consider the women of competence, professional integrity introduction of some kind of mutually cheap and dedication. Only then will it be credible. cable-rate system like the former British Apart from the conceptual impediments to Commonwealth penny-rate system. the flow of 'other news', there are various However, as in the case of preferential trading systems, such concessions should be structures should become the vehicles for the available only to genuine Third World national flow of information into and out of the coun- and multinational outlets and not to developed try. Such structures should be free of govern- transnationals or their regional subsidiaries. mental and bureaucratic controls and run pro- Alternatively, such concessions should be fessionally in such a manner that they evoke available to transnationals only in so far as respect for their professional competence, in- they introduce qualitative changes in their tegrity and credibility. They should not be coverage of the news of the Third World vehicles of propaganda. countries to the Third World and of the Third World to the centre. The present informal non-aligned news pool, run by Tanjug, would have to be considerably For this purpose, regional communication enlarged and changed, both qualitatively and channels linking each of the countries of the quantitatively. region to the others have to be organized and The quality can be improved only when the nationally or regionally owned and controlled. participating national news agencies provide a They have to be better than the existing situa- meaningful contribution of 'other news' for the tion in which country A is linked with country pool, without looking upon it as merely a B in the same region only via a metropolitan vehicle to propagandize their leaders' speech- centre. In the long run the creation of these es and statements. For example, in spite of the new regional infrastructures will stimulate known handicaps, the pool could have done a their own traffic to make them economic. much better job recently of covering the news from the Third World viewpoint, whether, for Similarly, the Third World can also provide example, at the seventh special session of the direct intra-regional links for itself. No doubt United Nations or the Paris negotiations. in the long run the possibility of the Third To be effective, there must be more diffu- World or of the non-aligned group having their sion points than there are now. A regional and own communication satellite or satellites intra-regional approach would perhaps better could be envisaged and achieved, though subserve the needs. existing Intelsat agreements may prove to be The whole operation should be professiona- an obstacle. lized and not politicized or bureaucratized. However the adoption of such high-cost Perhaps an element of participatory financing, technologies has its own drawbacks. and the aid of a broad editorial advisory group drawn from various participating agencies, Apart from communication channels, national would make the project more useful and ! structures (national news agencies, etc.) must fruitful. 8 be evolved in each country where there are none existing now or where the existing ones But the area where the 'other news' can make are really controlled by transnationals. Such a real impact would be through its supply of features and news 'situationers' rather than of The operation would perhaps function more the hitherto customary type of news. It might effectively with one or two regional centres thereby also be possible to reach the industri- (acting both as clearing house and translation alized world through selected media units of centre) and also as intraregional centres. centre countries.

Notes

l. G. Gerbner. 'Communication and Social Envi- in Gvttitlg the Mess(1ge' Across, Paris. Unesco. ronment'. Scientific American, Vol. 227. No. 3. 1975. pp. 32-3. 972. pp. 153-60. 3. John A. R. Lee, Ti)~\,(i/Â¥i/,Realistic Comtt/nnk'a- 2. L. P. Gross and P. Messaris. 'The Reality of !ioti Pi)/icic.s: Recent Trods (id /(/ras fit??- Television Fiction' (paper presented at a meet- piled andAn(i/~.vc~/,Paris. Unesco. 1976. p. 13. ing of the International Communication Associ- ation. Montreal. April 1973) quoted by Gross A Third World Feature Service By Alcino Louis Da Costa

The institiitionalizatiotz of the non-iiligned news pool repre- sents a new hope, writes Alcino Louis Da Costa. However, he continues, let us beware of believing that with thi~the battle over. The need is to diversify the means of action to achieve 'another information'. The author sugg~stsone alternative, that of a Third World Feature Service, to supply regular, original material to news agencies, ~r(~tt~.vpapersand radio mid TV stations in the Third World and also in the industrialized countries. For the sake of q//ic,iency this would not he a governmental venture. Alcino Louis Da Costa, n ho was a participant at the 1975 Dag Hammr~jbldThird World Journalists' Seminar (New York) and at the Mexico seminar, is a member of the executive committee of the Union Cati~oliqueInternationale dc la Pressc and the direc- tor of the West African weekly Afrique Nouvelle, published in Dakar.

Information, as we know, is part of develop- Third World is overwhelmed with it. Yet this ment policy. By its very nature, it constitutes a quantitative wealth of information that reaches powerful instrument for education and public us conceals a qualitative poverty. A study of awareness. However, in many Third World the impact of the transnational press agencies countries, there is as yet no general awareness on the Third World information system leads of this role of information. to one conclusion: politico-cultural drugging. When imperialism is under discussion, the An imperative for liberation presents itself debate is too often restricted to the political immediately: we need to envisage another in- and economic aspects of the phenomenon, formation in seeking for alternatives. There overlooking the impact of the information sys- are those who think that this struggle is uto- tem of the centre. on which we depend. This pian. It is true. as Armand Mattelart has em- system belongs to the transnational power phasized, that the transnational enterprises structure and the consequences of this are assume a number of economic and ideolo- serious. gical functions, that there is a network of poli- Thus. converting the Third World countries tical, military and geographical interests that into consumers, this structure decides the has given birth to new alliances. news which are to be delivered to us; it Nevertheless, the Third World countries chooses what needs to be transmitted; it fixes can bring pressure to bear on the content of the priorities. In the name of the free flow of the message. They are able to exploit the information. we are inundated with news; the competition between the agencies in order to 162 Alcino Louis Do Costa

achieve some possibility of action. It is a mat- trariwise, the results achieved by Tunis Afri- ter of developing the political will to release que Presse, of Algerie Presse Service, of the process of giving content to a new concep- Prensa Latina, of Interpress Service and of tion of information. Maghreb Arabe Presse have been more strik- But the denunciation of the drugging effects ing, because these agencies have attempted. of the transnational press agencies has alerted at the technical level, to set up a framework their attention and the struggle will be harsh. from which they may all benefit. Harsh because this is a sensitive area of the In spite of everything, the circulation of in- transnational power structure and because formation among Third World countries is each time that attempts have been made to poor; interregional cooperation is lacking dy- bring about change they have struck against a namism in this area. It does not go very far. If wall. Very powerful interests are involved: yet only the governments were to make it a point we must of necessity manage to set up a new of honour to ensure the practical application of international order for information. the bilateral information agreements, the situa- This transformation can only come from the tion would rapidly evolve. Third World, which suffers most from the pre- The institutionalization of the non-aligned sent situation; moreover it would be useless to news pool represents a new hope. The fact seek a new international economic order if we that it has received approbation at a high level do not manage to elaborate and gain accept- of decision-making suggests that a certain col- ance for another information. lective consciousness is being forged. It is an In reflecting on what needs to be done, we initiative that is going to accelerate the devel- realize the importance of communal and con- opment of the concept of another informa- certed actions. Technological difficulties are tion. However, let us beware of believing that often evoked as an insurmountable barrier. with this the battle is over. The pool will not And yet, even in the Third World, there are be able to exclude the transnational agencies. examples of the mastery and utilization of ad- Many people tend to look upon imperialism in vanced technology. These are the exceptions a simplified way, but imperialism is increas- that confirm the rule of poverty. The aim ingly penetrating Third World institutions therefore remains, as Fernando Reyes Malta indirectly, through its accomplices. has put it, 'to seek the technological level that L,et us then diversify our means of action in will enable us to find at the horizontal level the trying to respond to certain elementary objec- means of developing an autonomous infor- tives, for the great misery of the Third World mation'. is that its members know so little about each There are an increasing number of examples other. To reinforce our solidarity. it is neces- of efforts being made. with varying degrees of sary to undertake a systematic campaign of success. The Union of Arab Agencies and the reciprocal information. One means of choice is Union of African News Agencies have not throiighfC~c~f~(t~~~s. been models of regularity or efficiency. Con- Unlike the pool or plans to set up regional or A 711ird World Feature Service 163

continental agencies, the establishment of a tion is organizing a high-level conference. The Third World Feature Service does not require reaction of the service could be to prepare any major investment, nor does it depend on articles on the market situation, on the point of technology. view of the producers and with analyses of What does it consist of? Quite simply, it earlier negotiations. A group of Third World would be to supply regularly to the agen- states decides to create an economic union- cies, newspapers and radio and TV stations the service would immediately prepare a back- material that was immediately utilizable. This ground feature stressing the aspects that justi- material would be, for the most part. original, fy a close cooperation. because the information transnationals are not The examples that might be cited are end- able to compete successfully in this field. less and it should not be forgotten that the The creation of a feature service presuppo- feature service would have a role to play in ses certain requirements. First, it calls for explaining the positions of the Third World in committed journalists. Those who are called the major economic and political negotiations. to collaborate in this plan would thus be the At the practical level, certain structures are militants of a new information, because they necessary. First there would be need for a will have understood the breadth of the strug- coordinating centre, directed by experienced gle and of the effort needed for a new interna- and politically mature journalists. They would tional order in every sphere. This faith in ac- have the task of planning the articles to be tion will be accompanied by a competence of written, in the light of the news as it breaks almost scientific rigour so that the service will and also of the activities that are planned in the acquire its capital of credibility. world. Translators would be employed at the Then it will be necessary to give the service centre. It would be necessary to envisage five such scope that the whole of the Third World languages: English, French, Arabic, Spanish feels concerned. The common denominator is and Portuguese. The distribution sector would objectivity. Much can be done through vigi- have the function of supplying all clients lance. according to demand. The service should not give privileged treat- Then there would be need for a network of ment to certain sectors: it should embrace all correspondents. At the beginning, it would areas of activity. Some examples may be be difficult to cover systematically all the given. Algeria will be the host for the third countries of the Third World, but priority African Games during the summer of 1978. would be given to certain capitals housing the The service ought to be able to provide features headquarters of subregional, regional or conti- on the history of the games, on the great athle- nental institutions, and also to those capitals tes that have distinguished themselves in them, that play a major political role. on the preparations made by Algeria, on the The setting up of the service would be pre- participating countries and the regulations ceded by an information campaign so that the foreseen. The International Coffee Organiza- press organs of the periphery would be aware 164 Alcitzo Louis Da Costa

that they had at their disposal the means of This enterprise is so simple that it could be publishing news about states on the periphery launched quickly enough already, on a small and that this news was coming from a source scale, in order to test the different mechanisms different from that of the transnational press involved. We have a place to take here, for, agencies. after all, the press in the Third World is devel- For the sake of efficiency, the Third World oping; the service will even help in this ex- feature service would not be governmental, pansion in providing the material that readers, from fear that it would relapse into bureaucra- listeners and TV viewers have for so long been tic lethargy or suffer from political pressures. waiting for. Better still, the organs of the indu- The idea will make its way among people of strialized countries will also be interested, be- good will who are conscious of the extent to cause their clients would like to know more which the impact of the transnational agencies about the Third World. is injurious to our self-respect and our devel- [Translatedfrom French] opment. The Language of the Oracle: English as a Vehicle of Dependence By Fred de Silva

This journal is published in English. A significant part of the international dialogue and discussion for another develop- ment is also conducted in this language, in the Third World as elsewhere. In a Third World country English is also, as Fred de Silva points out, the instrument used to maintain dominatingpo~itions.'The internal communication gap in the country i.7 lihcly to be further widened by the threat of modern satellite communications to transform the world into a single global village', he adds. It will be necessary, even if English, and other languages of the centre, are to continue to be used as an international communications bridge, to git~more seri- ous consideration to the translation into and from the langua- ges of the world's many minorities of all those linguistic expressions that are the index to the cultural inheritance and vitality of dominated peoples everywhere. The Mexico semi- nar, for which this paper was prepared, was unfortunately unable to benefit from the presence of Fred dc Silva, whose sudden death shocked all his many friends. Fred de Silva, who was a participant at the 1975 Dug Hammarskjold Third World Journalists' Seminar, was editor of the Ceylon Daily News.

'Fleet Street was the model on which Sri Lan- This movement is towards the decoloni- ka journalism came to be based in the forma- sation of information. We take pride that the tive years. It was unfortunate but it was inevi- Daily News is once again in the forefront in the table since it was from the early British owners long and ardous campaign to gain control of of the press in this country that the natio- the means to inform our own people of what is nal-minded leaders of opinion in their day had happening in the world around us, without fall- to wrest control of the newspapers against ing prey to the insidious and insistent brain- prohibitive odds. The part that this newspaper washing to which a handful of monopolistic, [the Ceylon Daily News] played in the ulti- western-based news sources daily subject us, mate liberation of the printed media from Lon- of the Third World, by virtue of their immense don's commercial apron strings will not be technological and organisational superiority. news to readers of an older generation but it is It is pertinent to remind ourselves that this worth recalling today in the context of an even information dependence is also part of the more crucial liberation movement that is now linguistic hegemony which our erstwhile rulers afoot in the Third World. established, and which unfortunately few 166 Fred de Silva

ex-colonial territories have been wholly able this page yesterday. A Reuter man himself, he or willing to eradicate. recounts the depressing experience of hawking 'The mythology of Fleet Street is one of the around an award he won for a proposal to most colourful and durable remnants of that report on development in villages in Africa hegemony. Our pathetic eagerness to invest and Asia. His mission in that so-called Mecca anything emanating from that inky incunabula of investigative journalism took him from one with the virtues of free expression, objective editorial door to another without finding a reporting and even ultimate truth is a measure single taker. The general attitude seems to of our naivety in these matters. Not even a have been: "Yes, we know it affects the lives decade and more of inspired misinformation of millions of our fellow human beings-but about what has been going on in Vietnam, it does not sell newspapers." The principal Africa, China-to name only a few of the most London Times wet blanket in the form of a exasperating examples-and even what is Deputy Editor told him bluntly: "I think you happening just across the Palk Strait in neigh- will be wasting your time." bouring India seems to have dented our faith 'If it is any consolation to defenders of the in the infallibility of Reuter and the Time Fleet Street style of development coverage, it magazine. is worth recording that attitudes were no diffe- 'In recent months the newspaper you are rent in India in Gandhiji's time. Even some reading has tried to wean its readers away readers of his journal Harijan took exception from the habit of a lifetime by presenting other to the way in which its columns were occupied views than those emanating from these famili- with the development of village industries ar sources, and giving utterance to authorita- schemes and even accused it of dullness and tive voices of the Third World or to those of monotony in presentation. The Mahatma re- equally authoritative sympathisers with the plied: "The removal of untouchability is not a aspirations of that neglected world. We be- popular cause. . . . It is a mighty social re- lieve that the cause of the developing countries form. But it cannot furnish sensations. It is a which constitute that world will best be served plodder's work. And record of the work of by helping them to understand their present plodders requires editorial gifts of a high order predicament and obtain control of their re- to make it interesting. Therefore the only way sources and eventually their own destiny. This before those who are intimately connected we have been trying hard to do, because the with the Harijan movement is to continue to trials and tribulations of development do not work with an ever increasing faith in the cause make the kind of exciting reading that Fleet and leave the result to take care of itself. Street standards have imposed on us. 'Michael Dobbs comes to much the same 'How refreshing, therefore. to come across conclusion after his tour of Fleet Street which the supporting views of a young Fleet Street "has made me more conscious of the respon- aspirant like Michael Dobbs whose indictment sibility that falls on newspapers and journalists of those self-same standards we reproduced on in creating interest. Development is thought to be dull . . . in fact it is about people and con- cies which are ill-disguised branch offices link- flict-two prime ingredients, I would have ed in a subservient and colonial relationship thought, for good journalism. Who knows? It to their dominant partner in the former imperi- might even sell a few newspapers." ' al headquarters. Reuter of London still dicta- (Cc'ylon Dt* News editorial, 16 March 1976) tes the shape, substance and stress bestowed on every item of news flowing both inwards This editorial is a good take-off point for any and outwards from Sri Lanka. Many studies discussion of the situation about information could be devoted to examining the daily distor- in Sri Lanka, and particularly the aspect of the tions of the information and comment that is larger discussion which is the subject of this supplied to our readers about events in the paper. world for over half a century. Since one of the principal aims of this semi- It is useful to recall briefly here why the nar is to promote studies and discussions that process of brain-washing has been endured will eventually extend the process of decoloni- without resistance or protest for so long. Even zation now taking place in the Third World to today, it is surprising to note how passive and the totally neglected field of information, the indifferent are our rulers to the need for de- editorial serves the dual purpose of showing colonizing information services. By rulers, I that process in actual action, as well as of mean both the political leadership (which has providing a rationale, as far as Sri Lanka is regularly changed hands between right- and concerned, for such action. left-wing parties) and the English-educated Twenty-eight years after Sri Lanka achiev- minority who inherited the infrastructure of ed political independence from Britain and power from the former British rulers, and now presumably started on a path of decoloniza- inherit it from each other. tion, our progress towards the liberation of The dominance of the English-educated information has been practically non-existent. community was due to the confidence which The rapid development of modern communi- was placed in it by the few British administra- cation media, culminating in the achievement tors, the many British entrepreneurs in the of instant global coverage via the satellite net- country's biggest export industry, tea, and the work, threatens to entrench the old monopo- British bank managers engaged in keeping a listic information agencies more firmly than lucrative plantation economy in good order. ever before in their almost unchallenged posi- Missionary schools (where even the use of the tion. A recent Unesco survey of mass media in national language in conversation was taboo) 200 countries (including Sri Lanka) revealed produced over the years no more than the that there are five giant news agencies, which clerical help needed to run the government and are no more than transnationals, dominating mercantile services, watched over of course the world's information grid. by British officials. Sri Lanka's Press Trust (in collaboration It is true that in recent years the Sinhala with Reuters) is among ninety national agen- language, which is the repository of a cultural 168 Fred dc Silva

tradition over 2000 years old and is spoken by The microscopic minority that speaks Eng- the vast majority of the people, has been en- lish swears by English-language textbooks, throned as the country's official language. especially if they are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Twenty years after the Sinhala-speaking mas- As long as it does so in the present context, it ses elected a government, which for the first drags the entire national community into the time (in 1956) rallied the progressive forces of same blind alley. Especially at the university, the country, it is equally true that the English there is still the sorry spectacle of the new language and the English-speaking class have generations of Sinhala educated youth who are in each case suffered only token losses, with- forced to learn by rote from well-thumbed out losing any ground as far as their true translations of outdated British textbooks influence is concerned. which are among the prized collections of In a country whose population now ap- every campus library. Nearly thirty years after proaches 14 millions, not even 5 per cent can the British went away and twenty years after be identified as English-educated or English- Sinhala was restored as the medium of instruc- speaking. The numbers involved are small tion, the English language therefore retains a enough for every member of this exclusive grip on the higher-education system. The end 'club' to have heard of, if not to have actually products can be expected sooner or later to met, a large cross section of these 'club' mem- want to acquire some passing skill in the Eng- bers in the country. The more senior members lish language and to seek to 'complete' their now in the public services, the professions and education by reading the newspapers and in top mercantile positions are the surviving magazines of Anglo-Saxon and United States members of the original clique which took origin. over from the departing British rulers. The new literati thus find themselves in a For the last two decades secondary educa- subservient relationship not only to their for- tion has been conducted in the national lang- mer masters but to their present masters, who uage. For a decade, university education too are able by virtue of their skill in the English has followed suit. But the domination of the language to retain every advantage. While it English language has continued as before, has remained tied to the apron strings of for- despite this change. The English-educated eign information media, the English-speaking class has retained till very recently the advan- class has also failed to communicate meaning- tage it always had in finding jobs for its youth- fully with the masses. The economic rewards ful aspirants, especially outside the state sec- which accrued to this class were so great that tor. There are simply not enough books avail- it lived a life totally alienated from the impov- able in the Sinhala language for the needs of erished peasantry. The overwhelming majority secondary education, not to speak of universi- of the big taxpayers were from this exclusive ty and professional studies, so that it is still the club and collectively wielded enormous power trick of using the English language freely that in the country, then as now. counts. The taxes have grown heavier and inflation The Language ofthe Oracle: English as a Vehicle of Dependence 169

has pushed the cost of living to levels which they are their own masters, they own the could not have been imagined a few years ago. country, and they alone have the right to It is the English-educated class which has to choose who shall run it for them. take most of the blame for the ill-conceived 'In the belief that they must choose wise- and tremendously wasteful development ly-and wisdom still being the monopoly of adventures of the post-independence era. But those who can read impressive foreign books this same class continues to be the least on law, medicine, accounts, administration, affected by the tragic present sequel of large- engineering and a hundred other abstruse sub- scale educated unemployment. the frightening jects which cannot be found in Sinhala-they backlog in housing, school equipment, trans- return the elite to power. Nobody can deny port and communication facilities and so on. that the English-educated class has indeed ac- A substantial boom in the country's earnings quired the knowledge and techniques that are from the export of rubber, tea and coconut needed to manage the affairs of a modern during the Korean war was frittered away in a country. spending spree which allowed the English- 'But what they cannot do is to communicate educated class to live it up in the style of their this expertise, relate their knowledge to our erstwhile colonial masters. The millions which backward country or tell the people precisely could have been used to develop the infra- what they are doing. It is this failure to com- structure necessary for the 'big leap' towards municate which builds tensions, doubts and national self-reliance went down the drain. If misgivings among the under-privileged. That, the language barrier had not acted as a and the huge income gap between the Top communicajion gap between the microscopic People and the rest. Only some 125,000 per- minority and the majority of the people. the sons are in the tax-paying class, and the story might have been different in some overwhelming majority of returns are made in degree. English by the English-educated elite. It is worth quoting at some length from an 'Then. there is the staggering disparity in article I wrote several years ago, in 1967, salaries. the yawning gap between 6,000 rup- when I examined the crisis in communication ees and 60. Economists will talk of wage rates which keeps our English-educated'apart from and prices, the brain drain and all that. collec- the masses: tive bargainers will retain highly paid lawyers to negotiate a settlement, labour will band it- 'It is the crisis in communications. the fact self into unions to fight for its rights, but how that English is the language of the Oracle, can such a staggering social chasm be bridged? which makes them a race apart, the master- It is the kind of social tension and dissatisfac- race. for ever destined to take the head of the tion which led to 1956 and the formation of the table, enjoy the fat of the land. By a process of so-called Pancha Maha Balavegaya, the joint mystification. they have been able to persuade front of Ceylon's under-privileged, represent- the slaves that now the White Man has gone, ing the forces of Sangha, Veda, Guru. Govi 170 Fred dc Silva

and Kamkaru (that is, the Buddhist clergy, the exposed as a conscious policy of multiplying Ayurvedics, the village teachers, the peasants enmities and divisions, of creating new classes and of course the workers). and fostering racial and other prejudices, of 'Since 1956, the impact of those forces, intensifying moral and spiritual fragmentation sometimes in unison but more often each in of the subjugated societies. its respective sector, has been pushing success- So-called tribal frictions and rivalries that ive governments, now this way, now that, in are now being spotlighted in the world's head- search of palliatives to redress the balance. lines are a legacy of this policy in Africa. In Can the balance ever be restored whilst know- its own way, Sri Lanka too is a classic examp- ledge remains the monopoly of so few, as le of this technique of national demoralization. long as English remains the language of the Here as in colonial countries elsewhere, the rulers? art of 'divide and rule' which the colonialists 'There has lately been a lot of airy talk about practised so skilfully culminated in the crea- laying the foundations of national unity: is it tion of the English-speaking elite. possible to preach sermons on brotherhood in In a memorable diatribe he penned as an the very language that the colonialists used to introduction to Frantz Fanon's The Wretched divide and subjugate the people, and which, of the Earth, Jean-Paul Sartre has described anyway, only the 5 per cent who are already the process of 'manufacture' of the native converted are able to understand? Is it possi- elite. He writes: ble to set our people free with (instead of from) the shackles of the past? They picked out promising adolescents; they bran- "Think for a moment: how can the co-opera- ded them, as with a red-hot iron, with the principles of ; they stuffed their mouths full of tion of the people be enlisted in the erstwhile high-sounding phrases, grand glutinous words that language of command and coercion? Will it not stuck to their teeth. After a short stay in the mother be indiscipline and sabotage that such stupid country they were sent home, white-washed. These tactics conjure up: a disobedient genie who walking lies had nothing to say to their brothers; will not do its master's bidding?' they only echoed. From Paris, from London. from Amsterdam we would utter the words 'Parthenon! Brotherhood!' and somewhere in Asia or Africa All that is now part of the history of the colo- lips would open " . . .thenon! . . .therhood!'. It has nies. I say history, because the colonial world the golden age. had already moved on to another phase of its evolution: the phase of 'decolonization'. It was indeed the golden age of our middle Everywhere in Africa and Asia where Euro- class, of apeing the west. It was the age of pean expansion has been halted and where- phoney accents and borrowed feathers. What ever a simulacrum of independence has been a devastatingly candid picture of our prosely- achieved, the reaction is setting in, the colo- tization. It was the age when Commercialism nizing process is being put into reverse gear. replaced Buddhism as the single biggest influ- The tactics of colonialism have been fully ence in our lives. The Language of the Oracle: English as a Vehicle of Dependence 171

In many Asian and African countries, this colonial countries. I refer to the fact that golden age of mimicry is giving place to up- non-English-educated offenders continue even heavals and violence. We pride ourselves that to this day to be tried in these countries and we are different. Perhaps we are: we make sentenced-not merely without hearing very excellent clubmen, we know how to play the much of what is being said, but worse, without game. We can be relied on to make smooth being able to understand even if they heard! transitions even in the most trying situations: a Perhaps it is time to adapt the learned Eng- little ho-ha perhaps, nothing to write home lish judge's obiter dictum with the final admo- about-but definitely no blood and only dis- nition that, above all, justice must be 'under- tant thunder. stood' to be done. 'We' in the foregoing paragraph, needless to Few persons who think and work in English say, refers to the English-educated elite. The are in a position to notice these obvious dis- rest don't matter! This is a dangerous type of crepancies. Yet nothing underscores the privi- complacency. It leads to all kinds of stupid leges attached to a knowledge of English more errors and omissions and takings for gran- ostentatiously than income differentials. An ted. It leads to double standards, impercepti- English education is looked upon as an in- ble to those who apply them, of course, but vestment, and it is certainly no less when it likely to become intolerable if applied too comes to the pay-off. blatantly. In a telling analysis of his problem which A comparison of our legal procedure with he made in Parliament in 1960 the late Philip the English system should suffice to make my Gunawardona put it this way: meaning clear. The English have a strong sense of law and order. In a recent case which The fact that new ideas and learning mostly come to came up before a Londonjudge, the defendant our country through a foreign language creates new barriers between the educated elite and the unsoph- was a deaf person. In order that his disability isticated people. The ne\+ ideas and learning do might not handicap his defence, a hearing de- not naturally seep down: they fail to become part of vice was fitted up in the court room. the heritage and consciousness of the people. and When in the course of the trial a technical they remain a monopoly of the few from which they hitch put the device out of action, the judge draw 'rent'. ordered that they adjourn to another court In Sri Lanka no less than in the African terri- where the hearing aid would function normally tories, the aftermath of colonialism has left a again, remarking that 'justice must not only be widening gap between the educated elite and seen to be done but also be heard to be done'. the common people, which is certainly at its Our admiration fur the stout common sense widest in respect of earning capacity. Brown and essential humanism of this ruling must. Sahibs, trained and ready to replace the white however, be tempered by nagging after- man when he relinquishes his self-styled thoughts about the kind of facilities which burden, do not directly inherit the commercial colonial law-givers left as their legacy in some legacy which their old masters leave behind. They are only trained to act as caretakers, Ceylon Daily News about 'the threat they middlemen and honest brokers. They do forgot' at the Non-aligned Summit Conference not initiate business, become captains of in Lusaka as follows: commerce in their turn. They are happy-and indeed consider it a 'Soon-unless the seriousness of the threat is privilege-just to draw 'rent' from their recognised and met in time-communications intellectual and technical capital, which is the satellites will be dictating the pattern of the knowledge they acquired while going through world's culture, if not its thought. This is not a college and university. They become lawyers, fanciful figure of speech or a deliberate doctors, planters, engineers, agents for this, over-exaggeration. Look what happened when that and the other foreign product, accoun- the United States first landed men on the tants and administrators of one kind or an- moon. Even the tremendous feat of compute- other. risation which brought these modern heroes In these professional fields it would be no safely back to earth cannot quite match the exaggeration to say that they collectively terrifying implications of the kind of mass share up to 80 per cent of our earned income. communications which brought every la- In their new-found self-esteem, these repre- boured step of their lunar explorations to sentatives of the national elite are all too ready hundreds of millions of earth watchers (and to be convinced that they have only to step listeners) on five continents. into the boots of the repatriated rulers to draw 'Thinking back soberly on this second the same dividends, enjoy equal privileges. Do feat-which has scarcely been paralleled in the they in fact? Or do they merely fulfil their history of human communication-one is historical function as the former Bossman's struck at once by the extraordinary impact business agent, the manager of his enterprises? that such a mass concentration of human at- The dominance of the English language tention can have for good or ill. Glued to their cannot be more complete. It must be said that, television and other receiving sets for the in the years since these words were written. duration of the Apollo 11 flight, men became the situation has not changed in essence. The part of a willingly captive audience. ruling class in Sri Lanka and for that matter 'Imagine the same resources for holding the even the masses in the country have still to world's attention-or conversely, for diverting awaken to the crisis of intra-national com- it from what is inconvenient-being used on munication and the language barrier which is the same mass scale to sell a particular politi- at the bottom of the failure to decolonize our cal idea or, for that matter. branded consumer society. Meanwhile the internal communica- goods-Coca Cola for example! And believe tion gap in the country is likely to be further me. the ubiquitous stuff is selling pretty well widened by the threat of modern satellite without it.' communications to transform the world into a single global village. In 1970, I wrote in the