Palaeontological Impact Assessment: Desktop Study

PALAEONTOLOGICAL SPECIALIST STUDY: COMBINED DESKTOP & SCOPING STUDY

Phase 1 of proposed Aeolus Solar Energy Facility on Farms Lekkerwater 183, Everts Hope 190 and Portions 4 & 5 of Waschklip 191 near Langebaan, Saldanha Bay Municipality, Western Cape

John E. Almond PhD (Cantab.) Natura Viva cc, PO Box 12410 Mill Street, Cape Town 8010, RSA [email protected]

January 2012

1. SUMMARY

The Aeolus Development Corporation (Pty) Ltd is proposing to develop a 300 MW photovoltaic solar energy generation facility on the Farm 183 Waschklip, Farm 190 Everts Hope, and Portions 4 & 5 of Farm 191 Lekkerwater and Olifantskop situated about 7km northeast of Langebaan, Saldanha Bay Municipality (West Coast District Municipality). The development area is entirely underlain by calcareous dune deposits of the Langebaan Formation (Sandveld Group) of probable Pleistocene age. These sediments are highly calcretised with an extensive limestone hard pan exposed at or near the surface throughout the area. This is locally mantled by thin, unconsolidated quartzose sands and soils.

Elsewhere along the West Coast the Langebaan Formation is known to host rich assemblages of Pleistocene mammalian fossils, including several extinct taxa of large mammals referred to the Cornelian and Florisian Mammalian Ages (e.g. short-necked giraffe, dirk-toothed cats, giant buffalo, Atlantic Elephant, Cape Zebra). The fossils are often associated with hyaena dens and / or buried palaeosurfaces. Famous sites include the Elandsfontein (Hopefield) dune field only 16km south-east of the study area as well as Swartklip along the False Bay coast. Importantly, fossil human skeletal remains such as Saldanha Man (Homo heidelbergensis) as well as early modern human trackways (“Eve’s Footprints” at Langebaan Lagoon) and Acheulian to Middle Stone Age artefacts are also recorded from these ancient dune deposits. A range of terrestrial to freshwater gastropod molluscs (snails) are found within these beds as well as microfossils (e.g. foraminiferan protozoans) and plant root traces. The overlying silica sands are of low palaeontological sensitivity.

Field assessment of the flat-lying Aeolus solar energy facility study area yielded abundant fossil shells of tiny non-marine snails embedded in surface calcretes within most exposures examined, as well as a small range of trace fossils (e.g. plant root structures). However, no vertebrate remains were seen and, given the flat nature of the terrain, the prospect of bone beds associated with fossil hyaena dens appears to be low. Pending the possible discovery of vertebrate material associated with buried palaeosurfaces, the fossil heritage here is rated as of low, local significance.

The overall impact significance of the construction phase of the proposed Aeolus solar energy facility on fossil heritage resources is consequently assessed as low (negative), especially since extensive bedrock excavations are not envisaged here. The operational and decommissioning phases of the solar energy facility will not involve significant adverse or other impacts on palaeontological heritage. The proposed development has no fatal flaws in terms of impacts on

John E. Almond (2012) 1 Natura Viva cc fossil heritage and there are no recommendations for further specialist palaeontological studies for this project. Confidence levels for this assessment are moderately high.

The ECO responsible for the development should be alerted to the possibility of important fossil remains such as vertebrate teeth and bones being found on the surface or exposed by fresh excavations during construction. Should substantial fossil remains be discovered or exposed during development, the responsible ECO should safeguard these, preferably in situ, and alert Heritage Western Cape so that appropriate mitigation measures may be considered. These measures would normally involve the recording and judicious sampling of fossil material by a professional palaeontologist at the developer’s expense. The specialist involved would require a collection permit from SAHRA, fossil material must be curated in an approved repository, and all work carried out should meet the minimum standards for palaeontological impacts developed by SAHRA. Mitigation in the form of fossil recording and collection should have a positive impact on our appreciation of local fossil heritage.

These recommendations should be incorporated into the EMP for the development.

2. INTRODUCTION & BRIEF

The Aeolus Development Corporation (Pty) Ltd is proposing to develop a photovoltaic solar energy generation facility on the Farm 183 Waschklip, Farm 190 Everts Hope, and Portions 4 & 5 of Farm 191 Lekkerwater and Olifantskop that are situated to the west of the R27 trunk road and about 7km northeast of Langebaan, Saldanha Bay Municipality (West Coast District Municipality) (Figs. 1, 2). The land parcels involved are currently zoned for agricultural use and total 3792 hectares in area, of which some 50% only would be occupied by the currently intended phase of the proposed solar energy project. The facility was planned to have a final generation capacity of 70 MW, built up in 20 MW blocks over five years. Due to Eskom Refit requirements the project in the final EIA phase will be downsized to two 75MW installations on adjacent titles abutting the Eskom incoming major power line.

Key components of the solar energy facility include:

 Arrays of photovoltaic panels with a maximum height of 2m. Excavations for the steel frame panel supports will be 80cm or less deep;  Two service buildings (administration / security / warehouse) of maximum 1.5 storey height;  Service tracks;  Electrical infrastructure, including open electrical substations in the NW corner of the development.

The footprint of the proposed development is underlain by potentially fossiliferous Late Caenozoic sediments of the Sandveld Group that may be disturbed, destroyed or sealed-in during the construction phase of solar energy facility. In accordance with the requirements of the National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 the present combined desktop and field-based palaeontological assessment was therefore commissioned on behalf of the Aeolus Development Corporation by Cape Lowlands Environmental Services, Darling, as part of a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment for the project. The various categories of heritage resources recognised as part of the National Estate in Section 3 of the Heritage Resources Act include, among others:

 geological sites of scientific or cultural importance  palaeontological sites  palaeontological objects and material, meteorites and rare geological specimens

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Fig. 1. Extract from 1: 250 000 topographical map 3318 Cape Town (courtesy of the Chief Directorate: National Geo-spatial Information, Mowbray) showing the approximate location of the first phase of the proposed Aeolus Solar Energy Facility c. 7 km northeast of Langebaan, West Coast Regional Municipality (blue polygon). The red ellipse indicates the important vertebrate fossil locality at Elandsfontein (Hopefield), some 15.5km SE of the study area. The two black triangles identify key stratotype sections through the Langebaan Formation at the lower Prospect Hill Quarry near Saldanha (top left) and Kraalbaai on the western shore of Langebaan Lagoon (centre left).

John E. Almond (2012) 3 Natura Viva cc c. 2.5 km

Fig. 2. Google Earth© satellite image of the West Coast area immediately northeast of Langebaan showing the approximate location of the Phase 1 Aeolus Solar Energy Facility study area in flat terrain west of the R27 tar road (yellow polygon).

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Fig. 3. Provisional layout of solar panels for the Aeolus Solar Energy Facility near Langebaan as reflected in the Scoping Report. The EIA Phase of the project will confirm development intent of only the two easternmost sets of blocks on the farms Waschklip and Evertshope.

John E. Almond (2012) 5 Natura Viva cc 2.1. Approach used for this specialist palaeontological study

This palaeontological report provides an assessment of the observed or inferred palaeontological heritage within the study area, with recommendations for specialist palaeontological mitigation where this is considered necessary. The report is based on (1) a review of the relevant scientific literature, including recent palaeontological assessments for development projects in the Saldanha area (e.g. Pether 2011); (2) published geological maps and accompanying sheet explanations, (3) a two-day palaeontological field assessment carried out over the period 22 to 24 December 2011. Because the level of rock exposure within the flat-lying study area itself was generally poor, far better exposed stratotype sections of the main rock unit involved (Langebaan Formation) along the western shore of the Langebaan Lagoon as well as in quarries near Saldanha were also inspected for fossil remains typically associated with this rock unit (Fig. 1).

Please note that only the intended footprint areas on the farms Waschklip and Evertshope for the proposed solar energy facility were assessed in the field for the present study. However, given the very similar geology underlying the entire development area, the general conclusions and recommendations given in this report are likely to be equally applicable to the project as a whole.

In preparing a palaeontological desktop study the potentially fossiliferous rock units (groups, formations etc) represented within the study area are determined from geological maps. The known fossil heritage within each rock unit is inventoried from the published scientific literature, previous palaeontological impact studies in the same region, and the author’s field experience (Consultation with professional colleagues as well as examination of institutional fossil collections may play a role here, or later following scoping during the compilation of the final report). This data is then used to assess the palaeontological sensitivity of each rock unit to development (Provisional tabulations of palaeontological sensitivity of all formations in the Western, Eastern and Northern Cape have already been compiled by J. Almond and colleagues; e.g. Almond & Pether 2008). The likely impact of the proposed development on local fossil heritage is then determined on the basis of (1) the palaeontological sensitivity of the rock units concerned and (2) the nature and scale of the development itself, most notably the extent of fresh bedrock excavation envisaged. When rock units of moderate to high palaeontological sensitivity are present within the development footprint, a field-based assessment by a professional palaeontologist is usually warranted.

The focus of the field-based assessment work is not simply to survey the development footprint or even the development area as a whole (e.g. farms or other parcels of land concerned in the development). Rather, the palaeontologist seeks to assess or predict the diversity, density and distribution of fossils within and beneath the study area, as well as their heritage or scientific interest. This is primarily achieved through a careful field examination of one or more representative exposures of all the sedimentary rock units present (N.B. Metamorphic and igneous rocks rarely contain fossils). The best rock exposures are generally those that are easily accessible, extensive, and fresh (i.e. unweathered) and include a large fraction of the stratigraphic unit concerned (e.g. formation). These exposures may be natural or artificial and include, for example, rocky outcrops in stream or river banks, cliffs, quarries, dams, dongas, open building excavations or road and railway cuttings. Uncemented superficial deposits, such as alluvium, scree or wind-blown sands, may occasionally contain fossils and should also be included in the scoping study where they are well-represented in the study area. It is normal practice for impact palaeontologists to collect representative, well-localized (e.g. GPS and stratigraphic data) samples of fossil material during scoping studies. All fossil material collected must be properly curated within an approved repository (usually a museum or university collection).

Note that while fossil localities recorded during fieldwork within the study area itself are obviously highly relevant, most fossil heritage here is embedded within rocks beneath the land surface or obscured by surface deposits (soil, alluvium etc) and by vegetation cover. In many cases where levels of fresh (i.e. unweathered) bedrock exposure are low, the hidden fossil resources have to be inferred from palaeontological observations made from better exposures of the same formations elsewhere in the region but outside the immediate study area. Therefore a palaeontologist might

John E. Almond (2012) 6 Natura Viva cc reasonably spend far more time examining road cuts and borrow pits close to, but outside, the study area than within the study area itself. Field data from localities even further afield (e.g. an adjacent province) may also be adduced to build up a realistic picture of the likely fossil heritage within the study area.

On the basis of the desktop and field assessment studies, the likely impact of the proposed development on local fossil heritage and any need for specialist mitigation are then determined. Adverse palaeontological impacts normally occur during the construction rather than the operational or decommissioning phase. Mitigation by a professional palaeontologist – normally involving the recording and sampling of fossil material and associated geological information (e.g. sedimentological data) – is usually most effective during the construction phase when fresh fossiliferous bedrock has been exposed by excavations. To carry out mitigation, the palaeontologist involved will need to apply for a palaeontological collection permit from the relevant heritage management authority (i.e. Heritage Western Cape). It should be emphasized that, providing appropriate mitigation is carried out, the majority of developments involving bedrock excavation can make a positive contribution to our understanding of local palaeontological heritage.

3. GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The study area on the west side of the R27 is largely featureless and flat, lying between 10 and 15m amsl and without any major watercourses, as is typical of limestone country (Fig. 2). The natural vegetation is scrubby Saldanha Flats Strandveld, but this has been replaced over large areas by cultivated fields (now abandoned). A white to cream, calcareous hardpan or calcrete (20- 40cm thick at least) lies at or close to the land surface and locally shows well-developed karstic (i.e solution) weathering features such as polygonal, flat-topped clints and intervening grikes or solution fissures (Fig. 4). Loose limestone surface rubble has been collected by farmers into numerous stone heaps; many blocks are lichened covered, so the heaps are not of very recent origin (Fig. 5). The calcrete hardpan is mantled in many areas by thin (usually < 1m) brown sandy soils, locally darker and more humus-rich in relict vleis or pans. Unconsolidated, vegetated sand dunes cover portions of the southern part of the study area and are also well seen along its western edge. These pale buff to grey sands may perhaps be correlated with the leached aeolian deposits of the Mid Pleistocene to Holocene Springfontyn Formation that are recognised within the Cape Town sheet area (Theron et al. 1992, Roberts et al. 2006) (Fig. 8).

The geology of the Langebaan study area is shown in map Fig. 9 below. It has been treated in some detail in sheet explanations by Visser and Schoch (1973), to accompany the 1: 125 000 Saldanha Bay geology map, and more briefly in the later 1: 250 000 Cape Town geology sheet explanations by Theron et al. (1992). The surface rocks in the study area are partially to well- consolidated ancient calcareous aeolianites (dune sands) of the Langebaan Formation (Roberts 2006b). This is a Pliocene – Pleistocene aged subunit of the Late Caenozoic Sandveld Group that overlies much older basement rocks of the Cape Granite Suite and Malmesbury Group in the Langebaan – Saldanha coastal region (Roberts 2006a) (Fig. 8). Key recent accounts of these varied shallow marine, estuarine, beach and aeolian dune plume “coastal limestone” successions along the Cape West Coast have been given by Rogers (1980, 1982, 1983), Theron et al. (1992), Pether et al. (2000), Roberts (2001, 2006a), Roberts and Brink (2002) and Roberts et al. (2006). Extensive references to the earlier geological literature are given in these works.

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Fig. 4. Karstified calcrete hard pan capping the Langebaan Formation aeolianites in the Aeolus wind energy facility study area near Langebaan. The surface limestones are locally mantled by thin silica sands.

Fig. 5. Numerous artificial heaps of calcrete rubble is present within the study area. The calcrete blocks are often lichen-covered and often contain tiny fossil snail shells.

John E. Almond (2012) 8 Natura Viva cc The Langebaan Formation is a thick (up to 60m) succession of pale buff, calcareous aeolian (wind- blown) sands that were deposited within onshore-migrating dune plumes driven in from the coast by strong summer winds, for the most part during the Pleistocene Epoch, i.e. between 2.6 Ma and 10 000 BP. Typically the dune calcarenites are heavily calcretised at intervals and contain recognisable palaeosols or fossil soils that are often associated with fossil material. Deposition of the oldest Langebaan Formation dune sands may have started in Late Pliocene times, while the youngest beds may extend into the Holocene (Roberts & Berger 1997, Roberts & Brink 2002, Roberts 2006b). Of the two subunits of the Langebaan Formation recognised by Roberts (2006b), only the less calcareous Kraal Bay Member of mainly Mid to Late Pleistocene age is mapped within the study area. The designated stratotype for this member is situated at Kraalbaai on the western shore of Langebaan Lagoon (Fig. 1). Here typical large-scale dune cross-stratification is well-seen within the Langebaan Formation aeolianites (elsewhere these structures are often obscured by diagenetic processes or disruption by plant roots) (Fig. 6). Ancient fossiliferous aeolianites in the West Coast Fossil Park area (Langebaan Weg) that were originally described as the Calcareous Sand or Anyskop Member of the Varswater Formation are now assigned to the Langebaan Formation.

Fig. 6. Well-preserved large-scale dune cross-bedding within calcareous aeolianites of the Langebaan Formation at Kraal Bay, Langebaan Lagoon.

The ancient dune sands at Kraalbaai overlie coastal marine to estuarine gravels and impure sandstones of the Plio-Pleistocene Velddrif Formation that locally contain abundant well- preserved marine shells and crustacean burrows (e.g. Ophiomorpha) (Pether et al. 2000, Roberts et al. 2006, Roberts 2006c). The original Late Pleistocene (last interglacial) concept of the Velddrif Formation has now been expanded to include a number of earlier coastal sedimentary packages with cold-water faunas that were deposited during successive sea-level highstands of the Late Pliocene to Pleistocene, extending inland as high as 15m amsl (Figs. 7, 8). It is therefore possible that fossiliferous coastal marine deposits of Plio-Pleistocene age underlie the terrestrial Langebaan Formation rocks in the present study area as well.

The fossil record of the Velddrif Formation has been briefly reviewed by Roberts (2006c). Pether (2011) mentions marine terrace deposits near Saldanha at 12 to 15m amsl that may relate to an interval of raised sea levels around 400 000 years ago, for example, although it is noted that these John E. Almond (2012) 9 Natura Viva cc marine deposits are poorly known and may be composites of more than one transgressive event. Early Pleistocene sea levels reached as high as 25m amsl and beach deposits of this age and elevation are seen in Saldanha Bay region (Compton et al. 2006). The older, Miocene to Pliocene Varswater Formation, an important fossil-bearing unit within the West Coast Fossil Park at Langebaan Weg, is not present subsurface in the study area, however (Roberts 2006d). The thickness of superficial Langebaan Formation aeolianites in the study area is unclear from the available data. The Kraal Bay Member near Langebaan Lagoon to the west attains thicknesses of up to 60m, while deep bedrock excavations are not envisaged during the construction of the Aeolus Solar Energy Facility. It is therefore considered unlikely that fossil-rich Velddrif Formation sediments will be directly impacted by the proposed development and this unit will not be considered further here.

Fig. 7. Sea level changes through recent geological time in the Saldanha – Langebaan Lagooon area of the West Coast. The study area (yellow triangle) at 10-15m amsl lies below the 2 million year old shoreline at 25m amsl and would therefore have been inundated in Early Pleistocene times (Display figure prepared for the West Coast National Park by Dr J. Compton, UCT).

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Fig. 8. Generalised stratigraphic column for the Late Caenozoic Strandveld Group of the West Coast (From Roberts et al. 2006). The solid vertical red bar emphasises the Langebaan Formation aeolianites that underlie the present study area, and that may in turn by underlain by older shallow marine shelly deposits of the Velddrif Formation (red dotted line) at depth.

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c. 2.5km

Fig. 9. Extract from 1: 125 000 geology sheet 3318A Saldanha Bay (Council for Geoscience, Pretoria) showing approximate location of the Aeolus Solar Energy Facility (black polygon). The entire study area is underlain by Plio-Pleistocene aeolianites of the Langebaan Formation (“Langebaan Limestone”, QC, orange), Sandveld Group. These are locally overlain by younger, unconsolidated quartzose sandy soils (Q1, pale yellow) that may belong, at least in part, to the Springfonteyn Formation. Inliers of the Cape Granite Suite (G1, G3, G4) form low koppies in the Lanegbaan region, for example just to the north and southwest of the study area.

John E. Almond (2012) 12 Natura Viva cc 4. PALAEONTOLOGICAL HERITAGE

The fossil record of the Plio-Pleistocene Langebaan Formation has been briefly reviewed by Pether et al. (2000), Roberts et al. (2006) and Roberts (2006b) as well as in the West Coast geology sheet explanations by Visser & Schoch (1973), Theron et al. (1992) and Roberts (2001). For the most part macrofossil remains are only sparsely distributed through the bulk of the ancient aeolianites, as can be expected with such ecologically challenging dune plume settings.

The commonest macrofaunal remains in the Langebaan Formation comprise a small range of terrestrial and freshwater snails, all or most of which are still extant along the West Coast. Genera listed in recent accounts include Trigonephrus (the most abundant large-shelled form), Dorcasia, Tomichia, Phortion, Succinia, Burnupia and Paludestrina (See refs. above as well as the earlier accounts by Haughton 1931, 1933, Rogers et al. 1990). However, these identifications are in need of modern revision, while recent collecting suggests that several additional snail taxa, including very small-shelled forms, are preserved within the Langebaan aeolianites (See below). Several of the snails listed above (e.g. Succinia, Burnupia, Tomichia) are semi-aquatic to aquatic forms that are presumably associated with transient pan or vlei deposits within the dune field. Concentrations of large, globular shells of Trigonephrus, a specialised burrowing dune snail that has been present along the West Coast since at least Miocene times, are often associated with calcretised palaeosols where they have been concentrated after death by wind deflation (Roberts & Brink 2002; Figs. 10, 11). However, in some areas the shells are dispersed within the dune sands – perhaps representing life assemblages of aestivating snails in this case, although preferential orientation is not seen. The locally abundant, tiny-shelled gastropods recorded from near-surface calcrete hardpans in the present study area east of Langebaan variously occur (a) scattered through dense, fine-grained surface calcrete, or (b) concentrated in depressions and at the base of solution hollows along ancient karstified palaeosurfaces, often in association with large, well- rounded and frosted quartz grains (Figs. 12-14). In the second case the shells are often finely comminuted. These taxa await formal identification by terrestrial gastropod experts.

Fig. 10. Secondarily massive calcareous aeolianites of the Langebaan Formation (Diazville Member) in the lower quarry at Prospect Hill, Saldanha, showing concentration of land snail shells (mainly Trigonephrus) along a buried palaeosurface (white arrow) (Scale = 16cm).

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Fig. 11. Detail of the fossiliferous palaeosurface illustrated above, showing closely-packed shells of Trigonephrus globulus with no preferred orientation. Shells are c. 3-4 cm across.

Fig. 12. Shallow depression in surface of calcrete hardpan (palaeosurface re-exhumed by recent weathering) showing concentration of comminuted snail shell debris accompanied by large frosted quartz grains. Field of view c. 5 cm across.

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Fig. 13. Fresh vertical break through surface calcrete block showing solution hollow in palaeosurface whose base is lined with fine-grained calcrete containing suspended tiny snail shells and quartz grains (arrowed darker band).

Fig. 14. Close-up view of freshly broken surface through fine-grained surface calcrete showing abundant suspended small, low-spired snail shells (Shells here c. 4-5 mm across).

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Fig. 15. Freshly broken fine-grained calcrete block showing monospecific concentrations of small, tall-spired snail shells, possibly Tomichia (Shells c. 3-4 mm tall).

Several very important fossil vertebrate sites have been recorded from the Langebaan Formation along the West Coast, including Swartklip on the False Bay coast, Duinefontein near Koeberg, and Elandsfontein (= Hopefield) near Langebaan, among several others (See also Fig. 18). The diverse Pleistocene mammalian faunas here are assigned to the Cornelian and Florisian Mammal Ages (e.g. Klein 1984, MacRae 1999). The Elandsfontein site in particular has yielded one of the richest Pleistocene vertebrate faunas recorded from Africa, with nearly fifty mammalian species (Fig. 16). Of these, some fifteen are extinct, including dirk-toothed cats (Megantereon), short- necked giraffes (Sivatherium), the Atlantic elephant (Loxodonta atlantica), extinct warthogs and bushpigs, Pelorovis antiquus (giant long-horned buffalo), Megalotragus (giant hartebeest), Antidorcas australis (extinct springbok) and Equus capensis (Cape Zebra), among others (Klein 1980, 1983, 1984, Klein et al. 2007). Notable extant large mammal species include brown and spotted hyaenas, lions, leopards, African elephants, hippopotamus and black as well as white rhino, among many others. Rare primates include the extinct giant gelada baboon (Theropithecus) as well as fragmentary remains of Homo heidelbergensis (“archaic Homo sapiens”), referred to informally as Saldanha Man (Singer 1954, Singer & Wymer 1968, Rightmire 1998, 2001). The majority of the vertebrate fossils at Elandsfontein, exposed intermittently by deflation of overlying unconsolidated dune sands, are ferruginised and are closely associated with a calcretised palaeosurface upon which numerous Acheulean (Early Stone Age) stone artefacts are also found (Singer & Wymer 1968, Archer & Braun 2010). Both artefacts and bones are now believed to have accumulated in the vicinity of a wetland area within a relatively short time interval and do not represent, as once thought, a composite assemblage down-wasted from higher levels (Klein et al. 2007). Overlying younger aeolianites at Elandsfontein contain rare vertebrate bones and Middle Stone Age artefacts.

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Fig. 16. Diverse spectrum of large mammals recorded from the Langebaan Formation at Elandsfontein, some 16kmsoutheast of the Langebaan study area (From Klein et al. 2007).

Concentration of fossil bones at Swartklip (Fig. 17), in the upper palaeodune horizons at Elandsfontein and elsewhere in the Langebaan Formation are often associated with carnivore dens excavated into semi-consolidated dune rock, almost certainly by the brown hyaena (Hendey & Hendey 1968, Klein 1975, 1983, 1986). Dense micromammal assemblages have been recorded from solution cavities within Langebaan Formation aeolianites, for example at Saldanha (Matthews et al. 2005, 2007), but in the last case these post-date the formation itself (i.e. Holocene). The solution cavity infills have great potential as sources of microvertebrate as well as shelly invertebrate remains, the deep cavities acting as pitfall traps on karstified land surfaces. Preliminary investigations of cavity infills at Saldanha by B. Senut did not yield fossil material, however (D. Roberts, pers. comm., 2011).

Tortoise remains are among the more widely occurring non-mammalian vertebrate fossils within the Langebaan aeolianites; they are common within the Calcareous Sandstone Member at Anyskop, near Langebaan Weg, for example, as well as in the lower quarry at Prospect Hill near Saldanha. Fragmentary ostrich egg shells (Struthio) occur at several sites, such as Swartklip. Wetland (vlei) fossil assemblages interbedded within the Langebaan Formation have been recorded from Spreeuwal on the shore of Saldanha Bay. They comprise the remains of various large and small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians as well as freshwater invertebrates such as snails and ostracods (seed shrimps) and MSA stone artefacts (Avery & Klein 2009, Pether 2011).

John E. Almond (2012) 17 Natura Viva cc A wide spectrum of trace fossils are also recorded from calcretised aeolianites of the Langebaan Formation. These include vertebrate coprolites, invertebrate burrows and locally abundant rhizoliths of various types (root casts, root moulds, rhizocretions). Intensive rhizoturbation (disturbance by plant roots) has largely destroyed the primary cross-lamination in many Langebaan dune sands. Vertical, prominent-weathering, tree trunk-like structures preserved within fossil dune sands near Churchhaven (Langeban Lagoon, West Coast National Park) and elsewhere represent megarhizoliths formed around the root systems of large shrubs. Some of the sizeable cylindrical cavities penetrating calcrete horizons may have once contained plant roots, while others are abiogenic solution cavities (Figs. 19, 20). Important trackways attributed to modern humans and other mammals are recorded from Langebaan Formation aeolianites at Langebaan Lagoon. They have been dated to c. 117 000 BP (Roberts 1996, Roberts & Berger 1997, Berger & Hilton-Barber 2000).

Microfossil assemblages from the Langebaan beds are under-recorded. They include a range of calcareous-shelled foraminiferans (Dale & McMillan 1999) as well as comminuted shell material of molluscs, echinoderms and other invertebrate groups (Rogers 1980, 1982, Roberts 2006b).

Fig. 17. Selected fossil jaw bones collected from hyaena den accumulations within the Langebaan Formation at Swartklip (From Klein 1986).

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Fig. 18. Tooth fragment of a large vertebrate embedded within Langebaan Formation aeolianites, Kraal Bay, West Coast National Park (Fossil c. 5 cm long).

Fig. 19. Surface calcrete showing deep, cyclindrical hollows, possibly related to dune plant root systems (Hammer = 30cm).

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Fig. 20. Vertical solution hollows within Langebaan Formation aeolianites, lower quarry, Prospect Hill near Saldanha (Hammer = 30 cm). These hollows may have acted as traps for micromammal remains and other fauna in the distant past.

Vertical sections though the Langebaan Formation bedrock are not seen within the study area, and there are no artificial quarries or pits here (A deep, but inaccessible, well section occurs on the western boundary). The only significant fossil remains recorded within the Aeolus Solar Energy Facility study area during the present field assessment were small snail shells within the surface calcretes of the Langebaan Formation (Figs. 12-15). These shells, which have not yet been formally identified but clearly represent at least two genera, are locally abundant and were found in calcrete occurrences - both loose blocks and in situ hard pan - scattered across much of the study area (GPS co-ordinates for individual fossil sites have therefore not been provided). They are clearly both common and widespread and therefore not of conservation concern. The only other fossils seen are narrow, vermicular grooves and occasional vertical cylindrical hollows that are possibly attributable to plant roots, and ill-defined invertebrate burrows (Fig. 19).

No fossil vertebrate remains were encountered in the study area, nor were any prospective fossil hyaena den sites seen. These usually occur beneath the protective calcrete and are not expected in areas of low relief such as this, without cliffs, overhangs or steep slopes cutting through the surface hardpan. There remains a remote possibility that important vertebrate fossils may be encountered in association with buried palaeosurfaces, as at Elandsfontein to the south-east.

The unconsolidated quartzitic surface sands (possibly Springfonteyn Formation) appear to be largely unfossiliferous; their original shelly content may have been destroyed by leaching. Subfossil to Recent faunal remains encountered at surface include tortoise shell fragments, disarticulated small mammal bones and teeth, ostrich and other bird shells as well as land gastropod shells, including the super-abundant alien Mediterranean snail Theba pisana as well as the distinctive living dune snail Trigonephrus globulus (See Pether 2008 for an excellent review of fossil and subfossil remains within dune sands).

John E. Almond (2012) 20 Natura Viva cc 5. SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACTS ON PALAEONTOLOGICAL HERITAGE

A brief assessment of the impact significance of the proposed solar energy facility on local fossil heritage resources is presented here (See also Table 1).

 Nature of the impact

Bedrock excavations for installation of the numerous PV solar module mountings, underground cables, ancillary buildings and access road network may adversely affect potential fossil heritage within the study area (e.g. concentrations of fossil vertebrate remains), by destroying, disturbing or permanently sealing-in fossils that are then no longer available for scientific research or other public good.

 Extent and duration of the impact

Significant impacts on fossil heritage are limited to the construction phase when extensive excavations into fresh, potentially fossiliferous bedrock may take place. Substantial bedrock excavations are not anticipated for PV solar energy facility developments, however. No further significant impacts are anticipated during the operational or decommissioning phase of the development.

 Probability of the impact occurring

Since small mollusk shells are abundant and widely dispersed within the bedrocks exposed at or just below the land surface, the probability of impacts on local fossil heritage of this sort (low significance) are high. The probability of impacts on vertebrate fossil remains (high significance) is considered to be low in this area.

 Degree to which the impact can be reversed

Impacts on fossil heritage are generally irreversible.

 Degree to which the impact may cause irreplaceable loss of resources

The potential impacts are mainly of low significance since the fossil remains recorded within the study area (land snails, plant root traces) are abundant and widely dispersed within the West Coast region (SAHRA significance rating 3C: local, low significance).

However, should concentrations of fossil vertebrate remains (e.g. mammalian bones, teeth, probably associated with fossil hyaena dens, SAHRA rating 3A to 2) be exposed and destroyed during construction, this would represent a highly significant negative impact on local or provincial fossil heritage resources.

 Degree to which the impact can be mitigated

Given the low probability of significant impacts on fossil heritage during the construction phase, specialist palaeontological monitoring of this project is not considered necessary. The ECO responsible for the solar facility development should be alerted to the possibility of important fossil remains (e.g. concentrations of mammal teeth, bones) being found on the surface or exposed by fresh excavations into surface calcretes during construction. Should substantial fossil remains be discovered or exposed during development, the ECO should safeguarded these (preferably in situ) John E. Almond (2012) 21 Natura Viva cc and alert Heritage Western Cape so that appropriate mitigation measures may be considered. These mitigation measures would normally involve the recording and judicious sampling of fossil material by a professional palaeontologist at the developer’s expense. The specialist involved would require a collection permit from SAHRA, fossil material must be curated in an approved repository (e.g. museum), and all work carried out should meet the minimum standards for palaeontological impacts developed by SAHRA. Mitigation in the form of fossil recording and collection should have a positive impact on our appreciation of local fossil heritage, and may be of high (provincial / national) significance in scientific terms.

These recommendations should be incorporated into the EMP for the Aeolus Solar Energy Facility development.

 Cumulative impacts

Cumulative impacts cannot be assessed in the absence of reliable data on other development projects approved or proposed in the study region.

Nature of impact: Disturbance, destruction or sealing-in of fossil remains within development footprint during construction phase of solar energy facility Without mitigation With mitigation Extent Local Local Duration Permanent Permanent Intensity Low Low Probability High High Significance Low, local, negative Mitigated finds of fossil vertebrate remains of high (provincial / national ) significance, positive Degree of confidence Moderately high (Buried fossil vertebrate remains unpredictable and rare) Recommended mitigation ECO should monitor fresh bedrock excavations for concentrations of fossil vertebrate remains (e.g. bones, teeth). These should be reported to Heritage Western Cape for recording and mitigation by a professional palaeontologist.

Table 1: Assessment of impacts of proposed Aeolus Solar Energy Facility near Langebaan on fossil heritage resources

6. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

The development footprint of the proposed Aeolus solar energy facility is underlain by Pleistocene aeolianites (ancient dune sands) of the Langebaan Formation that are heavily calcretised near- surface to form a thick limestone hardpan. Elsewhere – for example, at Elandsfontein, 16km to the south-east – these rocks have yielded very diverse fossil assemblages of mammals and other vertebrates, including rare skeletal remains and trackways of early humans (e.g. Saldanha Man), long-horned buffalo, giant hartebeest, Cape Zebra, short-necked giraffe, two elephant species, rhino and hippopotamus.

Field assessment suggests that fossil vertebrates associated with hyaena dens are unlikely to be encountered within the study area, but there remains a remote possibility that important fossils may

John E. Almond (2012) 22 Natura Viva cc be encountered in association with buried palaeosurfaces, as seen at the nearby site of Elandsfontein.

The only body fossils recorded on site comprise a small range of tiny-shelled land snails embedded within the surface calcretes that are abundant, widespread and of low (local) palaeontological significance. Thin unconsolidated silica sands mantling the surface calcrete locally are leached and likewise of low palaeontological sensitivity.

The overall impact significance of the construction phase of the proposed Aeolus solar energy facility on fossil heritage resources is consequently assessed as low (negative). The operational and decommissioning phases of the solar energy facility will not involve significant adverse or other impacts on palaeontological heritage.

The proposed development has no fatal flaws in terms of impacts on fossil heritage and there are no recommendations for further specialist palaeontological studies for this project. Confidence levels for this assessment are moderately high.

These recommendations should be incorporated into the EMP for the development.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Mr Mark Duckitt of Cape Lowlands Environmental Services, Darling, is thanked for commissioning this study and for readily providing the necessary background information. I am grateful to Dr Dave Roberts, Ms Claire Browning (Council for Geoscience, Bellville) and Dr Thalassa Matthews for kindly providing relevant palaeontological and geological literature and maps. The assistance of Madelon Tusenius in the field is, as ever, greatly appreciated.

8. REFERENCES

ARCHER, W. A., BRAUN, D. R. 2010. Morphometric analysis of Acheulian technology at Elandsfontein, Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science. 37, 201-209.

AVERY, G. & KLEIN, R.G. 2009. Spreeuwal: an Upper Pleistocene wetland on the Western Cape Coast, South Africa. SASQUA 2009, Programme & Abstracts, p. 11.

BERGER, L.R. & HILTON-BARBER, B. 2000. In the footsteps of Eve: the mystery of human origins, 304 pp. National Geographic Society.

DALE, D.C. & MCMILLAN, I.K. 1999. On the beach. Field guide to the Late Cainozoic micropalaeontological history of the Saldanha region, South Africa, 127 pp.

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HAUGHTON, S.H. 1931. The Late Tertiary and Recent deposits of the West Coast of South Africa. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa 34, 19-58.

HAUGHTON, S.H. 1933. On the phosphate deposits near Langebaan Road. Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa 35, 19-125.

HENDEY, Q.B. 1984. Southern African late Tertiary vertebrates. In: Klein, R.G. (Ed.) Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments, pp 81-106. Balkema, Rotterdam.

HENDEY, Q.B. & HENDEY, H. 1968. New Quaternary fossil sites near Swartklip, Cape province. Annals of the South African Museum 52: 43-73.

KLEIN, R.G. 1975. Paleoanthropological implications of the non-archaeological bone assemblage from Swartklip 1, South-Western Cape Province, South Africa. Quaternary Research (New York) 5: 275-288.

KLEIN, R.G. 1980. Environmental and ecological implications of large mammals from upper Pleistocene and Holocene sites in southern Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 81: 223- 283.

KLEIN, R.G. 1983. Palaeoenvironmental implications of Quaternary large mammals in the Fynbos region. In: Deacon, H.J., Hendey, Q.B., Lambrechts, J.J.N. (Eds.) Fynbos palaeoecology: a preliminary synthesis. South African National Scientific Programmes Report No. 10, pp. 116-133.

KLEIN, R.G. 1984. The large mammals of southern Africa: Late Pliocene to Recent. In: Klein, R.G. (Ed.) Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments, pp 81-106. Balkema, Rotterdam.

KLEIN, R.G. 1986. The brown hyaenas of the Cape Flats. Sagittarius 1(4): 8-13.

KLEIN, R.G., AVERY, G., CRUZ-URIBE, K., HART, T., MILO, R.G. & VOLMAN, T.P. 1999. Duinefontein 2: an Acheulean site in the Westren Cape Province of South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 37, 153-190.

KLEIN, R.G., AVERY, G., CRUZ-URIBE, K. & STEELE, T.E. 2007. The mammalian fauna associated with an archaic hominin skullcap and later Acheulean artifacts at Elandsfontein, Western Cape Province, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 52, 164-186.

MACRAE, C. 1999. Life etched in stone. Fossils of South Africa. 305pp. The Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg.

MATTHEWS, T., DENYS, C. & PARKINGTON, J.E. 2005. The palaeoecology of the micromammals from the late middle Pleistocene site of Hoedjiespunt 1 (Cape Province, South Africa). Journal of Human Evolution 49, 432-451.

MATTHEWS, T., DENYS, C. & PARKINGTON, J.E. 2007. Community evolution of Neogene micromammals from Langebaan ‘E’ Quarry and other West Coast fossil sites, south-western Cape, South Africa. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 245, 332-352.

PETHER, J. 2008. Fossils in dunes and coversands. Unpublished general information document, prepared for Heritage Western Cape. (Mr J. Pether, Geological and Palaeontological Consultant, P. O. Box 48318, Kommetjie, 7976. [email protected]).

PETHER, J. 2011. Proposed Isivunguvungu Wind Farm, Saldanha. Palaeontological impact assessment (desktop study), 28 pp.

John E. Almond (2012) 24 Natura Viva cc PETHER, J., ROBERTS, D.L. & WARD, J.D. 2000. Deposits of the West Coast. Pp. 33-54 in Partridge, T.C. & Maud, R.R. (Eds.) The Cenozoic of Southern Africa. Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics No 40. Oxford University Press. Oxford, New York.

RIGHTMIRE, G.P. 1998. Human evolution in the middle Pleistocene: the role of Homo heidelbergensis. Evol. Anthropol. 6, 218-227.

RIGHTMIRE, G.P. 2001. Patterns of hominid evolution and dispersal in the middle Pleistocene. Quatern. Int. 75, 77-84.

ROBERTS, D.L. 1996. Footprints in the sand. Abstract, 9th Biennial Conference of the Palaeontological Society of Southern Africa, Stellenbosch.

ROBERTS, D.L. 2001. The geology of the Melkbosstrand and environs. Explanation to 1: 50 000 geology sheet 3318CB, 50 pp. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

ROBERTS, D.L. 2006a. Sandveld Group. SA Committee for Stratigraphy, Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphic Units 9, 25-26. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

ROBERTS, D.L. 2006b. Langebaan Formation (including the Diazville and Kraal Bay Members). SA Committee for Stratigraphy, Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphic Units 9, 9-12. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

ROBERTS, D.L. 2006c. Velddrif Formation. SA Committee for Stratigraphy, Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphic Units 9, 33-35. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

ROBERTS, D.L. 2006d. Varswater Formation (including the Langeenhied Clayey Sand, KoningsVlei Gravel, Langeberg Quartz Sand and Muishond Fontein Phosphatic Sand Members). SA Committee for Stratigraphy, Catalogue of South African Lithostratigraphic Units 9, 27-31. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

ROBERTS, D.L. & BERGER, L. 1997. Last interglacial (c. 117 kyr) human footprints from South Africa. South African Journal of Science 93: 349-350.

ROBERTS, D.L. & BRINK, J. 2002. Dating and correlation of Neogene coastal deposits in the Western Cape (South Africa): implications for neotectonism. South African Journal of Geology 105: 337-352.

ROBERTS, D.L., BOTHA, G.A., MAUD, R.R. & PETHER, J. 2006. Coastal Cenozoic deposits. Pp. 605 – 628 in Johnson, M.R., Anhaeusser, C.R. & Thomas, R.J. (Eds.) The geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg & Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

ROBERTS, D.L., BATEMAN, M.D., MURRAY-WALLACE, C.V., CARR, A.C. & HOLMES, P.J. 2009. West coast dune plumes: climate driven contrasts in dunefield morphogenesis along the western and southern South African coasts. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 271, 24-38.

ROGERS, J. 1980. First report on the Cenozoic sediments between Cape Town and Eland's Bay. Geological Survey of South Africa Open File Report 136. ROGERS, J. 1982. Lithostratigraphy of Cenozoic sediments between Cape Town and Eland's Bay. Palaeoecology of Africa 15, 121-137.

ROGERS, J. 1983. Lithostratigraphy of Cenozoic sediments on the coastal plain between Cape Town and Saldanha Bay. Technical Report of the Joint Geological Survey/University of Cape Town Marine Geoscience Unit 14, 87-103.

John E. Almond (2012) 25 Natura Viva cc ROGERS, J., PETHER, J., MOLYNEUX, R., GENIS, G., KILHAM, J.L.C., COOPER, G. & CORBETT, I.B. 1990. Cenozoic geology and mineral deposits along the west coast of South Africa and the Sperrgebiet. Guidebook PR!, Geocongress ’90, Geoloogical Society of South Africa, 111 pp.

SINGER, R. 1954. The Saldanha skull from Hopefield, South Africa. Amer. J. Phys. Anthropol. 12, 345-362.

SINGER, R. & WYMER, J.J. 1968. Archaeological investigations at the Saldanha skull site in South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 23, 63-74.

THERON, J.N., GRESSE, P.G., SIEGFRIED, H.P. & ROGERS, J. 1992. The geology of the Cape Town area. Explanation to 1: 250 000 geology sheet 3318 Cape Town, 140 pp. Council for Geoscience, Pretoria.

VISSER, H.N. & SCHOCH, A.E. 1973. The geology and mineral resources of the Saldanha Bay area. Memoir of the Geological Survey of South Africa 63, 1-150, pls. 1-4.

John E. Almond (2012) 26 Natura Viva cc 8. QUALIFICATIONS & EXPERIENCE OF THE AUTHOR

Dr John Almond has an Honours Degree in Natural Sciences (Zoology) as well as a PhD in Palaeontology from the University of Cambridge, UK. He has been awarded post-doctoral research fellowships at Cambridge University and in Germany, and has carried out palaeontological research in Europe, North America, the Middle East as well as North and South Africa. For eight years he was a scientific officer (palaeontologist) for the Geological Survey / Council for Geoscience in the RSA. His current palaeontological research focuses on fossil record of the Precambrian - Cambrian boundary and the Cape Supergroup of South Africa. He has recently written palaeontological reviews for several 1: 250 000 geological maps published by the Council for Geoscience and has contributed educational material on fossils and evolution for new school textbooks in the RSA.

Since 2002 Dr Almond has also carried out palaeontological impact assessments for developments and conservation areas in the Western, Eastern and Northern Cape under the aegis of his Cape Town-based company Natura Viva cc. He is a long-standing member of the Archaeology, Palaeontology and Meteorites Committee for Heritage Western Cape (HWC) and an advisor on palaeontological conservation and management issues for the Palaeontological Society of South Africa (PSSA), HWC and SAHRA. He is currently compiling technical reports on the provincial palaeontological heritage of Western, Northern and Eastern Cape as well as Limpopo, Gauteng and the Free State for SAHRA and HWC. Dr Almond is an accredited member of PSSA and APHP (Association of Professional Heritage Practitioners – Western Cape).

Declaration of Independence

I, John E. Almond, declare that I am an independent consultant and have no business, financial, personal or other interest in the proposed project, application or appeal in respect of which I was appointed other than fair remuneration for work performed in connection with the activity, application or appeal. There are no circumstances that compromise the objectivity of my performing such work.

Dr John E. Almond Palaeontologist Natura Viva cc

John E. Almond (2012) 27 Natura Viva cc