Technology and Development

ISSN 0914-918X Technology and Development

No.20 January 2007

Article: The Illegal Logging Issue and Japan’s Official Development Assistance –Consideration of International Cooperation regarding the Illegal Logging Issue in Indonesia By Tomoyuki NAITO

Special Report: Gender Mainstreaming in Latin America and the Caribbean –Issues and Prospects for Cooperation from a Gender Perspective By Attendees of JICA Latin American and Caribbean Gender Mainstreaming Conference

Case Studies: Model Development of People’s Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City –Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level By Akinori SATO and Junko OKAMOTO

Issues, Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme By Mami YAMADA

Notes: Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women –A Case of Kampung Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia By Rika KATO

UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Response and its Contribution from Japan –Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters By Yosuke OKITA

A Qualitative Shift in International Democratic Support –Consideration on the Position of International Support for Democratic Elections in Developing Countries By Keiichi HASHIMOTO

Field Note: The Zambia Initiative –Potentials of New Trials Promoting Human Security By Masaki WATABE

Study Reports: Poverty Reduction and Human Security Post-Conflict Reconstruction of Education and Peace Building: Lesson from Okinawa’s Experience Approaches for Systematic Planning of Development Projects (Urban and Regional Development) Comprehensive Study on Family Planning and Women in Development Projects in Jordan

Institute for International Cooperation Japan International Cooperation Agency Technology and Development

Institute for International Cooperation Japan International Cooperation Agency EDITORIAL BOARD Managing Editor: TAGUCHI, Toru: Director General, Institute for International Cooperation, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) Members: (Alphabetical order by family name) ASANUMA, Shinji: Visiting Professor at Hitotsubashi University ITO, Takafumi: Director General, Global Environment Department, JICA KINOSHITA, Toshio: Deputy Director General, Planning and Coordination Department, JICA KOHIYAMA, Satoru: Director General, Regional Department I, JICA MATSUDA, Norio: Director General, Rural Development Department, JICA OKAZAKI, Yuji: Director General, Social Development Department, JICA SASAKI, Hiroyo: Director General, Economic Development Department, JICA SUEMORI, Mitsuru: Director General, Human Development Department, JICA UTSUMI, Seiji: Professor at Osaka University (as of August 2008)

Technology and Development is published once a year by the Institute for International Cooperation (IFIC). The articles are selected and translated from its original Japanese edition, Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu. Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu, has been published twice a year by the IFIC since 1985, and specializes in studies of technical cooperation regarding developing countries’ natural, socio-economic and cultural environment. It aims to provide opportunities for presenting papers to those engaged in development projects and thereby to contribute to the furtherance of international technical cooperation. Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu accepts papers in Japanese. For more details, please refer to the back of its front page or the JICA Home Page (http://www.jica.go.jp/branch/ific/jigyo/report/kenkyu/index.html) The IFIC introduces the latest information related to JICA through the JICA Home Page (http://www.jica.go.jp/). Users who have access to this Home Page can read all the contents of research papers and case studies presented in Technology and Development, No.9 to No.19 (http://www.jica.go.jp/english/resources/publications/study/technology/ index.html) and the Japanese Journal Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu, the original version of Technology and Development. from No.22 (http://www.jica.go.jp/branch/ific/jigyo/report/kenkyu/index.html). Views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view or policies of the Japan Interna- tional Cooperation Agency (JICA), or of any organization with which the authors may be associated.

Published by Institute for International Cooperation Japan International Cooperation Agency Ichigaya Honmura-cho 10-5, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8433, Japan

Editorial Board Office Aid Strategy Team, Research Group, Institute for International Cooperation, Japan International Cooperation Agency Fax: +81 (0)3 3269 2185 E-mail: [email protected]

Printed in Japan on recycled paper Technology and Development

No.20 January 2007 CONTENTS

Article: The Illegal Logging Issue and Japan’s Official Development Assistance –Consideration of International Cooperation regarding the Illegal Logging Issue in Indonesia By Tomoyuki NAITO 5

Issues, Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme By Mami YAMADA 39

Notes: Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women –A Case of Kampung Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia By Rika KATO 54

UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Response and its Contribution from Japan –Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters By Yosuke OKITA 62

A Qualitative Shift in International Democratic Support –Consideration on the Position of International Support for Democratic Elections in Developing Countries By Keiichi HASHIMOTO 71

Field Note: The Zambia Initiative –Potentials of New Trials Promoting Human Security By Masaki WATABE 78

Study Reports: Poverty Reduction and Human Security 83 Post-Conflict Reconstruction of Education and Peace Building: Lesson from Okinawa’s Experience 87 Approaches for Systematic Planning of Development Projects (Urban and Regional Development) 88 Comprehensive Study on Family Planning and Women in Development Projects in Jordan 93

Institute for International Cooperation Japan International Cooperation Agency [ Article ]

The Illegal Logging Issue and Japan’s Official Development Assistance —Consideration of International Cooperation regarding the Illegal Logging Issue in Indonesia

Tomoyuki NAITO Chief (Indonesia), Regional Department Ⅰ, JICA; Ph.D. Candidate, Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies, Waseda University

Abstract

Illegal logging in Indonesia is internationally known as an issue of somewhat sensitive aspects, due to its scale and politically related structure. While approximately 1.5 to 2.0 million ha of forests have been destroyed every year, the Government of Indonesia could recover only about half of the space of the destroyed forests since late 1990s to date. It is said that the forests on the island of Kalimantan could be gone by 2020, as an earliest expectation. Further, Japan's ODA has, to some extent, contributed to this matter, though it has been limited to funding for international organizations. This paper tries to prove the hypothesis that Japan's ODA is effective to control illegal logging in Indonesia, through consideration and analysis of its pertinent conditionality. After the consideration of the hypothesis, this paper points out the factors impeding effective cooperation, such as the constraints of Japan's ODA in technical conditionality and political complications that might be caused by Japan's assistance, as well as the lack of recipient country's understanding of the aid scheme. To deal with these impediments, the following measures are proposed: to implement a technical advisory system for Mer- bau's registration procedure for CITES, which would not be directly affected by the political aspect; to assist non- governmental organizations that have conducted the issue's research directly, and to strengthen the function of the country's legal system through assistance for the local forum. Japan's ODA is requested to adopt a more firm stance to support illegal logging control in Indonesia, now that the current President Susilo Bambang Yudoyono is strongly taking initiative in fighting against corruption, following the former President Megawati, who could not realize any concrete measures.

Introduction Indonesia loses an area of forest roughly the size of Switzerland (Telapak & EIA 2005). Home to great biodiversity, Indonesia’s forest is the Logging can be divided into lawful and unlaw- third largest in the world (covering an area of rough- ful activities. Typical examples of unlawful activities ly 120 million ha) following the forests in Brazil and include the unregulated torching of forest areas the Republic of Congo, but the marked reduction of (forced conversion from forest to oil palm plantation, forests due to economic development since the early land claims by farmers, slash-and-burn farming, 1990s is viewed as a problem throughout the world. drive-in hunting, etc.) and the illegal logging of While approximately 1.5 to 2.0 million ha of forests forests (illegal logging). In contrast, typical examples are being destroyed every year, the Government of of lawful activities include planned logging with offi- Indonesia is only replanting about half of that area, cial logging permits. Unlawful activities, the problem and it has been said that if this rate of destruction of illegal logging in Indonesia in particular, has such continues, the forests on the island of Kalimantan a strong socioeconomic impact both domestically could vanish by 2020,1 indicating that each year, and internationally that they are now attracting con-

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 22-(1) (April 2006).

5 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Article ]

siderable world attention. Forestry in Indonesia is grant aid, and implements the majority of technical crucial to the domestic economy as an important cooperation. Grant aid accounts for 19.1% of Japan’s source of foreign currency, so the Consultative total ODA, loan assistance for 21.3%, technical Group for Indonesia (CGI) is addressing this as one cooperation for 30.9%, and funding for internation- of the key issues along with financial reform. al organizations for 28.7% (2003 results, DAC base).2 CGI has established a working group (WG) for Although funding for international organizations each key issue, and illegal logging continues to be accounts for a substantial proportion of total ODA discussed as the most important issue in the Forestry at more than one quarter, its application is said to Preservation WG. Among the CGI participants, the have a “low visibility.” U.K. Department for International Development During her visit to Japan in June 2003, then (DfID) and the European Union (EU) are strongly Indonesian President Megawati Soekarnoputri and committed to tackling the issue of illegal logging. Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi signed a The EU, a prominent leader of the Forestry Preserva- joint statement and announced action plans on: 1) tion WG, is currently preparing exhaustive support development of systems for legal verification of tim- to begin in 2006 for measures to combat illegal log- ber, 2) monitoring of these systems with public par- ging through an action plan for Forest Law Enforce- ticipation, 3) joint development of a system for data ment, Governance and Trade (FLEGT), and is a collection and exchange regarding the trade in timber major contributor to the Illegal Logging Response and wood products, and 4) human resources devel- Center, established by the Indonesian Ministry of opment to strengthen the implementation of sustain- Forestry. able forest management (see Table 1). The Japanese government has also been an Under this action plan, the Japanese govern- active participant since the establishment of this ment is underscoring its support for measures against WG, and is also continuing to make a considerable illegal logging through funding for international commitment to measures against illegal logging. The organizations. Funding for the International Tropical reality, though, is that this remains indirect support Timber Organization (ITTO) comes under this pro- through funding for international organizations gram, and the Japanese government has constantly within the Official Development Assistance (ODA) committed about US$300,000 a year since 2003 framework, and the strong commitment through through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the bilateral assistance as seen with the U.K. and other Forestry Agency at the ITTO Council held twice countries has not been attained. annually. As the issue of illegal logging in Indonesia grows Even before the announcement of the action increasingly serious, and while the Japanese govern- plan, ITTO was implementing a range of projects ment continues indirect support, it has become a connected to measures against illegal logging in matter of some urgency to seek the realization of Indonesia. The Japanese government has also been direct support such as technical cooperation and the providing funds in concert with governments of other like, said to be the hallmark of Japanese ODA imple- developed countries, and has released reports on commented by such organizations as the Japan Interna- pleted projects on the website. For example, the tional Cooperation Agency (JICA). Aid recipients are Japanese and Swiss governments are jointly funding also pinning their hopes on this. the implementation of projects aimed at protecting native forests from illegal logging in the Betung Keri- hun National Park (850,000 ha) and the Keyan Men- I. Issues and Setting the Hypothesis tarang National Park (1.4 million ha), both near the border with Malaysia in Kalimantan. Based on a ODA provided by the Japanese government is broad- request for cooperation from Indonesia to ITTO ly classified into two means: bilateral aid and funding regarding measures against illegal logging at the 29th for international organizations. Bilateral aid can be ITTO Council in Yokohama in October 2000, the further classified into the three means of grant aid, Japanese government provided funds of roughly loan assistance, and technical cooperation. Funding US$615,850,000 for implementing the project for international organizations is direct funding for “Development and Implementation of Guidelines to organizations such as the United Nations. Of the Control Illegal Logging for Sustainable Forest Man- bilateral aid, the Japan Bank for International Coop- agement in Indonesia” (Project Reference No. PD eration (JBIC) is responsible for implementing loan 74/01 Rev.1 [M]) implemented for three years start- assistance, while JICA conducts examinations for ing in May 2002. (Total project budget was

6 The Illegal Logging Issue and Japan’s Official Development Assistance —Consideration of International Cooperation regarding the Illegal Logging Issue in Indonesia [ Article ]

Table 1 Political agreements and statements on illegal logging (2001–2003)

Bali Ministerial Declaration on Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (FLEG) (East Asia) September 2001 ITTO decision on Forest Law Enforcement November 2001 Conclusion of FLEG Agreement between the U.K. and Indonesia April 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) Implementation Plan Chapter 45, Paragraph c) September 2002 Forest law enforcement and measures against illegal international trade in timber products Asia Forest Partnership (AFP) November 2002 Conclusion of FLEG Agreement between China and Indonesia (measures to tackle illegal trade in timber products) December 2002 EU Action Plan on FLEGT May 2003 Conclusion of FLEG Agreement between Japan and Indonesia (joint announcement) June 2003 U.S. President’s Initiative Against Illegal Logging July 2003 Yaoundé Ministerial Declaration on FLEG (Africa) October 2003

Source: Prepared by Author.

US$741,100.) This project generated seven outputs cooperation over the past several years, and amid the including “six guidelines for illegal logging prevention major shift in thinking in which assistance under policy formulation” and “establishment of coordina- “bilateral aid” is extended even to the building of tion forums on preventing illegal logging (in Riau peace following hostilities in an area of conflict with and West Kalimantan Provinces),” and these were the active introduction of the new concept of human passed on to the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry.3 security, it is very timely to consider that we have However, projects implemented with ITTO reached the stage where we need to actively examine funding are normally formed with joint funding some form of support measures for the illegal logging from multiple countries, so the extent to which each issue as well. of the funding countries contributes toward illegal In this light, this paper examines the hypothesis logging countermeasures is in fact not readily dis- that direct international cooperation (bilateral aid) cernible. In particular, funding extended by the utilizing Japan’s ODA is effective in controlling ille- Japanese government since June 2003 when the gal logging in Indonesia, even considering the con- action plan was announced has not yet been promul- straints of the scheme. gated, so it is impossible to determine the effect of this funding. In the past, on several occasions the Indonesian II. Analysis and Verification government requested support relating to the issue of illegal logging under the bilateral aid scheme not in 1. Current characteristics of the aid scheme for the form of cooperative funding by multiple coun- Indonesia tries, and most were for grant aid or technical coop- As can be seen in Table 1, measures by the interna- eration. A number of factors, however, have worked tional community against illegal logging in Indonesia against the fulfillment of these requests under the have been shifting from multilateral cooperation to bilateral aid scheme including the implementation specific bilateral cooperation over the past few years. criteria of the scheme, a lack of understanding of the In particular, many agreements under a bilateral scheme by Indonesian government officials (e.g., framework have been formulated since 2002, when requests for merely general financial assistance), and WSSD was held. political apprehension over the possibility of some When examining “bilateral aid,” constraints form of resistance by those whose rights may be arise in the aid scheme according to the scale of the eroded by assistance from a specified donor country issue requiring assistance. Generally, support through (that is, a “visible donor”). grant aid recently averages about ¥1 billion per case, However, in view of the constraints of the and the majority of these funds are primarily for scheme from the donor country perspective, with the facilities construction and material and equipment steadily expanding range of activities under technical purchases. While there are cases in the past where

7 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Article ]

grant aid has amounted to more than ¥10 billion, 2. Structural issue of illegal logging such as the Japan-Egypt Friendship Bridge over the The Indonesian government through the Ministry of Suez Canal, these days such large-scale projects are Forestry has been seriously tackling the issue of illegal quite rare. Therefore, assistance for large-scale facili- logging over the past ten years. Forestry Minister ties construction and material and equipment pur- Prakosa in the former Megawati Administration and chase amounting to more than a total of ¥1 billion is Forestry Minister Kaban under the current adminis- more often looked at under a loan assistance frame- tration of President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono work. Loan assistance, though, is premised on yen both positioned the tackling of illegal logging as the credits, so for developing countries such as Indonesia highest priority policy issue. By its very nature, illegal that are burdened with considerable foreign debt, it logging is not an issue that Indonesia can solve only is not surprising that financially they would prefer through its own efforts; rather, the Indonesian gov- grant aid where possible when requesting aid. The ernment is continuing to seek cooperation from not interest rate on yen credits to Indonesia was raised by just neighboring Malaysia, but also from Europe, the 0.2% in January 2006, so the Indonesian govern- U.S., as well as Japan and other Asian countries, ment is somewhat apprehensive about requesting fur- which that are the markets for this timber. However, ther loan assistance. Still fresh in our minds was the looking at the internal situation in Indonesia from quite remarkable statement for a leading member of the international community perspective, the turbu- government when Indonesian Vice-President lence over local autonomy brought on by decentral- Muhammad Yusuf Kalla during a visit to Japan in ization laws enacted at around the time the illegal January 2006 criticized Japan’s ODA as placing too logging issue gained momentum has added to the much emphasis on providing credit, which is not in difficulty of this issue. In contrast to the internation- Indonesia’s interest, and stating that credit cannot be al sense of crisis felt at the executive level in the cen- called assistance, while attending an informal dinner tral government, it is widely known that the rise of meeting with Indonesians in Japan.4 the insatiable self-interest at the local government The technical cooperation scheme is fundamen- level that exploits the decentralization laws has fur- tally different from funding cooperation. Constraint ther complicated the problems of illegal logging as a on the monetary scale is not the primary condition structural issue. and the main purpose of the assistance request is not The media regularly report on the awareness facilities construction or other similar projects. among the general public in Indonesia that illegal Rather, it is principally a human contribution in the logging is a tough problem to solve. For example, form of a transfer of technical know-how. The con- Indonesia’s largest domestic political magazine straint is on content more so than scale. That is, such TEMPO (March 14, 2005 issue) polled 561 people factors as the urgency of the assistance, consistency on the question, “Do you believe the (Indonesian) with the national policies of the recipient country, government can reveal that the military, local govern- ownership, and prospects of sustainability after comments, the Ministry of Forestry, Immigration pletion of the project are constraint conditions when Bureau, and international syndicates are involved in examining the assistance request. The kinds of tech- illegal logging syndicates?”, of whom 102 (18.18%) nical cooperation needed in Indonesia today include answered “Yes (The government can publicly disclose assistance in primary and secondary education and in the true state),” while the overwhelming majority — health and medical care as Basic Human Needs 436 (77.72%) — answered “No (The government (BHN) in areas of poverty arising from domestic cannot).”5 This is evidence of the general public’s economic disparity, preservation of valuable environ- perception that the government is hesitant about mental resources extending over vast areas of the dealing with the military leaders and other privileged country, and support for NGOs at the grassroots classes who were essentially untouchable under the level in the post-1998 democratization era. military-led development dictatorship political sys- Comparing constraint factors relating to bilater- tem that extended over the long rule of the former al aid schemes and the current state of illegal logging, President Suharto, and their low expectation in the technical cooperation in addition to funding is also government’s capability to be fair and impartial when essential for preventing the destruction of forests to investigating illegal logging. preserve forest ecosystems, i.e., environmental preser- Against the backdrop of this broad recognition vation, and direct assistance through bilateral aid is of the difficulty of resolving this problem, on Febru- highly expected. ary 17, 2005 Telapak, a major Indonesian NGO that has been pursuing the illegal logging issue for years

8 The Illegal Logging Issue and Japan’s Official Development Assistance —Consideration of International Cooperation regarding the Illegal Logging Issue in Indonesia [ Article ]

and the U.K.- and U.S.-based international environ- the spot to government organizations by the local mental organization Environmental Investigation operators within the international syndicates. Agency (EIA) released a joint report entitled The Last The Indonesian government is aware of the cur- Frontier. This report gave an accurate and bold rent state of illegal logging raised in the Telapak/EIA account of the actual state of illegal logging in report, and has put forward initiatives to combat Indonesia, and stirred up great debate among this. The current administration led by President observers throughout the world after its release. Yudhoyono, a former officer in the Indonesian The report states that around 300,000 cubic Armed Forces, has set the eradication of corruption meters of merbau, an expensive timber species often as one of its priorities, and has positioned the eradi- used for flooring, are being illegally logged in Papua cation of illegal logging, along with narcotics and Province on the eastern border of Indonesia, and the gambling, as the three critical areas on which the logs are smuggled to an area near Shanghai on the government will crack down. Along with this trend, Chinese mainland by international criminal syndi- the government has been mounting the illegal log- cates for the timber processing industry. When these ging control campaign Operasi Hutan Lestari, and logs are loaded at Zhangjiagang Port near Shanghai, has so far arrested more than one hundred people they have fake customs documents indicating they connected to illegal logging. Nonetheless, the gov- are from Malaysia. The report states that the collu- ernment has yet to reveal the results of investigations sion of the Indonesian military, and exploitation by into the involvement of government organizations as Chinese timber mafia operating across national bor- pointed out by Telapak/EIA, or arrest any suspect ders and Chinese brokers on Java, are particularly high ranking government officials. The parts point- apparent in illegal logging in Papua. It was revealed ing to such extensive political involvement is thought that illegally logged merbau is sold on the Chinese to have had an impact on the strong public distrust mainland at US$270 per cubic meter, while the local of the government revealed by TEMPO Magazine. community that actually logs the trees are paid only US$10 per cubic meter. The report also revealed the 3. Examination of the possibility of internation- presence of brokers and broker networks that arrange al cooperation the ships to smuggle the logs from Indonesia to Unless the Indonesian government takes strong China, and also reported that bribes of US$200,000 action (relentless investigations of and clampdowns per ship are paid to Indonesian officials to ensure on high ranking government officials) against illegal that the illegal shipments of merbau logs, whose logging with its strong political tinge as mentioned export has been banned by the Indonesian govern- above, can we expect effective assistance through ment since October 2001, are not seized in Indone- Japanese ODA to be realized? sian waters. Incidentally, in December 2002 the First, the possibility of assistance for each of the Indonesian and Chinese governments signed a writ- measures put forward in the action plan jointly ten agreement on measures to tackle illegal trade in announced by former President Megawati and Prime timber products as a FLEG measure (see Table 1). Minister Koizumi is examined. The most shocking assertion made in the Tela- Regarding the development of systems on legal pak/EIA report is the section clearly revealing the verification of timber, mechanical methods at the involvement of Indonesian government organizations port of import can determine illegally logged timber in all stages of illegal logging in Papua, which is by confirming the origin of the timber, and this can described as the “Last Frontier,” and smuggling the be classified within the grant aid category. However, illegal timber to China. Army personnel are as Indonesia is the exporting country, technically it employed as security for logging operations, and they does not conform as a grant aid recipient. In fact, the are paid “protection money” for this, while payments Japanese government is supporting the development are also made to navy personnel to ensure smuggler’s of a timber verification system through its contribu- ships can cross Indonesian waters unhindered. Cus- tion of US$150,000 to ITTO, so there will be a need toms officials also receive payments for issuing fake to verify the effectiveness, sustainability, and cost customs documents indicating the timber is sourced effectiveness of this system. However, system devel- from Malaysia to conceal the fact that it is actually opment generally requires frequent and detailed Indonesian timber when it is unloaded in China. maintenance and management, and whether the And even if the ships are investigated by naval police recipient country (Indonesia) has the capacity to during their passage, provincial police officials are continually provide the necessary funds and person- paid to drop any charges. These bribes are all paid on nel is always in question.

9 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Article ]

As for monitoring of those systems with public be provided to a number of high ranking officials, participation, greater difficulties will be presented such as chiefs of provincial police headquarters, when examining the possibility of assistance. While whose names are included among those suspected of the government has yet to clamp down on govern- corruption. This is worth considerable examination, ment organizations, despite their involvement in ille- but many of the high ranking officials to whom this gal logging being pointed out by third party organi- would apply have already received training in the zations such as Telapak/EIA, it is easy to see the past, so considering cost effectiveness, this is not impracticality of encouraging public participation, expected to be very efficient. and their monitoring of logging will be highly dan- Looking at the possibility of bilateral aid for the gerous. various measures raised in the action plan jointly Assistance under the bilateral aid scheme for the announced by then President Megawati and Prime joint development of a system for data collection and Minister Koizumi, we can see that the current exchange regarding the trade in timber and wood scheme applies to some, but not to others. The range products is extremely difficult without a lateral and of projects for which present assistance schemes, open cooperative structure among ministries and especially the technical cooperation-related schemes agencies in the Indonesian government. As in the operated primarily by JICA, can be implemented and case of monitoring, there can be no denying that col- the methods of implementation have become lecting the data in itself at this stage would present increasingly diverse, and for each issue, it is now pos- some considerable risk, and a number of major sible to examine assistance methods from many obstacles must be overcome before both sides are angles. When looking at, for example, assistance even close to the joint development of an exchange methods for the joint development of a system for system. data collection and exchange regarding the trade in Direct assistance by the Japanese government timber and wood products, without a lateral and for the final area of cooperation — human resources open cooperative structure among ministries and development — and especially human resources agencies in the Indonesian government, assistance development assistance under the technical coopera- through bilateral aid would certainly present consid- tion scheme, of which JICA has a major share, is erable difficulties. However, even without direct generally one of the key methods of aid to develop- JICA involvement, it would be possible to imple- ing countries, and it is widely known to those con- ment the risky data collection by contracting the cerned from past successes that the most effective facilitation of the assistance to a third party that has a technical cooperation method is direct human detailed understanding of the internal circumstances resources development through training. The issue is and enjoys the trust of the various parties concerned. therefore where the human resources development This would indicate a growing flexibility by aid will be focused. The main point of the joint state- donors in their scheme concepts. ment is naturally to foster personnel who will contribute to measures against illegal logging, for example, personnel who can operate the new timber veri- III. Considerations fication system that will be developed, but the point becomes somewhat blurred in debate on whether this As mentioned earlier, the three restraining factors of should focus on training police officers who will not bilateral aid for measures against illegal logging accept bribes, or fostering customs officers who will include technical constraints of the scheme, lack of stringently apply the law. The reason is that it is not the recipient country’s understanding of the aid really feasible to train more than a few dozen people scheme, and further constraints related to political a year because of a limitation on the capacity to instability that might be caused by specified coun- implement the training itself. But more than that, tries’ assistance. unless there is a change in the structure of corruption It was also mentioned that as can be seen by the in the areas to where the personnel who received the steady expansion in the range of activities under training return, regardless of how sophisticated the technical cooperation over the past several years, it is technical training is that they received in the devel- indeed timely to constantly bring in new concepts oped country, it is not difficult to imagine that no and actively examine support measures for key devel- sooner do they return than they go back to their opment-related issues. original illegal logging stakeholder position (corrupt For example, the last section of the Telapak/EIA officials). It can also be debated that training could report puts forward several recommendations to the

10 The Illegal Logging Issue and Japan’s Official Development Assistance —Consideration of International Cooperation regarding the Illegal Logging Issue in Indonesia [ Article ]

Indonesian and Chinese governments. Of these, “list highly praised both in Indonesia and overseas as very merbau on Appendix III of CITES” is one recom- cost effective NGO support.6 mendation that could quite readily be provided with Another possible method regarding illegal log- ODA from the Japanese government, especially its ging is providing assistance to such NGOs as Tela- technical cooperation. CITES (Convention on Inter- pak/EIA for surveys, and strongly presenting the pro- national Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna posed countermeasures arising from the surveys to and Flora; commonly referred to as the Washington the Indonesian government as outcomes of utilizing Convention) is the sole legal mechanism for control- Japanese ODA. However, while direct assistance to ling international trade to protect rare species, and NGOs can generally expect sustainable effects at a technical analysis and interpretation of the proce- low cost, their projects are likely to be completed dures until registration and development of domestic within local resources, and that is the reason why this legal systems are indeed areas that can be implement- is a typical case of assistance with “low visibility.” To ed with technical cooperation. This would make it avoid this, it is important for JICA to implement possible to provide international cooperation without participatory projects so that it can always be recog- directly confronting the sensitive political issues that nized by NGOs as an “aid provider they can rely on are constantly perceived in the issue of illegal logging for both funding and technology,” such as regularly in Indonesia. exchanging views or providing advice on survey con- However, CITES listing is not the fundamental tent, rather than just providing financial assistance solution to this issue. In April 2001 the Indonesian for the surveys. This method will facilitate the accu- Minister of Forestry issued a temporary ban on mulation of survey know-how and the implementa- ramin logging under a ministerial ordinance follow- tion of indirect assistance for measures to counter ing the release of a Telapak/EIA report on illegal illegal logging, which is a benefit to the aid provider. ramin logging in Indonesia (Telapak & EIA 1999) (Ramin is a tropical hardwood species used in furni- Conclusion ture and trim.), and later the CITES Secretariat listed ramin on Appendix III of CITES. However, on As can be seen by the unfathomable response of the August 17, 2001 the Malaysian CITES committee Malaysian government to CITES listing of ramin unilaterally notified the CITES Secretariat of the mentioned earlier, illegal logging is an issue that has implementation of an exemption to Appendix III considerable political impact. Seeking a fundamental listing for ramin parts and products. This unfath- solution to illegal logging through international omable response by the Malaysian government cooperation is, however, by no means a straightfor- attracted widespread skepticism from the interna- ward challenge. As long as there is a demand and tional community (ITTO 2002). there are groups prepared to accept the timber know- Looking at the methods when examining tech- ing that it has been illegally logged, there is no end in nical cooperation relating to peace building, it is sight to this problem. Copyright infringement of worth considering methods of providing direct assis- music and movies (distribution of illegal copies) can tance to local resources that are strongly committed be seen as an example of a similar crime, and with to various measures to counter illegal logging, espe- the relatively tough penalties handed down for illegal cially NGOs. Providing direct support for NGOs copies in Japan over the past few years, the level of that have an established activity base is highly effec- distribution of illegally copied music or movies is tive and generally very cost effective, so this is a suit- considerably lower than that in the countries of able method for measures to counter the urgent Southeast Asia. This is a good example of the admin- problem of illegal logging. istrative authorities stopping the flood of such copied For example, during the series of elections in products by making their tough stance on this issue Indonesia in 2004 (general election, and the first clearly known. This can also be applied to the issue direct presidential election), at the request of the of illegal logging. Indonesian government seeking truly democratic and But without tougher penalties for suppliers, be open elections, JICA provided assistance in the it illegal logging or copied products, they will ulti- implementation of opinion polls by local Indonesian mately flow to where there is a demand. For exam- NGOs. As a result, public opinion was represented ple, of the nine illegal logging operators in Indonesia more accurately and in a more timely manner than at charged in 2005, six were acquitted by the local any time in the past, contributing to the peaceful and courts. This fact is a typical example clearly indicat- successful series of elections, and the assistance was ing that the judicial functions of Indonesia, which

11 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Article ]

were well-known throughout the world for corrup- against a TEMPO office (TEMPO incident). tion, is in even greater disarray and has undergone a 6. Regarding the relationship between JICA’s assistance further functional decline because of decentralization to polling organizations and the 2004 elections, see over recent years. the report by Assistant Professor Jun Honna of Rit- In other words, the core issue in the problem of sumeikan University, Support for Indonesian elections illegal logging in Indonesia today is how to strength- and democratization in the June 2004 edition of JICA en such declining functions, and above all else, it is Frontier. critical for Indonesia to enforce forestry laws rigor- ously. A fully achievable method, for instance, would References be to support the strengthening of the judicial functions in each of the regions through neutral NGOs Watanabe, Toshio. 2003. Asia keizai tokuhon [Readings and forums and the like such as those started by in Asian Economics]. 3rd ed. Tokyo: Toyo Keizai ITTO in Riau and Central Kalimantan Provinces. Inc. Support by the international community for these Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NGOs is another highly effective method for con- Nations. 2004. Forest Finance. Working Paper. tributing to stronger regional judicial functions, and Telapak & EIA. 2005. The Last Frontier - Illegal Log- the cost effectiveness of such support is expected to ging in Papua and China’s Massive Timber Theft. be very high. Study Report. Providing extended support for such a reform of Telapak & EIA. 1999. The Final Cut Report-Illegal consciousness from within has tremendous potential Logging in Tanjung Puting National Park. Study and presents significant challenges for international Report. cooperation to combat illegal logging in Indonesia ITTO 2002. ITTO Tropical Forest Update 12. today. There is now a requirement for Japan’s ODA The author unidentified. 2005. The Rape of Merbau. to take a stance for measures against illegal logging, TEMPO March 7-14. while giving flexible consideration to the constraints on the various schemes.

Notes

1. The Indonesian Ministry of Forestry reported that in 2004 the area of deforestation was about 1.8 million ha, while an area of only about 700,000 ha was replanted under afforestation programs. 2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. ODA towa [What is ODA]. http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/gaiko/oda/index/ nyumon/oda.html 3. The 37th ITTO Council Report (Report of Com- pleted Projects and Pre-Projects, November 7–12, 2005). 4. The Jakarta Post 2006. However, on January 29, a week after his criticism, Vice-President Kalla stated to Nihon Keizai Shimbun in Jakarta that “Indonesia appreciates Japan’s assistance,” in explanation of the article that appeared on the 26th (Nihon Keizai Shimbun, January 30, 2006). 5. TEMPO is Indonesia’s largest political commentary magazine, and has a reputation for publishing neutral and timely articles without influence from specific political groups or religious organizations. Perhaps because of its strident neutrality, an article in 2003 criticizing a Chinese businessman led to an attack

12 [ Special Report ]

Gender Mainstreaming in Latin America and the Caribbean — Issues and Prospects for Cooperation from a Gender Perspective

Attendees of JICA Latin American and Caribbean Gender Mainstreaming Conference 1

Introduction I. JICA’s Efforts Towards Gender Equality

It has been a while since gender mainstreaming was 1. Gender and development: paradigm change applied comprehensively in the field work of interna- Changes in the approach to gender and development tional cooperation as a strategy for achieving gender are related to changes in aid policies regarding inter- equality in developing countries. JICA has been national cooperation, and although this topic cannot aware of the WID (Women in Development) be discussed in isolation, since it has already been approach which promotes women’s participation in discussed in detail (Tanaka 2002), here we will touch development since the beginning of the 1990s, and specifically on the change of paradigms and its impli- has contributed to helping the women of developing cations. countries to actually work towards improving the Although women had played an important role quality of life and fulfilling practical needs by imple- in development, until the 1970s that role was seldom menting projects that place women as the partici- recognized in policies or operations. The reason for pants and beneficiaries of development. Additionally, this is that it was difficult to observe the activities since 2004 we have been fully promoting efforts with carried out by women in comparison to those of regard to gender mainstreaming in both operation men, and the influence that women had on the deci- and organization in order to work towards improving sion making process was limited. The main activities the quality of operations, from the perspective of of women were: (1) reproductive activities such as ensuring fairness. JICA, which has transformed into housekeeping, child rearing and nursing; (2) activi- an independent administrative institution, has devel- ties such as those contributing directly towards fami- oped in a new direction from the perspectives of “the ly welfare, which despite being economic actions, field-oriented approach,” “human security” and were on a small not market scale; and (3) communal “effectiveness, efficiency and speed,” and the impor- activities supporting men. On the other hand, the tance of gender mainstreaming is increasing in main activities of men were: (1) economic activities processes such as these. such as earning an income; and (2) communal activi- In this paper we will: (1) view the process of ties with a strong say in decision making. Notable gender mainstreaming in JICA; (2) introduce the differences were observable in terms of economic details of JICA Latin American and Caribbean Gen- resources and influence. With regard to the benefici- der Mainstreaming Conference, the holding of which aries of aid, since the majority of people in charge of was made possible through the use of a video confer- aid and the government officials in developing coun- encing system (JICA-Net), and in particular, a gen- tries were men back then, there was a tendency to der analysis of the development issues in this region overlook the differing development needs according and the JICA offices’ gender mainstreaming policy to gender, and as a result aid resources were concen- and efforts; and (3) present the future issues and trated on men who possessed the say in decision prospects for gender mainstreaming in cooperation making and were overwhelmingly active in the pub- for the region. lic domain. What was prescribed in this context was the WID approach. Although this approach was sup- posed to promote the participation of women in the development process, it gradually became apparent

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 21-(2) (October 2005).

13 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Special Report ]

that it was insufficient for rectifying the gender gap. gender equality,3 finalizing “Thematic Guidelines on Under such conditions, the systems causing gender Gender Mainstreaming/WID” (2002) and hosting inequality and the values and attitudes of organiza- “the Second Issue-wise Study Committee on Gender tion members themselves were regarded as problem- and WID” (2002) in order to detect the issues neces- atical, and the GAD (Gender and Development) sary for JICA to implement gender equality and approach, which involved all stakeholders in achiev- women’s empowerment. ing gender equality, was beginning to be advocated. Changes in aid policy and the accumulation of Although changing paradigms, which aimed at gen- achievements by JICA itself have also brought about der equality and the empowerment of women, was changes in JICA’s organization. In April 2004, JICA originally advocated by the active body of progressive underwent major reorganization. Efforts were made NGOs (Sen and Grown 1987), the gender main- mainly in three areas of operations: (1) the construc- streaming approach was given a major boost at the tion of organization-wide mechanisms such as the Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing) in establishment of an independent department to 1995 for the purpose of achieving gender equality. As function as headquarters specializing in the promo- stated in a report by the Development Assistance tion of gender equality, the placement of a person Committee (DAC) of the OECD, the changing of responsible for and a person in charge of gender paradigms from WID to GAD contained numerous issues within Headquarters, domestic and overseas important implications for organizations (OECD- offices, the clarification of responsibilities and the DAC 1998a, 15) (OECD-DAC 1998b, 21-26). The creation of a working manual; (2) the development most important of these was that gender equality of personnel’s capabilities for becoming sensitized to issues were not just about peripheral issues pertaining gender issues and improving practical skills in opera- to the specialized nature of professional careers, but tions relating to them; and (3) the integrated promo- were now about issues which needed to be achieved tion of a gender perspective in actual operations. in both actual organizations and their operations Although the importance of “gender equality” and through the individual actions of organization mem- “gender mainstreaming” had already been recognized bers, each possessing a variety of capabilities and val- at key points as a part of “improvement in terms of ues. Therefore, since efforts are needed in a sustained quality,” this was the first time that an organization way at all levels of organizational operations, it recog- had been named and motions were made towards nizes the independence and contributions of each introducing it seriously as an approach. As well as individual organization member and shows the need being the single biggest change to occur since JICA for new leadership and team work which produce a began making efforts towards addressing gender mutually prosperous organizational culture. issues, this was also a commitment as an organization. 2. Efforts towards gender issues at JICA Of these changes, the construction of the new Although real efforts towards addressing gender system, placement of personnel, clarification of issues at JICA got underway with “the Issue-wise responsibilities and creation of a working manual Study Committee for Development Assistance on have mostly been completed. With regard to the Women in Development” in 1990, concrete if some- capabilities of JICA personnel, 500 personnel attend what unsystematic efforts had been made during the gender-related studies per year (approximately 40% implementation process of the projects before this. of all JICA personnel), and a knowledge of gender Changing to the GAD paradigm mentioned in the concepts, related policies and techniques have thor- previous paragraph also caused gradual changes to oughly been absorbed; we have already come to the Japan’s aid policy. At the Fourth World Conference end of the critical path. Categorizing operations into on Women in 1995 the Japanese government three kinds, “WID projects (women-targeted proj- announced the WID initiative, and in August 2003 ects)”, “gender equality projects” and “gender-inte- the importance of gender equality perspectives was grated projects,”4 JICA is currently reviewing what incorporated as a single agenda in the new ODA sort of efforts need to be made in order to realize Charter. In this period, in addition to quantity- cooperation which contributes to the effective focused efforts such as increasing WID projects achievement of gender equality through gender-inte- (women-targeted projects), considering the impact at grated projects, which account for more than 50%, the policy level, JICA has also been redoubling the largest percentage, of the categorized projects. efforts in terms of quality such as the implementation of aid for the national machinery2 in promoting

14 Gender Mainstreaming in Latin America and the Caribbean — Issues and Prospects for Cooperation from a Gender Perspective [ Special Report ]

3. Background to and significance of holding hour time difference within the Latin America and JICA Latin American and Caribbean Gender Caribbean region alone, and the time difference with Mainstreaming Conference Tokyo is at least 14 hours.5 Furthermore, I would also The holding of this conference was proposed by the like to mention that this conference would not have JICA Regional Support Office for Central America been possible without, not only the motivation of the and the Caribbean. In the current context of the attendees, but also the support of the management, deepening of gender mainstreaming, this conference many technicians and other organizations who assist- is viewed as a proactive effort towards addressing ed in holding it, in such efforts as using the two dif- gender-related issues by JICA overseas offices. While ferent video conferencing systems of JICA and the it is necessary for a gender perspective to be included World Bank and making it possible for many offices in the policies of developing countries, in order to to attend by rising to the challenge of addressing the implement gender mainstreaming in these countries connection methods for relaying multiple office links. it is also important to heighten the sensitivity of JICA personnel and those in charge to gender issues II. The Latin American and Caribbean and to reflect this in operations. Here I will present Gender Mainstreaming Conference the lessons from the Latin American and Caribbean Report Gender Mainstreaming Conference as efforts led by overseas offices for that purpose. 1. Gender analysis of the development issues This conference was held on the 1st and 5th of within Latin America and the Caribbean July 2005 (Japan time) with the participation of 14 What are the current gender issues within Latin JICA offices in Latin America, relevant departments America and the Caribbean? At the conference, we at Headquarters (Planning and Coordination surveyed what advances had been made over the past Department, Regional Department III, etc.), and the ten years in the region as a whole, the issues which Uzbekistan Office, which is currently considering needed to be tackled in the region as a whole and the similar approaches, in the capacity of observer. progress of the Millennium Development Goals The JICA Regional Support Office for Central (United Nations Development Programme 2004) America and the Caribbean proposed the holding of (United Nations Economic Commission for Latin this conference, considering two points as being America and Caribbean 2004b) (United Nations Eco- important: (1) the making of efforts to ensure that nomic Commission for Latin America and Caribbean the people in charge, who are the advocates of gender 2004a). In general, together with the progress towards mainstreaming at overseas offices, deepen their democracy since 1980, the three developments which knowledge of gender issues, and that more people can be seen in this region are the enactment of legisla- conduct operations which adopt a gender perspective; tion for the protection and improvement of women’s and (2) the mutual study of effective efforts and poli- rights, advances in women’s participation in official cies within regions through the sharing of informa- decision making and the establishment of administration on gender issues in Latin America and the tive organizations to advance gender equality. The Caribbean, gender mainstreaming policies and good women’s movement in this region has a long history. examples. Requests from various offices including While women’s “activism,” including the values of those of Nicaragua and Brazil were also factors in this. “women” as mothers and wives expected by the The conference was not just a proactive effort by authorities, was always in existence during the era of overseas offices towards addressing gender issues but dictatorships, there were also women who joined in also a proposal-style, participatory learning opportu- the fight for the establishment of democracy in their nity to consider gender mainstreaming within a nations. Although there is a tendency for the women’s regional approach, and it was clear that more than movement to be broken down according to individ- anything it was an important attempt to comprehen- ual issues, regions and ethnicity, there is a notable sively grasp gender issues and their coping strategies regional trend towards cooperating on the promotion in “nations” and “regions.” It was JICA’s first-ever of gender policy based on common historical, social conference to have discussed gender mainstreaming at and cultural ground under the colonial rule of Spain the regional and national levels. This also demonstrat- and subsequent independence from that country, and ed that JICA’s efforts towards addressing gender issues the sharing of a common language in Spanish. had started to enter a new stage. With regard to participation in politics, This conference also presented a challenge from although Costa Rica is the only country in the region the perspective of logistic support. There is a two- to have achieved the target of 30% in the Quota Sys-

15 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Special Report ]

tem6 which was proposed early on, six countries Table 1 Proportion of women who answered headed by Argentina introduced the same system and that they had suffered spousal violence the proportion of female politicians has increased. In addition to this, with regard to the enactment of leg- Country Rate of Occurrence Argentina NA islation in the entire region, the Convention on the Bolivia 17% Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Brazil NA Women and optional protocols have been ratified Chile 23% and the legal systems have been revised, including Colombia 41% family law, civil law and criminal law, to advance Costa Rica 10% Ecuador 60% gender equality in marriage, divorce and ownership. Guatemala 49% Furthermore, progressive national systems for pro- Honduras NA moting gender equality have also been established. Jamaica NA Other than the eight countries possessing complex Mexico 27% systems in which independent departments are also Nicaragua 27% Panama NA responsible for the implementation of social welfare Paraguay 10% efforts, most countries collect and analyze informa- Peru 31% tion on gender and approaches or provide technical Source: United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and support to various departments and local govern- Caribbean 2004b. ment, positioning the national machinery in the upper levels of government. major issues in countries other than Costa Rica, Furthermore, since the Fourth World Confer- despite the zeal of the women who have managed the ence on Women in 1995, this region has made passing of the bills. efforts to enact legislation “eliminating violence With regard to education, poverty and health against women” regionally, with most countries care, we surveyed the present state while considering implementing new laws which prohibit domestic the Millennium Development Goals. The achieve- violence or reforming existing criminal and police ments of gender equality in basic education, while by laws, defining spousal violence as a crime and no means perfect, are yielding results to a certain endeavoring to eradicate it. In many countries, the degree (Table 2, 3). In this region there are also many victim statistics for women of reproductive age (15- who have studied abroad, fluently mastering other 45) are prepared according to the Demographic languages including English, and although highly Health Survey and it is reported that 10-50% of educated women are often active in medicine, law, women have experienced physical violence by their politics and research, gender disparity still exists to a spouse, which is higher than the figures for Asia greater or lesser degree depending on the level of (Table 1) . While there is a need for the women education, region and whether or not the women are themselves to access the restraining order system after of aboriginal or non-aboriginal descent. suffering from physical violence and ensure a certain Compared to other regions, this region displays time and space for temporary anonymity in order to notable growth in the individual earnings of citizens, secure their safety, a characteristic of this region is that is to say, some countries are about to achieve that the system (particularly its police and judicial the level of newly industrializing economies. Fur- aspects) functions only after objective evidence is thermore, despite the fact that the education level is provided from a medical institution. The safety of high compared to other regions, more than half of the abused women is not just conditional on the tri- adult women aged 15 and over do not have their lateral cooperation of doctors, police and judiciary, own disposable income, unemployment is high, and but also depends on women’s legal literacy, that is, moreover, when compared with men of the same how much they themselves understand their own level of education and occupation, a high propor- rights and are able to begin the procedures for tion of women earn lower salaries than men. obtaining those services. With regard to the enact- Through the removal of restrictive tariffs and priva- ment of legislation in this region, although a degree tization of wealth, trade surplus is being reduced due of progress has been seen, there are problems rooted to affect of globalization of the economy, and pri- in the budgetary steps necessary for the changes to be mary industries in which many women work are realized, the attitude of those providing protection to suffering. On the other hand, manufacturing-cen- the women, legal literacy and discrimination against tered secondary industries such as export, commodi- the victims. The struggle against violence has left ties and electrical appliances are being lead by multi-

16 Gender Mainstreaming in Latin America and the Caribbean — Issues and Prospects for Cooperation from a Gender Perspective [ Special Report ]

Table 2 Adult literacy rates in Latin American Table 4 Maternal mortality rates in Latin Amer- and Caribbean countries (aged 15 or ica and the Caribbean older) Maternal Mortality Rate Country Women (%) Men (%) Country (per 100 thousand births) Mexico 88.7 92.0 Adjusted values in 2000 El Salvador 77.1 82.4 Mexico 83 Costa Rica 95.9 95.7 El Salvador 150 Bolivia 80.4 92.9 Costa Rica 43 Argentina 97.2 97.2 Bolivia 420 Paraguay 90.2 93.1 Argentina 82 Brazil 88.6 88.3 Paraguay 170 Honduras 80.2 79.8 Brazil 260 Nicaragua 76.6 76.8 Honduras 110 Panama 91.2 92.5 Nicaragua 230 Jamaica 91.4 83.8 Panama 160 Chile 95.6 95.8 Jamaica 87 Guatemala 63.3 75.4 Chile 31 Source: UNDP 2005. Prepared by Akiko Tadera (Planning and Coordi- Guatemala 240 nation Department Gender Equality Promotion Team intern). Colombia 130 Peru 410 The Dominican Republic 150 Table 3 Gross enrolment ratio in Latin Ame- Ecuador 130 rican and Caribbean countries (ele- Source: UNDP 2005. Prepared by Akiko Tadera (Planning and Coordi- mentary, secondary and higher edu- nation Department Gender Equality Promotion Team intern). cation) Country Women (%) Men (%) Colombia, Ecuador and Honduras; Guatemala and Mexico 76 74 El Salvador 67 68 Nicaragua; and Panama and Paraguay), a rise in the Costa Rica 69 67 GDP per capita is by no means always accompanied Bolivia 84 90 by a drop in a maternal mortality rate. This is obvi- Argentina 99 91 ous even in comparisons with the ASEAN region Paraguay 74 73 (Table 5). Although there is a country (Vietnam) Brazil 93 89 Honduras NA NA which had a GDP per capita at the US$2000 (PPP) Nicaragua 71 68 level and achieved a maternal mortality rate of 130, Panama 82 76 with countries that have GDP per capita of approxi- Jamaica 77 71 mately 1.5 (Ecuador) and 2.7 (Colombia) times Chile 81 82 greater than that, improvements in the maternal Guatemala 59 63 mortality rate have made little progress. What can be Sources: UNDP 2005. Prepared by Akiko Tadera (Planning and Coordination Department Gender Equality Promotion Team intern). deduced from these indices is that, in addition to the differences in policy commitments towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (particularly, national corporations, and employment in the health care administration expenditure at all levels), region itself, depending on the market, fluctuates there is a tendency for economic inequalities, which and is unstable. Many women in the region often can be hidden by the average value of “per capita”, to become part of a mobile workforce domestically and further increase the risk faced by pregnant women. internationally, and the establishment of a labor The lack of safety guarantees for women as human market to facilitate the promotion and stabilization beings, part of their fundamental existence, is due of women’s employment, and entrepreneurial assis- not only to discrimination against women as a result tance as a means for generating income other than of what are called the values of machismo and mari- employment, are needed. anismo,7 but also to the endurance of complex struc- What defines the gender inequality above all are tures of inequality composed of interconnected maternal mortality rates, and in this region three- regional and ethnic traits. Death, injury and disabili- digit maternal mortality rates are still being recorded ty resulting from spousal violence can be cited as in El Salvador, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, problems facing a universally high proportion of Honduras and Brazil (Table 4). As regional compar- women in the region, and death during childbirth or isons between identical or similar maternal mortality as a result of being infected by AIDS is cited as one rates of countries show (E.g. Bolivia and Peru; of the adversities suffered by women of African

17 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Special Report ]

Table 5 ASEAN maternal mortality rates which recognizes them as part of an agenda. When those in charge lack information or are uncertain of Country GDP per Capita Maternal Mortality Rate (PPP) (Adjusted Values) the specialist knowledge of gender issues which they Brunei 19,210 37 possess, officials in charge of gender issues from the Cambodia 2,060 450 national machinery or other aid organizations of the Indonesia 3,230 230 Laos 1,720 650 country to which they are posted are used as entry Malaysia 9,120 41 points (El Salvador). Myanmar 1,027 360 In Latin America and the Caribbean, democrati- The Philippines 4,170 200 zation is yielding stable results, and gender equality Singapore 24,040 30 and gender mainstreaming are being thoroughly Thailand 7,010 44 absorbed into civil society and the private sector. In Vietnam 2,300 130 light of such a background, those in charge of gender Source: UNDP 2004. issues do not limit their sources of information to the statistics and white papers of government institu- ancestry or aboriginal people with inferior proficien- tions, but also keep an eye extensively on civil society cy in Spanish: all of which are serious problems and the media, viewing gender issues as complex threatening their very “survival” as human beings phenomena and conducting diversified information and cannot be ignored. analyses (Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Nicaragua and Panama). Such sources of information include the 2. Sources of information on gender issues and statistics and publications of research institutes and strategies for reflecting a gender perspective in NGOs, information from primary sources through operations discussions and interviews with these stakeholders, In order to introduce a gender perspective at all levels information on meetings with experts, volunteers of operations at JICA offices in this region, the peo- and residents during site visits obtained through ple in charge of gender issues, headed by the resident multilayered and diversified approaches, other aid representative of the office, are able to: (1) exchange organizations and the liaison meetings with them, opinions with the implementing agencies, deciding and country-specific information gathering reports on suitable approaches; (2) gather and analyze infor- on gender issues produced by the Planning and mation, educating and providing information and Coordination Department. Additionally, when there techniques to project executors such as experts, con- are issues that cannot be solved by these means sultants and volunteers; (3) formulate plans which either, technical advice is sought from issue-specific incorporate a gender perspective; and (4), if required, departments or Planning and Coordination Depart- obtain all manner of technical support from within ment at Headquarters, or from senior advisors the region or from the Planning and Coordination (Nicaragua), and there have been cases where infor- Department at Headquarters. At the conference, mation was exchanged on the reliability of informa- those in charge of gender in this region were able to tion possessed on a reciprocal basis. share the awareness that they are proactively developing improvements and techniques in order to pro- (2) What approaches and measures are necessary mote gender mainstreaming and solve problems that for gender mainstreaming? occur during its process in the countries to which One of the problems facing those in charge of gender they have been posted, and that their efforts were issues on a daily basis is twofold; during the process of producing results. planning, implementing and evaluating operations, what approaches are necessary and what measures are (1) In the country to which personnel has been required in order to implement them? This kind of posted, what kind of development issues remain problem awareness is fostered through information from the perspective of gender? (Securing gathering and analysis during drafting the aforemen- sources of information) tioned JICA Country Programs and formulating proj- When JICA Country Progurams are drafted or projects. For example, when considering what level at ects are formulated, the people in charge of gender which gender mainstreaming should be supported in issues at each overseas office are required to analyze the country to which personnel are posted, cases remaining development issues from a gender perspec- where efforts were promoted addressing gender issues tive, present measures to ensure fairness and give pre- at not only the national policy level, but, with the sentations on or discuss these issues in a meeting development of decentralization, in local government

18 Gender Mainstreaming in Latin America and the Caribbean — Issues and Prospects for Cooperation from a Gender Perspective [ Special Report ]

too (Mexico), are in contrast with cases where govern- to monitor the progress of the Millennium Develop- ment agencies aside from the national machinery ment Goals and share information. In El Salvador, would rarely take up gender issues as a topic for dis- there are gatherings between donor organizations and cussion (Guatemala). Although decentralization is the recipient governments for each goal, and officials starting to progress in Latin America on the whole, and experts attend these platforms in order to the speed and extent of its expansion differs. There- exchange opinions. Furthermore, aside from the Mil- fore, when developing operations which incorporate a lennium Development Goals dimension, most coun- gender perspective, the following points were present- tries use the donor meetings to consult with one ed as options for approaches at the conference: (1) the another so that overlaps do not occur with regard to provision of technical support for local government in their mutual cooperation and sometimes agreeing on order to realize gender policy at the national level; (2) complementary approaches, donor aid differing in the implementation of gender mainstreaming at all scale (between Nicaragua and the Inter-American ministries, limited to central government only (or all Development Bank). In such ways, information shar- government administrators); (3) the involvement of ing also takes place and there are cases where the possi- all stakeholders (both government and civil society) in bilities of coalitions with trust funds (UNIFEM: the implementation of gender mainstreaming, limited UNDP Human Security Fund), to which Japan has to particular sectors and regions only; and (4), with contributed for international organizations, are sound- regard to the details of the activities, the adoption of ed out (Paraguay). Furthermore, there are also cases either a pilot project by means of people’s participa- where, as an aim of the Millennium Development tion or information development and participatory Goals’ social equality support, in addition to the hold- policymaking support. ing of a gender donor conference, projects are shared Furthermore, a gap was pointed out between the between donors and hints are acquired for the formu- techniques and values which are introduced external- lation of projects based on local needs (El Salvador). ly and the reality. For example, cases where although policies were introduced by donor aid they were not (4) To increase the number of people involved in implemented because they did not fully take into operations tackled from a gender perspective account the stakeholders (Bolivia) were contrasted When tentatively trying to create operations which with cases where policies and the plans which fol- mainstream gender perspectives, in order that per- lowed them were both comparatively intact (El Sal- sonnel of JICA and other ODA organizations vador), or where there were many personnel who become sensitized to gender issues and learn the skills understood gender issues (Costa Rica). Moreover, in for spontaneously tackling them, the following cre- order make efforts towards eliminating violence ative efforts are made: specialist consultants or organ- against women which is the issue common to the izations are identified on site, commissioned surveys region, in countries which have drawn up Poverty are considered in order to propose approaches and Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) there is a need to measures (Costa Rica), study sessions, training, and clarify the causal relationship between economic seminars are conducted for the parties concerned development and violence in order to prepare the (Argentina, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua), budget for the “Program for Eliminating Violence and people to be in charge of gender issues are select- against Women” and to legitimize the budget, and ed from within the national administrative staff and JICA Headquarters was asked to give advice regard- are used for information gathering and as lecturers ing the construction of a theory for doing that for training (Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador and (Nicaragua). Additionally, aside from Paraguay where Honduras). Guarani, an aboriginal language, and Spanish are As shown in the next section, although each of both used as the official languages, while aboriginal these points is a small step, compared to the days support is recognized as being necessary, cases were when gender issues were being tackled solely by spe- cited where advice and suggestions were exchanged cialists a far larger number of JICA personnel, gov- between overseas offices with regard to approaches ernments and civil societies of the countries to which towards aboriginal support (Bolivia and Chili). they are posted, and donor organizations are involved with gender mainstreaming and making proactive, (3) How are we going to continue to ensure that practical efforts. The movement of gender main- aid is effective? streaming has entered a new stage, not only sustain- With regard to ensuring that aid is effective, within ing operations but also penetrating into the aware- the region donor meetings are held regularly in order ness of staff members, who are sharing their values

19 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Special Report ]

on the significance of equality. ones that follow. Firstly, in order to tackle gender mainstreaming in nations and region, it will be nec- III. Future Issues and Prospects essary to also take note of our understanding of aid resources, such as identifying specialists and special- 1. What this conference shows ized agencies in the region. The reason for this is This conference was an effort towards gender main- that, by making use of regional resources, we can streaming aimed at nations and region, and it was expect greater results from the following two angles: JICA’s first attempt. Although this conference illus- common language use and understanding of culture. trates a number of points, the following points are Secondly, with regard to disaster prevention and vio- important when looked at from the perspective of lence which surfaced as issues common to the region, nations and region. Firstly, JICA personnel’s support gender perspectives need to be adopted in regional for the implementation of planning, expediting imple- training sessions when considering improvements to mentation, monitoring and evaluation, tackled from a how these issues are dealt with in the region as a gender perspective for each development issue and in whole, since they are particularly closely connected each region, contributes towards the deepening and to gender issues. When this conference was viewed development of gender perspectives, and also towards from the perspective of the regional support office, it effectively carrying out better operations as part of the made it possible to improve the abilities to share and new “field-oriented approach (overseas offices’ initia- implement efforts aimed at addressing gender issues tive)” policy for JICA operation management. in all of the regional jurisdictions. Finally, proposals Secondly, the overseas offices facilitate the com- were submitted for the placement of experts on gen- plementary and sustained efforts toward gender der issues to the regional support office, as key fac- equality, when they thoroughly analyze information tors for promoting efforts in the future. from many stakeholders in a proactive and diversified The success of this conference is already appar- way and ascertain what is needed before they cooper- ent in the findings of the Needs Survey and applica- ate with the various ministries, local governments tion for technical cooperation in September, two and NGOs as well as the national machinery. Part- months after the conference. Many of the participat- nerships with donors and numerous organizations of ing offices are experimenting with analyses which the countries to which personnel are posted not only include gender perspectives, and from the request heighten our international credibility but also ensure stage are thinking about the relationship between sustainability and mutual learning. project issues and gender and reflecting the gender Finally, in this conference the roles of Head- issues to be considered during the actual implemen- quarters and the overseas offices were clearly recog- tation of the projects in their Needs survey forms. In nized in the organizational efforts called “gender this way, gender mainstreaming cannot produce any mainstreaming.” Headquarters is responsible for con- sustained effect through measures in which single solidating and promoting the basic points of interest measures are passed down from above, as it is an to JICA as a whole, while the overseas offices work to approach based on individual organization members realize actual changes within the context of each and personnel in charge of gender issues in the coun- country. At the overseas offices, information and tries to which they are posted, all of whom possess efforts in each region were not only shared but the different values. As stated by other international information gathered by the gender equality promo- organizations implementing it, gender mainstream- tion teams, including efforts which were given the ing is “a long, slow process, requiring inputs on many go-ahead in other regions, good examples and les- front ,over a long period of time, including advocacy, sons, were also provided as vital cooperative informa- advice and support, competence development, devel- tion for JICA as a whole. opment of methods and tools and vigilance in following up and evaluation progress” (United Nations. 2. Future prospects Office of the Special Advisor on Gender 2001). This conference showed the need for a comprehen- When gender mainstreaming is grasped within the sive approach from the perspective of both the posi- context and process of development efforts aimed at tion and aspect of “nation” and “region” respectively, ensuring fairness by JICA, which deals with so many not just an escape from the sporadic approach of projects, and collaborating many stakeholders, such schemes and projects which till then had been the as the counterpart governments and donor societies, focus of JICA’s cooperation, and illustrated the the true value of slow changes and progress will be necessity of new system improvements such as the understood for the first time. Because efforts toward

20 Gender Mainstreaming in Latin America and the Caribbean — Issues and Prospects for Cooperation from a Gender Perspective [ Special Report ]

gender mainstreaming progress in a difficult situa- grated projects do not set gender equality and tion, it is necessary to always share good examples women’s empowerment as project goals, they do and results of activities and for as many organization reflect gender perspectives. members as possible to work towards applying them 5. This illustrates the time difference which is shortest, practically. during daylight saving time in summer. 6. The Quota System, also known as affirmative action, stipulates in law the proportion of women occupying Notes official decision making positions such as ones in national legislature, sometimes through establishing 1. [Overseas] Atsushi Kamishima, Tomoyuki Odani, punitive actions in political parties who do not sup- Junnichi Miura, Tatsuya Morita, Yoshiko Aoki, port female candidates, and aims at actively promot- Kazuki Otsuka, Yoshinori Shibata, Hiroshi Nishiki, ing female participation in decision making and poli- Toshimi Kobayashi, Hiroaki Endo, Etsuko Sato, cy development in all areas. Takako Tamai, Yukie Suzuki, Takeharu Nakagawa, 7. Machismo refers to the idea of male superiority, and Akihiko Yamada, Kenichi Kato, Naoe Sato, Takeshi marianismo to the sacred idea of “motherhood”. Nagata, Koji Nishida, Tatsuhiro Mitamura, Akinori Katsumata, Yuichi Sano, Nao Kobayashi, Naoko Reference Ishibashi, Masayuki Takahashi, Yukiko Haneda, Gledy Aritomi, Akira Nakashima, Nobuhiro Kuma- Gita, S. and C. Grown. 1987. Development, Crisis and gai, Wataru Matsui [Headquarters] Saburo Yam- Alternative Visions: Third World Women’s Perspectives. aguchi, Kazumi Kobayashi, Suguru Nakane, New York: Monthly Review Press Tomoko Taira, Hiromi Uemura, Naoto Sakonju, OECD-DAC. 1998a. Guidelines on Gender Equality and Satoshi Murosawa, Seiichiro Gomi, Hiroshi Yoneda, Women’s Empowerment in Development Cooperation. Atsuko Suzuki, Rie Komahashi, Kasumi Nishigaya, Paris: OECD Publications. Michiko Suzuki, Rie Ikemoto, Shihoko Kuroda, . 1998b. DAC Sourcebook on Concepts and Muneo Takasaka, Shinobu Saito [Table creation] Approaches Linked to Gender Equality. Paris: OECD Akiko Tadera Publications. 2. “National machinery” mainly refers to an organiza- Tanaka, Y. 2002. Kaihatsu to jendaa: enpawaamento no tion which supports the mainstreaming of gender kokusai kyoryoku [Development and Gender: Interna- perspectives in all areas of policy throughout govern- tional Cooperation for Empowerment]. Tokyo: ment as a whole, taking the form of either a single Japan International Cooperation Publishing Co., organization recognized by the government which is Ltd. established by nearly all United Nations member United Nations Development Programme. 2004. states or an organization comprising of multiple Human Development Report. New York. parts. The form varies depending on the country. . 2005. Human Development Report. New York: 3. Referring to the main technical cooperation projects Oxford University Press. only for reasons of space, Cambodia, Indonesia, Pak- United Nations Economic Commission for Latin Ameri- istan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Nigeria can be ca and Caribbean. 2004a. Report of the Ninth Ses- cited as countries in which technical cooperation sion of the Regional Conference o Women in Latin projects occurred. With regards to training programs, America and the Caribbean. Mexico City. in addition to group training such as the Seminar for . 2004b. Roads Towards Gender Equity in Latin Promotion of Gender Equality II (cabinet office) and America and the Caribbean: 90th Regional Confer- the Seminar on Gender Mainstreaming Policies for ence on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean. Government Officers (Kitakyushu Forum on Asian Mexico City. Women), results have been achieved in training United Nations. Office of the Special Adviser on Gender aimed at specific regions and countries, such as elimi- Isssues and Advancement of Women. 2001. Sup- nating violence against women and the fostering of porting Gender Mainstreaming: The Work of the female entrepreneurs. Office of Special Adviser on Gender Issues and 4. WID projects (women-targeted projects) are ones in Advancement of Women. New York. which the main beneficiaries and participants are World Health Organization. 2004. The Economic women. Gender equality projects are ones in which Dimensions of International Violence. Geneva: World the main goal is the promotion of gender equality Health Organization. and women’s empowerment. Although gender-inte-

21 [ Case Studies ]

Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level

Akinori SATO Manager of Department of Development Planning, Pacific Consultants International

Junko OKAMOTO Department of Development Planning, Pacific Consultants International

Abstract

The capital of Bangladesh, Metropolitan Dhaka, has an area of 131 km2 and a population of 5.7 million people. In Dhaka City, problems in solid waste management related to primary collection system include throwing of waste, scattering of waste around containers or dustbins (waste collection points with concrete walls) and disposal of hazardous waste. These problems are caused by: 1) lack of understanding of responsibility in the primary collection service; 2) lack of coordination between Dhaka City Corporation (DCC), ward commissioners, primary collection service providers and residents; 3) improper solid waste collection; 4) lack of people's awareness and cooperation; and 5) lack of ability and professional attitude among primary collection service providers. To solve these problems, solid waste management at ward level has been proposed by “Study on Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City”, which was supported by the Japanese Government through the Japan International Cooperation Agency's development study. We, the authors, have been involved in the above study throughout its duration, from its start in November 2003 until March 2005. In the study, a pilot project was implemented in two wards from July 2004 to March 2005 in order to formulate effective and sustainable people's participatory solid waste management based on local and social conditions. Through the pilot project, key issues for the introduction of people's participatory solid waste management have been verified. They are: 1) how to formulate a ward solid waste management system based on people's participation; 2) how to increase people's knowledge of ward solid waste management; 3) how to increase people's ownership; and 4) how to sustain people's participation in ward solid waste management. We hope this paper will contribute to people's participatory solid waste management for developing countries by presenting a case study of the pilot project.

Introduction Waste Management Capacity of Entire Societies – (JICA Institute for International Cooperation 2004). In recent years, people’s participatory solid waste Some of JICA’s development studies also require that management has been emphasized in the field of local residents and communities take part in the solid waste management assistance by aid agencies, as planning and implementation processes in order to found in the Japan International Cooperation ensure social acceptability and sustainability of activi- Agency (JICA) Study Report on Supporting Capaci- ties. However, instead of establishing methodologies ty Development in Solid Waste Management in and processes to involve community and residents in Developing Countries – Towards Improving Solid solid waste management, who would become both

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 21-(2) (October 2005).

22 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

Table 1 Waste generation volume and quality in Dhaka City Items Parameters Domestic waste: 1,950 t/day Estimated generation Business waste: 1,050 t/day waste Street waste: 200 t/day Household waste: 0.34 kg/day/person Generation rate Domestic, business and street waste: 0.56 kg/day/person Bulk density 0.24 t/m3 Household waste: 67% Food waste content Market waste: 60% Averages 550-850 kcal/kg Calorific value (requirement of self combustion is 1,200 kcal/kg)

the beneficiaries of projects and those affected by ward, and in addition to being in charge of the col- projects, the current situation is one in which peo- lection of waste from waste collection points and ple’s participatory plans and operations are being cleaning the roads, it also carries out the transport of conducted at a snail’s pace. collected solid waste and the management of disposal As part of JICA’s development study, “Study on sites. Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City” conducted While there have been several estimates of the from November 2003 to March 2005, and in order amount of solid waste generated in Dhaka City, this to draw up a more effective and workable master study provided waste amount and composition data plan, we implemented a pilot project aimed at con- by carrying out comprehensive and scientific survey structing a mechanism for implementing solid waste for the first time, giving a clear picture of the waste management within wards through the participation being generated (Table 1). of residents. By reporting the activities of the pilot project, it is thought that this paper will provide use- 2. Problems related to solid waste ful information when implementing a people's par- The problems of solid waste in Dhaka City are ticipatory solid waste management system in devel- diverse, including problems in the organizational and oping countries. institutional system and management, technology- related and social problems. Out of those problems, the structure of problems related to primary collec- I. The Current State and Problems of tion, in which residents are the stakeholders, and Solid Waste Management in Dhaka which has been established as the responsibility of residents under the DCC Ordinance (No. XL 1983), 1. The current state of solid waste management is shown in Diagram 1 and its outline given below. The capital of Bangladesh, Dhaka City has an area of 131 km2 with a population of 5.7 million people 1) Problems of primary collection (JICA 2005a). Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) is the main regulating authority that carries out solid Dumping of solid waste in open spaces, roads and waste management. In Dhaka City, primary collec- swamps tion service providers use rickshaw vans (bicycles DCC collects solid waste in open trucks or container with trailers) to collect waste from residents and cars from waste collection points called containers or carry it to waste collection points. DCC carries out dustbins that are surrounded by concrete walls, trans- the secondary collection of waste from these collec- porting and disposing of it to three different disposal tion points, transporting it to final disposal sites. sites (Uttara, Beri Bandh and Matuail). From waste Dhaka City comprises 90 wards. The ward is the amount surveys conducted using sampling methods smallest administrative unit in Dhaka, and ward and from survey data of waste amount transported to commissioners, who are elected by their ward con- the final disposal sites, we estimated that, of the stituents, are responsible for administration of wards. amount of waste generated (3,200 tons per day), DCC allocates one conservancy inspector to each 43% (1,380 tons per day) is being illegally dumped

23 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Diagram 1 The structure of problems related to primary collection in Dhaka City

Health problems

Contamination of Generation of odors Breeding of flies ground and surface and mosquitoes water

Throwing of waste on Scattering of waste open space, roads, rivers around containers/ Risk for cleaners and and in swamps dustbins waste pickers

Containers/Dustbins are in The mixing of hazardous far distance from residents, waste with domestic waste or people do not know waste collection points. Waste collection and cleaning works are obstructed. Weak people’s participation in solid waste management

Lack of environmental consciousness

in areas such as roads, open spaces and swamps (Dia- Diagram 2 Waste flow in Dhaka City, 2004 gram 2). 2004 The inability of the rickshaw vans used by primary collection service providers to enter narrow 100(%) streets, the continued existence of areas without col- 3,200 t/day lection services and the lack of containers are suggest- generation 0 ed as reasons for this. Furthermore, due to the low Source reduction levels of awareness among primary collection service 100 providers, there are some who dump waste in open 3,200 t/day spaces as soon as they have collected it from house- Recycle holds, or who are requested by landowners with swamps in their properties to dump waste there, 87 Discharge 13 playing a role in land development. In this way, 2,780 t/day 420 t/day about half of the generated waste is collected 43 Illegal dumping Used as landfill improperly and is not transported to final disposal 1,380 t/day sites. This uncollected waste becomes scattered Unidentified sites Collection throughout the city, causing a variety of environmen- 44 1,400 t/day tal problems such as foul smells, blocked drains, water contamination and infestations of mosquitoes 0.5 and flies. 15 t/day 43.5 Final disposal Scattering of waste around containers and dustbins 50% of waste discharge Waste lies scattered around containers and dustbins, 1,385 t/day producing a foul smell. It has been suggested that the Source: JICA 2005a. design of rickshaw vans is incompatible with the opening of containers such that waste is scattered during the disposing process. This problem is exac- dogs are also reasons for the scattering of waste. erbated by broken containers and dustbins. The low capacity of containers and dustbins The mixing of hazardous waste with general waste compared to the amount of waste dumped there and As waste inside containers and dustbins includes to the frequency of collections, the activities of waste glass, sharp metal and medical waste, there is a high pickers who make a living by gathering ‘valuables’ risk of injury or infection to primary collection serv- from among the waste, and scavenging by crows and ice providers, DCC cleaners and waste pickers.

24 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

Diagram 3 Responsibility for solid waste management in Dhaka City

Primary waste collection Secondary waste collection

Households Transport Dustbins/containers Transport Final disposal site

Residents/NGOs/CBOs DCC

Table 2 Example of door-to-door collection fees IncomeDistrict Monthly collection fee High Gulshan Hotel Tk 500-1,000 (¥930-1,860) Banani (Ward 19) High income residential areas Tk 100-300 (¥186-558) Middle/Low Khilgaon (Ward 23) Middle income residential areas Tk 10 (¥18.6) Lower income residential areas Tk 10 or free Middle/LowMirpur (Ward 6) Middle income residential areas Tk 20 (¥37.2) Lower income residential areas Tk 10 (¥18.6) Business establishments Tk 100-500 (¥186-930) Source: JICA 2005a.

2) Causes of primary collection problems rickshaw vans.1 As a collection fee, residents in low- The following five points are raised as causes for pri- to middle-income residential areas pay 10-20 taka mary collection problems: (18.6-37.2 yen) per household per month (Table 2). • Lack of understanding of responsibility in the Although there are households which do not pay the primary collection service. collection fee, the majority of residents wish to • Lack of coordination between Dhaka City Cor- receive the collection services of CBOs even if they poration (DCC), ward commissioners, primary have to pay. For the most part this kind of door-to- collection service providers and residents. door collection pervades Dhaka City. • Improper solid waste collection. On the other hand, according to a questionnaire • Lack of people's awareness and cooperation. survey targeting residents which was conducted in • Lack of ability and professional attitude among May 2004 (number of samples: 340), most of primary collection service providers (insufficient Dhaka’s residents have no intention of participating awareness, funds, etc.). in solid waste management (Diagram 4), and there The DCC Ordinance stipulates that primary collec- are also many who feel that they have no responsibil- tion, from the source of waste generation to the con- ity for solid waste, reasoning that they pay a conser- tainers and dustbins established by DCC, is the vancy tax to DCC. responsibility of residents and that secondary collec- Accordingly, only DCC and a small number of tion, from the collection point to final disposal site, stakeholders such as CBOs that carry out primary is the responsibility of DCC (Diagram3). However, collection are involved with solid waste management. due to the fact that the wording of the ordinance is This is the result of DCC’s low awareness of people’s unclear and that residents have not actively been participation in solid waste management, thus dis- informed of the ordinance, there are many residents couraging them from carrying out the tasks efficient- who think that the responsibility for primary collec- ly, and their solid waste management from the top tion also belongs to DCC. Furthermore, there are down, ignoring residents’ opinions. some even among DCC employees who are unaware of this. In Dhaka City, Community Based Organiza- tions (CBOs) or individuals are providing door-to- door waste collection service which uses one or more

25 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Diagram 4 Findings of household questionnaire survey findings (2004 survey)

Recycling

Low- income group

Middle- income group

High- Willing to participate income group

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Waste Not willing to participate segregation Composting Low- income group Low- income group Middle- income group Middle- income group High- income group High- 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% income group

Source: JICA 2005a. 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

II. Aims and Concepts of Model Devel- 2. People’s participation in Bangladesh opment In Khulna City, the third largest city in Bangladesh, primary collection is being developed through peo- 1. Necessity of people’s participatory model ple’s participation under the initiative of the NGO, development PRISM Bangladesh.2 In Dhaka City, an NGO The role of residents in solid waste management is named West Concern turns garbage into compost vital. Through the participation of residents, it is with people’s participation. possible to operate socially effective and sustainable However, the people’s participation of these solid waste management, taking into account in groups is different from that which can be seen in the administration the experiences of the residents who Philippines or Indonesia.3 In these countries resi- live in these areas, discharge waste and are affected by dents take the lead, participating in discussions and improper waste administration of which the manag- taking action. Furthermore, hierarchical relations do ing DCC are unaware, as well as local conditions. not stand out either. “Participation” in Bangladesh, Therefore, the improvement of Dhaka’s social capaci- on the other hand, does not necessarily mean that ty is imperative. local residents take the central role in activities. However, amidst conditions whereby the major- Although in the solid waste management fields vari- ity of residents do not cooperate with DCC’s solid ous government agencies and other organizations use waste management as can be seen from the above- the word “participation,” as it means that “residents mentioned questionnaire survey, the question of how understand” and “support” the activities of organiza- the issue of people’s participation should be tackled tions, the passing of waste to CBOs which carry out differs according to the social and historical back- door-to-door collections and the paying of collection ground. Therefore, through the pilot project we fees, for example, have come to mean “participation.” decided to identify, model and develop the mechanism for people’s participation relating to solid waste 3. People’s participatory model to be developed management which will be accepted and function Aiming at advancing people’s participation found in continually in Dhaka City. Bangladesh and promoting resident-centered partici-

26 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

pation, we implemented a pilot project for develop- mutual trust (Mukai 2003). Under such conditions ing a ward-based solid waste management model. as this, functional organizations are required in The models for ward solid waste management system Dhaka City which will be accepted by society. to be developed comprises the following two points, of which this paper mentions only the model devel- 2. Improving residents’ knowledge of solid waste opment of implementation mechanism for the ward- management based solid waste management system. In the pilot project, problem finding in the solid • Model of implementation mechanism for ward- waste management of any given ward, planning of based solid waste management system. ward solid waste management and its implementa- • Model of ward-based waste collection and trans- tion were expected to be carried out by residents. portation focusing on technical aspects of solid However, since residents have virtually no opportuni- waste management. ty to learn about solid waste management up until Furthermore, by carrying out the pilot project this point, possessing a basic knowledge and under- activities in collaboration with DCC, it was aimed standing of solid waste management and the impor- that DCC staff members practically learn concept tance of people’s participation are indispensable for and methodology of people’s participation, so that residents when these activities come into effect. DCC would take a central role and be able to expand ward solid waste management after this development 3. Improving the ownership of stakeholders study was completed. As administration is conducted from the top down in Bangladesh, the low- and mid-level officials of DCC merely take orders from their superiors. Therefore, III. Issues for Introducing Solid Waste they do not seem to understand the purpose of their Management by Means of People’s own duties sufficiently and rarely take initiative. Participation Moreover, as residents do not have sufficient knowledge about solid waste and DCC does not inform Based on the field survey, interview survey, question- them about it, it is difficult for them to understand naire survey and case study of participatory solid the issue. In order to involve residents in solid waste waste management in Khulna City (JICA 2005a), management, it is necessary to facilitate these things: the following issues were identified for introducing for residents to understand the solid waste problems sustainable and socially acceptable ward solid waste surrounding them for themselves, to accept the prob- management system by means of people’s participa- lems caused by solid waste as their own problems, to tion in Dhaka City. think about what needs to be done and to act on their own initiative. 1. Establishment of people’s solid waste management system 4. Establishing methodology and mechanism for It is generally understandable that unified unit sustainable participation known as traditional community, which is formed Many workshops and meetings were considered nec- historically or socially, can be used easily as a base for essary during the period starting from the launch of promoting participatory activities. When it is defined the pilot project to the operation and monitoring of as an organization of local residential units to which its activities. However, in order for residents, who are residents possess a strong sense of belonging, the also busy with their own jobs, to participate in these notion of community cannot be observed in Dhaka gatherings for longer hours in the long term without City (Islam 2003). giving up, there needs to be some kind of incentives. In Dhaka City, community boundaries are There is a proposal in discussion to give ward solid vague and cannot usually be defined without difficul- waste management committee members a stipend. ty. One of the reasons for this is that more than half However, DCC does not have funds to offer such of residents do not own any land and most residents incentive to the committee members of its 90 wards have moved from other regions, still maintaining at the time of completing this development study. It strong relations with the relatives in the villages or is no exaggeration to say that the success of people’s regions which they are from rather than their neigh- participatory solid waste management depends on bors (Siddiqui et al., 2000). The other is, in general, how much residents are urged to continue with activ- individualism among Bangladeshis with regard to ities. cooperativeness, leading to relationships weak in

27 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Diagram 5 Process of the pilot project

Selection of target wards

Explanation to ward representatives Formulation of Ward Solid Waste Management Plan

Establishment of Ward Solid Waste Establishment of Community Unit Working Management Committees and Ward Solid Groups Waste Management Working Groups

Training for members of Ward Solid Waste Management Committees and Ward Solid Formulation of Community Unit Action Waste Management Working Groups Plans in the selected community units

Baseline surveys by Ward Solid Waste Implementation of programs/projects in the Management Committee and Ward Solid selected community units Waste Management Working Group

Series of Workshop meetings Problem analysis Feedback to M/P Framework for the plan

Diagram 6 Pilot project schedule 2004 2005 Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1. Selection of target wards

2. Explanation to ward representatives

3. Establishment of Ward Solid Waste Management Committees and Ward Solid Waste Management Working Groups

4. Training

5. Baseline surveys

6. Formulation of Ward Solid Waste Management Plan

7. Establishment of Community Unit Working Groups

8. Formulation of Community Unit Action Plans

9. Implementation of programs/projects

IV. Details of the Pilot Project and examined with the implementation of the pilot project. Diagrams 5 and 6 show the process and Based on issues for introducing ward solid waste schedule of the pilot project. Furthermore, as well as management in the previous section, a provisional showing overviews of the various activities below, ward-based solid waste management system which Table 3 shows the main activities and input of the could possibly apply to Dhaka City was established, residents and the study team.

28 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

Table 3 Major activities and input of the residents and study team in the implementation of the pilot project

Residents Study Team Activity Stage Activities Input Activities Input

Selection of target None None □ Presentation of proposal 蛔 Categorization of all 90 wards for selection criteria wards (3 members of the □ Discussion of selection study team and 5 NGO criteria with DCC members) □ Selection of target wards Explanation to ward □ Discussion of pros and 蛔 Provision of venue □ Discussion of orientation 蛔 Printing and distribution representatives cons of participation 蛔 Participation in methods with DCC of orientation pamphlets orientation (over 150 □ Explanation of pilot (100 copies × 2 wards) residents participated project to residents by from each of the two DCC and the study team wards) Establishment of □ Selection of members of 蛔 Each ward: appointment □ Providing of criteria for 蛔 Explanation of selection Ward Solid Waste Ward Solid Waste of 10 Ward Committee ward committee and criteria (3 members of Management Management Committee members and 10 Ward ward working group the study team and 5 Committees and Ward and Working Group by Working Group members members NGO members for Solid Waste ward commissioners □ Request to ward approx. 3 days × 2 Management Working □ Establishment of Ward commissioners to select wards) Groups Solid Waste committee and working Management Committees group members and Ward Solid Waste Management Working Groups Implementation of □ Participation in training 蛔 Participation in training □ Design of training 蛔 Provision of lecturers by training by ward commissioners program DCC and the study team (1 person × 2 wards), □ Holding of training (2 days) ward committee program 蛔 Printing and distribution members (10 people × 2 of training texts wards) and working group members (10 people × 2 wards) Baseline surveys □ Implementation of 蛔 Participation of ward □ Design of surveys 蛔 Implementation of surveys committees and ward □ Explanation of survey surveys (5 people per □ Discussion of survey working groups in survey details ward for 5 days) findings (2 members per ward for □ Implementation of □ Preparation of ward 5 days) surveys profiles □ Preparation of ward profiles Formulation of □ Planning of ward solid 蛔 Participation in planning □ Design of planning 蛔 Facilitators and advisors framework for plan waste management workshops (each ward: workshops for planning workshops and Ward Solid Waste (problem analysis, approx. 20 members on □ Supporting for ward (approx. 8 people on four Management Plan visioning matrix four occasions) solid waste management occasions × 2 wards) preparation, objective 蛔 Participation in other planning 蛔 Facilitators and advisors analysis, solution individual meetings for other individual identification and meetings planning matrix preparation) Establishment of □ Selection of community 蛔 Selection of community □ Delineation of 蛔 Facilitators for selection Community Unit units unit working group community unit boundary of community units (7 Working Group □ Establishment of members (each ward: 10 □ Presentation of criteria people for 3 days × 2 Community Unit members for each of the for community unit wards) Working Groups two community units) members Implementation of □ Participation in 蛔 Participation in □ Supporting for 蛔 Facilitators and advisors programs/projects in workshop for workshop for implementation of Ward for community unit community units Community Unit Action Community Unit Action Solid Waste Management action plan creation Planning Planning (Ward 6: 2 Plan workshops (Ward 6: 6 □ Implementation of Ward days; Ward 65: 5 days) □ Support for community people for 2 days; Ward Solid Waste 蛔 Participation in unit action planning 65: 6 people for 5 days) Management Plan community meetings for □ Supporting for 蛔 Several community (preparation and implementation on implementation of meeting facilitators for distribution of posters several occasions community unit plan implementation and leaflets, playing 蛔 Ward 6: 3,000 people □ Design and 蛔 Mirpur Declaration drama and monitoring of participated for Mirpur implementation of pamphlets (3000 copies primary collection) Declaration primary collection system printed) □ Implementation of 蛔 Ward 65: Creation and 蛔 Repair of existing Community Unit Action performance of playing rickshaw vans (4) Plan drama at schools and 蛔 Construction of rickshaw public gatherings vans (2 × 2 wards)

29 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Residents Study Team Activity Stage Activities Input Activities Input (approx. 15 members per 蛔 Construction of waste performance) collection trolley (Ward 65: 1) 蛔 Construction of community container (Ward 65: 1) 蛔 Printing of educational posters (4,000 copies) 蛔 Printing of educational leaflets (4,000 copies) 蛔 Printing of primary collection fee cards (5,000 copies) 蛔 Provision of uniform and rainwear for primary collection service providers (25 sets) 蛔 Soap, detergent and first- aid kits

Note: The activities and input by the study team also include cooperation with entrusted NGOs.

Table 4 Selection criteria for subject wards Planned Developed Areas Spontaneously Developed Areas New urban area Ward 6 _ Older urban area _ _ Old Dhaka areaNot applicable Ward 65 Source: The authors.

1. The Selecting of wards for the pilot project each ward. In total, over 150 residents from each Since the objective of the pilot project was the devel- ward attended the meetings. opment of a model of ward solid waste management, we selected wards that were typical of Dhaka City’s 3. Establishment of ward solid waste manage- 90 wards. Based on its historical development, ment committees and working groups Dhaka City can be divided into: 1) new urban area, Table 5 shows the members and roles of the organi- 2) the high density industrial and residential area of zations which were established in order to implement the Old Dhaka in the south of Dhaka City, facing the pilot project. In each ward, we established a ward the Buriganga River, and 3) older urban area located solid waste management committee and a working between the new urban area and the Old Dhaka. group, each of which is composed of 10 people Within these three areas, the other parameter, the respectively. Initially, the committees were established development way, was taken which shows character- under ward commissioners, acting as advisory bodies istics of wards such as planned developed area and by discussing policies regarding ward solid waste spontaneously developed area or uncontrolled devel- management and related plans developed by working oped area. From these area categories, we selected groups, and recommending them as ward solid waste Ward 6, which is in the new urban area and had management policies to the ward commissioners. On developed according to plan, and Ward 65, which the other hand, the role of ward working groups was falls within the Old Dhaka and had developed spon- to support the committees by conducting surveys for taneously (Table 4). preparing ward solid waste management plans and organizing planning workshops. Although it was 2. Explaining to ward residents hoped that in the future committees and working After selecting the wards for the pilot project, we groups would be composed of representatives elected hosted two separate orientations in July 2004 to from each community unit, due to the time restric- explain about the pilot project to the residents of tions of the pilot project, candidates for these posi-

30 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

Photo 1 Pilot project activities

Training seminar (Aug 2004) Planning workshop (Aug-Sep 2004)

Mapping and field survey for Ward Solid Waste Management by Residents (Aug 2004)

A conventional rickshaw van Proposed new rickshaw van (Feb 2005)

A dustbin prior to the implementation of the A closed dustbin after the implementation of the pilot project (May 2004) pilot project (Aug 2005)

31 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Table 5 Members proposed for the organizations and their roles Organization Involved Members Proposed Roles Ward solid waste management committee

蘆Ward key persons 蘆Coordinate ward administration 蘆Representative of people’s organization 蘆Decide Ward Solid Waste Management Policy 蘆Representative of private sector 蘆Establish ward Solid Waste Management plan

Ward solid waste management working group

蘆Residents’ representatives 蘆Support Ward SWM Committee technically 蘆Volunteers 蘆Support Community Unit Working Group 蘆Encourage residents for SWM at ward level 蘆Arrange and implement SWM activities with residents

DCC Support Group

蘆DCC Zone Office (CO, CSI) 蘆Support Ward SWM Committee and Ward SWM 蘆DCC Conservancy Inspector Working Group, Community Unit SWM Working 蘆DCC Counterpart Group Group 蘆Coordinate between Ward SWM Committee and DCC JICA Study Team

蘆All Study Team members 蘆Support SWM Committee, Ward SWM Working Group, Community Unit SWM Working Group through DCC technically 蘆Support implementation of selected projects

Monitoring/Evaluation Group

蘆Ward Commissioner and Women’s Commissioners 蘆Monitor and evaluate Pilot Project 蘆Chief Conservancy Officer 蘆Advise and guide DCC Supporting Group and JICA 蘆Zonal Executive Officer Study Team 蘆Team Leader of JICA Study Team

tions were nominated by the ward commissioners 5. Implementing baseline survey instead. In collaboration with the committee members and The monitoring and evaluation groups were ward working group members, we implemented a formed by the ward commissioners, DCC and the baseline survey. The survey included ward’s history, study team, who accordingly monitored and evaluat- condition of infrastructure development and loca- ed the pilot project, which was reflected in the activi- tions of public facilities, as well as mapping of areas ties. However, many of the members of the monitor- of scattered waste, distribution of containers or dust- ing and evaluation groups were busy, and accordingly bins, and coverage of primary collection service. The we were limited to listening to their individual opin- findings of the survey were summarized in reports ions without being able to gather them together for a and presented at the workshop of the wards by the meeting. committee, ward working group and NGO.

4. Holding of training programs 6. Holding of planning workshops We conducted two training programs: A one-day Based on the results of the baseline survey, a series of training program for the ward commissioners and ward solid waste management planning workshops ward committee members and a two-day program were held by the committees and working groups. for ward working group members. In addition to Diagram 7 shows the planning process. Using Ward explaining objectives and details of the pilot project 6 as an example, an overview of the plan details is and the seriousness of solid waste problems, we also shown in Table 6. gave lectures and exercise on the technical aspects of solid waste management and problem analysis.

32 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

Diagram 7 Process of ward solid waste management plan

Problem Preparation Objectives Identifying Preparation analysis of visioning analysis solutions of planning matrix matrix

to identify problems to image future vision to fill up gap between to find how to achieve to clarify planning and analyze problem of ward existing problems and objectives parameters structure regarding future vision of ward solid waste management

Table 6 Outline of ward solid waste management planning in the 6th ward

Objective 3 Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 5 Strengthening of Objective 4 Reduction of generated Improvement of solid Increasing residents’ regulations for Cleaning of drains waste amount waste collection system awareness inappropriate behavior Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements Requirements 蘆 Waste reduction at 蘆 Standardized collection 蘆 Residents stop throwing 蘆 Smooth drainage of rain 蘆 Understanding of household level service and fees at ward waste water residents regarding solid level 蘆 Penalty for residents who 蘆 Residents stop throwing waste 蘆 Improvement of break laws waste 蘆 Raising of awareness collection system based 蘆 Cleaning of drains with and behavior of residents on local situations regard to scenery, odors, 蘆 Participation of residents 蘆 Distribution of necessary and generation of in ward solid waste information to mosquitoes and flies management households Required Actions Required Actions Required Actions Required Actions Required Actions Waste segregation at Waste reduction at Monitoring of illegal Cleaning of drains Provision of necessary household level household level waste dump sites Prohibition of throwing information for residents Promotion of recycling Establishment of primary Watching of waste in drains concerning solid waste through waste collection licensing inappropriate behavior Watching of management segregation system in wards Education of residents to inappropriate behavior Discussion of solid Increasing of residents’ Promotion for payment raise awareness Increasing residents’ waste management awareness for waste of collection fees to awareness (Objective 5) issues among ward segragation collectors Repairing and commissioners, Ward Improvement of primary reconstruction of Solid Waste collection system existing drains Management Replacement from Committees, Working dustbins to containers Groups and residents Increasing the number of Education of residents containers for participation and Improvement of the understanding with environmental conditions regard to ward solid around containers waste management Inspection and monitoring of containers/dustbins Education of residents to raise awareness (Objective 4) Proposed Program/Project Proposed Program/Project Proposed Program/Project Proposed Program/Project Proposed Program/Project 蛔 Recycling program at 蛔 Household waste 蛔 Monitoring and watching 蛔 Drain cleaning program 蛔 Ward awareness raising household level reduction program waste dump site 蛔 Drain monitoring program 蛔 Awareness raising 蛔 Improvement of primary 蛔 Establishment of penalty program 蛔 Preparation and display program collection system system 蛔 Establishment of penalty of posters and leaflets, 蛔 Improvement of primary 蛔 Development of an system and implementation of waste collection points inappropriate behavior 蛔 Monitoring of events 蛔 Inspection and monitoring system inappropriate behavior monitoring program for 蛔 Awareness raising 蛔 Awareness raising solid waste collection program program points 蛔 Drain repairs and 蛔 Awareness raising reconstruction program

33 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

7. Establishment of community unit working els, we established ward solid waste management groups committees, which would conduct high-level discus- The population per ward in Dhaka City is large at an sions and policy decisions, and ward solid waste average of 63,000 people, and the problems concern- management working groups, which would conduct ing solid waste management that need to be solved specific discussions or activities. In reality, however, are diverse. Therefore, though the boundaries are there were no boundaries between committees and indistinct, we divided the wards into sub-areas called working groups and they ended up sharing opera- community units according to blocks with existing tions. It is unclear whether this was due to insuffi- names, land use and road networks for the purpose cient understanding of committee and ward working of the pilot project. Furthermore, as primary collec- group roles, or to the existence of a structure of tion service providers had already begun activities in “ward commissioners and assorted crew.” Consider- Ward 6, we also took the coverage of their services ing the present situation, it is thought that the estab- into account when drawing up the boundaries for lishment of a simple committee alone would be community units. As a result, Ward 6 was divided preferable rather than this sort of two-tiered system. into 12 community units and Ward 65 into 10 community units. Community unit working groups were 2) Ward solid waste management committees set up, consisting of approximately 10 people for Although the committees were initially intended to each community unit. be set up in the role of advisory bodies to the ward commissioners, during the discussions on the com- 8. Formulation and implementation of commu- mittees’ roles and criteria for member selection, the nity unit action plans ward commissioners ended up taking the post of the Selecting two community units from each of the tar- committee chairmen in both wards. According to get wards, we facilitated the activity of members of some ward residents, the ward commissioners pos- community unit working groups of formulating sessed strong leadership skills and there was nobody detailed action plans based on the ward solid waste else suitable for the positions of committee chair- management plans. Then we supported to implemen.4 While it is understandable considering the fact ment the community unit action plans in the select- they are elected by ward residents, there are concerns ed units. The action plans mainly included improve- that if the political power of these ward commission- ment of the primary collection method and coverage, ers is too great then it could jeopardize the continua- closing of dustbins and rearrangement of container tion of ward solid waste management should they be distribution. replaced at the next election. During the Metro Manila Solid Waste Management Study (JICA 1999), we witnessed the discontinuation of activities V. Findings and Discussion after the leader was replaced.5 The greater the success of the predecessor the more the person who becomes We will now examine the findings of the pilot proj- the next leader negates his/her predecessor’s activities, ect, which was carried out over the seven-month and the activities come to an end. period between July 15, 2004 and mid-February of In order to deal with this problem, it is consid- the following year, in light of issues for introducing ered necessary to have someone other than the ward participatory solid waste management. The following commissioner selected as a committee chairman, and will be a core of the people’s participatory model. to develop criteria that enable the selection of a wide range of people as committee members so that the 1. Establishment of people’s solid waste manage- committee is not swayed by people under the influ- ment system ence of specific persons. Also, it is considered neces- Diagram 8 shows the proposed ward-based solid sary to ensure that the number of participants is waste management system that can be used for increased by establishing community units, so that implementing the participatory ward solid waste the influence of ward commissioners is weakened management. and other members continue to carry out activities even after ward commissioners are replaced. More- 1) Ward solid waste management committees over, there is also a need to create a legal framework and working groups for ward solid waste management and committees so Thinking that different organizations would effec- that the establishment of committees is not influ- tively implement residents’ activities at different lev- enced by commissioners.

34 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

Diagram 8 Proposed implementation system for ward solid waste management

DCC Ward/Community

Headquarters Ward Commissioner Solid Waste Management Department Solid Waste Management Division Community Solid Waste Ward Solid Waste Management Management Section Committee

Zonal Office Ward Solid Waste Management Community unit Section Community Solid Waste Community Unit Community Unit Management Section Working Group Working Group Ward Household Household Household Household Conservancy Conservancy Inspector Inspector Road Road Road Road Primary collection service providers cleaner cleaner cleaner cleaner (NGO/CBO)

Level Ward Solid Waste Management Organization Ward level Ward Commissioner

Support Recommendation Handles solid waste management for the Ward Solid Waste Management entire ward Committee

Community unit level Support Household

Community unit Community Community Community Handles solid waste Unit Working Unit Working Unit Working management for the Group Group Group community unit House- House- House- House- House- House- hold hold hold hold hold hold

3) Participation of women ward solid waste management committee and the Ward 65 is located within Old Dhaka. Compared working group respectively, when their behavior was with other wards, Old Dhaka is one of the places observed they did in fact show a tendency to speak with strong religious values. Although we had initial- very little in front of men. Despite this, there were ly wanted at least one third of members selected to instances where these women outspoke male mem- include women, the majority of men were against bers during meetings. Therefore, it cannot be said our proposal. Women are concerned with cooking that women are lacking ability to express themselves. and cleaning in the home, and due to the fact that Yet, it is essential to work on methods for the partici- they know about the generation, storage and dis- pation of women, such as forming women-only charging of waste within the household, they are the groups and ensuring a place therein for women’s dis- ones who possess a true understanding of solid waste cussions, and the creation of a mechanism which management. However, some workshop attendees reflects decision making. gave opinions saying that, as women are protected by men according to the teachings of Islam, it would 4) Government support serve no purpose for women to be allowed to take The problem of solid waste in Dhaka City will not this kind of position as they would have to speak in be solved by solid waste management efforts of resi- front of others and take responsibility for their dents alone. The government authority in charge, words. DCC, and residents’ activities mutually complement Although two women finally joined both the each other and the establishment of a partnership is

35 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

indispensable. DCC must recognize the importance result of their own planning and operations rather of people’s participation and maintain an environ- than being imposed upon them. That is what we fre- ment in which residents can easily take part. quently emphasized at the workshops and meetings. It is thought that this was vital for the improvement 2. Improving residents’ knowledge of solid waste of people’s ownership. management When residents formulate and implement ward solid 2) Ownership of DCC with regards to support- waste management plans, they are expected to know ing people’s participation the essentials about solid waste management. How- In order to carry out people’s participation sustain- ever, many of them possess only a vague knowledge ably and effectively, it is vital to introduce a system of of solid waste. Therefore, in the beginning of pilot support in which DCC understands people’s partici- project, we conducted training seminars for members pation and supports them. Although until then of ward solid waste management committees and DCC had never understood the meaning of people’s ward solid waste management working groups. As a participation and their potential, as a result of result, it is thought that residents were able to under- numerous meetings and workshops, a mutual understand the outline of future activities to some extent. standing between DDC and residents has been Furthermore, the seminars did not provide merely an developed and DCC also started to become aware of opportunity to gain technical knowledge, but also residents’ untapped capability. worked effectively on fostering relations and facilitat- Furthermore, although DCC employees had ing communication by promoting mutual under- until now carried out tasks from the top down and standing between residents, DCC and ourselves. were unaccustomed to taking the lead, since each of them was given a responsibility in the pilot project, 3. Improving the ownership of stakeholders they began to develop independence.6 DCC is In order to carry out ward solid waste management expected to further support residents’ activities, while effectively and sustainably, three types of ownership DCC’s ownership will further improve in the future. shown below need to be improved. These are: (1) resident’s autonomous and voluntary ownership with 3) Primary collection ownership by primary col- regard to solid waste management; (2) ownership of lection service providers DCC with regards to supporting people’s participa- The primary collection service providers are a point tion; and (3) primary collection ownership by the of contact with residents. In Dhaka City it is unusual primary collection service providers. In addition to for residents to get their hands dirty and take part in making improvements to these types of ownership, cleaning activities themselves. Primary collection the enhancement of the partnership among residents, service providers are the ones who take over such DCC and primary collection service providers will tasks. foster the respective ownerships. In Ward 6, primary collection activities were being carried out before the pilot project started. As a 1) Resident’s autonomous and voluntary owner- result of discussions with the primary collection serv- ship with regard to solid waste management ice providers and committee members at the work- At the first orientation held in July 2004 to explain shops, a partnership began to develop between the about ward solid waste management to the residents, collectors and the residents, closing dustbins and there were many questions from the residents con- producing sign boards to inform people of their clo- cerning what the study team was going to do for sure as proposed by ward solid waste management. them, and probably there were few residents at that Through these activities, collection amounts and the time who understood that residents need to take the number of residents paying collection fees increased initiative in dealing with waste management prob- in both wards. lems. With support from the residents, the primary In the pilot project, an approach was taken to collection has been significantly upgraded, support- increase a sense of ownership with regard to resi- ing solid waste management through people’s partici- dents’ ward solid waste management by adopting a pation. What caused such active involvement of the process in which residents discovered problems for primary collection service providers currently themselves, thought of solutions and implemented remains unknown. Having been told of the social them. In other words, the solid waste management significance of waste collection, they began to take carried out by the residents was made possible as a pride in their jobs as waste collectors due to the

36 Model Development of People's Participatory Solid Waste Management in Dhaka City —Through the Experience of Pilot Project for Solid Waste Management at Ward Level [ Case Studies ]

introduction of ID cards and wearing of uniforms ernment, as well as of failure factors of such cases as which may well be a positive factor. those due to the introduction of political conflict, are thought to be extremely effective when considering 4. Establishing methodology and mechanism for people’s participation in the future. sustainable participation Although this study was a short-term project of For committee and working group members to par- seven months, should this project continue in the ticipate in activities for a longer time, enhancement long term, continual monitoring will be necessary in of their solid waste management ownership is vital. the future to observe in what ways the awareness of Also, it needs to be ensured that they do not lose residents and details of activities change, and how interest in activities before their activities are put on they are affected by no external influence after the the right track. study ended. The workshops usually began at around four It is unrealistic to think that effective, continual o’clock in the afternoon, since most members also solid waste management can be carried out by resi- had jobs, continuing until around seven or eight dents alone even with the aim of people’s participa- o’clock in the evening. Workshops were held even on tion. It is thought that people’s participation, created Friday afternoons, which are holidays in Bangladesh, through the innovative partnership between resi- but still attendees continued discussions eagerly. dents, DCC and primary collection service providers, Although, most residents showed no intention of will function effectively. That is to say, in order to participating in residents’ activities concerning solid promote management through people’s participation waste management in the above-mentioned ques- it is important to always remember to support DCC tionnaire survey (Diagram 4), actually residents par- and other stakeholders concerned, as it cannot be ticipated eagerly in this way. This could be due to the realized by concentrating merely on residents alone. fact that they were given a chance to take part in Finally, this pilot project ended in March 2005, unprecedented activities, or that they sensed business and although we were able to reflect the findings in opportunities in primary collection. Furthermore, the master plan, people’s participatory solid waste the leadership of the ward commissioner cannot be management proposed in the master plan is transition- ignored in Ward 6. al and its system and methodology must be developed Also, pictures related to residents’ activities were in line with changes in socio-economic conditions. used in newsletters and other publications, enhancing their pride and increasing their desire to partici- Acknowledgements pate. Ward commissioners, who are elected, are particularly responsive to this kind of public relations We would like to express our deep appreciation to activities. For maintaining continuation in operation, DCC, which conducted joint operations during the it is necessary to keep their interest on solid waste undertaking of this pilot project that led to its suc- management activities high enough.7 cess. Furthermore, we are extremely grateful to the following: the members of the Advisory Committee Conclusion of this development study: the chairman Dr. Mitsuo Yoshida, Dr. Hiroyuki Miyake and Mr. Takanobu Methodologies of participatory management vary Iwasaki; Mr. Takuya Murata and Ms. Naoko Kamei, depending on geographic and socio-economic condi- Global Environment Department at JICA; Mr. tions, and there are also some who believe that it is Takashi Sakamoto, the former resident representative meaningless to create a model. However, even if there of JICA Bangladesh Office, and Mr. Akio Arai, the are some differences in the background details, it current resident representative; and Mr. Tsuyoshi probably shares a common ground in that residents Kanda and Ms. Akiko Bushimata, deputy resident are motivated and deal with people, things and representative respectively at the Bangladesh Office, money on their own initiatives. From this perspective for their invaluable comments and participation in there is a point in model development even if it is the residents’ activities of this development study. limited. Furthermore, through activities for model Finally, our thanks to the leader, Dr. Katsuhide development such as those done in the pilot project, Nagayama, and deputy leader, Mr. Kihachiro the analysis of success factors for motivating resi- Urushibata, and other members of this development dents’ activities, providing opportunities for residents study for giving us many opportunities to discuss and government officials to think and become cre- people’s participatory solid waste management, ative, and supporting people’s participation by gov- which was the driving force behind this project.

37 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Notes and working group of Ward 6, a meeting was held with 3,000 people which adopted the Mirpur Decla- 1. In recent years, NGOs offering services that cover ration, a document outlining seven commitments from half to several wards, CBOs which operate on a relating to solid waste management made by the resi- small scale such as resident organizations, communi- dents; some of the important personalities at the ty associations and youth associations, and entrepre- meeting were the Japanese Ambassador, the resident neurs in Dhaka City have been promoting door-to- representative of JICA Bangladesh and the Dhaka door waste collection activities which use one or City Mayor. In Ward 65, the committee and working more rickshaw vans. group were given a boost through the creation of a 2. In 2003, we exchanged opinions with Conservancy prototype community container. Moreover, a waste Officer of Conservancy Department of Khulna City management-education play by members of the com- and residents in Khulna City. We learned that in mittee and working group increased solidarity and 1997 the NGO Prodipan started to introduce pri- made other residents notice their activities. mary collection by residents in some wards, also establishing Environment and Development Com- References mittees for each ward. Since 1999, PRISM Bangladesh has expanded these activities throughout Dhaka City Corporation. 1983. DCC Ordinance No. XL. the entire city and has been promoting collection Islam, N. 2003. The Roles of Civil Society Organization activities and the use of garbage as compost. in Urban Development in Dhaka City. Oriental Geo- 3. In the Barangay, the smallest administrative unit in grapher. 47 (2). the Philippines, centering on the elected Barangay JICA. 1999. The Study on Solid Waste Management for Captain, all residents’ opinions are expressed, sum- Metro Manila in the Republic of the Philippines marized and considered for decision making. It is Final Report. also the place where disputes can amicably be . 2002. The Study on the Integrated Coral Reef resolved (Kurasawa 2002). Management Plan in North Sulawesi in the Republic 4. According to an NGO conducting a health project in of Indonesia Final Report. Dhaka City, the ward commissioner is often . 2004. The Comprehensive Master Plan Study on appointed as community leader. Urban Seismic Disaster Prevention and Management 5. During the pilot project for people’s participatory for Greater Teheran. recycling activities, which was implemented as part . 2005a. The Study on the Solid Wasted Manage- of the Metro Manila Solid Waste Management Study ment in Dhaka City Final Report. (JICA 1999), the recycling activities were promoted . 2005b. The Study on Drainage Improvement in through the leadership of the residents’ association the Core Area of Metropolitan Manila. leader. However, when the residents’ association JICA Institute for International Cooperation. 2004. Kai- leader was changed some years after the study had hatsutojoukoku haikibutsubunyano capacity devel- ended, the new leader discontinued the activities. opment siennotameni [Supporting Capacity Devel- 6. The two counterparts who participated in the pilot opment in Solid Waste Management in Developing project were dispatched to Khulna City, carrying out Countries – Towards Improving Solid Waste Man- on-site inspections and exchanging opinions with agement Capacity of Entire Societies]. Conservancy Officer of Conservancy Department of Kurasawa, S. 2002. Komyunityiron [Theory of Commu- Khulna City. Following this exchange, there was a nity]. Class Material for Housou Daigaku. Tokyo: marked difference in the counterparts’ thinking. In Housou daigaku kyoiku sihinkoukai. addition, by acting as facilitators in workshops with Mukai, S. 2003. Bangladesh no hatten to chiikikaihatsu the residents, the counterparts have been growing [Bangladesh’s progress and regional development]. concerned about people’s participation and responsi- Tokyo: Akashishoten. bility. While their positions in DCC were attenuated Shiojiri, K. and M. Ikeda. 2004. Isuraamu no seikatsu o due to duties given from the top down, their aware- siru jiten [Dictionary about Life of Islam]. Tokyo: ness increased as they were required to be responsible Tokyodoshuppan. for their tasks in the pilot project. Siddiqui, K., J. Ahmed, A. Awa, M. Ahmed. 2000. 7. The pilot project was careful in maintaining residents’ Overcoming the Governance Crisis in Dhaka City. motivation for the activities, occasionally holding University Press. events to provide a reminder of them. Under the aus- pices of the ward solid waste management committee

38 [ Case Studies ]

Issues, Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme

Mami YAMADA JICA Regional Adviser on Project Formulation for Assistance to Socially Vulnerable People Including Internal Displaced Ones

Abstract

The significance and objectives of supporting South-South cooperation, described in the ODA Charter and JICA's Mid-term Plan, can be analytically summarized into five points. South-South cooperation is expected to 1) enable effective and efficient cooperation, 2) enable expansion of aid resources, 3) enable recovery of the investment in, and reuse of the outcomes of Japan's past aid projects, 4) enable contributions to sustainable development, and 5) build new bilateral relationships with more-developed developing countries. When looking at the cases within the Partnership Programme (PP), which Japan conducts as a comprehensive framework of supporting South-South cooperation, there are gaps between the objectives expressed earlier and reality that need to be addressed. These issues are: 1) a weak demand-driven viewpoint, 2) insufficient approaches to solving issues, 3) a lack of ownership by the countries implementing South-South cooperation and the recipient countries, and 4) a lack of awareness of the importance of evaluation. In the Partnership Programme with Chile, the following activities were found to be effective in overcoming the four problems: the introduction of a mechanism to study and identify the demands of the recipient countries, the implementation of project design using the PCM method, and introduction of a monitoring and evaluation system with the subsequent development of a manual for the system. As a result of these activities, Chile has increased ownership as an implementing country of South-South cooperation. From this experience, the author proposes four recommendations to make SouthSouth cooperation that is implemented within the Partnership Programme (PP) more closely meet Japan's aim of supporting South-South cooperation: 1) For strengthening the demand-driven viewpoint and issue-solving approach, it is necessary to develop a mechanism for studying demands and matching needs to resources, to create clear-cut criteria for project selection, to introduce a project-planning and formulation method, and to enhance project management capacity in the field; 2) In order to increase the range of knowledge and technology that can be offered, it is effective to develop a database of existing capacities and expertise, to introduce an open bidding system, to transfer international cooperation know-how to prospective experts, and seek coordination with other countries that are implementing South-South cooperation; 3) To enhance ownership, it is especially important for the partner country to make efforts to share costs and strengthen the cooperation implementing system. To do so, the partner country's willingness to become an equal partner with Japan is indispensable. In addition, it is also necessary for Japan to have an attitude to share its know-how without imposing its will, to activate South-South cooperation's role as a catalyst, and to promote the sustainable development of regional cooperation; 4) Finally, from an evaluation-oriented perspective, the countries that implement South-South cooperation need to develop independent monitoring and objective methods for disclosing evaluation results while enhancing the capacity of local aid workers to do so.

Introduction eration started as a method of accelerating the development of developing countries in which developing Amid the diversification of developing countries, as countries shared their own development experiences, shown in the emergence of the Newly Industrializing and it was revitalized when the “Buenos Aires Plan of Economies (NIES) in the 1970s, South-South coop- Action” was adopted during the United Nations con-

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 21-(2) (October 2005).

39 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

ference in 1978. The “Buenos Aires Plan of Action” in 2005 (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan urges measures to be taken for promoting South- 2005) makes reference to “cooperation and partner- South cooperation by stating that developed coun- ship in the international community, including the tries and their institutions should support Technical promotion of South-South cooperation.” Mean- Cooperation among Developing Countries (TCDC) while, JICA’s Mid-term Plan (JICA 2003) states that by “providing financial support on a voluntary basis “The Agency shall enhance its support for South- to technical co-operation between two or more South cooperation, which promotes capacity build- developing countries and to institutions in developing in developing countries effectively and also leads ing countries that have a TCDC outreach potential” to an increase in aid resources as well as promotion and by “making qualitative improvements, if they of intraregional cooperation.” have not yet done so, in their policies and procedures Schemes for supporting South-South coopera- related to technical co-operation, in order to be able tion include “Third Country Training Courses” and to support TCDC activities and projects at the “Third-Country Experts.”2 The main objective of the request of participating developing countries so as to former scheme is to retransfer the technology trans- contribute to the greater reliance by those countries ferred to a developing country by Japan to another on resources available locally or in other developing country, and the courses are conducted on a cost- countries.” Hereby, the international framework for sharing basis. In other words, this is “recovery of supporting South-South cooperation was established. investment spent on Japan’s bilateral cooperation.” This paper will explain the significance and The latter is to use human resources of developing objectives of Japan’s support for South-South cooper- countries in the fields for which it is difficult to ation as one of the developed countries in an interna- recruit Japanese experts, enhancing the quality and tional context described above, analyze the gaps effectiveness of Japan’s bilateral aid. between the objectives and reality that need to be To summarize the above, the significance for addressed by looking at actual cases and scrutinize Japan of supporting South-South cooperation can be the reasons for success and failure in efforts made to mainly condensed into the following four points: tackle issues. Then, it will present necessary and (1) Enabling effective and efficient cooperation. effective efforts to be made in order to accomplish (2) Enabling expansion of aid resources. the objectives of supporting South-South coopera- (3) Enabling recovery of the investment in, and tion. reuse of the outcomes of , Japan's past aid The cases that are focused on in this paper are programs. “Japan-Chile Partnership Programme: JCPP,” which (4) Enabling contributions to sustainable devel- the author is currently involved in,1 and projects and opment (capacity development, promotion other Partnership Programs being implemented of cooperation within a region, etc.). within its framework. Additionally, the first point means the improve- In addition, the opinions expressed in this paper ment of aid and the more reasonable, quicker deliv- are the author’s personal views and do not represent ery of appropriate technology, and the second point the views of the organization to which she belongs. refers to the increase in amount and diversity of aid. The third point indicates one form of aid coordination where instead of conducting similar projects in I. Significance of South-South Coopera- various countries, Japan asks a developing country to tion spread the outcomes of Japan’s aid projects to other developing countries with the cooperation of the 1. Analysis based on policy framework developing country for human and financial The Medium-Term Policy on ODA in 1999 resources. The fourth point suggests that South- endorsed the support of South-South cooperation by South cooperation not only contributes to the devel- listing the following four merits: 1) expansion of aid opment of capacities within a region but also helps resources through the development of new donor countries (organizations) implementing South-South countries; 2) promotion of cooperation within a cooperation to develop their abilities to conduct aid region and among regions; 3) appropriate technology programs, that activates regional cooperation under transfer and 4) ODA cost reduction. The ODA the ownership by these developing countries them- Charter in 2003 (The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of selves and ultimately leads to sustainable develop- Japan 2003) also actively promotes South-South ment. cooperation, and the Medium-Term Policy on ODA

40 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

2. Significance of supporting south-south coop- for development through the implementation of the eration in the partnership program cooperation are now strongly urged.7 In other words, The Partnership Program (PP) is a comprehensive it can be said that what is desired for South-South framework in which the Japanese government and cooperation has changed from sharing development the government of a developing country agree to experiences to making contributions to issues related cooperate in assisting development efforts of other to development. developing countries and regions. Japan first signed In the meantime, countries implementing the agreement with Singapore in 1994 and had con- South-South cooperation have limited experiences in cluded PP with 12 countries by June 2005.3 In this development simply because they themselves are framework, which is an improvement on the conven- developing countries.8 Therefore, Country A imple- tional support for South-South cooperation, Japan menting South-South cooperation focuses on what A and the developing country express their intention to can offer (supply-driven viewpoint), instead of what support other developing countries as “partners in a recipient Country B needs (demand-driven per- development efforts” and conduct collaborative activ- spective). As a result, A conducts cooperation proj- ities through cost sharing. Japan and the developing ects in which the resources that A offers do not country build a relationship as equal partners, that match the B’s needs, causing a situation where such makes the program distinctive.4 projects are intrusive from B’s point of view.9 These Considering this distinctive advantage, “build- occur due to the weak demand-driven perspective, ing new bilateral relationships with more developed limited range and level of knowledge to be offered developing countries” should be added as the fifth and the lack of a mechanism for matching needs to point for significance of supporting South-South resources. cooperation listed in the Section 1 above. In the seminar with 11 countries10 with which Japan had concluded PP, ASEAN countries and Chile were the only countries that reported that they stud- II. Issues Related to Supporting South- ied the recipient country’s demands and had a mech- South Cooperation through PP anism for matching their resources to its needs. There, it was confirmed that a needs-oriented In this section, the present situation of PP, the most approach was important and that it was essential to comprehensive framework for supporting South- establish a mechanism for matching needs to South cooperation that is significant for Japan in five resources. The situation where South-South coopera- ways as mentioned above, will be analyzed by mainly tion projects are discussed mainly from the viewpoint using the case of “Japan-Chile Partnership Pro- of a country supplying aid is also questioned (JICA gramme (JCPP),” clarifying the issues regarding the 2002). While proposing to avoid the supply-driven program. approach, JICA recommends not only studying needs of recipient countries but also specifying the resources 1. Weak demand-driven perspective that countries implementing South-South coopera- Originally, South-South cooperation repudiates tion can offer and using the ones that comply with dependency and embodies the concept of “collective the development issues of the recipient countries. self-reliance,”5 which aims at self-reliance based on equality and mutual benefit. However, economic dis- 2. Insufficient approaches to solving issues parities among developing countries have been evi- As mentioned in the Section 1, if the supply-driven dent since the late 1970s and, furthermore, even the (resource-focused) perspective is strong, Country A significance of being nonaligned countries, on which implementing South-South cooperation has difficul- the political cohesiveness of developing countries was ty in taking an approach to “solving issues.” founded, was lost when the Cold War ended at the In the case of Chile, though it had conducted beginning of 1990 (Takebe 2001). Under such cir- field studies for project formulation even before cumstances, for countries implementing South- JCPP started, it lacked methods for assessing the South cooperation the purpose has changed from needs of a wide range of stakeholders before formu- achieving “equality and mutual benefit” to raising lating projects. The causes behind this problem are a diplomatic presence and gaining international recog- lack of know-how for accurately assessing needs and nition as a donor country.6 Moreover, as developed studying details for project formulation as well as countries and international organizations support Country A’s inability to carefully deal with Country South-South cooperation, more positive outcomes B’s development issues due to the limited range of

41 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

knowledge and technology that A can offer. ownership by people receiving aid and institutions implementing projects has become an issue. 3. Lack of ownership by the countries implementing south-south cooperation and the 4. Lack of awareness of the importance of evalu- recipient countries ation In some cases, Country A implementing South- When Country A implementing South-South cooper- South cooperation and recipient Country B do not ation evaluates a project, it often focuses on input, develop their ownership because developed Country rather than outputs, lacking awareness of the impor- C takes a leadership role in supporting South-South tance of result-oriented objective evaluation. This situ- cooperation. This problem is considered to be one of ation seems to occur because Country A’s administra- the factors interfering with capacity development tive system lacks result-oriented evaluation tools and even in bilateral cooperation projects, as it is pointed the undeveloped nature of A’s civil society prevents the out as “the belief that it is possible for donors ulti- lack of consideration for accountability and trans- mately to control the process” (UNDP 2002). parency from being easily recognized as a problem. However, as one significant point of supporting In the case of Chile, although questionnaire sur- South-South cooperation was earlier defined as “pro- veys targeting seminar participants existed as an eval- moting cooperation within a region through the uation method before JCPP, the content of the ques- ownership by developing countries themselves,” it tionnaire survey was limited to the “satisfaction level should be emphasized again that the key objective of of participants.”13 In addition, since they had few supporting South-South cooperation is to increase experiences in implementing project-type coopera- ownership by the developing countries. tion, Chile did not have an established system for Before JCPP started, the cost share ratio for the project monitoring and evaluation. At the same time, Third Country Training Courses between Chile and Japan also had neither consensus nor an established Japan was three to seven and the cost for Chile was method for how to evaluate South-South coopera- often shared by international cooperation agency and tion support projects in collaboration with Chile. training implementing institutions. That situation This leads to a vicious circle where no evaluation sys- caused low level of self-awareness of the former tem for South-South cooperation (and its support) organization as part of a country in charge of South- projects is established, results are not clear and it is South cooperation. It is because when B is given sup- difficult to gain an understanding of South-South port through the human resources offered by A cooperation (and its support) projects. under the leadership of C, which bears a larger per- Evaluation is an essential process for verifying all centage of the cost, it is difficult to develop A’s own- five points outlining the significance of supporting ership for South-South cooperation. As soon as C South-South cooperation. It would be difficult to stops its aid, the regional cooperation becomes stag- conclude that Japan’s support for South-South coop- nant, making it highly unlikely to achieve sustainable eration is significant unless solid evaluation methods development. based on objective data were established to verify the The ratio of cost share is not necessarily in results, impact and efficiency of the PP projects. direct proportion to how much ownership a country Figure 1 summarizes the connection between has.12 However, in order to enable the promotion of the issues discussed in Chapter II. cooperation within a region, A should ideally develop a cooperative and complementary relationship with C as an equal partner and develop an awareness III. Activities in JCPP and attitude for achieving a more positive outcome for B. As for the “expansion of aid resources,” which JCPP will be taken up as a case example for dis- is another significant point of supporting South- cussing the issues presented in Chapter II, analyzing South cooperation, if A bears a small percentage of successful efforts and possible factors contributing to the cost, this means that C’s support for South-South the success as well as unsuccessful efforts and possible cooperation does not contribute to the increase of causes of their failure. aid volume on a global level. With regard to the ownership by recipient coun- 1. Summary of JCPP tries, it did not matter before the start of JCPP because Since 1950s, Japan has been supporting the develop- there was little project-type cooperation at that time. ment of Chile particularly in industrial sectors such However, since JCPP started, how to increase the as agriculture, forestry, fisheries and mining indus-

42 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

Figure 1 Diagram of connection between issues concerning supporting south-south cooperation through partnership program

Issues of Country A Implementing Issues of Developed Country C South-South Cooperation Supporting South-South Cooperation

1. Weak demand-driven 4. Lack of awareness of the No evaluation system for supporting perspective importance of evaluation South-South cooperation programs is Lack of a mechanism for studying No evaluation system for South- established → Results of supporting demands, lack of a mechanism South cooperation programs is South-South cooperation are not clear → It for matching needs to resources, established → Results of South- is difficult to move toward an understanding lack of system for request South cooperation are not clear of supporting South-South cooperation appraisal, preliminary study and → It is difficult to gain support programs → Supporting South-South preliminary evaluation for South-South cooperation cooperation programs do not expand

2. Insufficient approaches to 3. (Country A’s) ownership is not solving issues developed (Country C) takes the leadership Lack of project design methods based on needs, limited knowledge and technology to be offered Participation in the project formulation and commitment to the project are poor = (Country B’s) ownership is not developed Regional cooperation does not take root

Sustainable development is not achieved Issues of Cooperation Recipient Country B Source: Prepared by the author.

tries. Meanwhile, Chile has managed to achieve eco- been made in JCPP in order to solve the four issues nomic growth through its own efforts as the sound analyzed in Chapter II and analyze the examples of macroeconomic policies implemented since late successful and unsuccessful cases below. 1980s started to yield results. In Chile, the military dictatorship that had last- (1) Weak demand-driven perspective ed for 17 years ended in 1990 and the government A mechanism for studying and identifying the shifted to civil administration. The International demands of the recipient countries, shown in Figure Cooperation Agency (Agencia de Cooperación Inter- 2, was introduced. Here is the process: Every August, nacional: AGCI) was established, receiving coopera- demands for the next fiscal year are studied in remote tion from donor countries mainly for the field of areas,16 and all demands received are outlined on a social development, which was neglected under the long list. Then, AGCI and JICA Chile Office exam- military government. At the same time, the Horizon- ine the details of the request using the “Project tal Cooperation14 Department was established in the Check List”17 and list projects with high priority and AGCI, promoting South-South cooperation in the viability on a medium-length list. Subsequently, in name of “reciprocation” for and “solidarity” with the “Chile Horizontal Cooperation Evaluation and Latin-American countries which took in Chilean Planning Meeting” held in January of the following exiles during the military administration. year, the recipient countries’ international coopera- Under such circumstances, JCPP started in tion agencies check the details of the medium-length 1999.15 In this program, Japan and Chile extend list in the presence of the Chilean cooperating insti- joint technical assistance to developing countries for tutions and the final version of the medium-length their economic and social development by effectively list is created. Lastly, while referring to comments combining Japanese and Chilean human, technologi- from the JICA offices and the Japanese embassies in cal and financial resources. Table 1 summarizes the the recipient countries as well as JICA Headquarters main types of cooperation and actual results accord- in Tokyo and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of ing to the objectives. Japan, the annual activity plan is outlined in a short list, which is approved by the planning committee of 2. Efforts for solving problems JCPP. This mechanism has enabled the establishment This section will focus on what kind of efforts have of the demand-driven perspective, which focuses on

43 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

Table 1 Main forms of cooperation used in JCPP (by objective) and actual results

Type Form Objective Name of Projects Period of Projects Details of Input and Cost Share Approach to Project-type To accomplish specific “Sea fish farming project in Cuba” 2001 – 2003 Japan and Chile solving cooperation goals related to “Animal and plant quarantine system 2001 – 2003 share cost equally development including development issues and reinforcement project in Bolivia” for the dispatch of issues mini-projects produce positive outcomes “Strengthening of training of teachers Nov 2002 – Chilean experts, within a limited period of in Dominican Republic” Nov 2005 acceptance of time, for example three “Cattle livestock management in El Jun 2003 – trainees in Chile years. Salvador” May 2006 and materials. Each “Organizational strengthening of Feb 2004 – recipient country small-scale fishermen in Ecuador” Feb 2007 bears local cost. “Mollusk culture project in Peru” Sep 2004 – Sep 2007 “Aquaculture project in Columbia” From 2005 “Export promotion of El Salvador” From 2005

Sharing Regional To share positive and “Animal and plant quarantine” 2001, 2005 Chile bears the cost experiences seminars negative experiences “Police (drug control)” 2002 for seminars and concerning issues common “Supporting small-scale companies” 2002, 2003, travel expenses of to the development of a 2004, 2005 participants, and region and find existing “International negotiation and export 2002, 2003, Japan bears the cost capacities by gathering promotion” 2004 for dispatching participants from “Regional development” 2002, 2004 Chilean and surrounding developing “Introduction of JCPP” 2002 Japanese countries in a developing “Education” 2002, 2003, instructors. Each country. 2004 hosting country “Reinforced coordination among 2003, 2004 partially bears the focal points of international cost for seminars. cooperation” When a country “PP international seminar” 2004 invited to a seminar “Fruitmed fly quarantine” 2004 sends two or more “Improvement of general technology 2004 participants, it bears for mining” the cost of airfares “Youth development” 2004 for all persons “Civil security” 2005 except for the first.

Human Training Mainly, Chilean “Optical fiber transmission” 1997 – 2001 As a rule, Japan and resources projects such organizations which “Molluskan acuaculture engineering” 1998 – 2002 Chile share the cost development as Third received technical “Mine safety” 1999 equally for Country cooperation from Japan “Integrated management of 1998 – 2002 conducting training Training accept trainees from other watershed” and accepting Courses developing countries to “Prevention of the consumption and 2001 – 2003 trainees. Japan provide training courses. control of the illicit traffic drugs” sends Japanese Results of cooperation by “Improvement of mining operational 2001 – 2003 instructors. Japan (developed management” capacities, infrastructure, “Practical aquaculture technology” 2003 – 2007 etc.) are reused. “Environmental administration” 2003 – 2007 “Geological survey methods” 2003 – 2007 “Improvement of educational equality 2003 – 2005 and quality” “International cooperation 2005 management and operation”

Complementi Dispatch of When Japan determines “Water quality monitoring technology 2004 – 2005 Japan bears the cost ng/supporting Chilean that the contribution of project in Panama” for the dispatch of Japan’s experts and Chilean technology is “Rural development in Panama” 2004 – 2005 Chilean experts and bilateral acceptance of suitable for the cooperation “Education in Honduras” acceptance of cooperation trainees in project to be implemented “Cattle livestock management in 2004 – 2005 trainees in Chile. Chile in a country, Japan Nicaragua” From 2005 implements its bilateral “Water quality analysis in Uruguay” cooperation, receiving “Bridge restoration in Costa Rica” From 2005 human and financial 2005 cooperation from Chile.

Note: The projects implemented in 2005 and onward are plans. Source: Prepared by the author.

44 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

Figure 2 Mechanism for studying demands introduced to JCPP (Example of projects implemented in 2005)

2004 2005

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr

Demand research Creation of a long Meeting with Collecting Creation of a short list list, appraisal using a international comments based on comments from project check list, cooperation regarding the the recipient countries creation of a agencies of the medium-length and the Tokyo side, medium-length list recipient list from drawing up activity plan countries, countries by the planning amendment of involved committee the medium- length list

Source: Prepared by the author. needs of recipient countries.18 based on objectives and issues. Furthermore, the The following two points are thought to be the “Manual for Proceeding Project Formulation Study” factors which contributed to the achievement of such was created to ensure the quality of projects geared mechanism in JCPP described above. First, Chile toward solving issues and study is conducted accord- always had an attitude of “not compelling recipient ing to this manual. countries to receive cooperation” to begin with and The major turning point for making issue-solv- had already held meetings for studying the demands ing approaches possible came when AGCI approved of recipient countries before JCPP started. Second, the introduction of project-type cooperation which Chile has been inviting Japan to these meetings since requires incomparably more time and cost compared the start of JCPP, using the meetings as opportunities to regional seminars which used to be the main activ- to investigate the demands regarding JCPP. The ity of Chile’s South-South cooperation in the past. important point to take note of here is that Chile has The following factors are thought to have con- made the meetings open to Japan and other donor tributed to this: 1) Chile already had a strong inten- countries in order to seek cooperation, instead of tion to contribute to solving the issues that recipient making them closed for fear of lowering Chile’s pres- countries face and acknowledged the issues that ence, and aims to increase the trust from recipient Japan addressed; and 2) AGCI already utilized Logi- countries by emphasizing that “Chile’s South-South cal Frame19 and quickly understood issue-solving cooperation is supported by donor countries.” approaches as well as PCM. With regard to the limited range of knowledge (2) Insufficient approaches to solving issues and technology that can be offered, the results of In order to formulate a project designed to deal with bilateral cooperation between Japan and Chile are issues, the PCM (Project Cycle Management) utilized for JCPP in order to increase the range. method was introduced, enabling project-type coop- Additionally, an attempt to teach the PCM method eration to be formulated. With the participation of to prospective experts of Chilean government institu- stakeholders, workshops are held on site to identify tions and universities, in an effort to cultivate experts problems, discuss how to solve them and make deci- familiar with international cooperation projects has sions on project goal, details of activities and input. started. In addition to these efforts, another possible This has enabled the change in thinking, from “do approach would be to organize information on exist- what we can,” the supplier-focused approach, to ing resources and capacities and accumulate new “inputting what is necessary for solving issues.” Since development experiences. However, this approach is the “Animal and Plant Quarantine System Reinforce- not taken for JCPP yet and shall be implemented in ment Project in Bolivia” in 2001, project details have the future. Moreover, for some training courses, an been summarized in Project Design Matrix (PDM) open bidding system for the selection of course and there has been an increase in project-type coop- implementing institutions has been introduced. If eration in which inputs are made systematically the number of bidders increases, the range of knowl-

45 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

edge and technology to be offered is also expected to that Japan’s presence should be felt as a “catalyst” increase naturally. when supporting South-South cooperation, which is Another effort that can be made to increase the the cooperation among developing countries them- range of knowledge and technology to be offered is selves in the first place. It is also reported that Japan’s to cooperate with other countries implementing involvement in Third Country Training Courses South-South cooperation. In the “Chile Horizontal implemented under the leadership of developing Cooperation Evaluation and Planning Meeting” held countries is highly recognized (The International in 2003, the Foreign Ministry of Argentina was Development Center of Japan 2003).23 This indi- invited for the first time and an attempt was made to cates that it is fully possible to ensure Japan’s pres- draft a Chile-Argentina joint project. However, no ence simply by fulfilling a role as a catalyst. concrete plan for the project has yet been made. In the meantime, as for the ownership by the recipient countries, JCPP aims to increase their own- (3) Lack of ownership by the countries imple- ership by ensuring their participation and fostering menting South-South cooperation and the their awareness as the parties involved from the phase recipient countries of formulating projects and having them, not just Chile had already possessed a strong ownership even Japan and Chile, commit themselves to making before JCPP started. After its start, AGCI was quick inputs from the beginning of the projects. For exam- to obtain special budget for JCPP20 and dispatched ple, for educational project in the Dominican its study team to Latin-American countries to inves- Republic, the Dominican government made a com- tigate their needs by sharing the cost with JICA. mitment to covering the full amount of the budget Since the project was formulated, they have made for the implementation of 20 educational reform efforts to divide the cost equally. By splitting the cost projects at an elementary-school level. Although it evenly, Chile’s point of view has changed from “we was reported that all of the projects were delayed due are receiving support from Japan for South-South to the change of project implementing institutions’ cooperation” to “we are participating in aid coordina- staff and slow distribution of funds caused by the tion as an equal partner”, and their ownership has change of the government,24 the funds were immedi- been actually enhanced. The reasons for this are: 1) ately distributed once the request submitted from the Chile made efforts to fulfill their duties determined dispatched interim evaluation study team led by in JCPP agreement; and 2) they considered that AGCI was accepted. As shown in the relationship becoming an equal partner of Japan leads to between Chile and the Dominican Republic, having improved image of Chile in the international com- such “horizontal” relationship helps easily draw out munity.21 the recipient countries’ ownership. This can be con- One of the objectives of JCPP is to foster Chile sidered as a characteristic of South-South coopera- as an aid implementing country.22 For this reason, tion. Japan has been paying attention not to spoil Chile’s ownership while providing know-how which Japan (4) Lack of awareness of the importance of evalu- can offer as a donor country. That is also what the ation author has been careful of as an expert working on JCPP positions project-type cooperation, which is site. There are of course points that Japan must con- classified under the “approach to solving develop- sider when coordinating aid with other developed ment issues” in Table 1, as its main activity and has countries, such as using Japan’s knowledge and tech- created the “Manual for Proceeding Monitoring and nology and emphasizing the presence of Japan. How- Evaluation Study of Projects” to implement regular ever, if Japan makes the same statements when coop- monitoring and introduce a mechanism for evalua- erating with Chile which is growing as an aid imple- tion. This has enabled the establishment of a system menting country, this could cause Chile’s ownership, where three parties, Japan, Chile and the recipient which has been fortunately strong, to weaken. There- country, can monitor the project on a regular basis, fore, the author have been paying attention to avoid make adjustments if needed, evaluate the results such situations by, for example, appointing a staff together and make use of the lessons learned from the member from AGCI to become the leader when project for the next project. For seminars, the “Man- sending a JICA-AGCI joint study team. Although ual for Proceeding Regional Seminars in the Frame- this kind of attitude often draws criticism, saying work of JCPP” has been created, which includes tools that “it is difficult to see Japan’s presence in support- for evaluating the increase (improvement) of the par- ing South-South cooperation.” The author believes ticipants’ knowledge and technology, not just the

46 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

Figure 3 Diagram of connection between efforts in JCPP

Efforts Made by Chile Implementing Efforts Made by Japan Supporting South-South Cooperation South-South Cooperation

1. Reinforced demand-driven 4. Establishment of a evaluation Transfer of know-how for participatory planning perspective system and monitoring and evaluation, and joint Establishment of a mechanism for implementation of these activities studying demands, establishment of standards for project appraisal, implementation of project formulation study

2. Reinforced approaches to solving issues Creating cooperation projects focusing on solving issues using the PCM method, active use of 3. Great ownership by Chile Fulfills functions as a catalyst results of bilateral cooperation, based on cost sharing open bidding of institutions for implementing cooperation, pursuing coordination with other countries implementing South-South cooperation Participation from the time of project formulation and commitment to the project Participation in monitoring and evaluation Regional cooperation takes roots = Country B’s ownership is enhanced

Sustainable development becomes possible Efforts made by Cooperation Source: Prepared by the author. Recipient Country B

conventional way of evaluating their “satisfaction project implementing institutions, JICA offices and level.” In the future, those involved in JCPP are asked international cooperation agencies in recipient coun- to gain as many on-site experiences on monitoring tries can participate from the stage of evaluation and evaluation as possible and accumulate experi- design in order to perform evaluation that is useful. ences as a project manager and evaluator. Figure 3, which corresponds to Figure 1, out- It seems that the smooth introduction of this lines a series of efforts described above. kind of evaluation system was made possible because Chile recognized that it was essential to prepare a 3. Historical, cultural and social characteristics more objective evaluation system in order to cooper- that enabled Chile’s efforts ate with donor countries as well as to receive truly Despite various issues, JCPP has achieved many posi- high appraisal from recipient countries. tive results within a short amount of time compared In addition, the ownership by recipient coun- to PP in other regions and countries. This section tries is important for monitoring and evaluation. By will analyze the historical, cultural and social charac- monitoring and evaluating a project by themselves, a teristics that contributed to this achievement. recipient country becomes more aware as a party involved in the project, ensuring the permanence of (1) Characteristics of Latin America the project activities. In a related matter, during the As most countries in Latin America were colonized interim evaluation of the project implemented in the by Spain and inherited the language25 and religion Dominican Republic mentioned earlier, it was point- from the colonial power, cultural and historical ed out as a problem that the study team visited the homogeneity is often mentioned as its characteristic. site without having adequate preliminary discussions Therefore, it is possible to say that we can expect about the evaluation method with the Dominican smoother implementation and greater results in Republic side. We have leaned from this experience South-South cooperation in Latin America compared that it is important to establish a framework where to the cooperation within other regions consisting of not only outsider actors, such as AGCI, JICA Chile countries with different languages and religions such Office and Chilean cooperating institutions, but also as Asia and Africa (JICA 2002).26 However, this is

47 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

not the driving force behind South-South coopera- (2) Characteristics of Chile tion although it is one of the factors that contribute One of the characteristics of Chile is that a large to its successful implementation. number of political exiles fled the country (Yoshida The author would like to point out as one of the 2001)28 during the 17 years of military dictatorship characteristics of South-South cooperation in Latin which started in 1973 and they returned to the coun- America, that it has been closely linked to the revital- try after the restoration of civil administration to ization of trade within the region, creation of a com- build a new country and have been playing active mon market and regional integration. There have parts as the nucleus of the government. These people been many attempts to integrate Latin America since who returned home after living in exile for a long independence. When the import substitution indus- time can make thoroughly relative and objective trialization policy was strong during 1960s, there was observations29 of their own country, which has a movement for increasing productivity by establish- achieved rapid economic growth through multilateral ing a free-trade zone in Latin America. However, economic diplomacy based on free trade, and are expected results were not achieved due to failure in strongly aware that the stabilization of Latin America consensus building, wars and other reasons. amid globalization is essential for Chile’s sustainable In the beginning of the 1990s after the end of development. Additionally, while Chile implements the Cold War, there was another movement to pro- South-South cooperation as “reciprocation” for mote the economic integration of Latin America, as mainly Central American and Caribbean countries globalization of the world economy and formation of which took in the exiles, Chile has complicated bilat- regional economic blocs proceeded. In 1994, the eral relationships with neighboring countries such as North American Free Trade Agreement took effect Peru and Bolivia due to the frequent surfacing of ter- among the United States, Canada and Mexico. In ritorial dispute connected to past wars.30 Given its 1991, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay historic background, Chile focuses on “reciprocation” signed the Southern Common Market (MERCO- and “solidarity” as starting points of South-South SUR) and five countries in the Andes (Bolivia, cooperation and takes an attitude toward having dia- Colombia , Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela) started a logues with the recipient countries to ensure the free-trade zone in 1992 and established the Andean implementation of non-vertical, horizontal coopera- Community in 1996. Chile and Bolivia concluded a tion. This is the reason why Chile’s cooperation is free-trade agreement with MERCOSUR in 1996 and accepted by other countries. became associate members. In 1993, six Central Then, why has JCPP, the collaborative program American countries, five member countries of the by Chile and Japan, been smoothly implemented? Central American Common Market (Costa Rica, El Chile has been cooperating with developed countries Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua) and from early on.31 As of June 2005, donor countries Panama, also signed an economic union treaty implementing aid in Latin America in cooperation (Yukawa 1999). with Chile include Germany, Sweden, South Korea These are the efforts for gaining mutual profits and the United States. This seems to indicate that through the development of trade within the region. Chile recognizes the following two merits: 1) Thus, Latin America had clear motives for South- enhancing the range, quantity and quality of Chile’s South cooperation (political and economic stability South-South cooperation through extensive coordi- of the region, elimination of the disparities among nation with donor countries; and 2) increasing nations, etc.). Chile’s presence in the international community Furthermore, in Latin America, there is a move- through cooperation with developed countries. ment for implementing measures against problems which cannot be eradicated by one country’s efforts, such as infectious diseases including Chagas disease IV. Conclusion and Consideration for and issues related to drugs and security, as a bloc, and Further Development of PP frameworks that enable such measures exist.27 We can say that South-South cooperation is one of the In conclusion, the improvements to be made for each efforts for ensuring the stability and integration of PP in order that Japan’s support for South-South the region, which is essential for the peace and pros- cooperation will actually fulfill its significant roles can perity of each country, and it can also be said that the be divided roughly into four points described below. further activation of South-South cooperation promotes the regional stability and integration.

48 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

1. Strengthening of demand-driven viewpoint among the countries implementing South-South and approaches to solving issues cooperation is expected. Instead of dealing with For each PP, it is necessary to study demands of development issues of a recipient country by itself, recipient countries from the demand-driven view- Chile should cooperate with other countries like point and establish a mechanism for matching needs Argentina, Mexico and Brazil which implement to resources. If possible, it would be advisable to not South-South cooperation in Latin America and also only study demands in remote areas but also to hold carry out PP with Japan. That will enable not only meetings with a mechanism for matching needs to more dynamic cooperation within the region but also resources in which cooperating institutions of a more effective aid programs which offer a wider country implementing South-South cooperation and range of knowledge and technology. project implementing institutions of the recipient countries participate. Moreover, such meetings 2. Enhancement of ownership should ideally be open to other countries implement- In order to enhance the ownership of a partner coun- ing South-South cooperation, allowing coordination try, it is important that the partner country tries to among these countries to occur, presenting a wider become an equal partner with Japan by making range of resources to the recipient countries and efforts to share cost, accumulating know-how as an enabling the designing of more effective projects. aid implementing country and improving project With regard to project selection, it is desirable management abilities. Meanwhile, Japan as a donor to clarify the standards for joint analysis of the details country must put efforts to share its know-how with of requests by Japan and partner countries (countries the partner, make contributions as a catalyst to the implementing South-South cooperation) and jointly activation of cooperation among developing coun- create a project check list. For formulating project- tries while keeping in mind that the developing type cooperation, it is necessary that Japan and the countries are the main actors of South-South cooper- partner country share planning and formulating ation, and strive to help promote regional coopera- methods such as PCM and cultivate human tion and achieve sustainable development. resources who can use such methods skillfully. Stan- To enhance the ownership of a recipient coun- dardizing the quality of project formulation process try, it is important to encourage the recipient country through the creation of the Manual for Proceeding to participate in all phases of the project so that the Project Formulation Study is also a key strategy. actors of the recipient country develop awareness as In the meantime, in order to implement and key players and to clarify its roles and duties. In this monitor these multi-year projects geared toward solv- case, attention should be paid to naturally drawing ing issues, the local capacities and functions of both out the recipient country’s ownership while focusing the countries implementing PP and recipient coun- on the “horizontal” relationship between the partner tries need to be improved. For example, the author country and recipient country. who has been involved in the reinforcement of AGCI believes that it is crucial to polish the project man- 3. Attaching importance to evaluation agement skills of the international cooperation agency In order that South-South cooperation and its sup- and the JICA office in the recipient country and port achieve steady and high appraisal, each PP must reinforce the system in which the recipient country have an easy-to-use monitoring and evaluation sys- itself manages the project. tem and disclose evaluation results. Moreover, it is In order to increase the range of knowledge and desirable that the evaluation is objective and its technology to be offered, the following three results are disclosed on websites or through other approaches are possible: 1) discovering resources that media.32 In order to conduct a useful evaluation, it is already exist; 2) creating new resources; and 3) col- also important to reinforce the capacities of both laborating with other resources. As for the first point, partner country and recipient country. it is effective to build a database of existing capaci- The author has come to believe that improving ties, update it regularly and make proactive efforts to the evaluation system is crucial for JCPP to achieve discover new resources through open bidding system fruitful outcomes which ensure that Chile further and other means. With regard to the second point, expands its South-South cooperation in coordination when new development experiences are gained, it is with not only Japan but other donor countries and effective to provide know-how for international international organizations. When they notice that cooperation to organizations and staff members that Chile has its own evaluation tools for projects, rang- are involved. To achieve the third point, cooperation ing from seminars of a few days in length to three-

49 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

year long projects, and Chile achieves great results potential development of their capacities. Additional- from an objective point of view, other donor coun- ly, the reason why South-South cooperation is easily tries will understand why Japan has been supporting linked to capacity development may be because the Chile’s South-South cooperation and may make capacities which already exist in the region and have efforts to build partnerships with Chile for more been proved to be effective can be utilized for it. The effective and efficient implementation of aid pro- author would also like to focus on these areas as grams.33 study subjects in the future.

4. Contribution to regional integration and role as a catalyst Notes For countries of Latin America where there are movements towards a common market and regional 1. June 19, 2005. The author was dispatched to Chile integration, one of their motives for implementing as an “aid formulation and coordination” expert South-South cooperation is to gain benefits for from March 2002 to August 2003 and as a themselves. We can say that implementation of “Strengthening of JCPP” expert from September South-South cooperation can facilitate the formation 2003 to July 2005. of a political and economic framework. By imple- 2. Schemes introduced in 1975 and 1995 respectively. menting South-South cooperation in other regions to 3. Signed by Singapore (1994), Thailand (1994), Egypt create such framework, it is expected that integration (1998), Tunisia (1999), Chile (1999), Brazil (2000), within the region will be promoted and the motive Argentina (2001), the Philippines (2002), Morocco for regional cooperation there will also be more clari- (2003), Mexico (2003), Indonesia (2003) and Jordan fied. (2004), in that order. In addition, as shown in the case of Asia, South- 4. See the agreement on the Japan-Chile Partnership South cooperation between two developing countries Programme as reference. is not always implemented smoothly due to their his- 5. Concept proposed at the Third Summit Conference torical background and other reasons.34 In such of Non-Aligned Countries held in 1970. cases, it would be ideal for Japan to intervene as a 6. In Latin America, Chile is an exception not to call buffer or catalyst so that regional cooperation is itself a “donor country” but to claim to be a member smoothly implemented and regional integration is of countries implementing horizontal cooperation. achieved. The author expects Japan to play such role Regarding “horizontal cooperation,” see the note 14. in the international community in the future accord- 7. The agreement on JCPP states that the objective of ing to the circumstances that each PP faces. JCPP is to extend joint technical assistance to developing countries for their economic and social devel- Closing opment by effectively combining Japanese and Chilean human, technological and financial resources In recent years, donor countries have focused on (underlined by the author). In addition, as men- finding various new approaches to development tioned in Section 1 of Chapter I, South-South coop- assistance, such as human development and capacity eration is also being used to improve the quality of development, reflecting on their failure to achieve Japanese aid. adequate results through development assistance in 8. It can also be said that that is why they are still devel- the past. From the viewpoint of capacity develop- oping countries. ment, knowledge is not to be transferred but to be 9. JICA's website points out that as characteristics of “acquired and reinvented”. Furthermore, the knowl- South-South cooperation in Asia there are cases edge for capacity development should be “scanned where the intention of new donor countries is reflect- globally and reinvented locally” (UNDP 2002), ed in the formulation of cooperation projects rather instead of being given by specific countries or than the needs of the recipient countries. It also indi- donors. cates that it is difficult to implement cooperation This paper has mainly focused on the signifi- which correctly reflects the needs of the recipient cance of supporting South-South cooperation for countries because of the necessity for considering the Japan. From the perspective of recipient countries, historical background and other circumstances however, the activation of South-South cooperation between the countries involved. allows them to select knowledge suited to their own 10. The seminar co-hosted by the International Cooper- circumstances from a wide range which aims at the ation Agency of Chile and JICA which was held in

50 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

Santiago, Chile in January 2004. Jordan had not tion Programme of the Government of the Republic signed PP at that point. of Chile.” 11. It was agreed to make efforts to achieve the ratio of 23. According to the questionnaire survey targeting 5:5 from FY2004. Senegalese trainees and their superiors who partici- 12. In some cases, like Argentina, the budget for South- pated in the Third Country Training Courses con- South cooperation decreased significantly shortly ducted in Egypt or Tunisia, 92% of the respondents after the conclusion of PP due to the economic crisis. acknowledged that the training was supported by 13. Questions included “Was your personal expectation Japan. met?” and “Were the venue and facilities appropri- 24. See “Business Trip Report” by Mami Yamada issued ate?” in December 2004. 14. Synonym for South-South cooperation. It means 25. Since Spanish and Portuguese are similar, it is easy cooperation among countries at the same level. On for native speakers of these languages to communi- the other hand, the cooperation between a developed cate with each other. country and a developing country is sometimes called 26. It was pointed out that the English proficiency gap “vertical cooperation.” among participants was a problem in the Third 15. In June 30, 1999, the Japanese ambassador to Chile Country Training Courses implemented in Singa- and the Chilean foreign minister signed the agree- pore and Thailand. ment. 27. For example, in Central America, SICA (Sistema de 16. Two routes were used: (1) between JICA overseas la Integración Centroamericano, Central American offices; and (2) AGGI and international cooperation Integration System) was established in 1991 in an agencies of recipient countries. effort to realize economic and social integration in 17. In this list it is analyzed the importance of the proj- Central America and achieve peace, freedom, democ- ect in the development agenda of the country racy and development. requesting aid as well as whether Chile has appropri- 28. The number of Chilean refugees after the military ate technology to offer or not. coup on September 11, 1973 was approximately 18. With regard to adopted projects, as mentioned later, 250,000. This means that approximately 2.8% of the more detailed study on needs is conducted at work- entire population fled the country, considering the shops where a wide range of stakeholders including population of Chile in 1970 was just over 8.88 mil- beneficiaries attend or through the dispatch of study lion. teams in an effort to formulate projects that meet 29. With a population of only approximately 15 million, needs. Chile has a small domestic market and its economy is 19. Logical Frame is used partially for budget requests supported by the export of primary goods, copper in submitted to the Ministry of Finance. particular, and their processed goods. For this reason, 20. Starting from 40,000 dollars in 2001, the budget has Chile needs more careful yet solid management as it been increasing every year, gaining 96,000 dollars has smaller room for development compared to other (2002), 200,000 dollars (2003) and 450,000 dollars countries in the same Latin American region such as (2004). On the other hand, Japan does not have a Brazil and Argentina. system for securing the budget for JCPP in the form 30. In addition to these factors, because of the situation of special budget although there is a system for allo- where the development in Central America and cating budget to each scheme, such as the Third- Caribbean countries is slower compared to that in Country Experts and the Third Country Training South America, Chile's South-South cooperation has Courses. been placing emphasis on Central America and the 21. In the forum titled “Forum on Partnership for more Caribbean region. Effective Development Co-operation” held at the 31. The New Directions for Technical Cooperation Organization for Economic Co-operation and Devel- among Developing Countries presented by UNDP opment (OECD) in February 2005, the representa- (United Nations Development Programme) in 1995 tive of AGCI gave a presentation emphasizing that reported that the cooperation among Chile, the Japan and Chile are collaboratively supporting third Netherlands and Central American countries was a countries as equal partners. successful case of tripartite cooperation. 22. The agreement of JCPP states that “in planning 32. For the activities and evaluations of JCPP, visit the JCPP, the Government of Japan gives consideration website. http://www.jcpp.cl to the aspects of supporting Chile’s South-South 33. According to the 2004 annual report of AGCI, Chile cooperation efforts under the Horizontal Coopera- implemented cooperation in collaboration with Ger-

51 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Case Studies ]

many, Flanders (Belgium), Finland, Sweden and tite Cooperation Project Japan-Chile-Dominican South Korea as well as Japan. However, as of June Republic “Strengthening of Cultivation and Training 2005, Japan is the only country which shares a com- of Teachars in Dominican Republic”]. prehensive framework like the Partnership Program JICA website. http://www.jica.go.jp with Chile. JICA. 2002. Annual Evaluation Report 2002: Thematic 34. See note 9. Additionally, when implementing the Evaluation “South-South Cooperation Support.” JCPP project between Chile, Japan and Bolivia, the http://www.jica.go.jp/english/evaluation/reports bilateral relationship between Chile and Bolivia /2002.html worsened temporarily. However, the cooperation was . 2003a. JICA's Mid-term Objectives. implemented according to the plan thanks to Japan’s http://www.jica.go.jp/english/about/policy/pdf presence in the tripartite project. /midterm_objectives.pdf JICA-AGCI. 2003. Nihon-Chiri Paatonaashippu References Puroguramu Katsudo Jisseki 1999/2002 [Japan- Chile Partnership Programme Summary of Activities AGCI. 2005a. Manual de Procedimiento de Estudio en 1999/2002]. Formulación de Proyectos en el Marco de JCPP Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 2003. ODA Char- [Manual for Proceeding Project Formulation Study ter. in the Framework of JCPP]. . 2004a. Japan’s ODA White Paper 2003. . 2005b. Manual de Procedimiento para la Misión . 2004b. ODA Chuki seisaku hyoka [Evaluation of de Monitoreo y Evaluación de Proyectos en el Marco Japan’s Medium-Term Policy on ODA]. de JCPP [Manual for Proceeding Monitoring and . 2004c. 2002 Annual Evaluation Report on Evaluation Mission of Projects in the Framework of Japan's Economic Cooperation. JCPP]. http://www.mofa.go.jp . 2005c. Memoria 2004 [Annual Report 2004]. . 2005. Japan’s Medium-Term Policy on ODA. http://www.agci.gob.cl Nishijima, S. and A. Hosono. 2002. Raten amerika DAC.1996. Shaping the 21st Century : The Contribution niokeru seisaku kaikaku no kenkyu [Study on Policy of Development Co-operation. Reform in Latin America]. Kobe Economic and Busi- http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd /23/35/2508761. pdf. ness Research Series 62. Hosono, A. 1983. Raten Amerika no Keizai [The Econo- Takebe, N. 2001. Raten Amerika niokeru Nannan my of Latin America]. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Kyoryoku no Atarashii Shinten to Kadai [New Press Developments and Issues in South-South Coopera- . 2002. Yushikisya hyoka (Chiri no nannan tion in Latin America]. Suzuka International Univer- kyoryoku shien ni kannsuru hyoka chosa) sity Bulletin 8. Hokokusyo [Evaluation by third-party specialists UNDP. 1978. The Buenos Aires Plan of Action. (Chile and Cuba: Support for South-South Coopera- http://tcdc.undp.org/tcdcweb/knowledge_base tion)]. /bapa_english1.asp http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/oda/evaluation/2002/ . 1995. New Directions for Technical Co-opera- chap2-1.pdf tion among Developing Countries. Hosono, A. and K. Hata ed. 1993. Raten Amerika no http://tcdc.undp.org/tcdcweb/knowledge_base Kokusai Kankei [International Relations in Latin /new_direction1.asp America]. Tokyo: Shinhyoron co. ltd. . 2002. Capacity for Development, Executive Sum- International Development Center of Japan. 2003. Nan- mary. nan Kyoryoku Shien Hyoka Chosa [Evaluation . 2003. Review of progress in the implementation Study on South-South Cooperation Support]. of the Buenos Aires Plan of Action and the new http://www.mofa.go.jp directions strategy for technical cooperation among Japan-Chile Partnership Programme Agreement. developing countries. http:// www.jica.go.jp/chile/activities/01.html#02_a Yamada, M. 2003. Report submitted after completing JCPP website. http://www.jcpp.cl duties as an expert. JICA-AGCI. 2005. Informe de Monitoreo Intermedio, . 2004a. Business trip report. Proyecto de Cooperación Triangular Japón-Chile- . 2004b. Senshinkoku donaa to tojokoku no renkei Repúlica Dominicana “Fortalecimiento de la Forma- niyoru sankaku kyoryoku no arikata: Nihon chili ción y Capacitación Docente de la Repúnlica paatonaashippu no jirei kara [Future Direction of Dominicana” [Interim Monitoring Report, Tripar- Tripartite Cooperation among Donor Countries and

52 Efforts and Measures for Supporting South-South Cooperation: Case of Japan-Chile Partnership Programme [ Case Studies ]

Developing Countries: Case of Japan-Chile Partner- ship Programme]. Master's thesis, Nihon Fukushi University. . 2004c. JCPP Seminar Report. Yukawa, S. 1999. Raten amerika keizai ron - Keizai hatten to seisaku kaikaku [The Economy of Latin Amer- ica: Economic Development and Policy Reform]. Tokyo: Chuokeizai-sha Inc. Yoshida, S. 2001. Chiri no jinken shingai shinso kyumei mondai to minsyuka: Pinoche shogun sotui jiken tono kanren de [Seeking the Truth of Human Rights Abuse in Chile and its Democratization: in Connec- tion with the Case where General Pinochet was indicted]. Tokyo: Institute of Developing Econ- omies.

53 [ Notes ]

Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women

—A Case of Kampung1 Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Rika KATO Chief, Industrial Promotion Section, Industrial Economy Division, Civic & Economic Affairs Bureau, City of Nagoya

Abstract

For women living in the impoverished urban areas of developing countries which do not have a well-developed social security system, the safety net comes from private mutual aid systems based on informal social relations, the community, etc., rather than the Government. For example, traditional Indonesian mutual finance associations known as "arisan," which have become popular among women living in impoverished urban areas as an informal financing mechanism, have not only led to a buildup of the personal capacities of participants but also an improvement in the welfare of the community as a whole. The author takes particular note of the fact that arisan and other forms of economic mutual aid activities as people's means of survival can provide a risk sharing platform for them by fostering social capital as well as economic capital. A community-based safety net backed by people's solidarity and trust is an important element for impoverished women living in urban informal communities to ensure their security. Nevertheless, community-centered mutual aid activities run by the urban poor themselves do have major economic and institutional limitations. This is highlighted by the fact that such activities rarely encompass pension, insurance and other social security systems and relief systems against economic crises and large-scale disasters. To strengthen the community-based safety net in the face of such limitations, it is important for communities to enhance their capacity by seeking cooperation with NGOs, universities and local governments as well as other communities, in addition to promoting solidarity within themselves. Moreover, complementing the functions provided by the community is an effective and efficient public welfare policy approach. The future challenge for the Government, development assistance organizations and other implementers of public welfare policy measures lies in finding ways to provide indirect support conducive to invigorating community-based mutual aid activities and enabling the community to provide wide-ranging social services.

Introduction sector, including scavengers4 and drivers of becha,5 and those unlawfully occupying government land The surge in commodity prices during the 1997 eco- have difficulty in even accessing systems provided by nomic crisis that severely impacted the Indonesian the government. Members of kampung communities economy and society battered the lives of Indonesia’s in Yogyakarta are cases in point, and are resiliently urban poor, and that led to an acknowledgment of surviving within their private mutual aid systems. the need for a safety net for the poor and other Under the Suharto government, community socially disadvantaged people from the human secu- associations and women’s associations were formed rity viewpoint. The social safety net program2 imple- under government initiatives for the purpose of exer- mented by the government and development aid cising efficient control over residents, including pro- agencies as an emergency support measure did not moting election vote collection, and organizing vari- achieve the level of results as injected funds.3 In par- ous support organizations.6 Beyond the government’s ticular, the benefits of the program failed to reach the intention, arisan,7 introduced as a supporting tool poorest of the poor. People working in the informal for people, and in particular women, to actively par-

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 21-(2) (October 2005).

54 Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women —A Case of Kampung Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia [ Notes ]

ticipate in community activities, are today very pop- munity organizations, especially women’s organiza- ular among women’s groups in impoverished areas tions, as the major component of the safety net for because of the practical benefits brought by the sys- the self-motivation of people and mutually supports tem. Arisan here has not only led to a buildup of the the expression of their potential capabilities, rather capacities necessary for the survival of participants, than relief measures, this paper covers the two organ- but also an improvement in the welfare of the com- izations of RT (neighborhood associations) / RW munity as a whole. Such mutual aid activities as a (community associations) and PKK (women’s associ- basic means of people’s survival, including arisan is ations), and looks at their functions. Although tradi- thought to function as a form of safety net. tional community organizations are losing much of In this paper, the safety net is taken up as a their former substance in the rapidly expanding mid- broader social security program, including govern- dle classes that have gone hand in hand with eco- ment initiatives as well as important elements that nomic development, they still form the foundation bring about human security a reality. The view of of life in kampungs that are home to many of the this paper is that to protect people in impoverished urban poor. There are also several of cases of success- areas, and in particular women who are in an espe- ful development through collaboration among com- cially disadvantaged positions from the threats they munity organizations, local governments and NGOs face, including eviction, illness, violence, and unfore- mainly improving the impoverished infrastructure.10 seen accidents, i.e., to make human safety and security, a community-based safety net underpinned by 1. RT (neighborhood associations) and RW people’s solidarity and trust is more important than (community associations) an inadequate government social security system, and Typical community organizations in Indonesia are such a safety net can be upgraded to become an effi- neighborhood associations (Rukun Tetannga; RT) cient and effective public welfare measure. This paper and community associations (Rukun Warga; RW).11 examines the potential of the community-based safe- The current RT/RW system was standardized ty net, using cases of areas where impoverished throughout Indonesia under the “Minister of Home women were affected by the economic crisis. Affairs Provision No. 7 of 1983 Relating to the Chapter I outlines the community organizations Establishment of RT and RW” in 1983 accepting the that form the basis of activities under Gotong Roy- circumstances where the community organizations oung, the concept of mutual aid firmly established as had been. Consciously drawing out the self-initiated a common norm or sense of values characteristic to activities of residents by regulating how neighbor- Indonesia, and that are critical for the squatters and hood associations that had formed the foundation of the poor to maintain their own human security. people’s lives even after the end of Japanese occupa- Chapter II looks at the case of Yogyakarta, an area tion should be and their roles, the government had where a sultanate8 flourished to develop its own been able to exercise efficient control over the resi- unique regional culture and economy, and gives an dents, including collecting election votes, and devel- overview of the people’s economic mutual aid based oping various support organizations. To residents, on simple questionnaires and interviews9 carried out belonging to the neighborhood organizations was by in two communities where people working as scav- no means a negative; rather, the organizations pro- engers and the like live. Chapter III focuses on vided a valuable service that the government could arisan, which are highly effective for fostering soli- not have (night patrols, paving back streets, relief for darity and trust among impoverished women’s the poor, children’s education, improvements to sani- groups, and analyzes its function and effect. Chapter tation, garbage collection, and microfinancing)(Seti- VI covers the effectiveness of and issues that the awan 1998). RT and RW undertake government community-based safety net faces, and its further administration-like activities in a diverse range of development with the involvement of external agen- fields, such as law and order, social welfare, develop- cies. ment, the economy, and information, and fulfill a role not just as political organizations, but as social (livelihood) and economic organizations. A distinc- I. Indonesian Community Organizations tive feature of these organizations is that mutual aid and Mutual Aid Activities activities are strongly encouraged both in the purpose of their establishment and the scope of their opera- The 1997 economic crisis exposed the immaturity of tions. Indonesia’s social security system. Focusing on com-

55 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

2. PKK (women’s associations) Japanese occupation, it retained a certain degree of The PKK campaign began in the early 1970s as a autonomy. Yogyakarta was chosen as the subject of driving force for optimizing women in the field of the case study because in addition to its historically socio-economic development. In 1972 it took the advanced state of regional autonomy, it is a typical present name of the family welfare development example of an urban area where, with rapid urbaniza- campaign and was adopted by the central govern- tion, large numbers of the poor who flowed in from ment as a national movement. In 1980 the govern- rural areas have formed kampung communities, and ment set guidelines for its activities to implement the city was greatly affected by the economic crisis. programs encompassing: 1) promoting understand- Various kampungs13 have been formed in ing of Pancasila (five guiding principles of the Yogyakarta since the 1700s when the city was found- nation), 2) mutual aid, 3) food, 4) clothing, 5) hous- ed. Kampungs are communities formed in the city ing and household finances, 6) education and voca- by the poor or the arrivals from regional areas as they tional skills, 7) health, 8) cooperative association settle in locations such as flood plains, cemeteries activities, 9) environmental preservation, and 10) and the sides of railway lines. Out of , Yogyakarta a sound planning. It was arbitrarily developed under densely populated city with 14,000 persons per government initiative, and imposed gender-based square kilometer, the kampung areas are extremely role sharing, but the organization is firmly rooted to crowded with a population density ranging from the RT level, and plays a core role in community 20,000 up to 32,500 persons per square kilometer in health and hygiene, education, and social welfare the inner city kampungs (Setiawan 1993). Many activities. Highly successful in its implementation of kampung residents (about 48%) are employed in the visible activities such as health programs and prepara- informal sector (Bappeda Kotamadya [Municipality tion and distribution of school meals, PKK is widely Development Planning Board] 2000). In most cases, accepted within the community (Kurasawa 2001). they have no legal rights, but belong to RT and RTs also normally hold meetings for all women RW.14 members within the region, and carry out various The author conducted questionnaire and inter- activities.12 Some PKKs provide microfinancing. view surveys in two communities in 2002. They were Often others work on better ways to encourage the done ultimately to find out the background to peo- regular attendance of members and increase atten- ple’s economic mutual aid activities, choosing RTs dance rates, including introducing arisan. There is no where all the members could be reached. Also, the doubt that by actively implementing mutual aid, communities were to be typical of the urban poor, so PKKs contribute to the improvement of living stan- the author chose communities formed by squatters dards, but as in the cases of RTs and RWs, a com- employed in the informal sector. The survey revealed mon sense of values may be thrust upon them by the following facts. In the response to the economic unseen forces, such as public image and social rea- crisis, the people utilized official assistance to the sons. extent they could access it, such as receiving rice supplies, but basically, they could do little more than 1) to cut down on expenditure, 2) to think carefully II. Yogyakarta Kampung Communities about how they spent their money, and 3) to increase and the Economic Crisis their loans. For their daily lives: 1) they spend most of their money on food, 2) they use various kinds of Indonesia’s smallest province, the special autonomous loans, 3) all households participate in various arisan, district of Yogyakarta lies on the southern coast of 4) they invest the money they obtain from loans and central Java, and comprises the city of Yogyakarta arisan into their businesses, 5) the arisan is boosting and four districts. Its main industries are education the solidarity of women in particular, and 6) the and tourism. While there were a number of transi- communities share many things, including wells, tional periods, it had dominated as the central city in water areas, toilets, and funds. Java from the 13th century when it became the capi- What is especially noticeable in the results of the tal of the Majapahit kingdom, to the time the base in questionnaire is that while most income is spent on the Dutch colonial rule shifted to Jakarta. Even food, they still manage to pay their community today, the Sultan resides in the Palace called Kraton membership fees (for joint water use charges, com- as Governor, and is widely respected by the people. munity hall power charges, and charges for ceremo- The place has developed its own unique regional cul- nial occasions) and participate in multiple arisan. As ture and economy, and even during the period of Hotze15 stated that economic self-help groups were

56 Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women —A Case of Kampung Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia [ Notes ]

strengthened by the economic crisis, the demands on bers who are hospitalized may be collected. As in the arisan are increasing. Since the funds obtained from case of this example, the types of arisan that encour- microfinancing run by the communities and arisan age participation by all members of the community were invested in businesses, and some voluntary col- are held with the primary aim of fostering harmony laborative business was attempted, it is considered in the community (Guinness 1986) (Kurasawa that mutual aid activities also contributing to invig- 2001), so contributions are set at a low level so that orating households and the regional economy. The even poor people can readily participate in the mech- survey also revealed that community connections anism. As well as the low contribution, the amount is such as personal ties and neighborly relations, and fixed so members can set aside that expenditure, as informal networks including relatives and friends they do with, for instance, electricity bills, making it were of more value than the official social security easier to participate. system and similar frameworks. Before the start of the arisan (drawing of lots), the leader of the women’s group reports on community activities and community life in general. In most III. Functions and Effect of Arisan cases, they pass on information about the date and time of children’s immunization services, and notices Next, the measures and effect of fostering people’s from the government administration and the com- solidarity and trust necessary for the community- munity association. That is followed by reports on based safety net will be examined, looking specifical- the financial situation from the treasurer, and also on ly at the functions and effect of arisan, which is one expenditures from the social fund. Participants listen of the economic mutual aid activities.16 to the reports as they enjoy the sweets and chat with Arisan has a mechanism in which executive the people sitting next to them. Then, the leader groups of community associations and women’s asso- introduces the guest of the evening, who is usually a ciations, community volunteers and traders in the general merchandise vendor, and time is set aside for relevant industry assemble with an amount of money the guest to talk about the merchandise. After on a regular basis (once a week to once a month), demonstrating the effectiveness of detergent and giv- lots are drawn for the money they bring, and the ing a detailed explanation of the products, the ven- winner receives the entire amount. This is popular dor starts sales for the products. The women at the especially among women’s groups. Here is an exam- meeting get the opportunity to examine and discuss ple of this with the women’s group from the KRI- the products as they buy. Finally, the drawing of lots CAK RT35, one of the surveyed communities. All begins. Separate plastic bags depending on the type women members in the RT assemble once a month of arisan contain slips of paper with members’ names at a member’s house with a relatively large room written on them. One slip is randomly pulled out of (rotated among members) at about 7:00 p.m. Many each bag, and the name of the winner is announced. of the women also bring their children, so at times So that all members will have a fair chance at win- their numbers can overflow into the area outside the ning, the winner’s slip is then discarded, and the bags meeting room. Participants are served sweet tea, fried with the remaining slips are stored carefully for safe- bread and sweets. First, the group’s treasurer collects keeping. That is a mechanism that everyone has a participation fees, and records the names of all par- turn at winning. The proceedings come to a close at ticipating members. Non-members are not allowed a little after 9:30 p.m. to participate. While the amount of contribution dif- For people who live on a daily cash income, fers according to the number of units, the following arisan is like a form of savings in which they can participation fees apply: 1) PANCHI arisan — obtain a lump sum of money by contributing small Rp400 per unit (The winner receives goods such as amounts of money which quite likely they would pots); 2) Ordinary arisan — two kinds, Rp2,000 per otherwise spend without realizing it. There are no unit and Rp600 per unit (The winner receives entire burdensome procedures like those at banks, nor are contribution from all members in cash); 3) Social there any of the normal risks involved with people fund of Rp200 (used to pay for funeral services for managing cash. Meetings are held in an independ- members, and payments to RW and RT); and 4) ently controlled environment based on mutual trust Rp500 for refreshments (tea and sweets served on the among members. Moreover, each participant gains day). In addition, members bring along 1kg of rice some benefit. It also provides an opportunity for per household (to be sold at the market to raise funds extending relief to the poor, and community devel- for the community), and special donations for mem- opment. With such multiple aspects of effect, arisan

57 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

Table 1 Arisan for kampung residents (women’s group) • Held regularly among the same members • Based on mutual trust among members • The views of all participants are reflected in decisions Characteristics • Independently controlled • No burdensome procedures, flexible • Low risk in cash management • Savings effect • Valuable opportunity to obtain lump sum money Effects for individual • Provides the opportunity to gather and exchange information members • Provides the opportunity for some entertainment (enjoyment) • Provides the opportunity to make a social contribution • Improves skills (communication capabilities etc.) • Enhances solidarity within the community (arisan by community members): Strengthens bonding social capital* • Builds networks outside the community (arisan by independent groups outside the community): Social effects Strengthens bridging social capital • Community development (education, social welfare, health and hygiene) • Effective use of regional resources • Funds for funeral services, various donations Utility as a safety net • Provision of loans (part) • Social network

Note: *According to the range of its effect, social capital is classified into bonding, which functions as information sharing among group members, and insurance, and bridging, which increases the opportunities for access to external resources. Source: Prepared by the author.

are enhancing community solidarity. In particular, by emotional burden on that participation, they are gathering together and enjoying each other’s compa- structured to be conducive to participation by all ny, the women are nurturing a mutual sense of trust members, ensuring the continuation of their activi- and confidence as they discuss and exchange infor- ties. mation. While it is within the scope of what members can afford, the mechanism also functions as a safety net in the form of funds for funeral services, IV. Effectiveness and Potential of the various donations, and the provision of loans (partly) Community-based Safety Net (see Table 1). Arisan also contribute to the formation of sustainable organizations that undertake ongoing Chapter IV will talk about the effectiveness of the community activities. That is, they serve as an community-based safety net and issues relating to it, avenue for generating a kind of social capital. and its potential through the involvement of the gov- In the two communities I visited in 2002, it was ernment, development aid agencies, and other exter- clear that the arisan not only provide mutual eco- nal organizations. nomic support, but are also a device for an extensive Community-based economic mutual aid activi- range of social support. Underlying such functions is ties such as arisan fulfill a certain safety net function. a firmly established common awareness that arisan In particular, because community organizations are are a mechanism for affirming mutual aid activities, traditionally an integral part of people’s lives, and which are viewed as a part of life among kampung women’s groups have played a leading part in local residents from their early childhood, and because development, the community-based safety net readily they are closely linked with the activities of commu- functions in Indonesia. The community-based safety nity associations and women’s associations, residents net has the following advantages over the social secu- are half-obligated to participate in the system. In rity system established by the national government: addition, considering that arisan are set up to obli- Greater emphasis is placed on the individual’s gate participation in each meeting and, as mentioned responsibility toward the activity itself than on form; earlier, are designed to minimize the economic and It is flexible; It is limited to essential services; Com-

58 Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women —A Case of Kampung Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia [ Notes ]

munity members can be mutually monitored; mem- external organizations such as the government and bers participate under their own initiative, so the sys- development aid agencies is finding ways to provide tem and its limitation are familiar and easy to under- indirect support so they can draw out the drive and stand; and management expenses and transaction capabilities of these communities. costs are low. However, because resources are distributed under the principle of risk aversion and equality so that arisan can continue as an organization, its Notes activities rarely encompass pension, insurance, and other social security systems and relief systems 1. Kampung is currently used as a term for urban low- against economic crises and large-scale disasters. The income communities based on the Indonesian word poor, especially women, have only very limited inde- for village. Generally, as a remnant of the period of pendent access to funds, human resources and infor- Japanese occupation, several RW (community associ- mation. To build a stronger community-based safety ations) and RT (neighborhood associations) gather to net in the face of such economic and institutional form one kampung, but its scope and designation are limitations, it is important for each community to not as clearly defined as the RW and RT. enhance the capacity of not just its members, but of 2. This was an emergency measure adopted by the the community as a whole by seeking cooperation Indonesian government, which was receiving external with NGOs, universities and local governments as support from the World Bank and other agencies in well as other regional communities, in addition to the aftermath of the 1997 economic crisis, aimed at fostering ongoing participation as a means of alleviating the impact of the crisis on the socially dis- strengthening solidarity within the community. advantaged, and its primary objectives were provid- The Yogyakarta municipal government has initi- ing basic food to the poor, generating employment, ated the P2KP (poverty alleviation program)17 and providing health and education services, and promot- has begun an attempt to provide various kinds of ing community economic activities. It was a top- loans to low-income residents through the KURU- down government-led program designed by the cen- RAHAN local administrative offices adjacent to the tral government within a limited time of responding kampungs. In the saving and credit program admin- to the crisis. istered by the Women’s Planning Bureau, a training 3. This program reportedly had serious flaws in that it program that adopted the arisan system is being was vague in its selection of beneficiaries and prob- implemented so that kampung residents can easily lems arose in such aspects as intermediary exploita- participate.18 Universities and NGOs are actively tion, transparency and accountability, and despite attempting to encourage kampung residents to initi- the large scale and wide coverage of the program, its ate their own development in a reflection of the effect on alleviating poverty was limited; for example, times in which development demand is shifting from according to the 1999 nationwide census survey infrastructure-centered development to social devel- SNN module implemented by SMERU (Social opment that promotes community self-motivation.19 Monitoring and Early Response Unit; a donor-fund- In some areas or communities such attempts are suc- ed project), while the OPK program (special rice sub- cessful, but in others they are not. The difference sidy program), which sold rice to the poor at a low between success and failure can perhaps be attributed price, covered 40% of all households and 56% of to the presence of a leader who is responsive to the poor families, the overall social safety net program demands of the time, the degree of solidarity and only reached 5–8% of the total population and trust within the community, and the range and qual- 5–10% of the poor (Sumarto et al. 2001, 54), pro- ity of networks between the community and outside grams other than OPK and scholarship programs, organizations etc. While the essay has focused on including employment promotion programs and Yogyakarta City as a region with an advanced state of medical expenses assistance programs were not very autonomy, as Indonesia as a whole continues pro- effective (Hadjono 1999; Dhanani and Islam 2002, moting decentralization,20 the activities carried out 1225), and according to the evaluation of the social by impoverished women used as an example here can safety net program implemented by the Indonesian serve as a reference in the development of other Ministry of Finance, Rp411.746 billion was lost in regions as well. Considering that community-based the economic crisis, and Rp518.096 was lost in the safety nets functioning in traditional societies will poor selection of beneficiaries of this program (Seti- decline as economic development and the trend awan 2000, 19). Rp100 = ¥1.24 (October 3, 2005). toward the nuclear family progress, a challenge for 4. People employed in collecting and selling rubbish.

59 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

5. Three-wheeled cycle taxis. dence through the domestic and international atten- 6. The existence and role of neighborhood associations tion gained with the involvement of overseas archi- (RT) and community associations (RW) were stan- tects. dardized throughout Indonesia by government provi- 11. The functions of the neighborhood associations (RT) sion in 1983. Women’s associations (PKK) were and Rukun Kampung, introduced during the Japan- adopted by the central government in 1972 as a ese occupation period (1942–1945) modeled on national movement. Japan’s neighborhood organizations with the purpose 7. The origin of arisan is not clear, but they are said to of cooperating in Japan’s military administration, are have been operating in some areas at least from the said to have been passed on to the RT and RW of colonial period (Kurasawa 2001). Arisan had already today (Kobayashi 2001). been operating actively among males as well in kam- 12. For example, PKK in RW in some Surabaya kampungs in the 1970s to enhance solidarity within the pungs grow medicinal herbs, and provide them to communities (Guinness 1986). While PKK poor families who cannot afford medicines. (women’s associations) campaigns have extended to 13. “Historical kampung”: Formed near the Palace from the neighborhood association level, they are often the foundation of the city and residents mainly tied in with arisan to increase attendance at the regu- served at the Palace. “Riverside kampungs”: Squatter lar meetings. districts along the three rivers running north-south in 8. Generally, sultans are sovereign rulers of Muslim the city, and here old and new kampungs coexist. countries. The Sultan of Yogyakarta is a descendent There are always disputes and problems over hous- of the sultan dynasty that built the city, and the con- ing. “Urban fringe kampungs”: Formed in the city tinuation of this is said to be a symbol of the tradi- outskirts as residential areas for new residents flowing tional Javanese culture. in from rural areas following urban development. 9. To understand the background to people’s mutual “Squatter kampungs”: New arrivals who settle aid activities, I visited all households in unlawfully in unused government or Sultan land, KOTABARU RT18 (27 households whose primary such as flood plains, cemeteries, and the sides of rail- occupations are scavengers, beggars, and food ven- way lines. dors), and KRICAK RT35 (59 households whose 14. The government is not actively taking steps to primary occupation is becha drivers [scavengers until forcibly remove squatters, and in approving the 7–8 years ago], and interviewed the heads of the establishment of community associations, and households (both husband and wife in the case of including them in infrastructure development pro- married couples) using a questionnaire covering such grams, has instead tacitly accepted their existence. aspects as main items of monthly expenditure, loan 15. (Hotze 2002). Surveyed the circumstances of partici- providers and average amount of loan, type and pants in six arisan in Yogyakarta in 1998 and 1999. number of arisan they participate in, amount of pay- 16. The major economic mutual aid activities in the ment, main assets, and sharing (ownership) of wells, communities surveyed are self-help groups (Social water areas, toilets, baths, etc. I chose the smallest SHOs), arisan (Private Arisan), savings and credit community RT within the kampung as the function groups (Public Simpan Pinjan), market arisan of mutual aid is clearly visible with participation by (Arisan Pasar), and credit cooperatives. all members of the community. The detailed results 17. The program provides revolving fund loans and was of the survey are in (Kato 2003). started in 2001 in Indonesia’s major cities with the 10. Cases include: 1) KIP (Kampung Improvement Pro- aim of medium- to long-term economic development ject), and C-KIP (Comprehensive Kampung based on the experience of the social safety net pro- Improvement Project) in Surabaya, Indonesia using a gram. In Yogyakarta , cooperation between facilitator participatory development framework provided by experts from local governments, universities and the government which realized capacity formation NGOs on the one hand and kampung residents on and regional development through residents’ partici- the other is reportedly functioning well (author inter- pation in that process; 2) dike construction project in viewed committee members). Yogyakarta , Indonesia that gave rise to a regional 18. People bring in a set amount of money every month flow-on effect through cooperation between the to the KURURAHAN office, but instead of drawing regional government and kampungs, which had been lots for the money, they attend various kinds of in dispute over the project; and 3) kampung income improvement training. In the communities GONDARAYU development in Yogyakarta, surveyed in 2002, some women had made active use Indonesia, which gave residents a sense of self-confi- of the government-provided program to attend dress-

60 Social Safety Net for Urban Poor Women —A Case of Kampung Communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia [ Notes ]

making lessons and take out loans to buy sewing dan Kota. ITB Special edition, July 1993. machines. . 1998. Local Dynamics in Informal Settlement 19. For example, university instructors serve as members Development: A Case Study of Yogyakarta. PhD of P2KP (poverty alleviation program) or implement diss., University of British Columbia: 105-107. kampung improvement projects as a part of universi- . 2000. The Economic Crises and Social Safety Net ty classes. Also, an NGOs is involved in income Programs in Indonesia. Workshop on Human Secu- improvement projects through fertilizer production rity and Regional Development, UNCRD. in a scavenger kampung. . 2000. Vulnerability and Survival Strategies by the 20. Law No. 22 (Local Administration Law) and Law Poor: the Importance of the Social Capital. Work- No. 25 (Central Fiscal Balance Law) were established shop on Human Security and Regional Develop- in May 1999, paving the way for decentralization. ment, UNCRD

References

Bappeda Kotamadya (Municipality Development Plan- ning Board) 2000. Interview by the author. Dhanani, S. and I. Islam. 2002. Poverty, Vulnerability and Social Protection in a Period of Crisis: The Case of Indonesia. World Development 30 (7): 1211-1231. Guinnes, P. 1986. Harmony and Hierarchy in a Javanese Kampung. New York: Asian Studies Association of Australia, Singapore OXFORD University Press: 153. Hosaka. M. 2002. Nihon Fukushi Daigaku Tsushinsei Daigakuin Kokusai Shakai Kaihatsu Kenkyuka Kai- hatsu Kisoron III Kaihatsu Kyoiku [Development Education, Development Basic Theory III, Interna- tional Social Development Studies, Graduate School of International Social Development (Distance Edu- cation), Nihon Fukushi University]: 184–195. Hotze, L. 2000. Juggling Money in Yogyakarta, Financial Self-help Organizations and the Quest for Security. Amsterdam: Thela Thesis: 264. JICA. 2000. Dai 4-ji Indonesia Kuni-betsu Enjo Kenkyukai Hokokusho [Fourth Report of the Indonesia Aid Research Group]. Kato, R. 2003. Toshi hinkon chiiki ni okeru seikatsu hosho no tame no social capital to chiho seifu no yakuwari — Indonesia Yogyakarta-shi no kampung communities wo jirei ni [The role of social capital and local government in livelihood security in impoverished urban areas — A case of kampung communities in Yogyakarta, Indonesia]. master’s thesis., Nihon Fukushi University. Kobayashi, K. 2001. Indonesia ni okeru “tonari-gumi” “jijokai” no rekishiteki tenkai [Neighborhood associations and rukun kampung in Indonesia]. Asia keizai XLII-3: 47. Kurasawa, A. 2001. Jakarta rojiura field note [Field notes from the back streets of Jakarta]. Chuo Koron Shin- sha: 37–42, 47–53. Setiawan, B. 1993. House delivery system in the Code river, Yogyakarta, in Jurnal Perencanaan Wilayah

61 [ Notes ]

UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Response and its Contribution from Japan —Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters

Yosuke OKITA Former Staff of Operations Team, Secretariat of Japan Disaster Relief Team, JICA

Abstract

As underscored by the devastation of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and the tsunami that followed, and the Chuetsu Earthquake in Niigata Prefecture, 2004 was a year that was rocked by natural disasters both in Japan and overseas. In the SumatraAndaman Earthquake and tsunami, Japan and other countries, international organizations and NGOs sent emergency relief teams and provided emergency relief supplies, but by no means were these international relief activities undertaken indiscriminately by each of the organizations in isolation. Rather, the overall relief effort was coordinated through UNOCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Human- itarian Affairs), and as the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and tsunami struck, UNOCHA's coordination system was itself gaining in experience and expertise. This paper will introduce UNOCHA's relief coordination especially in the emergency phase immediately following a natural disaster showing specific examples, and will discuss issues affecting the current coordination system and recommendations, as well as Japan's contribution. The broad-ranging UNOCHA's coordination system includes INSARAG (International Search and Rescue Advisory Group), which coordinates international search and rescue teams, UNDAC (United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination) and OSOCC (On-Site Operations Coordination Center), which start their activities at a disaster site immediately after the disaster to assess the state of damage and coordinate subsequent relief operations, Virtual OSOCC, which enables disaster response leaders throughout the world to discuss and exchange views in real-time over the Internet, and Civil-Military Coordination, which coordinates with military organizations deployed for disaster assistance. Although these elements of the UNOCHA coordination system have achieved a degree of progress within the framework of cooperation with supporting countries, new issues have arisen in the response to a larger scale disaster, such as the recent Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and tsunami, and South Asia Earthquake. Japan is naturally a proactive participant in these relief coordination activities during a disaster, but also actively contributes to coordination activities and preparatory operations in normal times as well. An understanding of the UNOCHA's coordination system is critical when providing assistance to a disaster-stricken area, and as this structure continues to develop, the world is looking to Japan for an even greater contribution.

Introduction to this unprecedented major disaster, governments, organizations and NGOs from all around the world The year 2004 was marked by natural disasters that sent relief teams and emergency relief supplies to the raged across Japan and overseas. In particular, the devastated countries. Although, from the perspective magnitude 9.01 earthquake which struck off the of international disaster relief, an operation on a hith- Sumatra coast of Indonesia at the end of the year erto unheard of scale was carried out, it was not done simultaneously generated a tsunami, causing tremen- at random but rather the disaster relief was coordinat- dous damage to a number of countries. In response ed centering on UNOCHA (United Nations Office

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 22-(1) (April 2006)..

62 UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Responseand and its Contribution from Japan —Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters [ Notes ]

Figure 1 INSARAG organizational chart

Steering Committee

Africa/Europe Group The Americas Group Asia/Pacific Group ←Regional meetings

Working Group/Leader Meetings ←Inter-regional issues

Source: Prepared by the author.

for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs). As a result, the overall disaster relief efforts was When the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Indian delayed, and after learning lessons from this experi- Ocean Tsunami struck, UNOCHA-centered disaster ence, INSARAG (International Search and Rescue relief coordination was itself maturing, making use of Advisory Group), which coordinates the relief efforts its experiences with disasters in the past. of international search and rescue teams, was inaugu- In this paper, using the period immediately fol- rated in 1991 with UNOCHA (then known as lowing natural disasters, particularly those such as UNDRO: Office of the United Nations Disaster earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, hurricanes and vol- Relief Coordinator) acting as a secretariat.2 canic eruptions which are known as sudden onset INSARAG’s objective is to coordinate the disasters, as examples, I will introduce the coordina- exchange of information between international tion system which UNOCHA in particular under- USAR (Urban Search and Rescue) teams and takes at the site of disasters and its preparatory opera- increase the effectiveness of relief efforts through the tions at normal times. Furthermore, I will also dis- development of a search and rescue method and sys- cuss the role that Japan is expected to play in interna- tem that is widely accepted internationally. tional disaster relief assistance within the framework With regard to its organizational structure, it is of its cooperative coordination. divided into three regional groups of Africa/Europe, During the writing of this paper, Hurricane Katri- the Americas and Asia/Pacific. There is a Steering na, that assailed the United States, and the South Asia Committee which is attended by representatives Earthquake have resulted in numerous fatalities: large- from each group and UNOCHA, having regular scale natural disasters have been unrelenting in recent regional meetings, leader meetings and Working years. Efforts are needed to minimize damage through Groups, which are held regionally or inter-regionally the cooperation of the international community. as needed. They also implement exercise and training programs (Figure 1). In order to achieve the above-mentioned objec- I. UNOCHA’s Disaster Relief Coordina- tives, discussions are held on a variety of themes at tion System every meeting. Examples of the topics of recent years include the system for categorizing rescue teams as 1. Disaster relief coordination by INSARAG Light, Medium or Heavy and marking techniques. – coordination of rescue teams The Light-Medium-Heavy categorization is proposed A major earthquake that struck Armenia in 1988, by the United States, and is aimed at reducing the commonly known as the Spitak Earthquake, is what burden on the devastated country that receives them precipitated the call for relief coordination in inter- as much as possible by categorizing the teams of each national disaster relief. In response to the seismic country. Categorization is determined by personnel, devastation, the international community, including equipment and capabilities, and differentiating Japan, deployed rescue teams. The rescue teams dis- between teams which possess sufficient ability and patched to the devastated country amounted to quite voluntary organizations which do not. While some a number, and even though the need for relief efforts are of the opinion that this encourages each rescue had disappeared, a situation arose in which the res- team to further improve their capabilities, it also pos- cue teams of one country after another descended on sesses a risk that small-scale teams such as NGOs will Armenia, without Armenia having requested them. be shut off from the scene of international search and

63 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

Table 1 UNDAC team missions in 2004 (From the Bam, Iran Earthquake in December 2003 to the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004) Relief Efforts Period Indonesia: Earthquake and Tsunami Dec. 28, 2004 – Jan. 31, 2005 Thailand: Earthquake and Tsunami Dec. 28, 2004 – Jan. 15, 2005 The Maldives: Earthquake and Tsunami Dec. 27, 2004 – Jan. 15, 2005 Sri Lanka: Earthquake and Tsunami Dec. 26, 2004 – Jan. 30, 2005 Guatemala: Urban Search and Rescue Response Preparedness (*) Dec. 7 – 11, 2004 The Philippines: Tropical Storm and Flooding Dec. 3 – 15, 2004 The Caribbean: Haiti, Tropical Storm “Jeanne” Sep. 21 – Oct. 17, 2004 The Caribbean: The Dominican Republic, Tropical Storm “Jeanne” Sep. 20 – Oct. 5, 2004 The Caribbean: Grenada and the Cayman Islands, Hurricane “Ivan” Sep. 12 – 27, 2004 The Caribbean: Jamaica, Hurricane “Ivan” Sep. 9 – 27, 2004 Bangladesh: Floods Jul. 30 – Aug. 13, 2004 Mongolia: Disaster Response Preparedness (*) Jun. 25 – Jul. 10, 2004 Haiti: Floods May 28 – Jun. 12, 2004 Dominican Republic: Floods May 27 – Jun. 6, 2004 Micronesia: Typhoon Sudal Apr. 19 – 30, 2004 Vanuatu: Tropical Cyclone Ivy Mar. 2 _ 15, 2004 Morocco: Al Hoceima Earthquake Feb. 24 – 27, 2004 Darfur Region, Sudan: Humanitarian Emergency Feb. 17 – Mar. 14, 2004 The Philippines: INSARAG Earthquake Response Preparedness Exercise (*) Jan. 19 – 23, 2004 Iran: Bam Earthquake Dec. 26, 2003 – Jan. 9, 2004 Note: The asterisk (*) signifies deployments for the purpose of simulated disaster exercises and training, not actual occurrences of disasters. Source: Prepared by the author based on information from UNOCHA’s website.

Table 2 Number of registered UNDAC personnel by country Europe/Africa Total Americas/Caribbean Total Asia Total Pacific Total Austria 6 Argentina 1 Bangladesh 1 Australia 3 Belgium 2 Belize 1 China 5 Fiji 4 Denmark 8 Brazil 2 India 2 New Zealand 3 Estonia 4 Bolivia 2 Japan 5 Papua New Guinea 4 Finland 8 Canada 5 Kyrgyz 1 Samoa 4 France 1 Columbia 2 Mongolia 1 Solomon Islands 1 Germany 7 Costa Rica 3 The Philippines 2 Tonga 2 Iceland 3 Dominican Republic 2 Nepal 1 Italy 1 Ecuador 2 Singapore 4 Kenya 3 El Salvador 1 The Netherlands 6 Guatemala 3 Norway 6 Haiti 3 Russian Federation 4 Jamaica 2 Sweden 7 Montserrat (British) 1 Switzerland 8 Nicaragua 3 UK 13 Panama 2 Paraguay 3 Peru 3 USA 4 Venezuela 3 Total 87 48 22 21 Source: Prepared by the author based on information from UNDAC induction course material and UNOCHA’s website (as of February 2005).

64 UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Responseand and its Contribution from Japan —Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters [ Notes ]

rescue efforts, and countries, including Japan, have coordinating its acceptance. When coordinating the been cautious with regard to its introduction. The acceptance of international relief, UNDAC personnel marking techniques are an effort to create a unified undertake the establishment of an OSOCC (On-Site system for marking search results, such as “search Operations Coordination Center), the compilation of completed” or “no sign of survivors,” in order to information from various countries and organiza- smoothly facilitate the search and rescue efforts of tions, and coordinate operations. The establishment each team. By using these markings it is possible to and administration of the OSOCC is one of the main avoid repetition in the efforts of rescue teams, duties of UNDAC members. By February 2005 there enabling activities that meet the objective of rescuing were 178 registered personnel from 52 countries, and more survivors. In-depth discussions are being held by April 2005 they had been dispatched to 135 emer- on topics as specific as what kind of paint should be gencies in 68 countries.4 (Tables 1, 2) used for the markings. As the success of the UNDAC team activities The INSARAG Guidelines are a compilation of depends greatly on the quality of participating mem- these discussions, containing the duties that the bers, UNOCHA makes an effort to improve its assisting countries, UN and devastated countries human resources. For UNDAC personnel, the atten- should carry out and the system of coordination dur- dance at an induction course which is held in each ing periods of emergency. Japan was in charge of region over a period of approximately two weeks is a relations with mass media and abbreviation lists as requirement when registering. A curriculum has been part of these guidelines. Organizations which under- prepared that includes an outline of the UNDAC take relief activities are required to develop their system, the various procedures that accompany dis- activities according to these guidelines. patch, needs assessment, activity coordination in dis- Throughout these INSARAG discussions, there aster areas, OSOCC administration methods and are many examples of joint operations by rescue safety management, and furthermore an overnight, teams from various countries including Japan. Dur- practical simulation is implemented. A refresher ing the Algeria Earthquake that occurred in May course targeting those who have completed the 2003, a member of the Turkish rescue team induction course has also been prepared so that the approached Japan Disaster Relief Rescue Team sug- knowledge is not forgotten, and also to share experi- gesting joint operations in broken Japanese, and as a ences and new systems, preparing each registered result of coordinating their rescue efforts a survivor member of personnel for dispatch. was rescued from a collapsed hotel.3 This experience An OSOCC is established in disaster areas as was later introduced at an INSARAG meeting and one of the functions of the United Nations. It is cre- became the perfect example of realizing INSARAG’s ated focusing on UNDAC members in order to sup- philosophy of effective rescue efforts through coordi- port the devastated country’s LEMA which is the nation between the rescue teams of various countries. center of disaster response. Although they investigate the extent of damage and understand the situation of 2. Disaster relief coordination by UNDAC and the international rescue teams which have entered OSOCC the disaster area so that activity sites are divided Continuing on from INSARAG, UNOCHA set up among these teams immediately after the occurrence the UNDAC (United Nations Disaster Assessment of a disaster, an OSOCC also conducts follow-up and Coordination) system in 1993 in order to assess investigations into the condition and needs of indi- the extent of damage immediately after the occur- vidual sectors such as health and sanitation, acting as rence of a disaster and the following coordination of an on-site information platform. It is hoped that, by relief. As the result of the adoption of the United visiting the OSOCC, the organizations of each coun- Nations General Assembly Resolution 46/182 in try and NGOs will learn the extent of damage and 1991 on the strengthening of the effectiveness and what is needed, at the same time as informing the coordination of humanitarian assistance, the system OSOCC about the make up of their own teams and ensures that pre-registered UNDAC personnel are the support that they are able to give. Aside from dispatched immediately to disaster areas by this, a reception center is established at the interna- UNOCHA when disasters occur, supporting LEMA tional airport used when entering the devastated (Local Emergency Management Authority), specifi- country and the teams that arrive are registered. This cally, understanding the extent of damage and the information is immediately shared with the OSOCC type of aid that is needed, and depending on the situ- located in the disaster area which thereby learns ation, launching appeals for international relief and about the teams that are active.

65 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

The OSOCC system, which is visibly maturing lish branches for reception centers at the internation- alongside the UNDAC system, is gradually being al airports which each rescue team is expected to consolidated together with the experiences of disaster arrive at and learn of all the teams. In order to make response. For example, during the earthquake that the most of limited resources, the most important hit the Iranian city of Bam in December 2003,5 the duty of the OSOCC is to know which teams have reception centers located in Kerman and Bam were begun activities and which have finished. linked with the OSOCC in Bam, and they acted in Following the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake concert with one another to coordinate rescue and Indian Ocean Tsunami, OSOCCs were estab- efforts.6 As a result of the growing awareness of this lished in both Jakarta and Banda Aceh, Indonesia system’s existence among donor countries and organ- and worked to coordinate the aid of each country in izations, its effects are beginning to show in the cooperation with the Indonesian government.9 How- reduction of organizations that begin activities with- ever, since there were restrictions on movement for out registering at reception centers and the thorough reasons of security, transport-capacity limitations as implementation of information sharing at OSOCC. typified by Banda Aceh Airport, and moreover, dev- However, a number of issues have surfaced with astation to areas of internal conflict, the relief activity regard to the disasters that followed. Firstly, in the itself prior to coordination was problematic. case of Sri Lanka during the Sumatra-Andaman Although the UNDAC and OSOCC systems have Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami,7 there was proven that they function sufficiently with regard to some uncertainty over where the OSOCC should be disasters such as the Iranian earthquake in Bam, established given the massive size of the disaster area where the extent of damage is contained and there (nearly all of the areas extending from the east coast are no great impediments to the relief activities, the to the south coast of that country). Normally, by unprecedented disasters of the Sumatra-Andaman being placed at the center of the disaster area, Earthquake, Indian Ocean Tsunami and South Asia OSOCC functions by the frequent visits of each aid Earthquake can be said to have presented new chal- organization, and the obtaining and relaying of lenges for the UNDAC and OSOCC systems. In the information. Although in the case of Sri Lanka it was future, it will be necessary to prepare through simu- decided to place the OSOCC in the capital city of lated exercises and training during normal times, fur- Colombo, it is hard to say whether the OSOCC, ther expanding the network of UNDAC personnel, located outside of disaster area, was able to function in order to smoothly enable the relief and coordina- normally. As a solution to this, it is thought that an tion with regard to disasters in which the extent of OSOCC functions best as an information platform damage is particularly large in area and those in areas when placed at the center of disaster areas, and in where relief activities are somehow restricted. cases where the disaster area is spread out over a wide area its functions should be divided between branch- 3. Disaster relief coordination by virtual es. However, the creation of branches presupposes OSOCC that sufficient UNDAC personnel can be dispatched The biggest achievement in the world of internation- to staff them, and there is a need to further secure al disaster relief in the last few years is probably the personnel and expand training programs. Virtual OSOCC system (hereafter referred to as V- Furthermore, a problem arose regarding the OSOCC). This is an electronic bulletin board which reception center for the South Asia Earthquake8 can be accessed from the disaster relief information which occurred in October 2005. Japan Disaster website, Relief Web, hosted by UNOCHA, and is a Relief Rescue Team arrived in Pakistan at Lahore and place where those in charge of disaster relief for each headed for the site of activity at Batagram without country and organization exchange opinions on stopping at Muzaffarabad where the OSOCC was information about the extent of damage and relief located. For that reason, although the Pakistan gov- activity immediately after the occurrence of a disaster ernment was aware of the activities of Japan Disaster when urgency is critical. With regard to disasters Relief Rescue Team, the team was not registered ini- such as earthquakes, it is difficult to get information tially with the OSOCC. This occurred as a result of during the period immediately following a disaster reception centers being located only in Islamabad, on whether the extent of damage requires interna- and using Pakistan as an example, it is conceivable tional relief or whether the devastated country desires that, teams may have also entered the country via it. Despite this, delays in such information lead to Lahore (as Japan did), Peshawar and Karachi, in delays in relief activity, and at urgent times of a disas- addition to Islamabad. There is also a need to estab- ter this is fatal. Those in charge from each country,

66 UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Responseand and its Contribution from Japan —Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters [ Notes ]

Figure 2 Flow chart for coordination system of international disaster response

Occurrence of disaster

Activities of devastated Activities of assisting Relief activities country Coordination by UNOCHA countries Disaster assessment Exchanging opinions Relief activities Disaster investigation by devastated country by means of Virtual by devastated by officials in charge officials in charge Posting of information OSOCC country Posting of information of assisting countries’ of disaster relief on extent of damage on relief preparation disaster relief (internet, news, etc.) Inspection of international Officials in charge relief request by devastated of UN disaster relief country disaster officials facilitate coordination and ministry of foreign of relief affairs Posting of requests Acquisition of information on for international relief requests for international relief Decisions on requests for international relief Decisions on assisting countries’ relief Posting of information on relief details Dispatch of UNDAC personnel Taking of initiative Coordination by OSOCC Relief activities as LEMA Dispatch of teams by assisting LEMA support and supplies countries ・Setting up of activity site ・Understanding details of each teams’ activities ・Coordinating timing of withdrawals, etc.

Source: Prepared by the author.

including the devastated country, bring information and was not thought to require international relief.10 to V-OSOCC, established for the above reason, V-OSOCC’s problem areas are that, when a using it at their own judgment. Although informa- major disaster occurs, it takes time to access due to tion on the extent of damage is often obtained from the increasing number of people who access it, and the news coverage of the mass media, there is a ten- the uncertainty of how reliable the information post- dency for this to lapse into information which is ed there is and whether it may be seen as the official biased, such as when reports over-exaggerate the view. Currently, V-OSOCC can be accessed by those extent of damage. On the other hand, information who request and are granted permission. In the from the disaster area or those in charge of disaster future, however, measures might be required to relief around the world by means of V-OSOCC is restrict access and the posting of information to those likely to be more reliable. Furthermore, this informa- in charge of disaster relief from each country only. tion sometimes includes maps of the disaster area Figure 2 summarizes the procedures for the sys- and information pertaining to safety and logistics, tem of cooperation between the devastated country, giving a great advantage for relief activities. UNOCHA and assisting countries. Immediately Those in charge of disaster relief around the after a disaster occurs, information is exchanged on world also pay attention to disasters which occur in the internet via V-OSOCC, and once the members Japan. At the time of the Niigata-Chuetsu Earth- of UNDAC and teams from the UN and assisting quake in 2004, personnel of a certain country in countries are gathered in the disaster area, the center charge of disaster relief, who had rapidly gathered of coordinating activities shifts there. Although information on this disaster, relayed the earthquake’s OSOCC is set up in the disaster area, assisting the occurrence to the rest of the world on V-OSOCC. In devastated country’s LEMA and coordinate relief response, Japan issued a statement by the same efforts, V-OSOCC is continuously used to transmit means via V-OSOCC, that although damage had information to the rest of the world even after been sustained it could be dealt with domestically OSOCC begins functioning on site.

67 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

Figure 3 Chart depicting the relationship between the scale of a disaster and relief organizations

Intensity MCDA (Military and Civil Defense Assets)

International Response

National Response

Time

Source: Prepared by the author based on information from UNOCHA-sponsored Civil-Military Coordination course material.

Although V-OSOCC began operations in 2000, and Civil Defense Assets) in disaster relief has it was not the result of having implemented the les- become a common sight. While there are some who sons from specific disasters, such as the earthquakes are of the opinion that the logistic capabilities, such in Turkey or Taiwan during 1999. Together with as transportation, possessed by MCDA should be INSARAG, UNDAC and OSOCC, it was developed effectively employed, UNOCHA maintains that by UNOCHA in cooperation with assisting coun- MCDA should be used in disaster relief efforts as a tries over the 10-year period following the Armenian “last resort.”11 As shown in Figure 3, the organiza- earthquake in 1988 and the UN General Assembly tions which respond differ according to the scale of Resolution 46/182 in 1991, during which there were the disaster, and usually, in addition to the devastated no major disasters relatively speaking. Amidst the country having to be responsible for its own disaster jeers of “the aid Olympics” and “show the flag”, the assistance as a general rule, MCDA are to be used time of the Armenian earthquake was a period dur- only for a limited period in major disasters which ing which the earnest presence of individual coun- cannot be dealt with domestically or even with inter- tries was sought, and following the UN General national relief. UNOCHA holds course on the Assembly resolution each country’s awareness of theme of “Civil-Military Coordination in disaster cooperation and coordination began to increase. It relief,” conducting educational activities on the sub- was UNOCHA that guided this process, and ject, and Japan has attended this course. INSARAG, UNDAC, OSOCC and V-OSOCC are the products of its success. Furthermore, it should be added that these systems of cooperation and coordi- II. Japan’s Efforts and the Future nation for international disaster relief would not have been possible without the contributions of the With respect to the UNOCHA-centered system of UNOCHA office, which worked to develop and cooperation mentioned in the previous section, it is propagate them through international conferences obvious that Japan Disaster Relief Team dispatched and training programs. by Japan follows that system during the emergency phase, but it also actively contributes to it during the 4. Other kinds of coordination (Civil-Military preparation period at normal times. Coordination) With regard to INSARAG, in addition to I will now introduce the other types of UNOCHA attending the INSARAG Asia/Pacific regional meet- activities relating to disaster relief coordination. In ings every year, as typified by its holding of the recent years, the participation of MCDA (Military regional meeting in the earthquake-veteran city of

68 UNOCHA’s Coordination in International Disaster Responseand and its Contribution from Japan —Focusing on the Emergency Phase after Natural Disasters [ Notes ]

Kobe as host country in 2003, Japan also participates August 2005. in the Steering Committee and Working Groups As Japan maintains an important position in the hosted globally, not to mention expressing its opin- system of cooperation for international disaster relief, ions as a representative of Asia in an increasingly it cannot afford to disrupt that system, considering European- and United States-centered system. In that it should play a central role. While Japan has recent years, a doctor specialized in disaster medicine extensive experience in the fields of disaster relief and has given a presentation on medical activities which disaster medicine, these techniques recognized at are engaged in response to a collapsed-structure dis- home and abroad as being of the highest level, it still aster.12 Based on the experience of having treated vic- has much to learn about the framework for interna- tims immediately after rescue whose conditions were tional disaster relief which was developed centered on unstable, such as crush injury syndrome or respirato- the countries of Europe. Above all, we hope that ry problems caused by dust, these are the typical Japan will actively contribute as a representative of ideas of Japan which gave primary consideration to Asia, following the established coordination system. the victims at the time of the Great Hanshin Earth- quake in 1995. Although the role of INSARAG is to coordinate Notes the activities of rescue teams, the rescue phase ends after a period of one week to ten days following the 1. I referred to the U.S. Geological Survey website. occurrence of a disaster, after which activities cen- http://www.usgs.gov/ tered on medical treatment are carried out. At pres- 2. For the details on INSARAG’s establishment, I ent, a medical version of INSARAG does not exist. referred to the introductory page about INSARAG on Having recognized that the coordination of each the UNOCHA website. assisting organization is also necessary for medical http://ochaonline.un.org/index.asp activities, Japan Disaster Relief Team has initiated 3. The Turkish team member who suggested joint cooperation in the Asia region. In particular, mem- operations in Japanese had attended an emergency bers of Japan Disaster Relief Medical Team visited rescue course which was implemented by JICA held their counterparts in Indonesia during November in Japan the previous year. 2004, exchanging opinions also with Malaysia and 4. For the details on UNDAC’s establishment, frequen- the Philippines via video conference on the problems cy of deployments and the number of registered per- facing each country’s medical teams and the outlook sonnel, I referred to UNDAC induction course for the future. The effect of relations established at materials and the introductory page about UNDAC that time were quickly seen in the Sumatra-Andaman on the UNOCHA website. Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami that immedi- 5. This occurred on December 26, 2003 with Bam in ately followed it, during which the Japan Disaster the south-east of Iran as its epicenter. It resulted in Relief Medical Team dispatched in Indonesia and the 43,200 fatalities (according to “Iran Earthquake Indonesian medical team continuously maintained UNOCHA Situation Report 15” released on March communications and carried out activities.13 While 17, 2004). the idea of a medical version of INSARAG is still 6. Based on the author’s experience of being in charge confined to the Asia region, there is a possibility that of deployment of Japan Disaster Relief Team. How- it might develop globally in the future. ever, the damage had occurred centered on a single In regard to UNDAC, while Japan decided to city, Bam, and this could have been a reason for the join that system officially in April 2005, aside from ease with which the relief and coordination activities evaluation missions, Japan has yet to make any were carried out. deployments to a disaster area. The day will probably 7. This occurred on December 26, 2004. It resulted in come when UNDAC personnel from Japan are dis- 139,000 fatalities mainly in India, Indonesia, Sri patched to deal with global disasters in the future, in Lanka, Thailand and the Maldives (according to the Asia/Pacific Region in particular. In Japan there UNOCHA’s report, “Flash Appeal 2005 for Indian are five registered members of personnel (as of Febru- Ocean Earthquake–Tsunami,” dated January 6, ary 2005) mostly from among the staff at the Secre- 2005). tariat of Japan Disaster Relief Team, JICA as shown 8. This occurred on October 8, 2005. It resulted in more in Table 2, and two of the staff of that secretariat, than 200,000 victims in Pakistan, India and including the author, also attended the Asia/Pacific Afghanistan (according to UNOCHA’s report, induction course which was held in Singapore in “Flash Appeal 2005 for South Asia Earthquake,”

69 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

dated October 11, 2005). 9. I referred to UNOCHA’s report, “India, Indonesia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Seychelles, Somalia: Earthquake and Tsunami UNOCHA Situation Report 8,” dated December 31, 2004. 10. V-OSOCC is a place for those in charge of disaster relief around the world to exchange information on, and the posts made there are not limited to the official views of governments. 11. Based on UN Civil-Military Coordination course materials (attended by the author) hosted by UNOCHA in Manila, the Philippines in March 2004. 12. Dr. Junichi Inoue (National Disaster Medical Cen- ter), who has also been dispatched as a member of Japan Disaster Relief Team, gave a presentation on “Confined Space Medicine: Key to Successful Rescue from the Rubble” at the INSARAG leader meeting which was held in Singapore in September 2004. 13. Based on interviews with Koji Ota, a member of Japan Disaster Relief Team dispatched to Indonesia at the time of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami (then Team Director for the Training Team of the Secretariat of Japan Disaster Relief Team, JICA). He was briefed by the person in charge of the Indonesian medical team (whose acquaintance he had made during the aforemen- tioned video conference) at the on-site disaster headquarters in Banda Aceh, and was recommended an activity site that would be suited to the capabilities of the Japan Disaster Relief Medical Team expected to arrive shortly after.

70 [ Notes ]

A Qualitative Shift in International Democratic Support —Consideration on the Position of International Support for Domestic Elections in Developing Countries

Keiichi HASHIMOTO Senior advisor (specializing in peace-building) at the Institute for International Cooperation, JICA

Abstract

International support for domestic elections in transition countries has been increasing since the beginning of 1990s'. Under the framework of the traditional international law, as domestic elections have been regarded as a domestic jurisdiction matter, both the East and West camps were reluctant to support domestic elections, fearing that election support would give rise to suspicion that it was based on political motive. Since the end of the Cold War, international intervention in domestic matters has become possible if major powers agree to do so. From the viewpoint of international law, it can be said that international laws on human rights elaborated after the end of WWII has led to intervention in "undemocratic countries." Under this context, the United Nations and regional organizations have increased frequency of election support as the main challenge for democratization. But it has become more and more obvious that democratization process does not succeed if the support is limited to the transplantation of systems, and therefore the main interest of the international community has shifted to the consolidation of democracy. Japan, which has limited experiences on election support, has been using its resources chiefly on operational aspects of elections such as material supply for election organizations by grant aid and dispatch of observers. Even the technical assistance provided by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has been chiefly pointed at smooth implementation of elections. In accordance with the international shift of focus on democratization support, Japan also should put more emphasis on capacity building of transition countries to foster democratic societies by introducing internationally accepted values and practices of democracy.

Introduction tion support as a main pillar of democratization support.1 “Building a house is not the same as establishing a Nevertheless, as U.N.-sponsored election sup- home” (Sztompka 1996, 117), said P. Sztompka, a port spreads across the world and election manage- Polish sociologist, emphasizing the importance of ment and administration by regional organizations, assistance aimed at fostering a culture conducive to such as the Organization for Security and Co-opera- the consolidation of democracy, alongside assistance tion in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of focusing on the establishment of institutional sys- American States (OAS), becomes more frequent, the tems, as international democratization support pro- recognition that the transformation of institutional vided to post-conflict countries and former Commu- systems alone does not lead to lasting democracy is nist countries in the wake of the Cold War hit hur- spreading. In other words, “without the mediating dles. institutions of a vibrant civil society, popular influ- Procedural democracy involves several institu- ence over politics is going to be limited to election tional mechanisms, and according to general consen- day” (Krol 1995, 39). sus, electoral competition is at the center of these Amid a qualitative shift in international support mechanisms, leading to the widespread use of elec- for democratization, Japanese assistance is still heavi-

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 22-(1) (April 2006).

71 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

ly skewed towards operational aspects, including occurred after the establishment of the United material supply to electoral bodies and dispatch of Nations, Resolution 2625 of the United Nations election observers. This seems to indicate that with General Assembly (Declaration on Principles of its limited experience in democratization support, International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Japan is still at the trial-and-error stage. Cooperation among States in accordance with the In addition to political changes brought about by Charter of the United Nations), passed in 1970, the end of the Cold War, matters that used to be refers to the principle of noninterference in the inter- regarded as internal affairs under the traditional frame- nal affairs of other countries as part of the presenta- work of international law have become genuine inter- tion of new interpretations for international law national concerns that must be settled through inter- principles as follows: “No State or group of States has national efforts. In such a new international environ- the right to intervene … in the internal or external ment, what kind of assistance should Japan provide? affairs of any other State.” This paper attempts to identify the role that is The end of the Cold War marked the collapse of best suited to Japan by examining the historical back- the East-West bipolar structure, and led to a dramat- ground of international election support as part of ic change in the international community’s stance on democratization support and changes in the interna- intervention in the internal affairs of other countries. tional community’s stance. From the viewpoint of international law, this has translated into a shift from the traditional international law position of avoiding involvement as much I. Historical Background of Internation- as possible to a greater willingness to intervene in al Election Support humanitarian crises and other emergency situations in post-conflict countries, etc.2 During the Cold War, the international community Regarding the implementation of elections, the was very reluctant to provide support for domestic United Nations Commission on Human Rights elections. A number of factors were responsible for defines “the people’s will expressed through periodic this. They include a legal concern that intervention and genuine elections” as “the basis of the authority in domestic elections might constitute interference in of a government” in its 1989 resolution “Enhancing internal affairs because elections were recognized as a the Effectiveness of the Principle of Periodic and matter of domestic jurisdiction under the traditional Genuine Elections: Framework for Future Efforts,” framework of international law; and a political con- and reaffirms related principles such as universal and cern that interference with a third country by either equal suffrage, secret ballot and the people’s right to the Eastern or Western camp might provoke the change the form of government in accordance with other side. the procedure stipulated in the constitution. As can The principle of noninterference in the internal be seen from the following statement, it also holds a affairs of other countries is an international common positive view on international support for domestic law. When the League of Nations was established fol- elections: “The country concerned may invite lowing the conclusion of World War I, member observers or request advisory services. Either or both states inserted a domestic jurisdiction limitation pro- form(s) of assistance is/are available from the regional vision in the Covenant of the League of Nations organization or the United Nations.” (Article 15, paragraph 8) for fear of intervention in Politically, the end of the Cold War is consid- their domestic affairs, such as constitutional issues, ered as a victory for human rights and democracy, customs duties, immigration and nationality, by the and has provided a catalyst for the universalization of League of Nations. respect for human rights, democracy, the rule of law, The Charter of the United Nations includes a peaceful resolution of conflict, and other norms and similar provision (Article 2, paragraph 7). As with principles. the Covenant of the League of Nations, the intention While assistance provided by the West during of the provision is to remove the international orga- the Cold War had a strategic side in that it partly nization’s interference in the domestic affairs of served as a means of seizing international hegemony, states, and there is no provision directly addressing the end of the Cold War gave rise to the need for a the issue of noninterference with domestic affairs new assistance philosophy, leading to the introduc- among states. tion of compliance with human rights and democrat- Interestingly, however, in light of the rapid ic principles as a precondition for assistance. This can increase in the number of independent states that be characterized as the beginning of the globalization

72 A Qualitative Shift in International Democratic Support —Consideration on the Position of International Support for Domestic Elections in Developing Countries [ Notes ]

of liberal democratic concepts, such as human rights (Carothers 1997, 86). Because of the recognition of and a democratic system. the end of the Cold War as a victory for Western In Europe, especially, the search for common values, such as democracy and respect for human values and norms has made significant progress, and rights, the promotion of democratization became a European countries have agreed to the view that central theme for international relations, and this human rights, democracy and the rule of law are the has resulted in those values being regarded as global governing principles of the new era through the values. Charter of Paris for a New Europe adopted at the Democratization requires the introduction of Paris Summit of the Conference on Security and Co- open competition for government, and this makes operation in Europe (CSCE: reorganized as the free and competitive elections aimed at determining Organization for Security and Co-operation in who will rule a prerequisite. While elections repre- Europe [OSCE] in January 1995), held in November sent a process that forms the basis for the establish- 1990. Around the same time, CSCE member states ment of a democratic state, what is the significance adopted common values and principles for Europe, of international support for them? encompassing respect for human rights, the protec- Holding elections in post-conflict countries and tion of minorities, democracy, rule of law, etc., and other countries in transition to democracy helps this helped establish the common understanding that them establish a government which can claim legiti- matters such as incomplete democratization, a threat macy both domestically and internationally. Interna- of collapse faced by a democratic system, threats to tional support for this process therefore means “the media independence, an inadequate electoral system, endorsement of the legitimacy of a still-fragile politi- the oppression of minorities, rise of belligerent cal order that has just taken over from the old system nationalism and creation of refugees constitute by the international community as an impartial threats to the security of Europe as a whole. external force” (Shinoda 1999-2000, 20). The Helsinki Summit (February 1992) upheld In this manner, countries that have held elec- the following principle: “Commitments undertaken tions in accordance with international standards are with regard to the human dimension of the CSCE accepted by the international community, which is are matters which directly and legitimately concern governed by the same standards. Election monitoring all the participating States and are not merely a factor provided by the international community is designed of the participating States’ domestic affairs.” to verify that the election complies with international The Budapest Summit (December 1994) con- norms and gives legitimacy to the legislature and cluded that full respect and sincere commitment to the executive government established on the basis of its CSCE principles, including the code of conduct, were results through the monitoring of its implementation common concerns for all members. Because of these process. developments, issues traditionally considered domestic Beneath the widespread use of election support affairs, such as human rights and the political system, for post-conflict countries lies the understanding that are now regarded as common concerns in Europe. the establishment of democracy through elections Such common values and norms have been con- will contribute to peace. This so-called “democratic firmed through multilateral political declarations, peace” theory sees correlations between political sys- bilateral agreements and international treaties, so tems and international peace and contends that wars much so that it is now impossible to refuse interven- do not break out between democratic countries. tion or mediation offered by a third country or inter- Although this theory is not universally accepted, national organization in those fields on the grounds American and European security policies and aid of the principles of noninterference in domestic policies feature ideas in a similar vein, and it has affairs, thus contributing greatly to the advancement become a contributing factor to the globalization of of democratization support. democracy.3 Former U.N. Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali puts forward the following argument in his “An Agenda for Democratization”: “The dem- II. Significance of Election Support by ocratic system and process bring conflicting interests International Community to the discussion table, provide means of compromise that can be respected by all parties taking part Former U.S. President Bill Clinton emphasized the in the discussion, and minimize the possibility of dif- importance of democratization support by declaring ferences and disagreements developing into an armed it to be “the successor to the containment doctrine” conflict or confrontation. … Thus, the culture of

73 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

democracy is essentially a culture of peace” III. Quantitative Shift in Democratiza- (Boutros-Ghali 1996, 6-7). tion Support - Beyond Operational On the basis of this premise, Boutros-Ghali goes Support for Elections on to argue that once a nation is democratized, it is less likely to resort to war by stating that “legitimacy The fact that post-conflict countries, such as Bosnia given to a democratically-elected government goes and Herzegovina, often face difficulties on their way hand-in-hand with respect for the peoples of other to democracy makes it clear that free elections as a democratic countries and raises hopes for interna- necessary condition for democracy is not a sufficient tional relations based on negotiation and compro- condition.4 As Mansfield and Snyder point out, mise and the rule of law.” countries in transition to democracy are actually at Huntington also concludes that “a typical dem- higher risk of descending into a war than those under ocratic system is less likely to harbor civil violence authoritarianism or dictatorship. Namely, “to estab- than an undemocratic system” by arguing that lish a stable democracy, it is essential to foster a toler- “democracy provides an official circuit for expressing ant and liberal political culture, as well as providing objections and disagreements” (Huntington 1991, economic assistance” (Mansfield and Snyder 1995). 29-30). On the back of such a realization, the approach As discussed above, the United States and other to democratization support has been undergoing a countries consider democratization as part of security change, and the new approach is considered to com- policy. Needless to say, donor countries attach prise two main elements. Firstly, it attaches impor- importance to democracy because they believe it to tance to values and culture as attributes of society, in be consistent with their own interests, as well as con- addition to the implementation of free and fair elec- tributing to the peace and stability of recipient coun- tions, establishment of a legislature and executive tries. government, and other institutional processes tradi- Lastly, elections are important as part of the exit tionally regarded as yardsticks for democratization. strategy for the international community with regard Secondly, it globalizes the issue of consolidating to its support for post-conflict national reconstruc- democracy and draws attention to the need for the tion. Agreements providing a roadmap for post-con- international community to provide institutional flict national reconstruction, such as the Dayton guidance and support in promoting democratization. Agreement, which put an end to the war in Bosnia During the post-Cold War period up to the and Herzegovina, and the Bonn Agreement, which early 1990s, “democratization” was a concept that defined the democratization process for Afghanistan, described the process of establishing liberal democra- mostly contain dates for elections. This is effective in cy and institutional democracy along the lines of a providing donor countries and international organi- model epitomized by Western developed countries. zations assisting in reconstruction efforts with a time- Dahl identifies seven attributes of democracy as frame for providing intensive support in advance, in follows: elected officials, free and fair elections, inclu- addition to clarifying the goals of the process. In real- sive suffrage, right to run for elected posts, freedom ity, however, the democratization process rarely pro- of expression, alternative information sources, and gresses as planned, so that adjustments are often nec- association liberties (Dahl 1989, 221). Namely, elec- essary. At any rate, it is important to use the imple- tions were considered the main assessment criterion mentation of elections and establishment of a demo- for a democratic system during that period. As long cratic government as guides for the start of the phas- as elections were legally planned, organized in accor- ing out of assistance when working out an overall dance with a comprehensive and fair competitive intervention strategy. Although the risk of early post- principle, and implemented in such a manner that election withdrawal leading to the rekindling of the voters were fairly registered, votes were fairly counted conflict cannot be discounted, a clear-cut timetable is without any coercion, and winners were allowed to essential in the case of bilateral assistance, where take office without being subjected to an arbitrary democratization support is part of diplomatic initia- challenge against their mandate, the institutionaliza- tives, to enable the donor government to domestical- tion of democracy was considered to have made ly justify intervention. progress.5 However, in the mid-1990s, the view that the implementation of elections alone did not provide stable democracy emerged, and a wide range of socially-based criteria, such as the development of a

74 A Qualitative Shift in International Democratic Support —Consideration on the Position of International Support for Domestic Elections in Developing Countries [ Notes ]

civil society, establishment of the rule of law and a attributes, such as tolerance, moderation, willingness switch to a market economy, began to be empha- to compromise and respect for dissenting opinions. sized, alongside elections (Allison 1994, 8-26). Coinciding with growing emphasis on the The focus of debate about democratization importance of the cultural values of civil society in began to shift from the establishment and operation the democratization process for post-conflict coun- of a democratic system to its sustainability, signaling tries and former Communist countries, the recogni- a rise in the importance of consolidation. Pridham tion that the democratization of countries that lack and Lewis argue: “‘Democratization’ aimed at achiev- the kind of culture and values essential to protect ing our goals is considered to encompass the compre- democracy needs major reform that reaches to the hensive process of regime change from its beginning core of society has spread. to end. This process involves both what is called ‘transition’ to liberal democracy and ‘consolidation’ that follows” (Pridham and Lewis 1995, 2). Gunther IV. Japan’s Challenges states that “the creation of democratic institutions and implementation of elections form only a part of In its Official Development Assistance Charter, the process of bringing about a stable and sustainable adopted in 1992 as a cabinet decision, the Japanese democratic system” (Gunther 1999, 39). government declares: “Japan attaches central impor- Today, even elections, traditionally the central tance to support for developing countries’ self-help issue in the study of democratic legitimacy, are no efforts towards economic take-off. It will therefore longer considered so important with regard to the strive to ensure the efficient and fair distribution of assessment of a newly created democratic state. As resources and practice of good governance in those mentioned above, Krol contends that “without the countries by assisting in the development of a wide mediating institutions of a vibrant civil society, pop- range of human resources and socioeconomic infra- ular influence over politics is going to be limited to structure, including domestic institutional systems, election day.” He goes on to say that without such and helping to meet basic human needs (BHN).” mediation/regulation mechanisms, “venomous invec- Along these lines, it explicitly advocates the promo- tive, accusatory rhetoric, ad hominen argumentation tion of democratization by stating that “full attention and the like get out of control, and uncivil political should be paid to the progress of democratization, discord can then influence the electorate and pro- efforts to introduce a market-oriented economy and duce poor outcomes” (Krol 1995, 39). the situation surrounding the guarantee of basic This absence of civil society gives rise to an open human rights and freedoms in recipient countries.” question about the competence of voters in newly Nevertheless, Japan so far has only limited expe- created democratic states. Parrot has put forward the rience in this area, and its involvement in election view that “without the main elements of civil society, support has centered on operational aspects, particu- a state cannot function democratically either in form larly the contribution of funds to international or in essence” (Parrot 1997, 24). Using the metaphor organizations, material supply under emergency that “building a house is not the same as establishing grant-aid cooperation and other schemes, and dis- a home”. Sztompka, who was quoted at the begin- patch of election observer teams. ning of this paper, argues: “The former is only the Technical assistance provided by the Japan shell, the empty framework ... it is a concern for International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has also architects. The latter is the living arena of social tended to focus on operational aspects geared actions and interactions ... it is the concern for soci- towards facilitating the implementation of elections, ology. The more or less explicit recognition of that including the dispatch of individual experts specializ- distinction between the institutional and the cultur- ing in election management (Indonesia in 1999 and al-civilizational spheres is also indicated by other Pakistan in 2002) and dispatch of individual experts terms, i.e. ‘public sphere’ versus ‘civil society’” specializing in election public relations (East Timor (Sztompka 1996, 117). in 2001). During the 1999 election in Indonesia, 22 Common among these arguments are the follow- short-term experts were sent to the election commis- ing views: (1) groups that form a civil society are con- sion, but their role was basically the provision of cerned about the public interest, and would not try to logistical support. seize political power for selfish motives, or force their In contrast, the United States Agency for Inter- views upon others; and (2) civil society can be a very national Development (USAID) attaches more important arena for the development of democratic importance to “long-term support aimed at ensuring

75 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Notes ]

democratic elections take root” than “short-term sup- However, Japan only sends civilians, and for this rea- port for the implementation of elections,” although son, Japanese election observers are customarily it does provide operational support through bilateral assigned to relatively safe areas. It is true that in view assistance by recognizing that “the implementation of of the Japanese political situation, sending observers fair and free elections is a necessary condition for off to dangerous areas is not easy, but this sometimes democracy to function” (USAID 2005). draws criticisms from election implementation bod- The German Development Corporation (GTZ) ies as follows: “Deploying Japanese personnel in safe has adopted a similar policy stance. Namely, under areas on a preferential basis is unfair because it means the “Democracy and the rule of law” sub-theme of assigning those from other countries to dangerous the main GTZ theme of “Good governance” it offers areas.”7 “a wide range of services adapted to the specific polit- Under those circumstances, JICA provided ical and socio-cultural conditions in its partner coun- capacity building assistance in the lead up to the tries,” while promoting “democratic elections.”6 Afghan presidential election in September 2004 by The kind of assistance Japan has so far provided dispatching democratic election researchers, targeting may be viewed as making positive contributions in the country’s election commission, female candidates terms of promoting the introduction of a procedural and local NGOs assigned to take part in election democratic system by, among other things, giving monitoring. In addition, it provided human resource legitimacy to elected officials and endorsing the development assistance for the election commission regime as a state that shares democratic values as dis- in Iraq and Kyrgyzstan in 2005. As the focus of elec- cussed above, in addition to having diplomatic sig- tion support shifts from the transplantation of insti- nificance. Nevertheless, even such support for the tutional systems to capacity building, the above introduction of a procedural democratic system has efforts are suggestive in relation to the future direc- fallen short in terms of actual achievement because of tion of Japanese assistance. Japan’s superficial understanding of democratization Instead of clinging to nominal participation in support. That is exemplified by election monitoring. election monitoring despite being criticized as While Japan’s dispatch of election observer “unfair” as has been the case, switching to the provi- teams mainly takes place under either the Interna- sion of capacity building assistance, targeting, for tional Peace Cooperation Law (PKO Law) or the example, local NGOs assigned to take part in elec- Ministry of Foreign Affairs Establishment Law, JICA tion monitoring to ensure effective election monitor- has also contributed election observers through its ing and the election commissions of recipient coun- study team dispatch scheme (e.g. the Afghan presi- tries to help lay foundations for democracy, would be dential election in 2004). more in line with the international assistance trends, Bound for a total of nine countries between as well as more consistent with Japan’s long-term September 1992 (Angolan presidential and parlia- diplomatic strategy. In particular, it is desirable to mentary elections) and April 2002 (East Timorese focus on (1) financial support for elections and (2) presidential election), the dispatch of an election technical cooperation aimed at facilitating democra- observer team under the PKO Law usually involves tization, while minimizing the kind of personnel dis- the temporary appointment of private-sector person- patch that can only have symbolic significance for nel by the Cabinet Office. the operational side of elections. Namely, “although The dispatch of an election observer team under we understand that each donor is more or less bound the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Establishment Law, by its domestic situation, assistance that does not on the other hand, most often involves the assign- directly contribute to democratization is nothing ment of Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials, at least more than the donor’s self-satisfaction.”8 in recent years, although the temporary appointment of private-sector personnel as Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials did occur initially (e.g. the Bosnian Notes election in 1996). With post-conflict countries, the implementa- 1. Schumpeter defines the leading role of elections by tion of a first election is usually accompanied by the characterizing democracy as follows: “That institu- deployment of a multinational force (including a tional arrangement for arriving at political decisions peacekeeping force) aimed at maintaining security, in which individuals acquire the power to decide by and many American and European countries which means of a competitive struggle for the people’s vote” contribute election observers also dispatch troops. (Schumpeter 1943, 269).

76 A Qualitative Shift in International Democratic Support —Consideration on the Position of International Support for Domestic Elections in Developing Countries [ Notes ]

2. For discussions of international election support with shugi no kinou soshite heiwa/jinken [International an international law perspective, see (Shinoda 1999- Assistance in Domestic Elections in the Post-Cold 2000). War Era: Peace, Human Rights, and the Function of 3. Examples include (Tosa 1997, 43-55). Democracy]. Hiroshima Peace Science 22 4. For the effectiveness of elections in Bosnia and Sztompka, P. 1996. Looking Back: The Year 1989 as a Herzegovina, see (Hashimoto 2004). Cultural and Civilizational Break. Communist and 5. Examples include (O’Donnell 1996, 37). Post-Communist Studies 29 (2). 6. GTZ. http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/politische-reformen/ Tosa, H. 1997. Chiteki shokuminchi shugi to shiteno demokratie-rechtsstaat/883.htm Demokuratikku-Piisu ron [The Theory of Democrat- 7. An interview with Rick Bainter from the OSCE Mis- ic Peace as Intellectual Colonialism], Peace Studies 22 sion to Bosnia on August 13, 2000. USAID. 2005. Promoting More Genuine and Competi- 8. Ibid. tive Elections and Political Processes. http://www.usaid.gov/out_work/democracy_and_go References vernance/technical_areas/elections/

Allison, L. 1994. On the Gap between Theories of Democracy and Theories of Democratization. Democratization 1 (1). Boutros-Ghali, B. 1996. Agenda for Democratization. United Nations. Carothers, T. 1997. Democracy without Illusions. For- eign Affairs 76 (1). Dahl, R. 1989. Democracy and its Critics. New Heaven: Yale University Press. GTZ. Good Governance. http://www.gtz.de/en/themen /politisch-reformen/ Gunther, R. 1999. Debate: Democratic Consolidation: O’ Donnell’s “Illusions”: A Rejoinder. Journal of Democracy 7 (4). Hashimoto, K. 2004. Bosunia-Herutsegobina — Koku- saishien no kadai [Bosnia and Herzegovina - Chal- lenges for International Assistance]. In Funso to fukko shien [Conflicts and Reconstruction Assistance], 199–222. Tokyo: Yuhikaku Publishing. Huntington, S. 1991. The Third Wave. Norman: Uni- versity of Oklahoma Press. Krol, M. 1995. Were East Meets West. Journal of Democracy 6 (1). Mansfield, E. D. and J. Snyder. 1995. Democratization and War. Foreign Affairs 74 (3). O’Donnell, G. 1996. Illusions about Consolidation. Journal of Democracy 7 (2). Parrott, B. 1997. Perspective on Post-communist Democratization. In Politics, Power and the Struggle for Democracy in South-East Europe, 12–24. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press. Pridham, G. and P. Lewis. 1995. Stabilizing Fragile Democracies: Comparing New Party System in South- ern and Eastern Europe. London: Routledge. Schumpeter, J. 1943. Capitalism, Socialism and Democra- cy. London: George Allen and Unwin. Shinoda, H. 1999-2000. Posuto-Reisen jidai ni okeru kokusai shakai no kokunai senkyo shien — Minshu

77 [ Field Note ]

The Zambia Initiative —Potentials of New Trials Promoting Human Security

Masaki WATABE Associate Technical Officer at the Peace Building, Livelihoods and Partnerships Section, Division of Operational Ser- vices, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Headquarters, Geneva, Switzerland

Abstract

The Zambia Initiative (ZI) is a multi-sectoral rural development program encompassing agriculture, education, health, etc, which targets refugees and their host communities. Its main objective is to solve the refugee problem by promoting the local integration of refugees in the host country. The ZI, which is incorporated into Zambia's National Development Plan and the United Nations Develop- ment Assistance Framework (UNDAF) established by the UN country team in Zambia, has been broadly supported by the international community, including the Government of Japan and JICA. Meanwhile, UNHCR, which has been strengthening its collaborations with the development agencies in order to better realize the purpose of the International Refugee Law, identifies the ZI as a good practice for efforts being made along these challenges. Achievements confirmed under the ZI so far can be summarized as follows: 1) The provision of economic incentives to the country of asylum has worked as a strategy for improving the policy environment towards the local integration of refugees; 2) The bases for coexistence has been consolidated through the promotion of human security for both refugees and host communities. Issues to be addressed in the future include the Government's implementation capacity, stepped-up efforts to tackle policy priorities involving women, children, HIV/AIDS, etc., a seamless transition from ordinary humanitarian relief activities to developmental assistance, the legal aspects of local integration, and improvements in the operation of UNHCR through the incorporation of a development management perspective. The author believes that, in addition to post-conflict countries, which tend to attract attention, the international community should explore the possibility of supporting the asylum countries in the effort to solve the refugee problem through development assistance.

I. What is the ZI? munities (local integration) through building harmony between refugees and local residents. For this rea- The Zambia Initiative (ZI) is a development pro- son, the ZI embraces innovative efforts for providing gram for refugee-hosting areas, which has been protection and support for refugees and facilitating implemented by the Zambian government with the resolution of the refugee issues, which may go financial and technical support from the Office of beyond the framework of conventional development the United Nations High Commissioner for assistance. Refugees (UNHCR) and the international commu- The UNHCR plays an effective role as catalysis nity. Its primary goal is promoting the self-reliance of for bridging the gap between humanitarian relief and refugees seeking asylum in the refugee-hosting areas development assistance as well as partially funding of Zambia. In addition to a direct objective of pover- the program itself. With a view to contributing to ty reduction in the targeted areas, the ZI seeks resolution of the refugee issues, this paper outlines durable solutions to the problems of refugees, i.e. the achievements made so far and future challenges future integration of refugees into the hosting com- of the ZI from the standpoint of a practitioner, bear-

This article was first published in Japanese in Kokusai Kyoryoku Kenkyu Vol. 22-(1) (April 2006).

78 The The Zambia Initiative —Potentials of New Trials Promoting Human Security [ Field Note ]

ing in mind that similar efforts would be pursued in seeds, fertilizers, agricultural implements and other countries in near future.1 through expanded outreach of agricultural extension services, veterinary services including immunization of livestock, development of vocational training cen- II. Background to the Launch of the ZI ters, and supply of ambulances and motorcycles. All and its Overview these activities have become essential for both refugees and the hosting communities in bolstering While Zambia has been able to enjoy peace since its livelihood strategies and achieving long-term self- independence exceptionally in Southern Africa, it has reliance. been accepting mass influxes of refugees from neigh- To ensure consistency of such development boring countries, including Angola, Rwanda, Burun- activities with the medium and long-term develop- di and the Democratic Republic of Congo. In this ment plans, the Zambian government is currently regard, the Zambian government has adopted a rela- drawing up its National Development Plan that will tively tolerant refugee policy, providing protection to highlight how the refugee issues should be tackled a cumulative total of some 200,000 refugees over sev- within the scope of ZI. Moreover, the UN Country eral decades. However, due to pressures on its Team in Zambia has agreed to facilitate joint pro- resources, the Zambian government was forced into a gramming for helping the vulnerable population decision to promote self-reliance of the refugees, as including refugees become self-reliant under the they tend to be dependent on humanitarian aid and United Nations Development Assistance Framework the hosting communities, which are impoverished (UNDAF), which is due to be launched in 2007. themselves. Meanwhile, the self-reliance of refugees Thus, coordinated assistance frameworks are being and their local integration also became priority goals developed for ensuring the continuation of develop- for the UNHCR as will be discussed in the below ment assistance towards refugees and the hosting section. It was, thus, this convergence of intentions communities, taking the future phasing out of the between the Zambian government and UNHCR presence of the UNHCR into consideration. that gave birth to the ZI. In 2003, the ZI was launched as a pilot program in Western Province, and was expanded to North- III. Tackling with the Refugee Issues and Western Province in 2005. Currently, the ZI mainly the ZI targets Angolan refugees who wish to settle in Zam- bia rather than going back to their country of origin. To settle conflicts that accompany forced migration The ZI receives assistance from donors including of the people and prevent potential conflicts trig- Japan, the United States, Sweden, Denmark and the gered by such migration of the people, it is essential EU, as well as the UNHCR. The cumulative total of to put durable solutions to refugee problems into assistance stands at approximately US$15 million, practice in effective manners. From this point of which includes supports from the United Nations view, Agenda for Protection put forward by the Tr ust Fund for Human Security, whose main con- UNHCR calls for burden sharing in the hosting of tributor is the Japanese government. In addition, a refugees, while it points out the need to redouble technical cooperation project is implemented by the efforts for durable solutions (UNCHR 2002). Fol- Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in lowing this strategy, the ZI is characterized as a typi- the area of rural development.2 cal program designed to promote the local integra- As a multi-sector rural development program, tion of refugees in the country of asylum while the ZI tackles a wide range of poverty-related issues avoiding friction between refugees and the hosting across diverse sectors including agriculture, animal communities. husbandry, health care, education, forestry, water The ZI is also considered as a good practice in resources and infrastructure. More precisely, commu- the series of initiatives proposed by the UNHCR nity assets, such as village clinics, elementary and sec- called Convention Plus, which aims at better realizing ondary schools, communal grain bins, hand dug the purposes of international refugee law. The Con- wells and nurseries have been built under the ZI vention Plus advocates concepts such as Develop- through the use of local materials and local labor ment Assistance for Refugees (DAR) and Develop- supplied by community members. Essential public ment through Local Integration (DLI). While DAR services have been strengthened through the opera- stresses linkages with development assistance in the tion of the revolving funds provided in kinds of context of wider community development with

79 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Field Note ]

regards to the programming of assistance towards DAR/DLI approaches lies in how one could establish refugees (and their hosting communities) (UNHCR a win-win situation, where the burden for the gov- 2004), DLI goes a step further, advocating the use of ernment of the refugee hosting country can be development assistance as a tool to promote local set- turned into opportunities. The ZI demonstrates the tlement and integration of refugees. Both concepts fact that the provision of economic incentives to the emphasize the need to support the constructive roles country of asylum (particularly with the support of of refugees in the local economies. The ZI is posi- the international community) functions as a driving tioned as a test case for the practical application of force to the strategy of improving the policy environ- the DAR/DLI approaches, and it is perceived by ment and local atmosphere leading to the communi- those inside and outside the UNHCR that its success ty-based local integration of refugees. would have major implications on the similar con- texts in Africa and across the globe (UNHCR 2005). V. Outcome 2: Promotion of Local Inte- gration and Coexistence IV. Outcome 1: Improvement of Policy Environment Shifting the viewpoint from the policy to program level, it is clear that the strategy geared towards the The ZI has produced positive outcomes at the policy local integration of refugees is making steady level. Members of the refugee-hosting communities progress. The influx of refugees puts pressure on land have long expressed their deep dissatisfaction, saying and other limited resources available in the affected that they have been ignored by the international areas and causes socio-psychological tension, which community while its attention and assistance are could be accumulated over many years and strain the given to refugees. Being under pressure to alleviate relationship between refugees and the hosting com- such sentiments, members of the parliament, senior munities. Nevertheless, the chairman of a Local government officials and traditional community Development Committee established under the ZI leaders have turned their eyes to the concept of bur- commented that “this year, no one will go hungry in den sharing. Additional assistance given from the our community thanks to the ZI.”3 It was also stated international community in exchange for their will- that the interactions between refugees and Zambians ingness to accept refugees seems to have given them a are becoming more constructive linked with the pro- sense of pride for being able to fulfill their responsi- motion of local development such as sharing skills bility as a member of the international community and knowledge each other.4 and motivated them to develop and maintain posi- The ZI has introduced a community-based tive attitudes towards refugees. implementation mechanism, which is designed to The Zambian Government is actively imple- encourage joint participation by refugees and the menting the ZI by exercising its ownership. As a hosting communities. The joint management of result, the concept of harmonious coexistence with Local Development Committees promotes interac- refugees is being incorporated into the national and tions between refugees and the hosting communities, local policy frameworks. As discussed above, the while their power sharing mechanisms within the Zambian National Development Plan clearly notes Local Development Committees allow the checks the refugee issues and the ZI. The Zambia Initiative and balances. In this manner, refugees’ views are duly Programme Unit (ZIPU), the facilitator of the ZI respected and incorporated into the decision-making established within the Zambian Ministry of Home processes. Affairs, plays an important catalytic role in targeting The ZI also provides practical opportunities for the government development activities and resources refugees and the hosting communities to engage in to the communities, which have been most margin- collaborative works and learn from each other, thus alised and given least attentions unless the ZI did not enabling refugees to participate in the activities on take place. This change at the policy level distin- the ground as productive contributors. A good exam- guishes the ZI from the compensation-oriented local ple for this is the transfer of a brick making tech- settlement programs in the past, which only targeted nique from the refugees to the members of hosting the members of the hosting communities and were communities, which was used for the building of implemented by NGOs characterized as the imple- community assets.5 Under the ZI, the majority of mentation partners of UNHCR. the beneficiaries are members of the hosting commu- Therefore, the key to the success of the nities. However, one needs to be tactful in formulat-

80 The The Zambia Initiative —Potentials of New Trials Promoting Human Security [ Field Note ]

ing the ways to incorporate refugees, who make up a cient and transparent use of resources. In order to minority, into the project upon the designing micro- deliver, it is essential to restore and improve govern- level activities, so as to best realize the spirit of DLI. ment functions, both physically and financially. This Another important measure has been successful- aspect needs to be taken into consideration right ly achieved in the area of food security. The agricul- from the stage of project design in case similar type tural credit scheme contributed to the dramatic of projects would be implemented. increase in grain production. In 2004, 564 tones of Secondly, current efforts related to the maize were harvested from the ZI areas and were sold UNHCR’s policy priorities, i.e. needs for women to the World Food Programme (WFP), another UN and children and HIV/AIDS, also should be agency. This maize has been used for food handouts strengthened. Unfortunately, the targeting and for the vulnerable groups in Zambia. The ZI, there- involvement of the vulnerable population has not yet fore, has turned people formerly dependent on food received adequate attention, except renovation work aid into food suppliers successfully. It should be for an orphanage in the Nangweshi area and the con- noted that the communities have been empowered struction of an HIV/AIDS drop-in center in Senanga by gaining capacity to run cooperatives by them- District. A specific needs analysis based on gender selves. and age groups needs to be mainstreamed, while It may be fair to say that, with these achieve- social safety net needs to be further developed; these ments, the ZI has contributed to the enhancement of are essential steps for making a sustainable society a human security for the refugees and the hosting reality. To achieve this objective, it is important that communities. This has been accomplished by pro- the notion of government ownership should not rule moting empowerment based on capacity building at out strategic partnerships with NGOs and other the grass roots-level and protection through curbing players in the civil society. their vulnerability (Commission on Human Security Thirdly, greater attention should be paid to 2003). The ZI’s contributions also enable the hosting smooth shifts from a so-called “care and mainte- communities to pursue coexistence with refugees, nance” programs, which centers on service delivery, rather than competing with them over the resources, to an asset and capacity building programs. For thereby providing firm foundation for the local inte- example, some refugee children are reported to have gration of refugees. been forced to withdraw from their schools due to discontinuation of their scholarships. It is necessary to consider various aspects of assistance for securing VI. Challenges in ZI Implementation the accessibility of the school service, such as looking Process at financial capacities of the households, if the ZI truly aims to increase the number of children attend- To fully achieve the initial objectives of the ZI and ing school by improving school facilities. Efforts scale up its assistance model to other areas and coun- should be made to minimize the gap between the tries in the future successfully, it is necessary to over- above two types of programs in view of their impacts come the gaps between concepts and implementation on the beneficiaries (particularly on the vulnerable discussed below. groups), so that an “assistance vacuum”, which could Firstly, it is necessary to pay due attention to the put people in a crisis situation, would not be created. fact that the government’s implementation capacity Fourthly, more consideration should be given to constitutes a major constraint. Many refugee hosting the legal aspects of local integration, in addition to countries have faced a somber reality, that is their its socio-economic aspects. In the case of Zambia, government expenditures have been placed under the government made reservations on the refugees’ tight control within the framework of the Poverty freedom of movement and right to access employ- Reduction Strategy Paper. Zambia is no exception. A ment opportunities when domesticating the Refugee tight government budget and drastic staff cuts have Convention, so that refugees who stay in Zambia as eroded the Zambian government’s implementation the country of asylum will remain disadvantaged capacity. Under these circumstances, monitoring sub- until this problem would be solved. In the mean- projects scattered over the vast area poses great diffi- time, a more realistic approach may be needed, since culties, particularly given the country’s deteriorated this issue has major implications for Zambia’s domes- telecommunications and transport infrastructure. In tic political process. In order to avoid any backlash, addition, the accounting practices of the government promoting the de fact local integration of refugees by staff need further improvement in terms of the effi- preferentially implementing socioeconomic assistance

81 Technology and Development No.20, 2007 [ Field Note ]

while advocating for gradual improvements in the Local Development Committee (LDC) held on April legal environment would be more promising 2, 2005. LDCs are implementing bodies managing approach in the long-run. the revolving funds and construction of the commu- Finally, the practical operations of the UNHCR, nity assets. which support the government, also need further 4. An interview with the Refugee Officer of the Mayuk- improvements. There is a need to foster a perspective wayukwa refugee camp, Commissioner for Refugees, for adopting more systematic development manage- Ministry of Home Affairs, held on April 2, 2005. ment, including community profiling, simple feasi- 5. According to an interview with members of an LDC bility studies (especially on appropriate technologies held on April 2, 2005, the refugees and the hosting and marketing under livelihood assistance), collec- communities share the tribal ties and the common tion of performance and impact indicators, and the language (Lozi), so that communication between like, so that linkages with other development agen- them is very smooth. The fact that the royal estab- cies would be better facilitated. There is also a need lishment of Lozi has their tribal subjects across the to develop a strategy for more sustainable and cost- Zambia-Angola border is thought to be an important effective resource mobilization, unlike the response psychological factor contributing to hosting the to emergency situations, which tends to attract more refugees in harmonious environment. attention. In the future, it will be necessary to keep an eye on the progress of the partnerships with the References development agencies throughout the implementation stage of the National Development Plan and the Commission on Human Security. 2003. Human Security UNDAF, so that the international assistance will Now. New York maintain its focus on the refugee hosting areas. UNHCR. 2002. Agenda for Protection. While bridging the gap between humanitarian . 2004. Convention Plus: Targeting Development relief and development assistance or provision of Assistance to Achieve Durable Solutions for seamless assistance often becomes the subject of poli- Refugees. cy discussion, it is now necessary to go a step farther . 2005. Statement of Good Practice on Targeting beyond the general discussions by analyzing and Development Assistance for Durable Solutions for overcoming the concrete challenges such as those dis- Refugees. cussed above. Although post-conflict countries tend to attract international attention, particularly in the area of peace building, the possibilities to address the refugee issues through development assistance should be more explored in non-post-conflict countries of asylum. In the case of such countries, security risk could be relatively low and there may be more local presence of Japanese agencies as the example of the ZI demonstrates. It is hoped that this paper would contribute to the future debate in such a point of view.

Notes

1. Although the author previously worked as Associate Program Officer at the Lusaka Regional Office, Zambia, of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), this paper does not necessarily reflect the views of the UNHCR. 2. It is hoped that a JICA technical cooperation project launched in 2004 will help further promote government and village-level capacity building through participatory rural planning. 3. An interview with the Chairman of the Mushwala

82 [ Study Reports ]

Poverty Reduction and Human Security

Overview of the Study (Section 1-2 of Chapter I). uman security addresses two concepts that form Hthe vital core of human lives: “freedom from Downside risks and poverty fear” and “freedom from want.” This study places The “human development” concept has an upward- particular emphasis on the latter, “freedom from oriented quality, expanding opportunities for people want,” examines how a human security concept can so that progress will be fair to everyone. On the other be incorporated into the strategies of a basic approach hand, “human security” deliberately focuses on to poverty reduction; and suggests major issues for “downside risks” and takes into account a variety of JICA to consider in its future operations. Focusing on elements that inhibit human development. Human risks that threaten human security and the vulnerabil- security comprises of two main issues: “freedom from ity to risks, the report looks at the relationship violent conflict (fear)” and “freedom from depriva- between poverty reduction and human security, and tion (want)”. Since want and fear are not separable analyzes issues that need to be addressed from the phenomena, want may imply fear, while fear may standpoint of human security. generate further want. Human security requires an The study includes analyses of situations facing integrated approach that incorporates both aspects. Bangladesh and countries and regions in Africa (the We can categorize the sources of risks that Sub-Saharan region and Mozambique) and Latin threaten people into two types: 1) extraordinary and America (Guatemala and Bolivia), as well as studies major threats or external shocks beyond the control on issues critical to human security such as gover- of people and communities that rapidly and perva- nance, poverty and vulnerability, and social develop- sively worsen the want and fear of people (such as ment, with implications and suggestions for the conflicts and natural disasters), and 2) threats that future direction in development cooperation. are embedded in the daily lives of people (such as ill- nesses, unhygienic living conditions, and social Outline of the Study exclusion) (Table 1). The nature of extraordinary threats differs in he English version of this report consists of terms of their causes and characteristics, requiring TChapter I, “Incorporating the Concept of individual approaches to deal with them. In addi- Human Security into Poverty Reduction” by the tion, since most of these threats spread far beyond Chairperson of the Study Group, Professor Hideki national boundaries, different types of international Esho of Hosei University, Japan; and Chapter II, efforts are indispensable for their resolution. Since “Excerpts from Country and Issue-Wide Analyses of many of the extraordinary threats imperil the daily the Study.” lives of people, they will further aggravate poverty (want/deprivation). People suffering from depriva- Highlighted Features of Human Security tion (the chronic poor) are always exposed to the risks of poverty (Section 2-2 of Chapter I). A complement to national security The concept of human security was first advocated in the Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1994. This concept was developed based on the recognition Table 1 Types of threats that damage that since the end of the Cold War, the world has human security been confronted increasingly with various unpre- Type of Risks dictable cross-border threats. Those threats include Extraordinary Major Threats civil wars, terrorist attacks, HIV/AIDS and other Threats Embedded in Daily Life (External Shocks) pandemics, natural disasters, and economic crises that violent conflict endemic disease/illness are beyond the control of a single country. pandemic disease accident/injury The final report of the Commission on Human natural disaster daily violence Security, Human Security Now, published in 2003, economic shock social exclusion defines human security as representing an attempt “to extensive environmental damage unhealthy living conditions protect the vital core of all human lives in ways that old age enhance human freedoms and human fulfillment” crop failure due to bad weather

83 [ Study Reports ]

Empowerment and protection of people Implication for JICA’s Poverty Reduction In order to protect people’s lives from threats and Assistance risks, it is important to combine the following two approaches: 1) efforts to empower people in order to ICA should address the following issues when help them overcome threats by themselves and 2) Jincorporating the human security concept in its implementation of protective measures by govern- efforts aimed towards poverty reduction: ments and the international community (Section 1-2 of Chapter I). Individual approaches Individual Approaches to Support Countries with Human security and poverty reduction Weak State Capacities Human security emphasizes two important aspects of Human security is seriously threatened in coun- poverty reduction. First, it addresses the significance tries that suffer from political instability, macroeco- of risk management by focusing on factors that nomic fragility and lack of government capacity or inhibit development and aggravate poverty (depriva- willingness to provide basic services and to protect tion), as well as risks towards human insecurity and people’s safety and security. This is particularly true vulnerability (Section 2-2 and 2-3 of Chapter I). in states that have lost control over their boundaries. Even in countries that are politically and eco- nomically stable, human security can be endangered Definition of risk and vulnerability when domestic institutions cannot properly cope with internal or external shocks such as natural disas- Risk = “probability of degradation / ters, infectious diseases, and social conflicts. The aggravation in the future well- international society should make its utmost effort to being” of people caused by reestablish functioning governments for countries various threats, as shown in that have lost their state capacity. Table 1 For post-conflict or post-disaster countries, aid Vulnerability = “a situation with a substantial agencies should provide assistance in a flexible and downturn in the well-being of swift manner to reconstruct state functions necessary people or substantial threaten- for democratically governed states and to help ing of their daily lives because reestablish infrastructure and people’s livelihoods of their inability, or the lack (Section 3-3 of Chapter I). thereof, to deal with risks when In countries that have not failed but lack the they face threats” (varies capacity to improve governance, it is necessary to according to the strength of address public policy and participatory development risks and people’s capacity to that will help meet the basic health and education deal with risks) needs of the poor. Furthermore, those countries should integrate people’s empowerment with improved governance mechanisms that include decentralized policy making and implementation The “chronic poor” are most seriously affected by closer to the grassroots level; accountability systems; risks. In order to reduce the vulnerability of these and capacity building of the government (Section 2- people, it is necessary to prevent/mitigate risks or to 3 below, capacity development agenda). enhance their capacity to deal with risks. Second, human security stresses the individuali- Risk management ty of people and communities. This concept empha- When incorporating the human security concept sizes individual features of “fear and want” in terms into poverty reduction strategies, it is important to of region, class, age, and gender, rather than on apply specific analyses of different risk factors that poverty dimensions as indicated in aggregate macro confront people and assess their vulnerability to indicators (Section 2-3 of Chapter I). those risks. A three-dimensional risk management analysis should be considered in development strategies: 1) preventative/mitigating measures against threats and risks; 2) protecting or coping measures when human security is threatened by increased risks, and 3) promoting measures to enhance social

84 [ Study Reports ]

opportunities or human capabilities (resilience) of Box 1 JICA’s seven principles to implement the poor to fight chronic poverty over the medium- human security (issues to consider) and long-term. Out of the three, the most important and fundamental support should be given to promotion JICA proposes seven principles to integrate the –that is, pro-poor development strategy based on concept of human security into its activities: human development and improved governance. ①Reaching those in need through a human-cen- From a long-term perspective, promotion is the most tered approach effective preventative measure a country can under- ②Empowering people as well as protecting them ③ take to develop its capacity to assist its vulnerable Focusing on the most vulnerable people, whose population. In addition, two other measures should survival, livelihood and dignity are at risk ④ complement promotion: prevention/mitigation – Comprehensively addressing both “freedom from want” and “freedom from fear” specific and elaborate measures to prevent and miti- ⑤Responding to people’s needs by assessing and gate each type of threat and coping – measures to addressing threats through flexible and inter- cope with situations where people are threatened. sectoral approaches The importance of reconsidering development ⑥Working with both governments and local com- policies according to the human security concept munities to realize sustainable development cannot be understated. Macro programs and micro ⑦Strengthening partnership with various actors to projects should be reviewed from the perspective of achieve higher impact from assistance “prevention of and preparedness for risks,” in addition to emergency measures when confronted with threats. Enhancing the long-term empowerment of the people requires both securing “social safety nets” to cope with emergencies and establishing approach- Capacity development es to provide people with a “social minimum” (Sec- While human security is a concept or philosophy on tions 3-1 and 3-2 of Chapter I). aid that stresses factors impeding human develop- JICA can use its past experiences to enhance its ment, capacity development (CD) is an important future operations. As the preceding examples show, set of policies and tools that embodies this philoso- the disaster prevention sector clearly integrates risk- phy. CD is an approach that fosters and develops a preventative/mitigating measures into development country’s collective capacity to solve problems when programs and plans that deal with natural disasters. state institutions function to a certain extent. Capaci- The education sector, which supports the develop- ty should be interpreted as a partnership system ment of people’s capacity to handle risks over the between the community and the state. mid- to long-term, can identify different education In order to avoid or alleviate the effects of large- strategies by analyzing individual vulnerabilities of scale threats, the state should undertake, in addition people, regions, and sub-sectors. to providing measures and activities at the household JICA undertakes emergency relief activities for and community levels, the role as coordinator and countries that are afflicted by natural disasters and collaborator between organizations, regions, and provides development assistance to post-conflict donors to mobilize resources that is beyond the countries. When providing post conflict assistance, it capacity of local communities. is imperative that JICA creates recovery paths that In other words, in order to meet development range from reconstruction to development in a time- needs in education, health and employment, it is ly manner while integrating conflict or recurrence imperative to consider in a comprehensive manner prevention into its activities. improvements to relevant policies and institutions, as well as the perspectives and capacities of stakeholders. In summary, CD signifies a program-based approach to support an attempt to foster and enhance the collective capacity of developing countries. CD requires improvements in enabling environments such as coordinating mechanisms and institutions of the central government; the training of human resources and administrative capacity

85 [ Study Reports ]

development at the local level; and the strengthening Security.” of mechanisms to respond to local needs by reinforc- http://www.jica.go.jp/english/resources/publications/ ing the interrelationship between local government study/topical/poverty/index02.html and society.

Analysis and reviews JICA should weigh risks and vulnerabilities confronting the welfare of the people and community from the outset of project formulation. In the pre- screening process, JICA needs to identify projects that require a detailed social study. At the project formulation and designing stage, appropriate forms of social analyses should be undertaken to work out measures to alleviate any negative impact they may have, or to transform them into positive ones, in addition to ensuring that results of analyses are reflected in the project design. JICA needs to continue studies on simple modes of social surveys including vulnerability analyses, proper methods for vulnerability assessment, and evaluation of the impact of alleviation efforts.

Human security perspective JICA endeavors to promote projects based on the human security perspective that incorporate a “human-centered approach to reach people in need”. Among selected projects, JICA advocates twenty four which explore the new frontier of its activities. This includes attempts to reach out directly to vulnerable countries and regions under difficult situations in which JICA has never been engaged before – areas where people suffer from serious violence and crime in their daily lives. Other projects concern conflict-plagued countries and regions and the extreme poor, minority and the disabled who have little access to aid. JICA per- ceives these approaches as ways in which it can inno- vate its activities. By learning through practice, JICA can develop practical modes of social analysis or vulnerability assessment, and learn by accumulating useful approaches.

Practical experiences in human security In conclusion, through a series of efforts mentioned above and based on its practical experiences, JICA should systematize its operational policies and approaches to embody the concept of human security.

(Published in March 2006 by IFIC, JICA)

*The full text of this report is available on JICA’s official website, “Poverty Reduction and Human

86 [ Study Reports ]

Post-Conflict Reconstruction of Education and Peace Building: Les- son from Okinawa’s Experience

Background and Purpose tion today of aid for reconstruction and educational development. ith the collapse of the East-West Cold War Wstructure in the early 1990’s, a new series of The Organization of the Report and a frequent regional conflicts erupted that included reli- Summary of Its Content gious and ethnic confrontations, struggles over natural resources, and terrorism, all of which posed major he report is organized into four chapters which obstacles for development and stability in developing Tinclude an introduction. The introduction gives countries. an overview of research objectives which include to In these circumstances, JICA and other organi- compile basic information about Okinawa. zations are making major efforts to build peace by Chapter 1, “Educational Reconstruction in Oki- providing assistance for post-conflict reconstruction, nawa,” divides the process of Okinawa’s post conflict for preventing future conflicts, and for sustaining educational reconstruction into three periods. It dis- development. There is growing recognition of the cusses features which are characteristic of each period importance of post-conflict educational restoration and which offer useful suggestions for developing for building peace and protecting human rights. countries. In Okinawa’s experience of a major land battle Chapter 2, “Peace Education in Okinawa,” dis- in World War II, the loss of human life was com- cusses how the practice of peace education became pounded by the devastation of basic social organiza- specialized in post-conflict Okinawa, its background, tion and industry. Although a fundamental recon- distinctive characteristics, and specific methods. struction of education was vital for educating and Chapter 3, “Possibilities for Applying Okinawa’s training people to lead Okinawa’s reconstruction and Experience on Post-Conflict Reconstruction of Edu- its future, the war had killed large numbers of teach- cation in Developing Countries,” presents analytical ers and destroyed many schools. categories for applying Okinawa’s experience of edu- In all of Japan only Okinawa has the distinct cational revival based on the discussion in Chapter 1 experience of foreign aid (and foreign rule) over a and 2. It also identifies features shared by Okinawa post-conflict period of twenty-seven years. Until and, in particular, developing countries in the process now, the reconstruction of education in Okinawa has of reconstruction, while examining the possibilities been studied from a historical perspective. for Okinawa to assist such countries. In the future, it can be analyzed from the viewpoint of developmental assistance and peace-building Method of the Report’s Compilation that will provide lessons for the application of reconstruction aid today. his report shows how education was promoted Furthermore, from the experiences of wartime Taccording to Okinawa’s characteristic “flexibility devastation and foreign rule came the Okinawan with determination and strength” under powerful people’s especially strong desire for peace as expressed influences from other countries throughout the eras in the construction of “Himeyuri Monument” and of the independent Ryukyu Kingdom and even after the Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum, the estab- it. It is hoped that the report’s compilation can be lishment of regular classes on peace in the schools, useful for aiding the reconstruction of developing and the regular scheduling of such events appealing countries. for peace as local peace festivals. This report analyzes the recording and transmis- (Published in March 2006 by IFIC, JICA) sion of war experiences in Okinawa and the practice of peace education and local activities appealing for *The full text of this report is available on JICA’s peace, and, it examines the role of these activities in official website, “Post-Conflict Reconstruction of building peace. Education and Peace Building: Lessons from Oki- As noted above, this research project organizes nawa’s Experience.” the history of Okinawa’s educational reconstruction http://www.jica.go.jp/english/resources/publications/ by viewing development aid as a way to build peace, study/topical/post_conflict/index.html and subsequently offers suggestions for the applica-

87 [ Study Reports ]

Approaches for Systematic Planning of Development Projects (Urban and Regional Development)

The Current State of Urban and Regional Definition of Urban and Regional Devel- Development opment

he total global population was 6.1 billion in arious urban and regional problems are occur- T2000, having increased by a factor of 2.4 times Vring within certain cities and regions, and as over a 50-year period. In developing countries in par- regional needs diversify, there are many matters that ticular, the degree of population increase and the cannot be dealt with through cooperation on an progress of urbanization is large, and although nearly individual problem solving basis alone. These prob- 40% of the world’s urban population was concentrat- lems must be faced and dealt with from an overall ed in developing countries in 1950, this figure is pre- city or regional perspective. dicted to reach 80% in 2030, indicating that rapid Cities and regions are diverse in terms of tradi- urbanization can be expected to continue in these tion, culture, religion, and ethnic composition, and countries. an important task moving forward will be to provide When appropriate land use, improvements in cooperation that is sensitive to the unique character- urban infrastructure, and improvements in urban istics of individual cities and regions. facilities are unable to keep up, rapidly progressing The aim of city and regional development is ‘to urbanization gives rise to various problems, including create more plentiful residential environments,’ and the deterioration of urban residential environments, compared to other development objectives: 1) it heavy traffic, the deterioration of public safety, and requires a cross sector approach involving a wide the emergence of squatters and slums. Because large range of issues such as economy, society, the environ- cities play a role as national and regional centers, the ment, and systems; and 2) it is essential that consid- emergence of these urban problems creates a situa- eration is given to the existence of the various stake- tion where the paralysis of urban functions and holders, such as government (central and local), pri- decline of urban services may further lead to stagnat- vate businesses, private citizens, and NGOs, and that ing economic and industrial development in regional urban and regional development progresses in a way society and on a national level. In short, there is the that corresponds well with the roles played by these risk that urban problems may expand into relatively parties. wide scale problems affecting whole areas surround- Consequently, the required approach to urban ing cities. and regional development should not aim to solve There is also the risk of regional economic decay problems through individual facilities upgrades, but and lagging improvement in social infrastructure in rather it should look at the various problems that regional areas and peripheral areas around cities cre- cities and regions face from an overall city or regional ating adverse effects on urban areas. Taking no coun- perspective, achieving greater economic and social termeasure against stagnation in regional areas may developments through an integrated approach. The create situations that lead to further escalations of approach should aim to bring about improved stan- stagnation, adverse environmental effects, and a dards of living, and greater security for urban and decline in activity on a national level. regional residents, and may be even progress of the Urban and regional areas do not exist independ- surrounding regions, or of the country as a whole. ent of each other, but rather “concentration and expansion” in urban areas, and “outflow and stagna- Development Objectives tion” in regional areas are intimately related. It is therefore important to be aware of this interrelation- iven the basic realization that approaches to ship, and move to solve problems from a regional Gurban development and regional development point of view. differ, in this report development objectives are han- Therefore, it is essential that urban and regional dled by separating them into each category. With problems are not seen as individual matters, but that consideration given to the size of the range covered a problem solving approach that encompasses both is by each of these development categories, we first deal followed. In other words, a comprehensive and inte- with regional development, and then follow on with grated approach built on a regional framework is a discussion of urban development. required. “Regional Development” and “Urban Develop-

88 [ Study Reports ]

ment” concern multifaceted and integrated prob- tant to clarify the direction and desired outcomes of lems, it is therefore necessary to combine the various future development from a broad and overall per- “elements” required for problem resolution into suit- spective, and to drive development towards that able and comprehensive approaches. vision. Therefore, for the Development Objectives Chart, “Regional Development” and “Urban Devel- (2) The promotion of regional economic develop- opment” are both designated as “Development ment (economic development) Objectives” (areas), and the approaches possible for In order to enrich the lives of people living in region- fulfilling these objectives are organized into a tree al areas, economic revitalization and progress is cru- hierarchy, and analyzed as structural elements under cial. the heading of “Mid-term Objectives”. (3) Improvements related to basic living condi- Regional development tions (social development) The aim of the Systematic Approaches for Regional As part of the various projects and activities being Development dealt with in this report is to produce conducted in developing countries, aiming to achieve scenarios and concrete overall plans based on mid- to regional economic revitalization by responding to long-term regional progress, by facing issues in an current problems and issues is important, however, at appropriate manner, and unraveling complex and the same time it is important that living standards of integrated problems. people living in those regional areas are raised by Therefore, the following three broad “elements” improving basic living conditions, and this includes can be given as making up “Regional Development”. improving the living conditions of the poor.

➣The formulation of development scenarios (4) The promotion of regional environmental ➣The formulation of “overall plans” that embody conservation and disaster prevention strategies these scenarios (environmental conservation/disaster preven- ➣The construction and strengthening of systems to tion strategies) implement these overall plans Development that proceeds in harmony with the natural environment, the preservation and restora- Further, overall plans are broken into the follow- tion of regional environments, and the strengthening ing three categories based on the stage, depth, and of disaster prevention capacities are important in needs of development. regional development.

➣“Economic development,” with regional economic (5) Capacity development for regional develop- progress and vitalization as its main themes, and ment (the establishment and strengthening of the objective of further promoting and spreading implementation systems) development. In order to implement all of the objectives men- ➣“Social development,” with improvements in basic tioned above, strengthening the capacity of related infrastructure etc. as its main themes, and the institutions starting with government institutions objective of strengthening the foundations of involved in regional development, the establishment regional progress with the aim of facilitating devel- of systems for advancing regional development, and opment. human resources development are necessary. ➣“Environmental conservation/disaster prevention,” with preservation of the natural environment as its Urban development main theme, and the objective of minimizing the Regional development may be characterized as hav- environmental burden arising from development. ing the objectives of regional promotion and the cor- rection of regional disparities, however, urban devel- Based on the above, the following “elements,” opment places emphasis on the view that the various numbered from (1) to (5), are designated as “Mid- developmental elements within cities must be appro- term Objectives”. priately controlled. The major issue in urban development is “the (1) The formulation of regional development appropriate management of concentrating and policies expanding urban areas (city areas), and the mainte- With regards to regional development, it is impor- nance, restoration, and creation of healthier residen-

89 [ Study Reports ]

tial environments,” and this can be broadly broken tating efficient economic activity. Urban infrastruc- into the following elements. ture forms part of urban spaces over long periods, and it is therefore important to progress with facility ➣The formulation of urban development policies improvements that fit in with the city’s mid- to long- and plans term development strategy. ➣The implementation of urban development policies and plans (4) The upgrading of residential environments Residential environments are one of the Basic The realization of urban development policies Human Needs (BHN). Since population density in and plans can further be broken into the following city areas is becoming quite high, an extremely five structural elements of, and tasks for implement- important development objective is the upgrading of ing urban development: the extremely poor residential environments found in low income areas (slums) as a strategy for dealing ➣“The formulation of land-use plans” that aim with poverty. This can be done by providing the nec- towards healthy urban spaces essary infrastructure and dwellings, for example. ➣“Urban infrastructure improvements” for urban progress and raising living standards (5) Urban environmental conservation and the ➣“The upgrading of residential environments” for strengthening of disaster prevention the purpose of healthy living spaces In order to secure the sustainability of cities, and ➣“Urban environmental conservation, and the achieve an improvement in the quality of city envi- strengthening of disaster resistance” for the pur- ronments we are advocating the idea of improving pose of urban safety, and sustained progress environments through the reduction of environmen- ➣“Capacity development” for the purpose of sus- tal burdens, and this can be achieved, for example, tained urban management through “cities that coexist with nature (ecocities)” in developed countries. It is also important to maintain Based on the above, the following “elements,” the objectives of environmental impact countermea- numbered from (1) to (6), are designated as “Mid- sures and disaster prevention strengthening, with the term Objectives.” basic aim of preserving the health and safety of city residents. (1) The formulation of urban development policies (6) The strengthening of administrative capacity In solving urban problems that require cross-sectoral for urban development approaches, it is essential that a consensus is built In order to make development strategies that were between all of the various stakeholders including formulated as urban development milestones opera- government (central and local), the private sector, tional, it is important to appropriately conduct these residents, and NGOs. “The formulation of urban strategies in correspondence with the changes that development policies” is important because it com- occur in urban areas. municates the results of basic consensus formation It is important that the skills and ownership of that takes place between the various stakeholders. people involved in urban planning and urban development, including residents, are increased, and that (2) The formulation of land-use plans systems and frameworks that go beyond the organi- Considering that various and diverse elements are zational level are created, and that they act as an inte- “concentrated” in cities, the necessity of management grated whole. for the appropriate positioning of these individual elements becomes apparent. In order to create Directions of JICA’s Cooperation healthy city spaces, the most basic and highly essential factors in urban planning are land-use regulations Basic concept and guidance. In considering priority issues in urban and regional development, it is essential that a framework for (3) Integrated infrastructure improvement cooperation based on JICA’s basic policies is formed Establishing and improving infrastructure is in relation to the following basic concept headings: absolutely essential as a foundation for allowing city “Promotion of urban and regional development residents to lead healthy and safe lifestyles, and facili- based on the perspective of Human Security,” “Pro-

90 [ Study Reports ]

moting the best mix of inputs,” “Promotion of coor- development,” “social development,” and “environ- dination and partnership with other international mental conservation” is pursued with the aim of rec- cooperation activities,” and “Creating scenarios for tifying regional disparities, while aiming towards the realization of future visions.” regional progress in which regional residents are central. Priority issues (4) Priority issues in urban development (1) Integrated and comprehensive approach approaches It is essential that an integrated and comprehensive In urban development, it is essential to pursue devel- approach is pursued in urban and regional develop- opment that focuses on balancing “land-use guidance ment. The following can be given as such integrated and regulations,” “the establishment of urban infra- and comprehensive approaches. structure,” “the upgrading of residential environments,” and “environmental conservation and disas- – A comprehensive approach through the integration ter management,” with the aim of suppressing the of component factors that correspond to regional negative impacts on urban areas. Also, there exist needs and issues individual issues unique to each city, such as the It is important to take the most appropriate compre- establishment of housing and urban districts, and hensive approach that is based on an effective combi- infrastructure and urban public services, and it is nation of the Mid-term Objectives identified in the essential to provide cooperation in response to these Development Objectives Chart as component fac- individual demands. tors. Issues for future consideration – An approach that integrates urban development and regional development The following consideration items can be given as It is essential to consider urban development and urban and regional development tasks for JICA to regional development from an integrated perspective, improve its effective and efficient operations as well and to base it on a wide regional view that includes as to strengthen its efforts. the urban areas in question. It is also essential to take heed of the relationships between urban and regional (1) Continuous examination of the development areas in pursuing the issue of development. objectives chart and of priority issues It is essential that monitoring and ex-post inspection – A comprehensive approach that seeks balance in of projects are carried out, and that the Development the trade-offs between the various factors Objectives Chart is continually updated and modi- It is essential to pursue progress while maintaining an fied. appropriate balance, and giving consideration to the various factors involved, such as development and (2) Further consideration of the state of coopera- the environment, economic progress and poverty, tion based on the perspective of human securi- and so forth. ty It is essential that we properly investigate how to (2) Emphasis on capacity development incorporate the perspective of human security into It is important to emphasize capacity development cooperation efforts. It will also be essential to exam- for urban development and regional development ine methods for utilizing Japan’s experience, knowl- from a perspective that places emphasis on effects edge, and technology for reconstruction support in a (outcomes). It is also vital to develop urban and more effective way. regional social systems that are able to cope with changes in the social environment and needs in a (3) Consideration of capacity development flexible manner after the development planning It will be essential to examine methods for efficient process. and effective human resources development and institutional capacity development, including case (3) Priority issues in regional development studies of multilateral and bilateral aid agencies. approaches In regional development, it is essential that develop- (4) Considering participatory approach ment that achieves a balance between “economic It will be essential to consider methods of effectively

91 [ Study Reports ]

and efficiently driving participatory approaches forward, since a participatory approach that involves all of the various stakeholders plays an important role in achieving regional development in which the region itself is central.

(5) Consideration of desired inputs Since international cooperation is continually diversi- fying, it will be essential to act in response to these changes, consider appropriate inputs and to examine possible evaluation methods.

(Published in August 2006 by IFIC, JICA)

*The full text of this report is available on JICA’s official website, “Approaches for Systematic Planning of Development Projects (Urban and Regional Development).” http://www.jica.go.jp/english/resources/publications/study/topical/urban/index.html

92 [ Study Reports ]

Comprehensive Study on Family Planning and Women in Develop- ment Projects in Jordan

Background and Purpose of this Study capacity should be developed on 3 levels, namely individual, institutional and social levels. JICA holds he United Nations Development Programme almost the same view as UNDP, and is studying how T(UNDP) put forward the concept of Capacity to introduce the CD concept into its project man- Development (CD) in 1997 in the discussions on the agement. effectiveness and efficiency of aid to developing countries. Since then, donor organizations have been Present Situation of Jordan positively incorporating this concept in their principles and strategies for aid. The Japan International ordan is a constitutional monarchy that obtained Cooperation Agency (JICA) is also considering the Jindependence from Britain in 1946, and the king introduction of this concept in the management of holds the supreme power. Because of the cultural and technical cooperation. religious backgrounds, women tend to marry young This study takes up a series of JICA projects in and have many children. In 1992, it was estimated the fields of population and family planning in Jor- that the population would be doubled in 2013, and dan (“the Case”), consisting of Phase I, Phase II and population control was considered as an urgent issue. Community Empowerment Programme (CEP). The The health and medical standards are relatively Case is a spearheading project series to materialize favorable. Although the modern Contraceptives the concept of Reproductive Health (RH) that was Prevalence Rates (CPR) are low, Total Fertility Rates set forth in the International Conference on Popula- (TFRs) have been steadily falling thanks to changes tion and Development (ICPD) in Cairo in 1994. in population policies and socioeconomic develop- The Case began with community empowerment ment. with a focus on women in the pilot project site and Triggered by the ICPD in 1994, the govern- was developed into CD of community organizations ment put forth the “national population strategy” in and communities as a whole. To look through the 1996, and formulated the “national population strat- development process will also provide useful infor- egy 2000–2003: RH Action Programme” in 2000. mation to consider ways of CD assistance. Therefore, Then, the population strategy has been pushed for- analyzing the Case was demanded. ward since around 2000. In this study, the Case will be overviewed and its results and problems will be analyzed from a CD per- Overview of the Case spective. The study aims for drawing out lessons to improve JICA technical cooperation projects. his study considers three deferent JICA coopera- Ttion projects as one case. The Case consisted of What is CD? three projects, namely a technical cooperation Phase I and Phase II with close relationship with Japanese onor agencies share the basic concept of CD, experts, and CEP which is basically a local initiative Dbut differ in ways they incorporate in their project with financial support by JICA. The outline strategies or approach to projects. Currently, the con- of each project is as shown on the next page. cept announced by UNDP in its report in 2002 is in the mainstream. It emphasizes to recognize that every Notable Approaches from the CD Per- developing country has home-grown “capacity” and spective to consider that both donor and beneficiary countries are partners of equal standing. n this case, various ingenious approaches were “Capacity” in this context is defined as capacity Itaken to enhance individual and institutional to solve problems, capacity to set and achieve goals, capacity and to create the supportive environment. and capacity to perform due roles properly. Most Noted approaches and their significance from the technical cooperation projects so far have helped CD perspective are listed on the next page. enhance individual techniques and strengthen organ- These approaches contain a variety of essence izations, but unfortunately no consideration has been that can be applicable to other areas in Jordan and made to enhance the capacity of a society as a whole. other Arab states. Reflecting this point, UNDP advocates that

93 [ Study Reports ]

Outline of each project

Project phase I: Project phase II: CEP: Preparatory stage Model formation stage Stability and extension stage

Direct counterpart JOHUD MOH, HPC, JOHUD JOHUD agencies

Pilot area Southern Ghor county, Karak Most of Karak governorate with One city and one de-populated Governorate focus on urban districts and area in Karak governorate their peripheries

Features of the area The poorest area Educational level is relatively City is rich in social resources. high. Birthrate is average. De-populated area is inaccessible from the city.

Major activities Grasping population statistics. Develop- Improving the service quality at Compiling all methods ing basic health and medical services. the MCH Center. IEC activities developed through phase I & II. IEC activities to men and women. by women volunteers. Income Spreading them to other areas. Income generating program for people. generating activities for women.

Local resources MOH, Governorate Health Office, MOH, Governorate Health Community organizations, local Employed Religious leaders Office, UNFPA experts and governments, and volunteer NGOs workers (CSTs and facilitators) trained in phase I & II.

Approaches and significances from CD perspective

Approach Significance in CD

(i) Baseline survey • Developed the sense of ownership among community leaders.

(ii) Improvement of FP/RH infrastructure • Enhanced incentives of health and medical staff toward their work. • Provided people with an entry point to the project.

(iii) Training of volunteers (CDP) • Women CDPs were empowered. Phase I • FP/RH educational activities and income generating programs were integrated.

(iv) Income generating activities • Served as an entry point to obtaining men’s understanding. (micro credit program) • Helped women gain confidence and men change their consciousness toward women.

(i) Team building • Enhanced the sense of ownership and commitment among the stakeholders in Jordan.

(ii) Establishment of Local Advisory Com- • Reduced the obstacles in tribal society. mittee • Multi-sector approaches were fused.

(iii) Training of volunteers (facilitators, • Careful support resulted in sustaining activities and enhancing their desire for improv- community support teams) ing themselves.

(iv) Development of participatory enter- • Extension work became easier by packaging human resources and educational materi- Phase II educate workshop method als.

(v) Three-layer approach • Helped create an environment for individuals to change their behavior.

(vi) Establishing a monitoring system • Will provide monitoring and evaluating methods for projects aiming for capacity development of people.

(i) Inclusive network of local resources • Helped realize the basic concept of CD “processes of developing people’s own local knowledge and capacities utilizing available resources in developing countries”. CEP (ii) Supplementary support · Served as preparation for sustainable development of community organizations.

94 [ Study Reports ]

Results and Problems from the CD per- Consideration and Recommendations on spective the Application of CD to JICA Projects / Programs he results and problems were analyzed in the Tlight of the CD concept definition as “capacity onsideration and recommendations to apply at the individual, institutional and social levels, and CCD to JICA projects/programs are as follows: note dynamic interaction among these levels”. On the individual level, the primary step of CD Planning stage that women in the pilot area would be empowered • CD means endogenous processes of developing was achieved, and women who served as volunteers capacities in developing countries. Based on this had proceeded to the stage of self-realization. On the basic principle, the donor side must value develop- local organizational level, the quality of activities of mental challenges, priority, and needs of developing organizations was enhanced as a result of nurturing countries. the sense of ownership among leaders who were involved in this Case. • Outside donors must act as “supplementary sup- On the central organizational level, the capacity port players.” For this purpose, interventions of counter partners at the Ministry of Health should be implemented just as a programmatic (MOH), Higher Population Council (HPC) and Jor- approach based on a long-term vision. danian Hashemite Fund for Human Development (JOHUD) was improved, which resulted in the gen- • Donor partnership is indispensable to support eral improvement of these organizations. On the long-term and wide-range CD driven by develop- social level, or on the level of the surrounding envi- ing countries themselves. ronments of these three strata, the impact was limited partially because the Case intentionally controlled • Team building through participatory workshops is to interfere directly the government policies and sys- effective to develop the sense of ownership on the tems. Rather, positive influence was given from outside of developing countries. side elements such as relatively higher basic abilities of Jordanians, the stable social system, economic • As a baseline survey brings various benefits, it growth, and strengthened population policies. should be incorporated as part of project activities, Furthermore, experiences obtained through the and positively used. Case have exerted positive influence on other neighboring countries through participating in third-coun- Implementing stage try training courses and through a technical transfer • CD means endogenous processes of developing activity to Syria by an NGO sponsored by the royal capacities in developing countries. Based on this family. basic principle, the donor side must value develop- It was found that interaction occurred on mental challenges, priority, and needs of developing among individuals, local and central organizations countries. and further among other countries. An understanding that the “Karak Model” composed of essences of • The sense of ownership should be developed on the the Case would be applicable to other regions is now base of the relations of trust. spreading among the concerned people in Jordan, and they show strong desire to spread the Karak • A flexible changing of a plan is desired so as to Model to south Jordan. adjust to the development process of a beneficiary However, there are some challenges from the country. viewpoint of ability of setting objectives. On the individual level, women have been empowered, • Support to facilities and equipment is important raised their awareness, and acquired knowledge and even for CD support. skills. However, they have not reached the stage of “finding and achieving objectives” to utilize what • The principle of using the existing social resources they have learned. On the level of local organiza- and professionals in a beneficiary country as much tions, there is a little anxiety over their basic capacity as possible should be followed. to implement health administration. • Networking social resources and professional per-

95 [ Study Reports ]

sonnel will help change activities to be dynamic and organic.

• As “supplementary support players,” donors should devise incentives for continuous development of individuals.

• Leadership training is the first-step for institutional CD.

• CD will change in quality in association with individuals, institutions and society. For facilitate changes at respective levels, it is important to build enabling environments around them.

Extension and sustainable development stage • In order to spread a project outcome, the project model to be developed in a pilot area should be highly universal. In order to economize the extension work, it is desirable that the project model is packaged.

• A good model is easily transferred to other areas. For nationwide extension, however, it is desired that the implementation of the model should be institutionalized.

• The donor should draw a vision of the final state of sustainable development in beneficiary countries from the perspective of CD and envisage the way to reach the final goal.

(Published in November 2006 by IFIC, JICA)

*The full text of this report is available on JICA’s official website, “Comprehensive Study on Family Planning and Women in Development Projects in Jordan.” http://www.jica.go.jp/english/resources/publications/study/capacity/200611/index.html

96 JICA is one of Japan's Official Development Assistance (ODA) implementing bodies, mainly Japan responsible for implementing technical cooperation in order to facilitate the autono- International mous, sustainable development of developing countries. JICA has turned into an inde- Cooperation pendent administrative institution as of October 2003, which enables it to pay more Agency attention to grass-roots cooperation, peace building, cost performance, faster decision- making and visibility. JICA's new mission statement is: We, as a bridge between the people of Japan and developing countries, will advance international cooperation through the sharing of knowledge and experience and will work to build a more peaceful and prosperous world.

IFIC was established in 1983 as one of the JICA's affiliated organs. It aims at undertaking re- Institute cruitment of senior advisors, training qualified Japanese experts, research and study, and For collection and dissemination of information of technical cooperation. International Cooperation