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1 Introduction: the Urban Gothic of the British Home Front Notes 1 Introduction: The Urban Gothic of the British Home Front 1. The closest material consists of articles about Elizabeth Bowen, but even in her case, the wartime work has been relatively under-explored in terms of the Gothic tradition. Julia Briggs mentions Bowen’s wartime writing briefly in her article on “The Ghost Story” (130) and Bowen’s pre-war ghost stories have been examined as Gothic, particularly her short story “The Shadowy Third”: see David Punter (“Hungry Ghosts”) and Diana Wallace (“Uncanny Stories”). Bowen was Anglo-Irish, and as such has a complex relationship to national identity; this dimension of her work has been explored through a Gothic lens in articles by Nicholas Royle and Julian Moynahan. 2. Cultural geography differentiates between “place” and “space.” Humanist geographers like Yi-Fu Tuan associate place with security and space with free- dom and threat (Cresswell 8) but the binary of space and place falls into the same traps as all binaries: one pole tends to be valorised and liminal positions between the two are effaced. I use “space” because I distrust the nostalgia that has often accreted around “place,” and because – as my discussion of post- imperial geographies will show – even clearly demarcated places are sites of incorrigibly intersecting mobilities (Chapter 2). In this I follow the cultural geographers who contend that place is constituted by reiterative practice (Thrift; Pred) and is open and hybrid (Massey). 3. George Chesney’s The Battle of Dorking: Reminiscences of a Volunteer (1871) was one of the earliest of these invasion fictions, and as the century advanced a large market for the genre emerged William Le Queux was the most prolific writer in the genre, his most famous book being The Invasion of 1910, With a Full Account of the Siege of London (1906). 4. When writing War in the Air Wells was wholeheartedly opposed to war but he eventually became persuaded of its occasional justification and wrote propa- ganda for the First World War. In 1913 he wrote a book for children describing rules for using toy soldiers in tabletop war games (Aldiss, “Introduction” to War of the Worlds xxviii). Wells’s ongoing ambivalence to war is encapsulated in the slogan he crafted for the First World War: “the war to end war” (Winter, “Nightmare” xxiv). 5. Like all vampire mythology, Return of the Vampire invites comparison with Freud’s description of repressed desires which “are not dead in our sense of the word but only like the shades in the Odyssey, which awoke to some sort of life as soon as they had tasted blood” (4: 348). The taboo desires most often repressed are destructiveness and sexual desire and Return of the Vampire features both, for the bombing frees something that had been left buried for years, something violent and sexually predatorial. As I show in Chapter 3, however, it can be more fruitful to approach the film through sociohistorical analysis of home front xenophobia. 163 164 Notes 6. For discussions of First World War Gothic, see Terry Philips and Martin Tropp. 7. Car headlights were initially covered with cardboard but as pedestrian deaths mounted headlights were partially concealed with a metal grid (Gardiner 79). 8. For discussion of the sensory geography of wartime London see Adey (par. 8) and Wasson. 9. Conscription was reintroduced in May 1939 under the Military Training Act (Gardiner 53). 10. John Piper produced a book entitled British Romantic Artists, Michael Ayrton wrote a Collins booklet about British drawing, David Low wrote about British cartoons, H. J. Paris wrote about English water-colours, John Russell wrote about British portraits, Cecil Beaton wrote about British photography and Major Guy Paget wrote about English sporting prints (Yorke, Spirit 88). 11. For details of IRA attacks in England from January 1939 onwards, see Calder (Myth 65–6) and Kee (101–3, 241–2, 283–4). Sinn Fein published pro-German pamphlets early in the war and there were isolated strands sympathetic to fascism in both Eire and Northern Ireland (Fisk 28, 50, 425–37, 50, 379, 437, 460–2) but many people in Northern Ireland enlisted voluntarily to support the Allies or served in support capacities (Calder, Myth 65–6). 12. British fascism has a complex genealogy with some strands inspired more by Mussolini than Hitler, and British fascist ideologies grafted onto existing tra- ditions of British conservative thought in varying ways. Many British fascist groups disagreed with each other, not least in the way they imagined a Jewish “threat.” For more on anti-Semitism in British culture and literature during the 1930s and 1940s see Phyllis Lassner (Chapters 6–7), Bryan Cheyette, Andrea Loewenstein, Tony Kushner (Holocaust), Richard Thurlow (66–9), Jon Stratton (132), Colin Holmes, Kenneth Lunn, John Morell, Gisela Lebzelter (“Henry Hamilton”; Political Anti-Semitism) and Stuart Hylton (88–96). Anti-fascist movements rose to defy anti-Semitism, particularly among organised labour (Thurlow 101–2), famously clashing at the Battle of Cable Street of 4 October 1936. 13. From mid-November 1940 the Luftwaffe attacked other industrial cities around Britain, including Cardiff, Bristol, Swansea, Plymouth, Clydesdale, and most thorough of all, Coventry. That midlands city was the base for many aircraft factories, and on the night of 14 November 1940 it was devas- tated by a massed attack of 449 bombers. 554 people were killed, 865 were seriously injured and 100 acres of the city centre were flattened. In 1942, the “Baedeker” raids began in retaliation for Allied bombing of the north German town of Lübeck in March. The retaliatory “Baedeker” raids, named after the popular series of German guide-books, targeted towns like Bath, York and Canterbury (Jenkins 35). 14. Peake, speaking of the bombing of Mannheim and Wiesbaden, notes: “Terrible as the bombing of London was, it is absolutely nothing – nothing compared with this unutterable desolation. Imagine Chelsea in fragments with not one single house with any more than a few weird shaped walls where it once stood, and you will get an idea in miniature of what Mannheim and Wiesbaden are like” (Gilmore 52–3). Middlebrook and Everitt record Dresden's damage: “In the firestorm at Dresden, caused by British incendiary attack on 13 February 1945, which was followed by USA Air Force daylight assault next day, more Notes 165 than 40,000 people probably died, and perhaps more than 50,000” (663–4). By contrast, T. H. O’Brien notes that “Over the entire war, according to British official figures, 29,890 died during enemy action in London, two-thirds of them in 1940–41. Slightly more died elsewhere in Britain: 30,705” (677). 2 Nightmare City: Gothic Flânerie and Wartime Spectacle in Henry Green and Roy Fuller 15. Benjamin argues that flânerie ceased to be possible as the nineteenth cen- tury progressed (Tester 14–15). Nonetheless, flânerie is still invoked as an influential trope even in the twenty-first century, and was a precursor of late twentieth-century psychogeography. For postmodern successors to flânerie see Jenks and Mazlish. 16. The city itself is regularly feminised in nineteenth century writing and since. The narrator of Paris Spleen’s “Epilogue,” for example, compares the city to that of a prostitute (108). Anne McClintock suggests, “If the woman’s body is the child’s first space for knowledge and self-discovery, later the city, as the first space of modern self-knowledge was mapped as a feminine space. Once feminised, the city was more easily represented and made docile for male knowledge and power” (82). 17. Ration books were designed and printed at the end of the 1938 Munich Crisis (“War Doesn’t Change” 16–17). Food rationing began officially on 8 January 1940 but was already operating unofficially in many places after November 1939 (Gardiner 120). 18. Interwar psychoanalysis had already punctured any sentimental belief that children lack ferocity; see Melanie Klein. 19. For analysis of how new lighting was integrated with commodity display, see Bowlby (Just Looking), Rosalind Williams, Michael Miller and Hrant Pasdermadjan. 20. Similarly, when the word appears elsewhere in the novel it is often in a con- text of vision and danger. For example, the novel describes First World War soldiers blinded by mustard gas as “caught” by blindness (21). 21. Conventional bulbs were sometimes replaced with violet bulbs to reduce the risk of accidentally breaching the blackout. 22. The empire/emporium contrast is proposed in a sociology MA dissertation by I. Roderick (Shields 74). 23. With transport methods and petrol scarce, the Auxiliary Fire Service com- mandeered 7,500 of London’s 15,000 taxis (Ziegler 47). 3 Carceral City, Cryptic Signs: Wartime Fiction by Anna Kavan and Graham Greene 24. The victims of eighteenth-century Gothic are often female, a heterosexual frisson animating the relationship between captor and captive. 25. For discussion of crime in wartime, see Steve Jones, Harold Smith (86–97), Calder (People 337), Ziegler (229–32), Hylton (186–202), Mackay (127–8). For wartime prison life see Steve Jones (71–8). 166 Notes 26. For discussion of the legal categories of “alien” and “stateless alien” (dena- tionalised by their country of citizenship), see Fraser (2–28, 65). 27. London’s Imperial War Museum holds examples of such documents (e.g. the Papers of Miss Tea Lewinski). 28. The first (equally fictitious) fifth column was invented in the Spanish Civil War, when a General claimed that he had four columns of troops and a secret fifth column of supporters embedded in his opponent’s territory (Calder, Myth 111). For debunking of the British fifth column, see Wasserstein (82). 29. For Churchill’s role in internment see Peter and Leni Gillman, Wasserstein (87) and Lafitte (xiii–xiv).
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