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Image from the Alexander and Bertha Bell Papers, Special Collections & University Archives

September 14 to December 31, 2005 Callery '50 Special Collections and University Archives Rutgers University Libraries

Rutgers University Libraries RUTGERS WITNESSES TO WAR:

VOICES FROM THE RUTGERS ORAL HISTORY ARCHIVES

A GUIDE TO THE EXHIBITION

Sandra Stewart Holyoak PeterAsch Stephanie Darrell Shaun Illingworth Nicholas Molnar Susan Yousif Curators of the Exhibition

Special Collections & University Archives Rutgers University Libraries New Brunswick, New Jersey

September 14 - December 23, 2005 - 2-

WITNESSES TO WAR: THE USE OF FIRST-PERSON PRIMARY RESOURCES IN THE STUDY OF WORLD WAR II AND THE UNITED STATES, 1989-2005

INTRODUCTION

History is lived in instants and revealed in stages. The story of the United States' involvement in the Second World War initially took shape through the pens and lenses of war correspondents and the home front press and the typewriters of government public relations officers. Journalists like Ernie Pyle, Homer Bigart and GI cartoonist Bill Mauldin aspired to transmit the true essence of the war, while the media's lesser lights and the PR men presented a sanitized record draped in patriotic bravado. 1 In the immediate post-war period, the branches of the Armed Forces issued official histories that dealt primarily with battle maneuvers and administrative matters.2 As the surviving luminaries among the Western Allies retired from the military and/or public life in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s, they composed (with the assistance of ghostwriters in some cases) and published their memoirs, followed shortly thereafter by their subordinates. 3 While each volume offered a new perspective on the inner workings within the war's upper echelon, it also served as its author's bid to establish a legacy of his owr1 choosing.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Civil Rights Movement, the Women's Movement and the struggles for recognition and equality by numerous other groups within American society, coupled with the development of social history as an academic genre, initiated a realignment of what was considered important in the study of the Second World War. The experiences of the common serviceperson, war worker and civilian took on new importance. Studies of women, African Americans, gays and lesbians and members of other marginalized groups began appearing in the body of research, although years would pass before they would receive adequate attention. For example, historian Barbara Tomblin noted that, even in the early 1980s, "Few publishers were interested in a book about women in the military."4

The genesis of a body of first-person, war-related primary resources can be traced back to the war years themselves. Individual veterans and civilians began publishing their memoirs, diaries

1 In 1943, Ernie Pyle published Here Is Your War: Story ofGI Joe, a collection of his columns on the North African Campaign. Brave Men, an anthology of Pyle's reporting on the war in Europe from 1943 to 1944, appeared in 2001. In 1992, Betsy Wade brought together selections from Bigart's entire career, including Korea and Vietnam, in Forward Positions: The War Correspondence ofHomer Bigart. Bill Mauldin combined cartoons from his Pulitzer Prize-winning series "Up Front With Bill Mauldin," featuring his famous GI characters, "Willie and Joe," with a narrative on the combat experience in 1945's Up Front. 2 In 1946, the US Army, in conjunction with the Government Printing Office, initiated the seventy-eight-volume The United States Army in World War II series, popularly known as the "Green Books." Backed by the US Navy, Samuel Eliot Morison of Harvard University published the fifteen-volume History of United States Naval Operations in World War //between 1947 and 1962. Under an agreement struck between the Army Air Forces and the University of Chicago in 1945, Professors Wesley Frank Craven ofNew York University and James Lea Cate of the University of Chicago edited the work of the AAF's Historical Division, which they had served in during the war, into theseven-volume The Army Air Forces in World War II, published between 1948 and 1958. Numerous historians aided in the production of the History of US Marine Corps Operations in World War II, which appeared between 1958 and 1971. 3 Here are a few examples: American leaders: Harry S. Truman, Memoirs (1955), Cordell Hull, The Memoirs ofCordell Hull (1948), Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe (1948), Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences (1964), Omar Bradley, A Soldier's Story (1951), Henry "Hap" Arnold, Global Mission (1949), Curtis LeMay, Mission With LeMay: My Story (1965). British and French leaders: Charles DeGaulle, (English versions) War Memoirs: Call to Honor, 1940-1942 (1955), War Memoirs: Unity, 1942-1944 (1959), War Memoirs: Salvation, 1944-1946 (1960); Bernard Law Montgomery, The Memoirs ofField Marshal Montgomery (1958); Winston Churchill, the six-volume, Nobel Prize-winning The Second World War (1953). 4 Tomblin, Barbara Brooks, GI Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II (University Press of Kentucky, 1996), p. vii. - 3 - and correspondence even before V-J Day. Each branch ofthe Armed Forces conducted after­ action interviews with men coming off the line. In the post-war period, those interviews joined thousands of other oral histories of officers and enlisted men and personal papers collected by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Armed Services' historical divisions: the US Army's Military History Institute at Carlisle Barracks (MHI), the US Air Force Historical Research Agency at Maxwell Air Force Base (AFHRA), the US Navy's Naval Institute in Annapolis and the US Marine Corps' History and Museums Division in Washington, DC. University-affiliated oral history programs and document repositories also established World War II collections, such as the Western Historical Manuscript Collection at the University of Missouri-Columbia (WHMC), founded in 1943, Columbia University's Oral History Research Office, established in 1948, and the Center for the Study of War and Society at the University of Tennessee-Knoxville (CSWS), founded in 1984. Oral history compilations also appeared in print, most notably Roy Hoopes' Americans Remember the Home Front: An Oral Narrative (1977), John Tateishi's And Justice For All: An Oral History ofthe Japanese American Detention Camps (1984) and Studs Terkel's The Good War: An Oral History of World War Two (1984), perhaps the best known oral history of Americans in World War II.

The fiftieth and sixtieth anniversaries ofthe war's critical events and a flourish of popular movies and books, such as Tom Brokaw's The Greatest Generation (1998) and Stephen Spielberg's film Saving Private Ryan (1998), brought about renewed interest in the war among the American public. Urged on by this revived appreciation and cognizant of their own mortality, the remaining eyewitnesses to the war, now in their seventies and eighties, previously reticent to discuss their experiences due to modesty or self-assessed insignificance, have become more willing to share their stories. Since 1989, publishing houses, eager to take advantage of the public's appetite for World War II works, have published the memoirs, diaries and letters of hundreds of veterans and civilian participants. Thousands more have revealed their stories to the world through independent publishers and the Internet. Simultaneously, a number of new oral history programs and document repositories have emerged to capture their stories before the demographically inevitable occurs.

At Rutgers University, the Class of 1942, as the first class to graduate from Rutgers College after Pearl Harbor, founded the Rutgers Oral History Archives (ROHA) in 1994 to record and disseminate their experiences. The project, which houses its materials in the Special Collections and University Archives Division of the Rutgers University Libraries, was later expanded with the addition of the GI Bill Class of 1949 and other war year classes. The Rutgers Oral History Archives was one of the first projects to go online in 1997. In 1995, the Reichert Oral History Program at Florida State University formed the Institute on World War II and the Human Experience to narrow in on the World War II generation. Web-based projects, such as Patrick O'Donnell's Drop Zone Virtual Museum, founded in 1995, which primarily targets Airborne and Ranger veterans, have pioneered new methods for gathering and exhibiting first-hand accounts. In 2000, the Federal Government established the Veterans History Project at the Library of Congress's American Folklife Center, which coordinates the activities of numerous partner groups and individuals across the nation. This flurry of collection development has provided recent scholars and authors with a plethora of sources to choose from at a time when they are most receptive to using them. - 4-

Thus, the most recent stage in the historiography of the Second World War in the United States has seen the confluence of a generation willing to tell its story and an academic and popular audience willing to listen. This essay will acquaint the reader with a sampling of the works published between 1989 and 2005 that utilize oral histories and other personal papers, such as diaries and letters, in their scholarship. Some have contributed to the historical record by adding interviews and document collections to the body of documentation; others have built upon it through their use ot tlrst-~1 .... ;::~ l'lccounts to reinterpret or elucidate events.

In an effort to benefit students and researchers 011 the high school, undergraduate and graduate levels, I have based my bibliography upon a personal survey of two large state university libraries, the Archibald S. Alexander Library at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey, and the WEB DuBois Library at the University of Massachusetts-Amherst. I have omitted memoirs, diaries and letter collections that focus on individuals because they could not adequately be covered in an essay of this length. I have also excluded unit histories, which often rely upon first-hand accounts, for similar reasons, except in the cases of segregated units, large units, i.e., the Eighth Air Force, and operations that involved only one or two units.

GENERAL AND REFERENCE WORKS

In World War II Letters: A Glimpse Into the Heart ofthe Second World War Through the Words of Those Who Were Fighting It (2002), editors Bill Adler and Tracy Quinn McLennan present reprinted letters from American, British Commonwealth and German servicemen and women submitted by the authors and their families. Adler, an author and literary agent, and McLennan, a writer, have arranged the correspondence into subject-oriented chapters on the war on the land, in the air and on the sea, religious beliefs, patriotism, leadership, life in the military, reactions to foreign landscapes and societies, the POW and casualty experience, medical personnel and the end of the war.

Mark P. Parillo's We Were in the Big One: Experiences of the World War II Generation (2002) brings together a collection of 248 war era letters, diaries, poems and accounts from other documents, primarily drawn from the Eisenhower Library's World War II Participants and Contemporaries Collection, that explore a myriad of issues relating to the military and civilian experience. Parillo, a military historian at Kansas State University, arranges his selections topically to deal with military training, combat, medical services, support services, such as the Red Cross and the Women's Army Corps (WAC), family life, war workers, the home front and the servicemen's return to civilian life and peace.

A number of regional and/or institutional-oriented collections have been published in recent years: For Comrade and Country: Oral Histories of World War II Veterans (2003), edited by Robert G. Thobaben, a professor emeritus of political science at Wright State University, contains interviews with residents of Centerville-Washington Township, Ohio, who served in the military; The Boys From New Jersey (2004), compiled by Thomas A. Kindre, one of the founders ofROHA, features seventy-one accounts from New Jersey men who graduated from Rutgers University; Lynna Piekutowski, a retired Western Reserve Academy faculty member, tells the story of the graduates (and some faculty members) ofWRA, an Ohio prep school, - 5- through their wartime letters to the school's headmaster in Remembering the Boys: A Collection ofLetters, A Gathering ofMemories (2000).

In World War II in Europe, Africa and the Americas, with General Sources: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1997), editor Loyd E. Lee, a professor emeritus of history at SUNY­ New Paltz, contributes an excellent bibliographic essay entitled, "Personal Narratives of Sailors, Soldiers and Civilians." Lee's work provides researchers with sources on Allied and Axis perspectives in both major spheres of conflict and collections of letters and oral histories. J. Douglas Smith of Occidental College and Richard Jensen, a professor emeritus ofhistory at the University of Illinois, surveyed the Internet for credible and useful resources in their 2003 collaboration, World War II on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites. Of particular interest are the chapters, "The Soldiers' Stories," "The Home Front," "Women and African Americans in World War II," and "The Holocaust and War Crimes;" sub-headings guide the user to sites focusing on oral histories, correspondence collections and diaries.

THEWARINTHEPACIFIC

The United States' involvement in the Second World War began with the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and ended nearly four years later with the September 2, 1945, surrender ceremony onboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Thus, it seems only natural to first proceed with an examination of the works that use personal perspectives to flesh out the existing record of this theater of operations.

GENERAL WORKS

In 2004, Rex Alan Smith, a writer and veteran of the Pacific War, and Gerald A. Meehl, a photographer, compiled Pacific War Stories: In the Words ofThose Who Survived. An introductory essay on the war in the Pacific precedes fourteen chapters that consist of two to thirteen interview-derived narratives. Pacific War Stories follows the conflict both chronologically, relating stories of the Pearl Harbor attack, the fall of the Philippines and the various island invasions, and topically, presenting accounts from medical personnel, interpreters and rear echelon troops and tales of the air and naval campaigns, the kamikaze attacks and the surrender and occupation of Japan. Smith and Meehl principally interviewed veterans, equally representing all of the branches ofthe Armed Forces, and they also included two chapters with perspectives from island natives and Tokyo residents.

DECEMBER7, 1941

The fiftieth anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor precipitated the publication of two collections of first-hand accounts, Remembering Pearl Harbor: Eyewitness Accounts by US Military Men and Women, edited by RobertS. La Forte and Ronald E. Marcello, and Paul Joseph Travers' Eyewitness to Infamy: An Oral History ofPearl Harbor. La Forte and Marcello drew upon their work with the University ofNorth Texas' Oral History Program, beginning in the mid-1970s. Travers, an independent historian, began his research in the early 1980s by placing ads in newspapers and veterans' publications, such as the Pearl Harbor Survivors Association's Pearl Harbor-Gram. Both books present edited narratives, La Forte and Marcello's based upon - 6- oral histories, Travers' upon memoirs submitted by eyewitnesses, and both works are arranged geographically according to where each subject was that day. La Forte and Marcello tender the recollections of over forty enlisted men and junior officers from all services who participated in the attack, which they claim as the first rank-and-file account of the "Day oflnfamy." Travers' subjects are predominantly Navy veterans, with submissions from crewmembers of twenty-three vessels, but he gives adequate coverage to the other services stationed around Oahu and includes some accounts from civilians and nurses.

The following year saw the publication of This Is No Drill!: Living Memories ofthe Attack on Pearl Harbor (1992) by Henry Berry, the author of two previous Marine Corps oral history collections. Berry, likewise, covers all branches while heavily favoring the US Navy in his eighty-some first-person narratives. Berry expands the parameters of the Pearl Harbor story by including some pre-Pearl Harbor remembrances, beginning on Christmas 1940, and reactions from around the nation. Seattle-based author Archie Satterfield elaborates on that theme in his The Day the War Began, also published in 1992, which drew upon hundreds of interview$ and memoir submissions resulting from ~nation-wide solicitation. Beginning with a chapter on the day before the attack, Satterfield foregoes the traditional account, i.e., the view from Battleship Row, instead, choosing to examine the attack as though it were a rock tossed into the pond of the American consciousness. He follows the ripples through the national experience via accounts from servicemen on nearby ships and military posts, residents of the Hawaiian Islands and Americans on the Mainland, heading toward the East Coast.

K.D. Richardson, a freelance writer, drew upon all previous methods in researching and arranging 2005's Reflections ofPearl Harbor: An Oral History ofDecember 7, 1941. Richardson culled his 160 narratives from replies to 1800 flyers sent to VFWs and retirement centers and ads in national publications, including edited interviews and submitted narratives. The book begins with a long chapter on eyewitnesses to the raid, ranging from the customary servicemen's accounts, including many Pearl Harbor Survivors Association members, while adding in force the voice of civilians, including Japanese Americans and the children of servicemen. He then examines the impact of Pearl Harbor in chapters on young children, many under the age of fifteen, adults throughout the Mainland, young men and women who felt compelled to enlist without delay and those already serving in uniform. His final chapter, "The Ultimate Sacrifice," examines the long-term effects of the attack through the stories of those who lost loved ones on or after December 7, 1941, and Japanese Americans who were deprived of their freedom in the following months.

THE RISING SUN LOOMS OVER THE PACIFIC

The attack on Pearl Harbor has overshadowed actions in other areas overrun shortly thereafter as the Japanese conquered Southeast Asia, the Philippines and the Southwest and Central Pacific in the seven months prior to the Battle of Midway. Several works have attempted to illuminate the experiences of American servicemen caught up in this dark period.

William H. Bartsch produced two books which focus on the battle for the Philippines. Doomed at the Start: American Pursuit Pilots in the Philippines, 1941-1942 (1992) tells the story ofthe Army Air Forces pilots and personnel who resisted the Japanese invasion in late 1941. He traces - 7- the aviators' activities from their pre-war preparations to the opening salvos on December 8th and follows them through the protracted battles on Bataan, their final stand in Mindanao and into the POW camps. Over the course of thirteen years, Bartsch, an economist/historian, entered the world of the 24th Pursuit Group, conducting numerous interviews and gathering papers from officers and enlisted men. In addition, he located interviews conducted by Army historians during and immediately after the war and transcripts of interviews between POWs at Cabanatuan in the Philippines. In December 8, 1941: MacArthur's Pearl Harbor (2003), Bartsch seeks to counter the critics who have laid responsibility for the annihilation of the American air forces in the Philippines at the feet of the airmen themselves. He combines an examination of the policies set and preparations made by the senior officers in the years leading up to December 1941 with a blow-by-blow account of the battle as experienced by the pilots and ground personnel. He expands upon his work in Doomed at the Start to include the bomber crews at Clark Air Field, the Air Warning Company at the Iba radar installation and other Army units. He also incorporates the perspective of Japanese pilots. He draws upon a similar array of resources, including AFRHA oral histories, his correspondence with former Japanese Zero pilots and unpublished diaries and memoirs.

Journalist and military historian Gerald Astor covers the breadth of the war in the Philippines, from the Japanese invasion to its liberation by American forces, in Crisis in the Pacific: The Battles for the Philippine Islands by the Men Who Fought Them (1996). In his chapters on the December 8th attack, the struggles in Bataan and Corregidor and the subsequent Death Marches and imprisonment, Astor weaves a narrative history with lengthy first-hand accounts from servicemen and civilians in an effort to capture the experiences and inner workings of the participants. Bill Sloan's Given Up for Dead: America's Heroic Stand at Wake Island (2003) documents the efforts ofMarine riflemen and aviators, sailors, Army Signal Corps personnel and civilian contractors to defend Wake Island. He then pursues the survivors through their captivity and eventual liberation. Sloan, a journalist, relied upon nearly forty personally conducted oral histories completed between 2001 and 2003

America's commitments in the China-Burma-India Theater grew out of its desire to exploit China as a staging area for operations (chiefly aerial) against Japan and buoy their Chinese allies, desires which were frustrated by Japan's post-Pearl Harbor advances in Southeast and South­ Central Asia and the severing of the Burma Road supply route in April1942. Gerald Astor's The Jungle War: Mavericks, Marauders and Madmen in the China-Burma-India Theater of World War II (2004) presents a study ofthis often overlooked theater that integrates the recollections of American, British and native ground and air forces. He draws upon oral histories, wartime letters and memoirs from the MHI, the AFHRA, the Imperial War Museum and the University of North Texas. He also utilizes interviews he conducted personally and accounts published by individuals or veterans' associations on the Internet. Astor recounts the CBI's battles and ongoing air and ground operations more or less chronologically, devoting a great deal of The Jungle War to combat operations in Burma.

THE US BRINGS THE WAR TO THE JAPANESE

On April18, 1942, Lieutenant Colonel James "Jimmie" Doolittle led sixteen B-25 bombers launched from the USS Hornet in strikes against Tokyo and other cities, the first aerial attack - 8 - ever effected against the Japanese Home Islands. Doolittle and his Raiders' bold stroke buoyed American morale in the wake of Pearl Harbor and compelled the Japanese Navy to make an ill­ timed move on Midway. In The First Heroes: The Extraordinary Story ofthe Doolittle Raid­ America's First World War II (2002), Craig Nelson documents the fortunes of the eighty US Army Air Forces airmen who volunteered for the raid, as well as the family members and American and Chinese servicemen who supported their mission. Nelson, a writer and book editor, follows the Raiders through their specialized training regimen, their activities during the operation and their fates as casualties, prisoners and/or participants in future campaigns. Nelson's work hinges upon his interviews with the remaining twenty-one Raiders and other eye­ witnesses.

The early successes of the US Navy in the Battles of the Coral Sea (May 1942) and Midway (June 1942) gained its carrier fleet a hallowed status in the hearts of the American public and in the accounts of generations of historians. In Carrier Warfare in the Pacific: An Oral History Collection (1993), editor E.T. Wooldridge, a retired naval officer and assistant director for museum operations at the National Air and Space Museum, presents the stories of the carrier fleet's pilots and sailors in chapter-length narratives based on oral histories from the US Naval Institute, organized chronologically by year (1942-1945) and engagement. His subjects primarily represent the career-officer pilot perspective, with the exception of two enlisted men's stories included to exhibit the ship's company angle, and cover most of the major operations: the Doolittle Raid, Coral Sea, Midway, air cover and tactical support for various island invasions and the Marianas "Turkey Shoot." The pilots comment on such subjects as specialized training for the Doolittle mission, the development of tactics to cope with the faster Japanese Zeros and surviving typhoons.

After the fall ofManila in early 1942, the US Navy's submarines that were based there relocated to bases in Australia, most notably Fremantle, and Pearl Harbor, and from these bases conducted some of the earliest offensive operations against the Japanese Navy and merchant fleet. In 2005, David Jones and Peter Nunan, Australian writers associated with the Queensland Maritime Museum, sought to bring to the surface the little-known contribution of the Brisbane submarine task force in US Subs Down Under: Brisbane, 1942-1945. Jones andNunan focus as much upon the development ofthe Brisbane facility, in terms of its physical dimensions, the technical capabilities of its boats and the forging of ties between the base officers and sailors and the surrounding community, as they do on the operational history of the task force. They also discuss the British X boats that operated out of Brisbane after the Americans advanced to ports in the Philippines in early 1945. They draw upon diaries, unpublished and published memoirs, their own correspondence and interviews with the submariners and oral histories conducted by the US Naval Institute, the Australian National Archives and Columbia's Oral History Research Office, among others, to derive the standpoint of both the American sailors and their Australian hosts.

GUADALCANAL AND THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC CAMPAIGNS

On August 7, 1942, US Marines landed on Guadalcanal and surrounding islands in the Solomons to initiate the first American offensive of the war, a campaign that would involve all branches of - 9- the Armed Forces before its conclusion in February of 1943 and would serve as a laboratory for invasion and combat tactics.

John B. Lundstrom, an American history curator at the Milwaukee Public Museum, looks at the aerial campaign for Guadalcanal in The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign: Naval Fighter Combat from August to November 1942 (1994). Through interviews with over 150 American and Japanese pilots, Lundstrom tracks the development of invasion support and air-to­ ground tactics and the fraternity generated between these pioneering Navy and Marine Corps flyers. In The Naval Battle of Guadalcanal: Night Action, 13 November 1942 (1999), James W. Grace, an independent historian, examines this decisive series of naval engagements. The battle commenced on November 13th with a confused confrontation between an outnumbered flotilla of US cruisers and a superior Japanese battleship-led force in advance of a landing fleet set on driving the Marines from Henderson Field; it concluded three days later with a battleship-to­ battleship clash that sealed the fate of the Emperor's troops on Guadalcanal. Grace sets up the deadlocked situation on Guadalcanal, then, follows the developing battle hour-by-hour, drawing on over two hundred oral and written interviews with US and Japanese veterans of the battle. John A. Lorelli covers the amphibious phase of the battle, codenamed Operation: WATCHTOWER, in one chapter of his conflict-spanning To Foreign Shores: US Amphibious Operations in World War II (1995). Lorelli, a California community college history lecturer, begins his work with the development of amphibious warfare doctrine and equipment, and then, devotes one chapter to each major invasion, beginning with Tulagi and Guadalcanal in the Pacific and Operation: TORCH in North Africa and ending with a chapter on the planned invasion of Japan. Lorelli conducted interviews and corresponded with numerous veterans of the US Amphibious Forces and employed oral histories conducted by the US Naval Institute and the Marine Corps Historical Division.

In 1996, Eric M. Bergerud published his analysis of the brutal land battles for Guadalcanal and New Guinea between July 1942 and early 1944, Touched With Fire: The Land War in the South Pacific, followed in 2000 by his companion examination of the war in the air in the same theater over roughly the same period, Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific. A professor of military and American history at Lincoln University, Bergerud designed both works as topical examinations of the development and nature of the fighting itself in a location and time period when material resources and the environment essentially rendered both sides equal. In Touched With Fire, he describes the primitive surroundings of the South Pacific, the composition of the armies of the main combatants, i.e., the US, Japan and Australia/New Zealand, the weapons at their disposal and the development of practices and attitudes in combat. He follows a similar pattern in Fire in the Sky, describing the Allied and Japanese base systems, aircraft, and training programs before focusing on aerial combat in fighters and bombers and its impact on the flyers' morale. In Fire in the Sky, he focuses only on land-based American and Japanese air forces. For both works, Bergerud cultivated hundreds of primary resources through interviews and solicitations for written and taped autobiographies and also drew first-hand accounts from materials such as after-action reports on file at the Air University at Maxwell Air Force Base.

On August 18, 1943, a flight of eighteen Army P-38 Lighting fighters exacted revenge for Pearl Harbor by intercepting and shooting down a plane carrying the architect of the attack, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. In April1988, the Admiral Nimitz Museum sponsored a symposium to - 10-

examine this incident that has generated controversy over its use of MAGIC code intercepts, the targeting and assassination of an enemy leader, and details of the mission itself, such as who was credited with downing the plane. Aviation historian R. Cargill Hall edited the panel proceedings, along with transcripts of interviews with the surviving American and Japanese participants taken from other sources, into his Lighting Over Bougainville: The Yamamoto Mission Reconsidered (1991).

THELONGROADTOTOKYO

By late 1943 and early 1944, the United States Armed Forces had built up enough men and material to capitalize on the crippling defeats dealt to the Japanese in the Solomons and New Guinea. Allied leaders decided on an island-hopping strategy with the immediate goals of placing B-29 Superfortress bombers within range of the Japanese Home Islands and ofliberating the Philippines.

On September 15, 1944, General Douglas MacArthur launched Operation: STALEMATE, a simultaneous assault by the First Marine Division on Peleliu and US Army forces at Morotai, a move designed to shield his planned invasion of the Philippines. The First Marine Division suffered nearly sixty percent of its 6, 786 casualties in the first week of the invasion, which many considered unnecessary given the disposition of Japanese defense in the Philippines. In The Brotherhood ofHeroes: The Marines at Peleliu, 1944-The Bloodiest Battle ofthe Pacific War, Bill Sloan painstakingly reconstructs the battle from September 15th to October 15th. He uses . numerous oral histories to portray the horror of the campaign as well as counter arguments that the battle was utterly futile by pointing towards the use of the experience gained at Peleliu by the Marines that assaulted Okinawa and other islands.

Between October 23rd and 26th, the US and Japanese navies met in the largest naval engagement in history. Precipitated by MacArthur's October 20th invasion ofLeyte, the Battle ofLeyte Gulf (also known as the Second Battle of the Philippine Sea) destroyed the Japanese surface fleet as an effective force and left the Japanese ground forces and their supply chain bare of air and naval support. Kenneth I. Friedman, an independent historian, chronicles the development of the battle in Afternoon of the Rising Sun: The Battle ofLeyte Gulf (200 1). Friedman's chapters establish the strategies employed by both sides and the disposition of their forces prior to the clash, then, depicts each stage of the battle as it unfolded. His work utilizes published memoirs, diaries and his interviews and correspondence with members of the Tin Can Sailors Association. James D. Homfischer's The Last Stand ofthe Tin Can Sailors (2004) examines the battle waged by Admiral Clifton Sprague's Task Force 77.4.3, or "Taffy 3," on October 25, 1944, off of Samar, considered the crucial moment of Leyte Gulf. Sprague's task force, a fleet of escort carriers, destroyers and destroyer escorts, held off a superior Japanese force, including the Yamato super­ battleship and kamikazes, bent on attacking the invasion beach; elements of the smashed US armada then faced three more days of terror at sea. Homfischer, a writer and literary agent, draws upon dozens of interviews with Taffy 3's flyers and sailors, most ofwhich he conducted personally between 2001 and 2003, even more accounts submitted to him in letters, private wartime correspondence collections, published, unpublished and Internet-based memoirs. - 11 -

As noted earlier, Gerald Astor's Crisis in the Pacific (1996) presents a narrative account ofthe liberation of the Philippines laced heavily with testimony from American servicemen and Filipino civilians. In this, he covers Filipino guerilla operations prior to Leyte, the amphibious invasion and naval battle at Leyte Gulf, the landings at Lingayen Gulf on Luzon, the liberation of Manila, reactions to the kamikazes and mopping-up operations.

IWO JIMA & OKINAWA

In early 1945, the Allies completed their quarantine of Japan by capturing the nearby islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. On February 19, 1945, three Marine divisions assaulted Iwo Jima, initiating a month-long campaign that cost the lives of nearly 7,000 Marines and sailors. Over the course of two years, independent historian Lynn Kessler gathered over 500 accounts from Iwo Jima veterans in the form of oral histories, taped memoirs and written submissions to create Never in Doubt: Remembering Iwo Jima (1999). He presents the oral histories in narrative form and organizes them into chapters that either focus on types of personnel, i.e., riflemen, artillerymen, chaplains, or concepts, such as the experience of replacements, wounded servicemen, and the veterans' reflections on why the operation took place and the meaning of the battle. As would be expected, most of Kessler's sources served in the Marines, but Never in Doubt also include accounts from Army, Navy and Army Air Forces veterans, including some servicewomen.

On April 1st, the largest invasion force yet assembled assaulted Okinawa, prevailing only after three months of fighting by more than half-a-million American Marines, soldiers and sailors of the US and Royal Navies. In his Operation Iceberg: The Invasion and Conquest of Okinawa in World War II-An Oral History (1995), Gerald Astor captures the battle on, over and in the sea around Okinawa (and nearby Ie Shima) through accounts of Japanese and American servicemen garnered through personal interviews and correspondence, oral histories and papers, located at the US Naval Institute and the MHI, and from memoirs ranging from unpublished accounts to widely-read works like Goodbye, Darkness (1980) written by historian and USMC veteran William Manchester.

James R. Dickenson, a columnist for the Washington Post and UPI, conveys accounts of both campaigns in 2001's We Few: The Marine Corps 400 in the War Against Japan. In 1944, faced with mounting casualties and increased demand for junior officers, the Marine Corps experimented with an accelerated, tactics-and-weapons laden officer training curriculum; the Special Officer Candidate School (SOCS) at Camp Lejeune produced 372 second lieutenants that fall, most of whom ended up as infantry officers on Okinawa and Iwo Jima. Based on oral histories conducted by Dickerson, memoirs and wartime correspondence, We Few follows ten "SOCS 400" graduates from December 7, 1941, to their training in the V-12 Program and Camp Lejeune to their combat tours and their post-World War II experiences.

THEAIRWAR

Following the capture of the Marianas, the B-29 bombers of the US Army's 20th Air Force were relocated there from China where logistical issues had hampered operations, and now could strike the Japanese Home Islands more readily. The capture oflwo Jima aided their mission by - 12- providing an emergency landing strip and a base for escort fighters. With the March 9, 1945, attack on Tokyo, which killed approximately 83,000, as its focal point, E. Bartlett Kerr's Flames Over Tokyo: The US Army Air Forces' Incendiary Campaign against Japan, 1944-1945 (1991) lays out the history of the B-29s from their China-based missions to the end of the war. He tracks the development of the M-69 incendiary bomb early in the war and delves into the evolution ofthe B-29 from a precision daylight strike instrument to a tool of nighttime incendiary bomb attacks. He relies upon diaries, correspondence, journals, and personal accounts related to him by American veterans of the air campaign, the officers who helped to plan the missions, and some Japanese eyewitnesses. THE WAR IN EUROPE

While the United States did not officially enter the European conflict until Adolph Hitler declared war on the heels of the Pearl Harbor attack, President Roosevelt had orchestrated an increased American role in the Allied camp in the preceding years. In September of 1940, he negotiated the bases-for-destroyers arrangement with Great Britain, a precursor to the passage of the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941, which provided steady aid to the beleaguered island, and, following the German invasion that June, the Soviet Union. In August of 1941, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill held a summit off the Canadian coast which resulted in the Atlantic Charter, the basis ofthe United Nations and the moral underpinning of the war against fascism.

THEWARATSEA

During this period, Roosevelt secretly pledged assistance to Churchill in the form of armed escorts for convoys bound for the United Kingdom, in an agreement that did not surface publicly until German U-boats fired upon the USS Greer in September of 1941. Michael G. Walling tells the story of the US Coast Guard's role in the US Navy's escort mission in Bloodstained Sea: The US Coast Guard in the Battle ofthe Atlantic, 1941-1944 (2004). Walling, a former Coast Guard officer, discusses the various duties the Coast Guard fulfilled, i.e., manning weather stations, participating in amphibious operations, but focuses on the role of the cutters in protecting convoys in the U-boat infested Atlantic. Walling's account begins with the Coast Guard cutters' pre-war mission as America's "toe in the water," then delineates their missions on the North Atlantic run from December 1941 to April1943 and the Mid-Atlantic-Mediterranean run from then until V-E Day. He ties the Guard's wartime mission to its traditional role as a maritime rescue force, describing recovery operations on vessels struck by the Kriegsmarine 's wolf packs. Bloodstained Sea's bibliography includes numerous oral histories Walling collected over seventeen years, responses to a questionnaire he sent to all of the survivors he could locate, unpublished memoirs, personal letters and diaries.

THEAIRWAR

Pre-war Anglo-American plans called for the deployment of an American air force to the United Kingdom shortly after the United States' entry into war; its squadrons would carry out offensive operations while the Allies amassed a ground and naval force suitable for the invasion of the Continent. The US Eighth Air Force, commanded by General Ira Eaker, arrived in East Anglia - 13- in February 1942 and completed its first mission on July 4th. Early on, Eaker and other AAF commanders believed that armadas ofheavy B-17 and B-24 bombers, equipped with the Norden bombsight, could deal a crippling blow to Hitler's war machine by targeting key industrial facilities deep in Germany in precision daylight raids. With their Royal Air Force (RAF) counterparts, who favored nighttime area bombing tactics, the AAF general officers developed a round-the-clock bombing campaign known as the Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO).

Robin Neillands, a member of the British Commission for Military History, tenders an international examination of the CBO in The Bomber War: The Allied Air Offensive Against Nazi Germany (2001). His work concentrates on the development of the European strategic bombing campaign from 1939 to 1945. Neillands also offers coverage of pre-World War II bombing operations during the Spanish Civil War and the bombing campaign against Japan. Neillands includes a critical look at the efficacy and morality of strategic bombing. His work relies upon hundreds of oral histories, solicited written accounts, diaries, log books, and vanity memoirs from American, British, Australian and Canadian airmen, as well as some first-person accounts from their counterparts in the Luftwaffe and German civilians who survived the raids.

In the Summer and Fall of 1943, General Eaker put his theories to the test in several deep penetration raids on Schweinfurt, Stuttgart, Regensburg and other German industrial centers. Staggering losses in men and aircraft, coupled with the Nazis' ability to quickly restore and disperse their production capabilities, led to Eaker's replacement by Jimmie Doolittle, who made gaining air superiority his top priority. This campaign serves as the focus of Stephen L. McFarland and Wesley Phillips Newton's 1991 study of the battle between the AAF's bomber and fighter forces and the Luftwaffe over Hitler's Festung Europa in To Command the Sky: The Battle for Air Superiority Over Germany, 1942-1944. McFarland and Newton, both ofthe Auburn University history faculty, outline the AAF's early operations in occupied Europe and the deep penetrations into Germany late in 1943. They then evaluate the operations that finally broke the Luftwaffe's back, such as Doolittle's "Big Week" operations of February 1944 and the air battles over Berlin, in which long-range fighters escorted the bomber formations, then, pursued enemy interceptors back to their airfields. The authors drew upon oral histories from the AFHRA, interviewed and corresponded with USAAF and Luftwaffe veterans of the campaigns, and sought out a few representative memoirs, such as Chuck Yeager's Yeager: An Autobiography (1986).

In mid-1943, the Army Air Force developed the concept of shuttle bombing, wherein Great Britain-based aircraft would strike targets in the Third Reich, then, progress to bases in the Mediterranean, repeating the process on the return flight, as a means of confounding German antiaircraft defenses. In the Spring of 1944, the AAF expanded the idea to the Eastern Front by establishing three bases in Soviet-held territory in Eastern Europe for use by Eighth and Fifteenth Air Force bombers. The Roosevelt Administration viewed the mission as a means of strengthening the Soviet-American alliance. Mark J. Conversino brings this obscure aspect of the air war to light in Fighting With the Soviets: The Failure of Operation Frantic, 1944-1945 (1997). Conversino tells the story ofthe men of Operation: FRANTIC, primarily the 390th Bomb Group, through their oral histories, correspondence with him, and memoirs and papers on file at the USAF Academy Library. He recounts the origins of Frantic, the construction of the bases in the Ukraine, the missions, the airmen's role as goodwill ambassadors, problems with the - 14-

Soviets, the AAF's withdrawal from the Ukraine, and the fate oftheAmericans who remained in Russian-held lands.

NORTH AFRICA

On November 8, 1942, an Anglo-American invasion force landed at Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers, completing the opening phases of Operation: TORCH, the invasion of North Africa. Rick Atkinson won the 2004 Pulitzer Prize in History for his examination of the US Army in Operation: TORCH, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942-1943 (2003). Atkinson, a journalist at the Washington Post, details the operation from the planning table to the final expulsion of Rommel's Afrika Korps from Tunisia in May 1943. Although he scrutinizes the US Army in particular, Atkinson also incorporates the stories of the politicians and diplomats, other US services, their British and French allies and their German adversaries. He views the North African Theater as a proving ground for the American foot soldier and his military and political leaders, averring that the experience garnered by veterans of battles like Kasserine Pass and El Guettar and shake-ups at the higher levels of command caused the United States to emerge from the Tunisian desert as the primary force among the Western Allies. Atkinson culled hundreds of first-hand perspectives from all of the US Armed Forces archives and oral history programs, NARA, the Library of Congress, CSWS, WHMC, ROHA, the Mina Curtiss Collection at Yale University, the Eisenhower Library, the Imperial War Museum, the Iowa Gold Star Museum, the McCormick Research Center at the First Division Museum and interviews he personally conducted.

Kelly Orr's Meeting the Fox: The Allied Invasion ofAfrica, from Operation Torch to Kasserine Pass to Victory in Tunisia (2002), covers similar ground, describing the US Army's evolution from green troops to battle-hardened veterans. He examines the campaign battle-by-battle, drawing out the development of combined arms tactics and battle zone diplomacy with the British and French. He draws upon privately-held diaries, wartime and postwar correspondence located in NARA, MHI and the George C. Marshall Archives, AFHRA oral histories, and personal interviews. As noted earlier, John A. Lorelli's To Foreign Shores (1995) also covers the amphibious landings in Morocco and Algeria, as well as the subsequent landings at Sicily, Salerno, Anzio, Normandy and Southern France.

ITALY

The Italian Campaign began with great promise. After a month-long battle, Axis forces fled the island of Sicily in August of 1943, prompting King Victor Emmanuel to remove Mussolini and order a new government, led by Pietro Badoglio, to sign an armistice with the Western Allies. However, Hitler quickly ordered his armies to overrun the Italian Peninsula and compel his errant ally to remain in the war. Under Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, German forces mounted an intractable resistance that consistently and efficiently capitalized on the region's mountainous terrain in establishing defensive lines. The tenacity ofKesslering's men, combined with the diversion of Allied troops and material to other theaters, caused the war in Italy to degenerate into a brutal battle for yards of rocky earth reminiscent of the trench warfare of the First World War. - 15-

British author Matthew Parker dissects a prime exemplar of this type of warfare in Monte Cassino: The Hardest Fought Battle of World War II (2004). In February of 1944, the US Fifth Army, the British Eighth Army, Free Polish and French units, and soldiers from every comer of the British Empire stood before Monte Cassino, an artillery-laden peak at the center of Kesselring's Gustav Line, the last roadblock in their advance to Rome. Parker divides his work into five sections, a delineation of the war in Italy prior to Cassino and descriptions of the four battles for the mountain. He investigates the experiences of soldiers throughout the multinational Allied camp through personal interviews, privately-held wartime correspondence, diaries, memoirs, oral histories and other documents archived at the Imperial War Museum, ROHA and the Reichert Oral History Program. His sources principally offer insight into the grinding experience of combat around Monte Cassino, but Parker also moves beyond the battlefield to include their interaction with Italian landscapes and civilians during R&R periods.

D-DAY

On June 6, 1944, a 200,000-man invasion force, preceded by a vanguard of thousands of airborne soldiers and a massive aerial and naval bombardment, breeched the "Atlantic Wall" at five beaches, codenamed "Omaha," "Utah," "Gold," "Sword" and "Juno," along the Normandy coast. As was the case with the fiftieth anniversary of Pearl Harbor, historians and book publishers poured forth works on this well-chronicled day in 1993-1994, including several collections of first-person accounts from the participants: Russell Miller's Nothing Less Than Victory (1993); Eye-Witness D-Day: The Story ofthe Battle By Those Who Were There (1994), edited by Jon E. Lewis; and Voices ofD-Day: The Story ofthe Allied Invasion Told By Those Who Were There (1994), edited by Ronald J. Drez.

British journalist and author Russell Miller's work encompasses the gathering of forces in England, pre-invasion raids and reconnaissance missions, and combat operations through the end of June 6, 1944. He presents primary accounts from combatants representing all sides and all branches of the armed forces, including the higher levels of command (revealed through memoranda), and British and French civilians. He derives his accounts from personally conducted interviews and correspondence, memoirs and materials at the Eisenhower Center and the Imperial War Museum. His fellow countryman, historian and author Jon E. Lewis, also followed an international approach, utilizing interviews, memoirs, diaries and correspondence collected from Allied and German soldiers, sailors and airmen, as well as other materials, such as award citations. His sources range from Omar Bradley and Erwin Rommel (taken from A Soldier's Story (1951) and The Rommel Papers (1982), respectively) to Ernie Pyle to the average riflemen and seamen, via sources cultivated personally and culled from the Imperial War Museum, and elsewhere. Like Miller, he begins with the planning phases, but his collection also covers the two-and-a-half month long campaign in the French bocage, or hedgerow country. Drez's volume features roughly 150 ofthe hundreds of interviews he conducted as assistant director of the Eisenhower Center, supplemented by excerpts from memoirs. Although he focuses largely on the experience of the American serviceman, he too provides coverage of the experiences of other Allied and Axis veterans and civilians, including two chapters on the Canadian and British veterans of Gold, Juno and Sword Beaches. Drez allows his subjects to describe their pre-war lives and pre-invasion experiences in training and quarantine, then, - 16- presents descriptions of the landings themselves, offering particular coverage to episodes like the scaling of the cliffs at Point du Hoc by the Second Ranger Battalion.

Gerald Astor and British military historians Robin H. Neillands and Roderick de Normann both produced narrative histories of Operation: OVERLORD rife with first-person accounts. In 1994, Astor studied the experiences of American, British, and Canadian paratroopers, Rangers, infantrymen, tankers and sailors through oral histories, unpublished memoirs, written and audio­ taped accounts in June 6, 1944: The Voices ofD-Day. Divided into two parts, the first section focuses on the plans and build-up for D-Day and the pre-invasion training and combat experiences of his subjects. Part two covers the invasion itself, with chapters on the paratroopers and glider forces, the landings at each beach and the push inland. On the sixtieth anniversary of the invasion, Neillands and de Normann published D-Day 1944: Voices From Normandy, which presents more of the British perspective, beginning with a narrative of operations between Dunkirk and Normandy and a depiction of the Normandy defenses and the invasion strategy. They then chronicle the operations of the Allied navies, the airborne forces and the action at each landing beach. Neillands and de Normann draw upon hundreds of audio, video and written submissions resulting from an international call for accounts from veterans and civilians.

In his landmark D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II (1994), Stephen E. Ambrose of the University ofNew Orleans, director of the Eisenhower Center, offers a scholarly analysis of the battle based upon the Center's massive archive. In the first ten chapters, Ambrose describes the forces and leadership on both sides of the Channel and the plans and preparations for the invasion. He then dissects the battle itself, presenting chapters on the airborne drops, the air and naval bombardments, landings at all five beaches and reactions to news of the landings on the Allied and Axis home fronts. He examines actions taken by such venerated combat units as the Second Ranger Battalion and the 16th and I 16th Infantry Regiments and he highlights the role of armor, artillery, engineers and other support units, like the all-African American 320th Barrage Balloon Battalion. In 2004, John C. McManus published his analysis of the American role in the battle, The Americans at D-Day: The American Experience at the Normandy Invasion. McManus, a former director of the CSWS and a lecturer at the University of Missouri-Rolla, focuses largely on the experiences of ground forces, but includes some coverage of sailors and airmen. He relied heavily on the Eisenhower Center's resources, but also drew upon the collection at the University ofNorth Texas, online archives, such as Tankbooks.com, the Drop Zone Virtual Museum and Military.com, and some war correspondence and unpublished memmrs.

PURSUIT TO GERMANY

Ambrose's Citizen Soldiers: The US Army From the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender ofGermany, June 7, 1944-May 7, 1945 (1997) picks up where D-Day left off. Divided into four parts, the first, "Battle for France," covers operations from the Normandy beachhead and the bocage through the race to Germany in October of 1944. Part two, "At the German Border," deals with the bloody battles along the Siegfried Line, including Metz and Hurtgen Forest, and the Battle of the Bulge, while part four, "Overunning Germany," concludes the operational narrative with the crossing of the Rhine and the advance into the heart ofHitler's Reich. Part three takes a topical approach to the campaign, examining the issues of foxhole life, - 17- replacements, the air war, medical support, illegal activities, slackers, racism and POWs. Again, Ambrose draws upon letters, memoirs and oral histories from the Eisenhower Center, from both American and German subjects, and published memoirs.

Both McManus and Ambrose use first-person accounts to rebut criticisms by historians like Martin Van Creveld that American Gis were inferior to their German counterparts and only prevailed with the aid of material superiority, air power and artillery firepower. This cause is taken up by James Jay Carafano in his study of the St. Lo Breakout,After D-Day: Operation Cobra and the Normandy Breakout (2000), Keith E. Bonn's examination of the Seventh Army's drive through the Vosges Mountains of France, When the Odds Were Even: The Vosges Mountains Campaign, October 1944-January 1945 (1994), and Michael D. Doubler's Closing With the Enemy: How Gls Fought the War in Europe, 1944-1945 (1994), a study ofthe entire European campaign. Steeped in a traditional approach denoting their backgrounds as career US Army officers and military history PhDs, these works make use of first-hand accounts, primarily with higher-level officers, found in after-action reports, personal interviews and oral histories and personal papers available in military repositories like MHI, AFHRA and the ETHINT series at Fort Leavenworth's Combined Arms Research Library, which is a collection of interviews conducted with captured German officers shortly after the war's end.

In The Bloody Forest: Battle for the Hurtgen, September 1944-January 1945 (2000), Gerald Astor presents the story of this often-overlooked campaign, which has been widely condemned as pointless both in its goal to capture the Roer River dams and its waste of life. He uses published and unpublished memoirs and excerpts from other works to relate the experiences of the infantrymen, Rangers, tankers and artillerymen who endured hellish artillery barrages and defensive actions by German infantry in the densely packed forest.

THE BATTLE OF THE BULGE AND THE COLLAPSE OF THE THIRD REICH

In a last-ditch effort to drive a wedge between the Allies and prolong the war, Adolph Hitler ordered a massive offensive drive through the Ardennes Forest in Belgium in late 1944 with the goal to capture the port of Antwerp. On December 16th, a 500,000-soldier blitzkrieg, spearheaded by jet fighters and King Tiger tanks, initially tore through the American lines. However, dogged resistance by the US lOlst Airborne Division at Bastogne and a rapid counterattack by General GeorgeS. Patton's Third Army thwarted the German advance; the Allies closed the "Bulge" on January 15, 1945. In 1992's A Blood-Dimmed Tide: The Battle of the Bulge by the Men Who Fought It, Gerald Astor captures the American GI' s experience in the largest battle ever waged by the US Army through interviews he conducted with dozens of veterans (and a small number of Germans) and drew from other sources, such as the ETHINT series, as well as letters and diaries that supplement their stories. He follows the men, exclusively ground forces, from the confusing early days of the Bulge through the hard-fought holiday week to the collapse of the Bulge. He also gives coverage to the POW experience and atrocities, such as the Malmedy Massacre.

In 1998, Nathan N. Prefer offered his contribution to the revival of the American infantryman's image, Patton's Ghost Corps: Cracking the Siegfried Line, an examination of the XX Corps' Saar-Moselle Triangle Campaign from mid-January to the end ofMarch 1945. Prefer makes use - 18-

of interviews and correspondence from veterans of XX Corps, nicknamed the Ghost Corps by the Germans because of its speed in battle, particularly members of the 94th Infantry Division, after-action interviews conducted by the European Theater Historical Section and memoirs, both published and unpublished.

The campaigns during the final months of the war in Europe are often depicted as bloodless mopping up exercises. In Countdown to Victory: The Final European Campaigns of World War II (2004), British author Barry Turner dispels this myth by reconstructing the furious battles to erase the Third Reich from the map ofEurope from December 1944 to V-E Day. Turner explores both the pursuits of Axis and Allied politicians and generals and the day-to-day struggle to survive of the combatants in the field. The author argues that the German Army, often portrayed as a hodgepodge of old men and boys in this final phase, was in fact an effective fighting force that offered a fierce resistance to the armies pouring into its homeland. He draws upon oral histories, diaries, published and unpublished memoirs from the Imperial War Museum, ROHA, CSWS and several German repositories, such as the Walter Kempowski Archives.

One of the most shocking aspects of the end of the war in Europe was the discovery of the concentration/death camps. To document their unit's involvement in the liberation ofDachau and stifle revisionists who claim the Holocaust never happened, the 42nd Infantry "Rainbow" Division Memorial Foundation asked its members to recall their experiences in overrunning the first concentration camp established by the Nazis. Sam Dunn, a writer and professor at NYU's Tisch School of the Arts, edited the written submissions, as well as accounts from men and women who survived imprisonment at Dachau, into Dachau 29 April 1945: The Rainbow Liberation Memoirs (1998). MEN AND WOMEN IN UNIFORM

Numerous scholars and writers have found that first-person primary resources offer excellent insight into the motivations and experiences of specific types of service personnel and provide some entree into the unknowable World of the combat veteran. In The Greatest War: Americans in Combat, 1941-1945 (1999) Gerald Astor assumes the ambitious task of capturing the American combat experience from 1941-1945 in its entirety through the experiences of approximately 125 men (and some battle-zone nurses) representing every level of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy and Army Air Forces' ranks. Many of his fifty-five chapters focus on specific campaigns waged between the bombings of Pearl Harbor and Nagasaki; he also directs his attention to specific types of combatants and broad issues, such as the war in the air and at sea. Astor's epic relies heavily upon published oral history collections and oral histories and memoirs deposited at the US Naval Institute and the Naval Historical Center, the AFHRA, the MHI and the American Air Power Heritage Museum. He also calls upon diaries and memoirs from the collection at the US Military Academy Library, unpublished manuscripts contributed by individual veterans and privately and commercially published works, like E. B. Sledge's With the Old Breed (1981). - 19-

INFANTRYMEN, MARINES AND ELITE FORCES

University ofMichigan Professor ofHistory Emeritus Gerald F. Linderman and John C. McManus both published works in the late 1990s that analyzed the experiences of the average combat soldier. Linderman's The World Within War: America's Combat Experience in World War II (1997) delineates what the men expected prior to combat, their combat experiences and their reaction to the shock of warfare and the different challenges posed by the Germans and the Japanese. By examining the letters, memoirs and other writings of 500 combat infantrymen and Marines, many of which were produced during the war or shortly thereafter, Linderman captures the GI!Marine's views on their commanders, the spectacle and horror of war and an idealized civilian life. His bibliography serves as an excellent finding aid for veterans' memoirs. In The Deadly Brotherhood: The American Combat Soldier in World War II (1998), John C. McManus offers a characterization of the average rifleman, a description of the conditions he fought under in both theaters, his methods of fighting and his experience as a replacement and a casualty. The CSWS and Special Collections at the University of Tennessee-Knoxville provided many of the letters, diaries, memoirs and oral histories McManus cites, but he also called on sources from the MHI, particularly its questionnaire archive, and the WWII Letters Collection in the WHMC. Like Linderman, McManus uses his sources to reveal attitudes towards the command structure and motivations under fire and discusses the concept of battlefield brotherhood.

Patrick K. O'Donnell published two works based upon the interviews and submissions collected through his Drop Zone Virtual Museum website that center on the elite combat units of World War II. In 2001, Beyond Valor: World War II's Ranger and Airborne Veterans Reveal the Heart of Combat presented narratives that covered operations in North Africa, Dieppe, Italy, Normandy and beyond. In Beyond Valor, O'Donnell also relates the story of the first African American paratroopers, the 55 5th Parachute Infantry Battalion, the "Triple Nickels," and their involvement in Operation: FIREFLY, in which they jumped into forests in the Pacific Northwest to disable Japanese incendiary balloon bombs. With Into the Rising Sun: In Their Own Words, World War II's Pacific Veterans Reveal the Heart of Combat (2002), O'Donnell, an independent historian, expands his interview pool to include veterans of Merrill's Marauders and the Marine Raiders. Their stories span operations in Guadalcanal, New Guinea, Burma, the Marianas, the Philippines, Iwo Jima and Okinawa. He includes a briefhistory of each elite branch and the veterans' reflections on returning home.

James Douglas O'Dell chronicles the development of Special Forces within the US Navy in The Water Is Never Cold: The Origins ofthe US Navy's Combat Demolition Units, UDTs and Seals (2000). His narrative history begins in early 1943, following operations in the Pacific which reinforced the idea that special units were needed to clear invasion beaches of obstacles, and concludes with preparations for the invasion of Japan. Benefiting from interviews and correspondence with dozens of Underwater Demolition Team (UDT), Combat Scout, Marine Raider and SeaBee veterans, O'Dell, a freelance writer and Navy Seal veteran, chronicles the development of their operational doctrine, the formation and training of key units and their involvement in such combat operations as Normandy, Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Bruce F. Meyers's Swift, Silent & Deadly: Marine Amphibious Reconnaissance in the Pacific, 1942-1945 (2004) offers an operational history of the units that gathered intelligence prior to an invasion by reconnoitering around and landing on islands at night. Although focused primarily on Marine -20-

Corps units, Meyers, a retired Marine Corps colonel, attorney and independent historian, also covers Army and Navy personnel, as all three often worked together before jurisdictional guidelines were established in mid-1944. He also discusses the contributions of the Alamo Scouts, Alaska Scouts and the Coast Watchers. Using personally conducted interviews and Marine Corps oral histories, Meyers follows the men through training, operations in the major island groups, the Solomons, the Gilberts, the Marshalls, the Marianas, the Palaus, and the invasions of Iwo Jima and Okinawa.

FLYERS

In Forever Remembered: The Fliers of World War II (2001), author Irv Broughton puts forth interview transcripts with thirty-nine World War II aviators. His subjects touch upon all theaters of war and training and each service branches, including tales from WASPs and other female flyers, Tuskegee Airmen, POWs, bomber crews, fighter and transport pilots. The transcripts include Broughton's questions and focus exclusively on the war years.

In 1988, military historian Edwin P. Hoyt set out to chronicle the experiences of American fighting men in all uniforms. That year, he published his study of ground forces, The GJ's War: Stories ofAmerican Soldiers in Europe in World War Il In 1990, he issued The Airmen: The Story ofAmerican Flyers in World War II, a study of Army and Navy air crews, ground crews and base personnel based upon unpublished or vanity memoirs and excerpts from published accounts. He begins with American pilots who entered the fray before Pearl Harbor as members of the Flying Tigers in China and the RAF' s Eagle Squadrons. His selections cover many of the major aerial conflicts and examine various aspects of the airmen's lives, such as training, traveling overseas, being sunk en route, being shot down and either escaping from occupied territory or becoming a POW and conducting long patrols over desolate seas.

In 2000, John C. McManus applied his method of examining the world of the combat soldier to their comrades aloft in Deadly Sky: The American Combat Airman in World War II. As in Deadly Brotherhood, McManus examines the men's backgrounds and training, their attitudes towards the enemy and their own leadership and the concepts of morale and brotherhood. He also looks at the equipment the men used, the environment the men endured in their aircraft and on the ground in Europe and the Pacific, the types of missions flown in each theater and the experience of being shot down. His study includes both fighter and bomber crew veterans of the Army Air Forces and the air wings of the Navy and Marine Corps. He again draws upon oral histories, memoirs, letters and diaries from the CSWS and the WHMC, plus additional first-hand accounts from the archives at the Mighty Eighth Air Force Museum.

In Yanks Over Europe: American Flyers in World War II (1996) and Pacific Skies: American Flyers in World War II (2004), Jerome Klinkowitz, an English professor at the University of Northern Iowa, examines the body of autobiographical works produced by American airmen. In both works, he analyzes how the veterans reconstructed their memories, comparing works produced shortly after the war with those produced after decades, and delineates differences and similarities in their remembrances. In Yanks Over Europe, he focuses on Eagle Squadron pilots and Eighth and Fifteenth Air Force fighter and bomber crew veterans. In Pacific Skies, his Navy, AAF and Marine authors offer personal testimony on the carrier battles, the air war in the - 21 -

South Pacific, kamikaze attacks and the atomic bomb missions. In both books, the texts range from the memoirs of top brass and popular aces, like Curtis LeMay and Pappy Boyington, to unpublished manuscripts penned by junior officers and enlisted men; his bibliographies serve as excellent reference resources.

William Neufeld uses correspondence and interviews with twenty-seven pilots to shed light on the story ofthe men who flew aircraft off of battleships and cruisers in Slingshot Warbirds: World War II US Navy Scout-Observation Airmen (2003). Neufeld, an independent writer, offers a briefhistory ofNaval Aviation before turning to an examination of pre-war advances in catapult-launched aircraft, training and the use of these observation planes in the battles for Guadalcanal, the islands of the Central and Southwest Pacific, Italy, France, the Philippines, Iwo Jima and Okinawa, as well as on patrol in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Pacific.

SAILORS

In 1993, Edwin P. Hoyt completed his trilogy on the American serviceman with Now Hear This: The Story ofAmerican Sailors in World War II. Hoyt proceeds chronologically through the major engagements and campaigns of the war at sea in the Atlantic and the Pacific through memoirs, interview-derived narratives and wartime diaries and letters. He also provides coverage of special issues, such as getting caught in a typhoon, service on submarines and minesweepers and the SeaBee experience. Now Hear This does not represent the experience of naval airmen [who are included in The Airmen (1990)], WAVEs, Navy nurses or African Americans.

In 1998, the Midwest Chapter of the American Merchant Marine Veterans sought to raise the profile of the often overlooked Merchant Marine by publishing They Couldn't Have Won The War Without Us!: Stories ofthe Merchant Marine in World War II ... Told By the Men Who Sailed the Ships. The book offers background information on the Merchant Marine and the Naval Armed Guard and a description of their primary conveyance, the Liberty ship. They Couldn't Have Won The War Without Us! includes twenty interview-based accounts from merchant marines, supplemented by their service records and other materials, such as reprinted news articles.

SUPPORT FORCES

Healers in World War II: Oral Histories ofMedical Corps Personnel, edited by writer Patricia W. Sewell, includes stories from American, British, Australian and New Zealander medical personnel drawn from a mixture of taped interviews and other autobiographies presented in narrative form, with the exception of one account which remains in transcript form. Their experiences range from combat zone medics, ambulance drivers, doctors and nurses, air evacuation and hospital ship personnel and postings on the home front.

Albert E. Cowdrey drew upon memoirs, personal interviews and interviews conducted during the war from the US Army's Center ofMilitary History in compiling his history of the Army and Navy's medical corps, Fighting For Life: American Military Medicine in World War II. Cowdrey, a former chief of the US Army's Special History Branch, examines the development -22- ofthe medical services in each branch prior to December 7, 1941, the role of physicians in the induction process, the impact of the volunteer system and racism upon the Medical Corps, the development of new procedures for dealing with battlefield wounds, hospital methods in the field, recognition of and responses to combat fatigue, medicine onboard of ships and inside of POW camps, combating disease and delivering medical attention during the occupation of Europe and Asia. He examines the experiences of medics, corpsmen, nurses and doctors in all theaters of war and in the United States.

Jan K. Herman focuses exclusively on the doctors, nurses and corpsmen ofthe US Navy Medical Department in Battle Station Sick Bay: Navy Medicine in World War II (1997). A collection of narratives based on oral histories conducted by the author and others and diaries and journals from the Navy's Bureau of Medicine and Surgery archives, Battle Station Sick Bay covers the attack on Pearl Harbor, the POW experience in the Pacific, duty on submarines, in the surface fleet and aboard hospital ships providing medical support for operations in the Pacific and the Normandy Landings.

Peter Maslowski takes a look at the soldiers, airmen, sailors and Marines who served as military photographers and cameramen in Armed With Cameras: The American Military Photographers of World War II (1993). Maslowski, a professor of history at the University ofNebraska­ Lincoln, incorporates into his study the recollections and papers of dozens of veterans of the Army's 163rd and 166th Signal Photographic Companies and 832nd Signal Service Battalion, the Army Air Force's Ninth Combat Camera Unit, the Navy's Combat Photography Unit #1 and Marine Corps cameramen; he also cites oral history interviews from the Marine Corps Historical Division. In addition to chronicling the history of those units, he discusses the technical and physical challenges the photographers faced under various conditions, techniques for capturing the war and reactions to Hollywood's presentation of the war, uses of war footage among the public and the military and the legacy of the images taken by the men.

For his 1994 work, Battlefield Chaplains: Catholic Priests in World War II, Donald F. Crosby, a historian and Catholic priest, contacted 280 chaplains via questionnaire, conducted eighty follow-up interviews and consulted hundreds of personal papers and memoirs. Although he focuses primarily on the experiences of Catholic chaplains, he does offer some coverage of the experiences of Protestant ministers and rabbis in uniform. Each chapter of the book focuses on a different battle or campaign. LISTENING TO SILENCED VOICES

Scholars have recognized the Second World War as a watershed moment for many groups seeking equality within American society. Women, for example, took on new responsibilities in the household and the workplace, where more than twenty million women responded to American industry's call for war workers, and in the military, which boasted over 350,000 women in uniform; their accomplishments punctured long-held myths about a woman's ability to perform most tasks as well as men. Oral histories, wartime correspondence, diaries and other primary resources empower members of marginalized groups by providing them, quite literally, with a voice in the process of history. -23-

WOMEN

In the 1980s, Judy Barrett Litoff, Professor of History, Bryant College, and David C. Smith, Professor of History, University of Maine, made a major contribution to the documentation of American women in World War II by collecting some 30,000 wartime letters after a nationwide solicitation. Litoff and Smith selected, edited and published hundreds of them in Since You Went Away: World War II Letters From American Women on the Home Front (1991) and We're in This War, Too: World War II Letters From American Women in Uniform (1994). In Since You Went Away, the transcribed letters, which include biographical material on the writers, cover reactions by American women to the outbreak of war, courtship via mail, war brides and wives, women war workers and the challenges they faced and home front responses to the demands of the war. Litoffand Smith examine the impact ofthese sacrifices and the women's view ofthe war. In We're in This War, Too, Litoff and Smith put forth a collection of correspondence representative of all the services and ethnicities. The book includes chapters on Pearl Harbor, the decision to enter the military, experiences in military training programs, postings in the United States, Europe and the Pacific and the plans the women made for their lives after V -J Day.

Litoff drew heavily upon the correspondence collection while focusing on women below the Mason-Dixon Line in "Southern Women in a World at War," in an essay she contributed to Neil R. McMillen's Remaking Dixie: The Impact of World War II on the American South (1997). Examining both the military and home front experiences of Southern women, Litoff depicts the war as a transformative episode that sewed the seeds for a more national perspective and the women's movement. Litoff argues that the grit and resourcefulness ofthe individual woman, as seen in the letters, contributed to the success of the women in the work force, their families and the military.

In 1999, Maureen Honey published an anthology of wartime fiction, autobiographies and poems by African American women entitled Bitter Fruit: African American Women in World War II. Honey, an English/women's studies professor at the University ofNebraska-Lincoln, organizes her pieces, taken primarily from African American journals, such as Negro Story and The Crisis, into chapters dealing with wartime employment, racism during the war, the role of African American women on the home front and in the Armed Forces and the influence of African American women on the arts during the war. Although one chapter specifically deals with the legal degradation and illegal violence forced upon African Americans, each section comments on the impact of discrimination upon that aspect of an African American woman's experience. Honey does not provide background information on the contributors.

Nancy Baker Wise and Christy Wise, a mother-daughter team of freelance writers, interviewed hundred of women who came forward or were submitted by their children or grandchildren after a nationwide solicitation for A Mouthful ofRivets: Women at Work in World War II (1994). Their chapters consist of a brief introduction and narratives based upon the interviews and cover the outbreak of the war, the decision to go to work, cross-country migrations, job training, adapting to men's work, dealing with the basics oflife on the home front and the changes wrought by V-J Day. The subjects touch upon workplace discrimination, the effect of their work upon their own self-image and both positive and negative reactions to relinquishing their jobs to -24- returning Gis. The Wises include a section of mini-bios for each contributor and a chapter on the long-term impact of the war years through the words of their daughters and granddaughters.

In Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women's Army Corps During World War II (1996), Leisa D. Meyer, a history professor at the College of William and Mary, uses the history of the Women's Army Corps (WAC) to explain how servicewomen sought to reconcile their "feminine" identities with their role as a "masculine" soldier. She covers the institutional history ofthe WAC and its struggles with the public's perception of its personnel and discusses the issues of sexually stereotyped duty assignments, social and sexual activity and lesbianism. Meyer's sources include ninety-five responses to a fifty-question survey she developed, (a copy is included in the appendix), oral histories from the WAC Museum at Fort Lee, Virginia, and several published memoirs and letter collections. Martha S. Putney, a retired Professor of History at Bowie State University and a World War II WAC veteran, focuses on the role of African American women in the WAC in When the Nation Was in Need: Blacks in the Women's Army Corps in World War II (1992). Her study relies upon twenty-one interviews and written accounts (letters to the author) to tell the story of these women, who served in segregated units since the WAC's inception in July 1942, examining the recruitment process, training, deployment around the nation and overseas and segregation. Putney argues that racist and sexist attitudes within the Army and the WAC limited the effectiveness of the African American women who served.

Barbara Brooks Tomblin ofRutgers University begins her 1996 institutional history of the Army Nurse Corps, GI Nightingales: The Army Nurse Corps in World War II, with the induction of the first nurse, Agnes Rosele, in October 1940 and concludes with the post-war demobilization. She tracks the women of the ANC through the attacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, operations in the Central and South-West Pacific, North Africa, Sicily, Italy, Northern Europe, the China-Burma-India Theater, and duty stations in the United States and frequently overlooked postings, such as Iceland. She fleshes out the story with personal interviews conducted in the late 1970s and early 1980s (many through the mail), interviews with nurses conducted by the US Army during the war found in NARA and wartime letters and memoirs. Evelyn M. Monahan and Rosemary Neidel Greenlee's And IfI Perish: Frontline US Army Nurses in World War II (2003) focuses specifically on those Army nurses who served in the combat zones of the European Theater of Operations from the invasion ofNorth Africa to V-E Day, although they include a brief prologue on nurses in the Philippines at the war's outbreak. This narrative history resulted from the Veterans Administration's National Salute to Women Veterans of World War II in 1989, which generated 100,000 material submissions, i.e., memoirs and wartime correspondence. Monahan and Greenlee of the Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center combed through these files for material on the ANC and conducted follow-up interviews with veteran nurses.

Kathi Jackson's They Called Them Angels: American Military Nurses of World War II (2000) examines all nurses in uniform, although she notes that she focused primarily on Army and Navy nurses, with a brief look at Army flight nurses with very little coverage ofthe experiences of African American and Japanese American nurses. She drew upon memoirs, war correspondence, twenty-five responses to a questionnaire she devised and several personal interviews. She sought to characterize the women who joined up, explain why they joined up, - 25- describe the conditions they trained and labored under, to cover their postings in all overseas theaters and the United States and to examine their post-military lives. A number of chapters end with appendices with reprints of brief memoirs contributed by the nurses.

Jean Hascall Cole served as a Women's Airforce Service Pilot (WASP) during the war, graduating with Training Class 44-W-2 in March 1944. In Women Pilots ofWorld War II (1992), Cole tells her version of the WASP experience in her own words and the words of the thirty-four classmates she interviewed for the book. Her chapters cover their prewar lives and motivations for joining the WASP, their training at Avenger Field in Texas and their deployment to various ferrying and training duties across the nation.

In 1992, Peter A. Soderbergh, a professor of education at Louisiana State University, produced the first social history of the women who served in the Marine Corps, known as Women Reservists (WRs), Women Marines: The World War Jl Era. Soderbergh used his background as a Marine Corps veteran to gain entry into the WRs' confidences and cultivate a body of resource material that included 146 oral histories and privately-held memoirs and wartime letters. The book begins with a brief history of the development of WR and other female military branches, and covers their motivations for signing up and the induction process, basic and officer training, the concept of the Marine identity from the female perspective, dating, duty stations and reactions to such issues as segregation and marriage. · -

Two recent works have sketched out the experiences of women journalists during the Second World War. For her 1989 work, Women War Correspondents of World War Il, Lilya Wagner conducted interviews with eighteen correspondents, mostly frontline newspaper and wire-service reporters, with a limited number of magazine writers, and Col. Barney Oldfield, the US Army public relations officer in charge of establishing press camps in Europe. Each chapter focuses on one woman and covers her experience as a war reporter, the type of articles she penned and her later career as a journalist. Most chapters include samples of their writing. Ten years later, Nancy Caldwell Sorel published The Women Who Wrote The War (1999), a narrative history that covers both the reporting and personal lives ofher subjects. Each chapter focuses on a different phase of the war, stretching from the pre-war days of the Spanish Civil War and the era of appeasement to the battles in Poland, the Blitz, China, women reporting from inside the Third Reich, journalists interned in the Far East, the invasions of North Africa, Italy and Normandy, the Pacific island campaigns and the liberation of the concentration camps. Subheadings in each chapter profile the experiences of a single reporter. Sorel also includes some background information on pioneering women journalists. She relied heavily upon oral histories with the subjects she could locate and used memoirs to cover those who passed away prior to her study, such as Margaret Bourke White, a character who makes frequent appearances in her pages.

VOICES IN OPPOSITION TO "THE GOOD WAR"

In light of the patriotic fervor that swept the nation following Pearl Harbor, conscientious objectors, draft resisters and other anti-war voices were banished from the national dialogue, an expulsion that continued for many decades in the canon of historical works. Cynthia Eller's Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War: Moral and Religious Arguments in Support ofPacifism ( 1991) examines the motivations and beliefs of pacifists prior to the war and their -26- decisions to either enter the Civilian Public Service (CPS), go to prison or enlist in the Armed Forces in a non-combat role. Eller, a Women's Studies and Religious Studies faculty member at Montclair State University, draws upon privately-held correspondence collections, the Schowalter Oral History Collection and Mennonite Library and Archives at Bethel College and sixty interviews with men who served in Civilian Public Service camps. Most of her interviewees belonged to the "peace" churches, Brethren or American Friends, and she also located several Protestant, Catholic and Jewish COs; the interviews are deposited in the Swarthmore College Peace Collection.

Two books published in the mid-1990s focused strictly on the CPS, Peace Was in Their Hearts: Conscientious Objectors in World War II (1994) by Richard C. Anderson, a World War II CO, and We Have Just Begun to Not Fight: An Oral History of Conscientious Objectors in Civilian Public Service during World War II (1996) by Heather T. Frazer and John O'Sullivan. Anderson's work uses 1014 questionnaire responses from ex-CPSers to weave a narrative history of the service. He covers the process ofbecoming a conscientious objector, the "work of national importance" required of CPS enlistees and their reflections on that wartime service, their post-war careers and lives, and their beliefs and motivations for becoming COs. The seventeen oral histories Frazer and O'Sullivan selected, which retain the Q & A style of an interview, discuss the organization and operation of the CPS and include the experiences of members of pacifist churches and conscientious objectors from beyond the "peace tradition" and include accounts from those who left the camps and went to prison after becoming disillusioned with the CPS. The subjects recall the CPS details they carried out, such as medical experiments and service in mental hospitals, and share their reflections on the CPS.

The experience of Americans who endured imprisonment for resisting conscription came into focus inA Few Small Candles: War Resisters of World War II Tell Their Stories (1999), edited by Larry Gara, a Wilmington College history professor emeritus, and his wife, Lenna Mae Gara, and Eric L. Muller's Free to Die For Their Country: The Story ofthe Japanese American Draft Resisters in World War II (2001). The Garas have compiled a collection often memoirs from COs who openly defied the CPS system and were imprisoned, including Professor Gara himself. They discuss their motivations, their prison terms (where they continued their acts of civil disobedience) and their reflections after nearly sixty years. Eric Muller, a University of North Carolina law professor, exposes the obscure episode of 300 Japanese Americans who chose to defy the draft rather than serve in an army that held their families in internment camps at gunpoint. Utilizing interviews with eleven surviving Japanese American draft resisters, he tracks their odyssey through the legal system and jail to their pardon in 1947 by President Truman and the challenges they faced rejoining a Japanese American community dominated by veterans who condemned their actions. This stigma forced many resisters into silence for many years, which adds value to the interviews Muller conducted in his research.

Rachel Waltner Goossen's Women Against The Good War: Conscientious Objection and Gender on the American Home Front, I941-1947 (1997) focuses on women who served in the CPS as ·, nurses, nurses' aides and dieticians, the prejudices they faced as vocal pacifists and their coping strategies. What makes their story unique is that they were not obligated under the Selective Service Act to serve, but were motivated to mostly by their allegiance to the Mennonite, Friends or Brethren Churches that oversaw the camps. She also utilizes the Swathmore Collection, her -27- own correspondence with subjects and oral histories from the Mennonite Library and Archives and other repositories.

AFRICAN AMERICANS

African American soldiers and airmen joined up with an eagerness to fight, but most of the 700,000 African Americans in the US Army found themselves forced into non-combat roles. Nonetheless, many of these men performed valuable services under hazardous conditions and enemy fire. David P. Colley, a journalist and freelance writer, aims to tell one such story in The Road to Victory: The Untold Story of World War II's Red Ball Express (2000). Counting among his resources thirty-five interviews conducted with members of C Company, 51 4th Truck Regiment, Colley tracks the African American supply truck drivers who fueled the American Army's advance across Europe from shortly after the Normandy Landings until November 16, 1944, when the Red Ball Express disbanded as the Allied advance stalled against the Siegfried Line.

Late in the European Campaign, March to May of 1945, the US Army, under pressure from Civil Rights groups, initiated an experiment in unit-level integration by assigning fifty-five African American platoons to white companies on the front lines. Colley chronicles this little-known advance in race relations in the military in Blood for Dignity: The Story ofthe First Integrated Combat Unit in the US Army (2003), which focuses on the men of Fifth Platoon, K Company, 394th Infantry Regiment, 99th Infantry Division, and includes the experiences of men in two other platoons in the 99th and other African American combat veterans. Colley conducted interviews and corresponded with surviving "5th ofK" veterans, collected memoirs and mined the letter and oral history collections at the MHI.

In 1992, Acting Secretary of the Army John Shannon commissioned a team of historians under the direction of Shaw University International Studies Professor Daniel K. Gibran to determine why no African American soldier had been decorated with the Medal of Honor during World War II. The panel, which also included Elliott V. Converse III, John A. Cash, Robert K. Griffith, Jr., and Richard H. Kohn, issued their report, The Exclusion ofBlack Soldiers From the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the US Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding ofthe Nation's Highest Military Decoration, in 1997. They found that racial bias among US Army officers led them to rule out African American candidates; the report recommended ten veterans, including nine Distinguished Service Cross recipients, for consideration. Seven of the ten were awarded the Medal of Honor that year. In gathering evidence, the committee interviewed thirty-three African American veterans and the published report includes excerpts from the transcripts.

Maggi M. Morehouse's Fighting in the Jim Crow Army: Black Men and Women Remember World War II (2000) focuses primarily upon the experiences of the men who served in the segregated 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions. Morehouse, an assistant history professor at the University of South Carolina-Aiken, conducted fifty interviews and incorporated interviews published in Mary Penick Motley's The Invisible Soldier: The Experience of the Black Soldier, World War II (1987) and letters from Phillip McGuire's Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from Black Soldiers in World War II (1993) into the book. Morehouse's work explores life in the -28- segregated Army, including a soldier's time on base and in training, tours of combat duty and the return home.

On July 17, 1944, a massive explosion at the Navy's Port Chicago munitions depot in California killed and injured hundreds of sailors, including many African American seamen. To protest the poor working conditions that contributed to the explosion, the survivors refused to continue loading ammunition until the Navy instituted new safety measures. The Navy responded by court-martialing, dishonorably discharging and imprisoning fifty African American as mutineers; Harry Truman commuted their sentences after V-J Day. In The Port Chicago Mutiny (1989), Robert L. Allen, editor of The Black Scholar, recreates this controversial event from the perspective of the men, which he avers has long been obfuscated by the official US Navy account. His work covers the conditions before the explosion, the blast itself, the work stoppage, the mutiny trial and its aftermath. Allen interviewed eight survivors for the book, a significant feat given the reticence to talk ofthe men accused of mutiny.

In The Golden Thirteen: Recollections ofthe First Black Naval Officers (1993), Paul Stillwell of the US Naval Institute presents chapter-length narratives based upon his oral history interviews with the surviving members of the first class of African American naval officers. The oral histories span their early lives, their training and prior duties, their duty assignments following their commission as ensigns and their post-war lives. Stillwell also incorporates accounts contributed by the white sailors who trained the Golden Thirteen and a commander of the USS Mason, where one graduate served as a junior officer. Journalist and filmmaker Mary Pat Kelly explores the unique history of the Mason, the first vessel with an all-African American crew ordered into combat, further in Proudly We Served: The Men ofthe USS Mason (1995). Kelly tells the destroyer escort's story through narratives based on interviews with crew members and excerpts from the ship's war diary. Her work details the sailors' reasons for joining up, their experiences in boot camp and their pre-Mason assignments, which were primarily menial tasks meant to free-up white sailors for combat duty. Kelly's chronicle then offers an operational history of the ship, from its commission in 1943 through its convoy escort duties in the Atlantic.

In 2004, Richard E. Miller, an independent historian and US Navy veteran, published The Messman Chronicles: African Americans in the US Navy, 1932-1943. Utilizing over forty oral history interviews, Miller examines the experience of African American stewards in two parts, 1932-1941, spanning the creation of the messman's rating in the US Navy to the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the early war years, 1941-1943, the period before other ratings were opened to African Americans. Miller seeks to supplant the image of African American stewards as servile victims of racism with one ofheroism and sacrifice in some ofthe US Navy's largest battles of the war. He emphasizes such famous characters as "Dorie" Doris Miller, who, as a messman aboard the USS West Virgina, earned the Navy Cross for shooting down several Japanese aircraft during the attack on Pearl Harbor .

.. GAYS AND LESBIANS

In 1990, independent historian Allan Berube published Coming Out Under Fire: The History of Gay Men and Women in World War II, in which he credits the wartime mobilization with sparking an era of self-awareness and, ultimately, self-determination among the gay and lesbian -29- community. Despite its sweeping title, the text largely tells the story of gays and lesbians in the military. A co-founder of the San Francisco Lesbian and Gay History Project, Berube conducted over sixty oral histories, gathered collections of private correspondence and utilized published accounts and documents in his research. His sources recall difficult choices over whether or not to reveal their sexual preference during the induction process, becoming aware of their own feelings, meeting other members of the gay and lesbian community for the first time and enduring persecution and imprisonment by hostile military administrators. Berube also chronicles the development of anti-homosexual policies in the Army and Navy during the war and the selective implementation of these policies when expedient, i.e., during combat operations.

In the same year, Mary Ann Humphrey published My Country, My Right to Serve: Experiences of Gay Men and Women in the Military, World War II to the Present (1990). Part One, "World War II and the Korean War," features oral histories with six gays and lesbians who served in the Army, Navy and WAC in World War II. Humphrey, a servicewoman forced to resign because of her sexuality, intended the bookas a means of advancing the debate over the right of homosexuals to serve in the Armed Forces.

As previously noted, historian Leisa D. Meyer discusses lesbianism in detail in her book, Creating GI Jane. In 1999, she contributed an essay to Nicole Ann Dombrowski's Women and War in the Twentieth Century: Enlisted With or Without Consent entitled "The Lesbian Threat Within the World War II Women's Army Corps." Utilizing her collection of questionnaire responses and wartime correspondence, she examines the role of lesbians or suspected lesbians in the feminine/masculine crisis the WAC created in American society and the development of anti-homosexual policies in the WAC. Her essay includes cases of women caught up in lesbian witch-hunts organized by WAC officers.

NATIVE AMERICANS

Alison R. Bernstein's American Indians and World War II: Toward a New Era in Indian Affairs (1991) examines the role ofthe war in changing Native American culture and leading towards the termination policy of the early 1950s. Bernstein, a past Princeton University Associate Dean of Faculty, uses the Doris Duke Oral History Collection in her examination ofNative Americans in combat and the impact of returning veterans on the new drive towards self-government.

Jere' Bishop Franco's Crossing the Pond: The Native American Effort in World War II (1999) utilizes the Hualapai oral history project and letter series at the Arizona State Museum to describe the experiences oflndian wartime laborers, Native Americans serving overseas and returning veterans. Franco, a lecturer at University ofTexas-El Paso, also examines Nazi efforts to sway Native Americans, the tribes' reaction to the Selective Service Act, with some coverage of draft evasion by Native Americans, the use of tribal resources by the Federal Government and the impact of the wartime Native-American-as-warrior stereotype in the post-war period.

In World War II and the American Indian (2000), Kenneth William Townsend provides another look at the Native American population on the eve of war, Nazi propaganda efforts, the draft and draft resistance movement, Native American experiences in the military and on the home front - 30- and the effect of the war and returning veterans on Indian affairs. Townsend, a history professor at Coastal Carolina University, also relies upon the Doris Duke Indian Oral History Collection.

The contributions ofNavajo Marine Corps veterans to battlefield communications security have long overshadowed the contributions of other Native Americans. With 2002's The Comanche Codetalkers of World War II, William C. Meadows of the Southwest Missouri State University's Anthropology Department worked to correct this imbalance by following the Comanche Codetalkers, the first codetalker unit organized, through their service in Europe from D-Day to the end of the war. He conducted oral histories with the surviving combat veterans and the officer who trained them and also utilized the Doris Duke and Duke University Indian Projects and Marine Corps' oral history programs for sources on Navajo codetalkers. Meadows details the history of codetalking in World War I and II, the codetalkers' prewar lives, their recruitment and training, their role within the military structure, their tour of duty in the European Theater and their postwar experiences and reflections.

JAPANESE AMERICANS

In Honor by Fire: Japanese Americans at War in Europe and the Pacific (1994), war correspondent Lyn Crost (herself a subject ofLilya Wagner and Nancy Caldwell Sorel's studies) aims to tell the story of the all-Nisei 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team, which she covered during the war in Europe, and the Nisei (second-generation Japanese Americans) who served in the Military Intelligence Service (MIS) in the Pacific. Crost uses memoirs, published accounts and her own interviews to chronicle the formation of each unit, their fight within the Army to win the right to serve overseas and their deployment to the ETO and PTO. She delivers a campaign-by-campaign account of their overseas tours of duty.

In the late 1990s, the Hawaii Nikkei History Editorial Board, a committee ofveterans and historians, encouraged Hawaii's Nisei veterans, and a select few who had close ties to Nisei units, to contribute written accounts of their experiences, thoughts and feelings during the Second World War, resulting in 1998's Japanese Eyes, American Heart: Personal Reflections of Hawaii's World War II Nisei Soldiers. The contributors represented the lOOth Infantry Battalion (Separate), the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, the MIS and the 1399th Engineer Construction Battalion, among others, and saw action in both Europe and the Pacific. Their stories span training, reactions to the December 7, 1941, attack, combat and making the post-war readjustment to a Hawaiian and American society in flux. Both Honor by Fire and Japanese Eyes, American Heart clearly state their intentions to publicize the Japanese American contribution to the war effort.

Frank Odo's No Sword to Bury: Japanese Americans in Hawaii during World War II (2004), part of the Asian-American History and Culture series, tells the story of the Varsity Victory Volunteers (VVV). The VVV consisted of Japanese Americans living in Hawaii who volunteered to perform manual labor in the period between being declared unfit for service and being inducted into the military. Odo, director of the Smithsonian Institution's Asian Pacific American Program, examines the evolving identities of his subjects and covers the breadth of their lives, their immigrant roots, their year oflabor at Schofield Barracks, their overseas military service and their role in the post-war "model minority" Japanese American community and a - 31 - more multicultural Hawaii. Odo's work highlights the little known Hawaii Territorial Guard, in which large numbers of Nisei guarded the Hawaiian Islands between Pearl Harbor and January 21, 1942.

AMERICANS IN INTERNMENT CAMPS

Odo (No Sword to Bury) points out that apprehension over the idea of unsupervised Nisei protecting what was then the frontline of the war, fanned by panicked voices from the mainland, led to the creation of the Varsity Victory Volunteers, since mass incarceration of the sizable and socio-economic integrated Japanese American population would have crippled Hawaiian society.5 On the West Coast of the United States, however, these baseless fears led to the interment of 112,000 Japanese Americans between 1942 and 1945. This dark spot on the history of America's involvement in World War II, in which the government forced its own citizens to abandon their jobs and homes, leave behind or sell at reduced cost their possessions and relocate to cramped, desolate camps thousands of miles inland, gained new attention in recent decades as the policy's victims sought contrition and restitution from the federal government in the 1980s.

In 1991, California State University-Fullerton's Center for Oral History published six interviews conducted in the 1970s with Japanese American internees conducted as part ofthe Center's Japanese American Project in Japanese American World War II Evacuation Oral History Project, Part I: Internees. It was the first in a series of five collections edited by Center director and professor of history Arthur A. Hansen; other volumes include oral histories with camp administrators, sociological analysts dispersed to document life in the camps, guards, residents of nearby towns and those who resisted their false imprisonment. The interviews appear in transcript form with subject/name indexes.

In Judgment Without Trial: Japanese American Imprisonment During World War II (2003), Tetsuden Kashima of the Department of American Ethnic Studies at the University of Washington examines the overall administration of the internment in the United States, the territories (Alaska and Hawaii) and Latin America and he asserts that the internment policy resulted from elaborate pre-war planning, not war hysteria. He compares the experiences of internees incarcerated in Immigration and Naturalization Service, US Army and War Relocation Authority camps and covers issues of mistreatment and the stigma of internment. His study benefits from oral histories with both Issei (first-generation Japanese Americans) and Nisei and Japanese-language writings of the Issei.

In "The Silent Significant Majority: Japanese American Women, Evacuation and Internment During World War II," an essay contributed to Dombrowski's Women and War in the Twentieth Century: Enlisted With or Without Consent (1999), historian and attorney Ivy D. Arai uses oral histories she conducted with former internees and published memoirs. She describes the traditional, subservient role of women within the Japanese American community and family model, and then, examines the role of the attack on Pearl Harbor, efforts by women to demonstrate their patriotism and the internment camp experience on reshaping their self-image

5 Nevertheless, hundreds of Japanese Americans living in the Hawaiian Territory were rounded up and shipped to internment camps in the continental United States. - 32- and gender roles in the community. Arai also explores the loneliness, shame and infirmity suffered by women during their incarceration.

StephenS. Fugita and Marilyn Fernandez published their study of the long-term socioeconomic effects of the internment experience upon the Japanese American community in Altered Lives, Enduring Communities: Japanese Americans Remember Their World War II Incarceration (2004). Fugita and Fernandez, both of Densho: The Japanese American Legacy Project, drew upon Densho 's oral history archive and a statistical survey of 183 questionnaires returned by Nisei who lived in the Seattle area during the war. First, they chronicle the history of the internment, beginning with a description ofthe pre-war Japanese American community and proceeding through the incarceration, life in the camps, resistance efforts, military service and the dissolution ofthe internment system. Then, Fugita and Fernandez examine the role of such topics as family life and religion in the internment experience of most internees.

Most works on wartime civilian internment in the United States focus on Japanese Americans, since they constituted the largest group of internees, but many German and Italian Americans were classified as enemy aliens and interned or restricted in their travels. Una Storia Segreta: The Secret History ofItalian American Evacuation and Internment During World War II (2001), edited by University of California-Berkeley professor Lawrence DiStasi, sheds light upon the experiences of individual Italian Americans, their families and their communities. The book, inspired by an exhibit organized by the American Italian Historical Association's Western Regional Chapter, features twenty-eight essays, most ofwhich rely on letters, journals, interviews and memoirs to illustrate some aspect of the Italian American internment.

Karen L. Riley's Schools Behind Barbed Wire: The Untold Story of Wartime Internment and the Children ofArrested Enemy Aliens (2002) chronicles the development and operation of the school system for children of interned Japanese and German Americans and the children of Japanese and German nationals expelled from South America and held in the Crystal City Family Internment Camp, Texas. Within the camp, parents in both communities worked with Federal authorities to develop ethnically-segregated institutions with curriculums designed to instill Japanese and German traditions in the students. For her study, Riley, a professor of education at Auburn University, conducted nearly forty oral histories and solicited several written accounts from former Crystal City student internees. CONCLUSION

As historians and writers added to the body of works considering America's involvement in World War II between 1989 and 2005, they exploited the mountains of primary resource materials created by Americans who bore witness to the conflict and enriched the record through their own work as oral historians and archivists. I would like to put forward one criticism of their work, a bone of contention arising from my years with the Rutgers Oral History Archives. Within many of the works surveyed herein, the author(s) apply the term "oral history" to sources which are, in fact, more aptly described as oral autobiographies, i.e., a subject speaking into a recorder, sometimes with the benefit of a question list, sometimes without, while some writers have mistakenly referred to written memoirs, diaries and other records in print as oral histories. As a matter of course, every human being mentally composes the story of their life using their - 33- memories as their bibliography; when they record that account on paper or some form of electronic media, they create a document, such as a memoir or a diary, and add to our knowledge of the world. While the information uncovered in an oral history usually has no more or less intrinsic value than that found in a self-produced primary resource, the method itself, wherein an informed interviewer poses questions to an interviewee, has the added value of challenging the subject to reevaluate the memories that comprise their mental narrative and leading them to recall others that they had omitted.

I have found that, at the current time, journalists, popular authors and social historians utilize first-person accounts more frequently in their works than traditional military historians, who favor accounts left by high level officers. Journalists and freelance writers rely upon oral histories, memoirs, diaries and letters simply because war stories related in the participant's own words make compelling reading. Social historians have always sought out first-person perspectives to access the material they desire, such as the inner workings of a GI in combat, the reactions of minorities to racism and the motivations of contentious objectors. Military historians appear hesitant to call upon first-person accounts, particularly those composed decades after the war, favoring instead their traditional examinations of training systems, tactics, logistics and maneuvers. I believe that the works of scholars and popular writers in the vein of Eric M. Bergerud and Rick Atkinson point towards a new synthesis of sources and approaches in the study of warfare, combining an analysis of military actions, "at the point of fire, [where] battle is the essence of chaos and violence,"6 with traditional military, political and diplomatic history. --Shaun Illingworth

6 Bergerud, Eric M., Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific (Westview Press, 2000), xvii. - 34-

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EXHIBIT CASES

CASE 1: WORLD WAR II TRANSFORMS THE UNITED STATES

The Second World War pulled the United States from the depths of an economic disaster and transformed it into a superpower. Prior to Pearl Harbor, increased industrial orders from the Allied nations via the Lend-Lease program eased the burdens of the Great Depression. Following America's official entry into the war, a wave of increased defense spending caused the nation's unemployment rate to fall to one percent, industrial wages to rise by twenty-two percent and net farm income to double.

In June 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, prohibiting racial discrimination in defense industries and the government and opening up new avenues of employment for minorities. As the economy expanded and the military's manpower needs grew, women rushed to pick up welding torches, riveting guns and tools of other trades previously dominated by men. During the war, the United States achieved near full employment and its workers had more money to spend than ever before, a far cry from the poverty of the Great Depression. By the war's end, the nation enjoyed unprecedented prosperity and a booming economy.

Technological and scientific advances spurred on by the demands of the war immersed the United States in the "Jet Age," the "Nuclear Age" and the "Space Age." The war years saw the development of such scientific, technical and medical marvels as jet engines, rocket propulsion, plastics and other synthetic materials, television, radar, sulfa drugs, penicillin and quinine. Nuclear energy, a byproduct of the quest for atomic weapons, simultaneously opened new avenues for humanity while granting mankind the power to destroy itself.

Most importantly, the war influenced the lives of ordinary citizens. Many who entered the military during the war stayed in the regular Armed Forces for their career or enlisted in the Reserves and utilized the service's unique advantages, such as job security, specialized training and retirement benefits. Veterans returning home took advantage of the benefits offered by the GI Bill, including preferential treatment in hiring, federal support for housing and a free education. Multitudes of veterans enrolled in institutions of higher education and became the business executives, doctors and engineers that fueled the post-war economy.

Former servicemen and women started families in record numbers, resulting in the Baby Boom of the 1950s and 1960s. The wartime experiences of African Americans, Japanese Americans and members of other minority groups both in the United States and in combat overseas, as well as the indignation of the Gis who uncovered the horrors of the Holocaust, energized the post-war Civil Rights Movement. Soon afterward, in 1948, President Harry S. Truman's Executive Order 9981 banned segregation and discrimination in the military.

America vowed never to sink into isolationism again and moved to confront the Communist threat posed by Stalin's Soviet Union. In the new Cold War, the United States kept its Armed Forces, a massively expanded conventional Army, Navy and Air Force complemented by an enormous nuclear arsenal, mobilized in peacetime. -Nicholas Molnar -43-

COLONEL WALTER R. BRUYERE III, RUfGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1939

Walter R. Bruyere III (1915-2004), born in Montclair, New Jersey, but reared at the Jersey Shore, distinguished himself as a football player at Red Bank Regional High School and Rutgers University in the 1930s. He joined the Army in September 1939 as a second lieutenant after graduating from the Advanced ROTC program at Rutgers. During his first posting, F Company, 18th Infantry Regiment, Bruyere served at Fort Wadsworth, Staten Island, and, later, Fort. Benning, Georgia. While stationed at Benning, his duties included visiting the owners of local residences to acquire their permission to conduct military maneuvers on their property. Bruyere continued in that capacity after being transferred to Louisiana in 1940; he also served as ajudge advocate in court-martials, supervised troop training and processed the influx of soldiers after Pearl Harbor.

With the US Army's First Infantry Division, Bruyere was among the first soldiers to arrive in England, where, as a member of General Dwight D. Eisenhower's staff, he worked on logistics for the Operation: TORCH invasion of Northwest Africa. Bruyere landed in Algeria in late December 1941 and served in Headquarters Command's S-4 (logistics) section, setting up the headquarters' facility and locating accommodations for its personnel as the Allies advanced towards Tunis. After Eisenhower returned to England in 1944, Bruyere joined the logistics staff of the 36th Infantry Division in Italy. When division headquarters moved into permanent facilities in France, he joined the 141 st Infantry Regiment as commander of its Third Battalion. Following a tour of duty that included fighting in the Battle ofBruyeres, he became the logistics manager for Marlene Dietrich's traveling USO show. After hostilities ended, he rejoined Eisenhower's staff at SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force).

Bruyere returned stateside in 1946 and trained to become a comptroller. He served in Korea and spent the rest of his career in the Army, rising to the rank of colonel.

"By order of Gen. Deane, today is Thanksgiving Day... "

"There's the right way, the wrong way, and the Army way." In his November 17, 1940 letter to his parents, then-Second Lieutenant Bruyere attests to the validity of this old GI adage, noting that his unit, Company F, celebrated Thanksgiving four days before the rest of the nation. He also writes about participating in war games and the introduCtion of tanks into the games. His account of the combat simulations reveals the mindset of an army uninitiated in modem warfare, "Those things can be beaten by foot soldiers only it takes a little guts and training." From the Walter R. Bruyere III Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

"The French people here... treat us as long lost brothers... "

Written in Algiers, Algeria, during the North Africa campaign, Bruyere's February 10, 1943 letter to his wife thanks her for sending him items in scarce supply in the war zone. Bruyere also declares his affinity for the city's population of Frenchmen. Billeted with a French family, he interacted with many of the locals in the course ofhis building procurement duties. He compares the French with the British subjects he interacted with during his three months in London, implying that the French are more magnanimous than the English. From the Walter R. Bruyere III Collection -44-

"Ode on an End Table"

Throughout his life, Bruyere expressed his artistic side with both the written word and the sketch pad as the creator of numerous poems, limericks and illustrations. This poem, written in 1943, during his first tour with Headquarters Command, speaks to the frustrations of the men serving behind the lines, known in GI slang as the "chair-borne infantry." Bruyere wrote that the poem, "Gives you an idea of the thoughts in my mind at the time." Reprinted from the Walter R. Bruyere III Oral History, Rutgers Oral History Archives.

"I wish I could be there pacing up and down the maternity ward... "

In his March 13, 1943 V -mail to his parents, Bruyere, a major at the time, voices the anxieties felt by the many servicemen who left expecting wives behind in the United States. The American Red Cross, through its Military and Naval Welfare Service, assisted servicemen by informing them of births, illnesses and deaths in the family, providing emergency loans and securing hardship leaves from the military authorities. The Red Cross's congressional charter (1905) charges the organization to, "act in matters of voluntary relief... as a medium of communication between the people of the United States of America and their Army and Navy." From the Walter R. Bruyere III Collection

"They are finally making an honest man out of me... "

Major Bruyere declares his delight at being reassigned from his logistics duties at headquarters to the command of an infantry battalion in his October 15, 1944 V-mail to his parents. Historian Gerald F. Linderman has noted that, driven by a desire to prove themselves and play a role in ending the war, "soldiers anticipated combat with what today seems an unlikely receptivity." Bruyere also reveals that his earlier concerns over his wife's pregnancy have been supplanted by a new set of concerns, that his son, Peter, born on March 29, 1943, is growing up without him. From the Walter R. Bruyere III Collection

Bronze Star Medal

The Bronze Star is awarded to military personnel serving with the Army, Navy, Marines or Coast Guard for heroic or meritorious achievement while either involved in combat or in support of combat operations against an enemy. Bruyere earned his first Bronze Star for "exemplary conduct in ground combat" in the Vosges Mountains of France. The oak leaf cluster pin represents the second Bronze Star he earned during the Korean War.

Legion of Merit Medal

The Legion of Merit is awarded to combatants and noncombatants who serve in the United States Army and Navy for extraordinary loyalty and outstanding service. -45-

Purple Heart Medal

The Purple Heart is awarded to anyone wounded in action against an enemy while serving in the US Armed Forces. Created in 1782, the Purple Heart is the United States' oldest military decoration. The oak leaf cluster device indicates that Colonel Bruyere was wounded twice in action, first, on December 5, 1944, and again on January 17, 1945.

Combat Infantryman's Badge

The Combat Infantryman's Badge is awarded to officers below the rank of Brigadier General and all enlisted men who have seen active ground combat while in the infantry or as part of a Special Forces unit.

Rutgers ROTC Insignia

A combination of the Rutgers University seal and the United States eagle, this insignia was displayed in the center of a ROTC cadet's parade uniform hat.

US Army Colonel Insignia

Colonel Bruyere retired as a full colonel on October 1, 1969. Officers ofthis rank are known as "full bird" colonels in military jargon, distinguishing them from lieutenant colonels, who wear a silver leaf rank insignia.

General John J. Pershing Award

The General John J. Pershing Award was awarded to the top graduating ROTC cadet. All medals are from the Walter R. Bruyere III Collection

Biography and item descriptions written by Peter Asch.

CASE 2: GEARING UP FOR WAR

From the late 1930s to the eve of Pearl Harbor, the United States gradually began preparing for a major conflict. After years of financial neglect by isolationist Congresses, the US Armed Forces boasted an army that sent men on maneuvers with broomsticks instead of rifles, an air force far outclassed by its counterparts in Germany and Japan and a navy that lacked the resources to initiate any significant shipbuilding agenda.

The Herculean task of rearming the nation commenced in the summer of 1940. Shocked by the fall of France in June, Congress acquiesced to President Roosevelt's request for billions of dollars in defense funds. The Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply began placing orders for modem equipment and the Army Air Corps (renamed the Army Air Forces in June 1941) requisitioned thousands of new aircraft, including heavy bombers like the B-17, which entered its testing phase of development that fall. Congress granted the Navy funds for a nearly unlimited expansion and warship construction began in earnest. -46-

In September 1940, the Burke-Wadsworth Act initiated the first peacetime draft in American history. In October, the Selective Service began registering men aged twenty-one to thirty-six who could be called up for twelve months of training and service within the United States. 1.2 million men were immediately inducted into the service and 800,000 reservists were mobilized. Facilities quickly sprang up across the nation to train and accommodate the military's rapidly expanding pool of manpower. In October 1941, Congress voted to extend the draftees' one-year tours and, after Pearl Harbor, the conscripts were obliged to remain in uniform for the duration of the conflict. By the end of the war, more than sixteen million men and women, including over ten million draftees, had served in the military.

In January 1942, Roosevelt established the War Production Board, which had the power to convert industrial facilities from civilian production to the manufacture of war material. Automobile factories, for example, soon generated only aircraft and armored vehicles. To battle inflation and conserve raw materials, the Office of Price Administration, created in August 1941, set price ceilings and instituted rationing of key commodities, including gasoline, clothing and food. Increased industrial production enabled the United States to furnish the Allies with fifty billion dollars worth of Lend-Lease arms and equipment. Slow to rise to the challenge of Fascism in Europe and Japanese militarism, the United States quickly developed a military, economy and populace capable of defeating the Axis Powers. -Nicholas Molnar

COLONEL WILLIAM CARL HEYER, RUTGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1925

William Carl Heyer (1904-1999), a life-long resident of Mount Holly, New Jersey, studied economics at Rutgers College from 1921 to 1925. After four years inthe ROTC, he was _ commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Reserves. In July 1941, Heyer, then a captain, was called to active duty and assigned to the Army's Air Transport Command (A TC). The ATC developed the web of airfields and air routes that facilitated the United States' war effort at home and abroad.

Heyer served with the 53rd Fighter Group, initially based in Tallahassee, Florida. His duties included planning and constructing Army Air Forces (AAF) bases, training areas and flight zones in coordination with the Florida State Government, the Works Progress Administration (WP A) and the private sector. He shipped out for Panama on Christmas Day 1941 to build up the Canal Zone's aerial defenses. The 53rd Fighter Group returned to the States in December 1942, but Heyer was detached and sent to the China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater.

In India, he coordinated supply missions over the Himalayas, "The Hump," in support of operations in China. After the war, he remained in Asia for several months to supervise the decommissioning ofhis base. He returned to the United States in December 1945. He was later recalled to active duty for another five years during the Korean War. He resettled in his childhood hometown and found success in the insurance business.

Building Alligator Point

Army Air Forces' planners selected Florida as one of the nerve centers of its rapidly expanding training infrastructure. The Sunshine State's sparsely populated, densely forested expanses and -47- proximity to the Gulf of Mexico offered the requisite privacy and space. Transforming primitive, isolated expanses of Florida swampland into viable military reservations required the combined efforts of the Federal Government, by way of such New Deal agencies as the WPA and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the private sector and the US Army Corps of Engineers. Colonel Heyer worked on several of these projects, including Camp Gordon Johnston in Franklin County, where he helped design the Alligator Point Aerial Gunner Range.

Map of Florida

Colonel Heyer used this 1940 map to locate the military construction projects planned throughout the state. Camp Gordon Johnston, the second largest World War II military base in Florida, would appear in the region shown after it opened its gates in September 1941. The site extends twenty miles down the coast, from Saint Theresa to Carrabelle, covering 160,000 acres to the southwest of the Apalachicola National Forest. Alligator Point is the small peninsula stretching towards the southwest, below the town of Carrabelle. The map also denotes areas reserved for military operations on and off the western coast of Florida. From the William Carl Heyer Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Layout of Alligator Point

Colonel Heyer's hand-drawn diagram presents his recommendations that both the A and R (Assembly and Repair) building and the barracks be Type A-8 buildings, that the kitchen be a Type SAl structure and that WPA toilets, rectangular in shape, with a cement floor and wooden seats, would serve as the restroom facilities. The plans also call for three smaller buildings for use as a radio shack, water supply and target house (to be built on the edge of the targeting area). The target area is not shown, but would be located to the east of the buildings. The facility would later be designated as the Alligator Point Aerial Gunnery Range. From the William Carl Heyer Collection

October 22, 1941 & November 4, 1941 Correspondence

These letters illustrate the complex relationship between the military, the WPA and private firms created by the mobilization effort. As with many temporary bases, the government leased the land that became Camp Gordon Johnston. The St. Joe Paper Company, the largest private landowners in Florida, owned the majority of the land, but not Alligator Point, which was owned by Mud Cove, Inc. The October 22, 1941 letter from Mud Cove to the US Army discusses the negotiations between the parties to lease the land, which called for a war-duration period of rental. After the cessation of hostilities, the military would be allowed to sell the buildings and supplies as surplus and return the land as is.

Bringing Colonel Heyer's plans for Alligator Point to fruition necessitated a joint venture between the War Department and the WP A, which was also working to connect the isolated training bases along the Florida Panhandle. In the November 4, 1941 letter, a Third Air Force representative conveys to the WP A the importance of building a road to Alligator Point. Stapled to the request is a memo from the WP A state administrator informing the military that, unless the project was designated as a National Defense Project, work on the road to the range would cease. The last page is an unsigned, handwritten letter from the WP A explaining the procedure for -48- obtaining a work order to build State Road 301. This exchange typifies the bureaucratic entanglements that plagued the military's expansion. From the William Carl Heyer Collection

"Airports and Check Points Florida to Natal"

The ATC issued this manual as a navigational aid for use by AAF crews in locating and landing at airstrips in the Caribbean Theater. The booklet features photographs of forty-four airports and four checkpoints within the theater's three sectors: Trinidad, Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone. The ATC utilized this network in supplying the ground, air and naval forces charged with safeguarding Allied interests from the Florida Coastline to South America and maintaining the southern route to the European Theater. This chain of facilities and the power it projected southward represent the fulfillment of Colonel Heyer's efforts in the pre- and early war periods, when many of the airfields were built and enhanced. From the William Carl Heyer Collection

Dream Base ...

This publication depicts the ideal India-China Division ATC base. Each of the booklet's forty­ nine chapters covers a different aspect of building an efficient airbase. The book's authors constructed the "dream base" by piecing together ideal services and facilities found at bases strung throughout the CBI. Colonel Heyer's papers include several photographs that appear in the book. These images show the products that the ATC's civilian and military pilots and crewmen could find after touching down. Candy bars and other amenities reminiscent of civilian life buoyed the morale of servicemen and women stationed at the remote ends ofthe ATC's long travel routes, such as the China-Burma-India Theater and the Aleutian Islands. From the William Carl Heyer Collection

Biography and item descriptions by Peter Asch.

CASE 3: RUTGERS UNIVERSITY GOES TO WAR

On December 8, 1941, Rutgers University students gathered around radios in the Winants Hall bookstore, the parlors of the Gibbons dormitories, fraternity houses and other spots around campus to hear Franklin Roosevelt ask Congress for a declaration of war. Although Rutgers President Robert C. Clothier urged his charges to stay in school until called to serve, many Rutgers men and New Jersey College for Women (NJC, now Douglass College) women rushed to enlist. By 1944, military recruiters and local draft boards had left the all-male Rutgers College with only 600 students, men either too young to serve, declared 4-F or temporarily deferred for vital studies.

The University's normal temperament soon gave way to a wartime atmosphere. As undergraduates left "the Banks of the Raritan" for the service, the University's classrooms filled with the student-soldiers of the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP). The remaining civilian students adapted to an accelerated quarter-semester system. Activities such as athletics, dances, social clubs, The Scarlet Letter, the Rutgers College yearbook, and The Targum, the nation's oldest college newspaper, were curtailed or suspended for the war's duration. Most -49- fraternity houses became ASTP barracks or homes for the dependents of Army officers stationed at nearby Camp Kilmer. Rutgers students contributed to the war effort by working part-time in nearby defense plants and military posts and volunteering as Civil Defense air raid wardens and airplane spotters. NJC offered courses in how to be USO hostesses and Red Cross workers. In their free time, NJC women wrapped bandages and prepared gift boxes for veterans' hospitals.

The efforts of the University's men and women reflected the sprit ofvolunteerism that drove the nation during the war. The American public contributed to the war effort by participating in rubber and scrap metal drives, planting "Victory Gardens" and purchasing billions of dollars worth of war bonds. Civilians endured compulsory hardships, like blackouts and gasoline rationing, with few complaints. Millions viewed working in war factories as their patriotic duty. Women overcame prejudice, harassment and hazardous, even lethal, working conditions to work in shipyards, steel mills and aircraft plants.

Final victory in Europe and the Pacific also rendered profound changes on Rutgers. In 1945, Rutgers became the State University ofNew Jersey and opened its doors to thousands of returning veterans clamoring to take advantage of their GI Bill educational benefits. The immediate post-war years were the "Era of the GI," when veterans comprised seventy percent of the student body. Enrollment soared from a prewar high of7,000 to 16,000 by 1948 and the University embarked upon a feverish expansion of its facilities to accommodate the influx of students and their families. -Nicholas Molnar

MR. BARTON H. KLION, RUTGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1948

Bart Klion (1928-) was born in Manhattan and excelled in the city's educational system, graduating from high school at the age of sixteen. While living in New York City, Klion delivered messages by bicycle as a Civil Defense volunteer. He followed his brother, Stanley, RC '42, across the Hudson to Rutgers in 1944.

Klion and his classmates labored to maintain some semblance of college life during the war. Like his brother, he pledged the Sigma Alpha Mu (nicknamed "Sammy") fraternity in his freshman year. With the exodus of men into the service, the·presidency of the fraternity fell to him by his sophomore year. When the Rutgers swim team resumed competition in early 1945, Bart became the team manager.

As the GI Bill students breathed new life into Rutgers following V-J Day, Klion and his fraternity brothers welcomed veterans into "Sammy." He joined the staff of Targum after publication resumed in October 1945 as, first, the advertising manager and, subsequently, business manager. After completing his mandatory two years of ROTC training, he chose to pursue a commission in the advanced course. Klion's peers recognized his on-campus leadership by tapping him for the Crown and Scroll and Cap and Skull honor societies. In May 1948, he received his diploma and US Army Reserve officer's commission from Rutgers.

In December 1948, Second Lieutenant Klion began his two-year tour in the Army at Fort Dix, New Jersey. He eventually served as an instructor at the Infantry School in Fort Benning, -50-

Georgia. After leaving active duty, Klion remained in the Reserve until1955. He enjoyed a successful career as a sales executive.

Ten-Cent War Stamp Album

The United States Government financed its wartime expenditures, totaling over $320 billion dollars, through tax revenues ($130 billion), bond issues ($116 billion) and by printing new currency ($75 billion). Battlefield heroes, celebrities and fictional characters like Dick Tracy plugged "war loans" at rallies and in advertisements during eight bond drives staged between 1942 and 1945. The American public responded by purchasing forty-nine billion dollars worth of bonds, primarily in small denominations. Millions of schoolchildren bought ten and twenty­ five-cent war stamps to paste in bond albums; completed albums could be redeemed for a twenty-five-dollar bond. War bond drives rallied widespread support for the war and restricted inflation by channeling civilian funds into savings rather than consumption. From Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Army Specialized Training Program

In December 1942, the War Department, in coordination with educators from the nation's colleges and universities, established the Army Specialized Training Program. In early 1943, seventy-seven institutions ofhigher learning open their doors to the ASTP. Cadets applied to the ASTP believing they would leave the program as college-educated officers charged with rebuilding post-war Europe and Asia. The War Department gutted the ASTP in the months prior to the Normandy invasion to fulfill its manpower requirements and assigned most of the men to the infantry.

Rutgers University hosted a total of 3,877 ASTP students. The University's faculty developed advanced curriculums in European languages, engineering and geography for the soldier­ students. The cadets wore US Army uniforms, marched to classes, participated in calisthenics and followed military protocol while studying "on the Banks." In the first image displayed here, a formation of ASTP candidates marches in front of Old Queens. In the second photograph, ASTP engineering students listen to a lecture by Professor Maurice T. Ayers. From the Rutgers University Archives Photograph Collection

Civil Defense Arm Band

In May 1941, President Roosevelt established the Office of Civilian Defense under New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia. Patterned after the British response to German bombing raids, the Civil Defense organized civilian volunteers through local defense boards. Neighborhood air raid wardens enforced blackout restrictions in municipalities along the coasts, airplane spotters scanned the skies for suspicious aircraft and numerous cities held air raid drills to develop emergency preparedness. While a high school student, Bart Klion served as a messenger in his Manhattan neighborhood. He carried communiques between the airplane spotters stationed on rooftops along 82nd Street. From the Personal Collection ofBarton H Klion -51 -

Rutgers Scrapbook of Barton H. Klion (1944-1948)

Bart Klion kept a detailed scrapbook of his activities and events on the Rutgers campus during World War II and the GI Bill period. Divided into four sections corresponding to his years "on the Banks," the scrapbook features articles from The Cannon, the bi-weekly publication that replaced The Targum during the war, the New Brunswick Daily Home News and other local newspapers, letters from his "Sammy" fraternity brothers and Rutgers administrators, athletic and theatrical event ticket stubs and programs, dance cards and small artifacts, such as a piece of his pledge tie. The scrapbook shows how students tried to keep up normal activities during the war. For example, a February 1945 Home News article records that the swim team, after defeating CCNY in their home opener, according to tradition, threw Klion into the pool fully clothed. The victory marked the swim team's return to the Rutgers Gym after a year of war­ induced inactivity. Barton H. Klion Scrapbook, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Biography and item descriptions by Susan Yousif

CASE 4: SUPPORTING A GLOBAL WAR

The US Armed Forces in the Second World War confronted the challenges of raising a massive army, navy and air force, training millions of men and women and supplying the services in theaters of war scattered across the globe. This mission demanded a logistical system that could ensure that the Armed Forces procured enough men and material to confront the Axis Powers and that its personnel, equipment and ammunition reached their destinations when needed.

The branches of the Armed Forces swelled with millions of men and women following the Selective Service Act of 1940 and the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Army enlistees and draftees endured a battery of vocational and psychological tests in replacement training centers before completing fifteen to seventeen weeks of basic and advanced training. After being assigned to a division or other unit, soldiers would participate in field maneuvers under simulated combat conditions. As the nation's factories churned out a massive air armada, the Navy, Marine Corps and Army Air Forces instituted formal training programs for air crews, technicians, ground crews and administrators.

Demand for junior officers quickly outpaced the graduation rates of the US Military Academy, the US Naval Academy and the college-based Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) programs. The Army and Marine Corps responded by establishing officer candidate schools (OCS) in infantry, artillery, armor and other specialties. The Army Air Forces granted commissions through its aviation training programs and OCS courses for administrative positions. The Navy initiated a series of "V-programs" to train new ensigns, most notably the V- 1 and V-12 programs, which offered midshipmen a college education, and the V-5 flight training program.

Utilizing Liberty ships, C-47 Skytrain aircraft, two-and-a-half ton trucks, jeeps, pack mules and dozens of other forms of conveyance, the Army's Air Transport Command and Service Forces and the Navy's Atlantic and Pacific Service Forces supplied combat and support units in the European, Pacific and CBI Theaters. The US Navy and Coast Guard assembled a fleet of -52-

. amphibious craft to deliver men and material in support of the Army-Navy-Marine Corps island invasions in the Pacific and Allied campaigns in Europe. Victory in both theaters hinged upon the United States' ability to harness the strength, talent and intelligence of its youth and deliver the unprecedented quantities of material produced by its factories to far-flung areas of the world. -Nicholas Molnar

BRIGADIER GENERAL WILLIAM T. ARCHIBALD, RUTGERS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE CLASS OF 1941, MR. JOHN L. ARCHIBALD, RUTGERS SCHOOL OF EDUCATION CLASS OF 1943 & MR. ROBERT V. ARCHIBALD, RUTGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1948

Professor LaurenS. Archibald (1893-1946), RC '17, a World War !-veteran, and his wife, Mary Voorhees Archibald (1896-1982), settled in the town ofMiddlebush, New Jersey, in 1926, shortly after Lauren secured a position at the Rutgers College of Agriculture. Their three sons, William (1920-1998), John (1921-) and Robert (1923- ), attended Rutgers on faculty scholarships.

After earning his second lieutenant's bar at Rutgers, William entered the US Army in June 1941. Distinguishing himself as a member of the planning staff for the North African invasion, he was recommended for advanced training in amphibious landing tactics and combat ship loading procedures. He toured military facilities across the nation as a lecturer on technical quartermaster issues with the Amphibious Force Atlantic Fleet (AF AF) before being transferred to Holland "Howling Mad" Smith's staff in the Fleet Marine Force Pacific (FMFP). William participated in eight amphibious landings and received ten combat decorations and awards. During the initial phases of the occupation of Japan, he took part in "peace tours" organized by General Douglas MacArthur's headquarters to foster American-Japanese goodwill. By the war's end, William had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Conscripted into the Army Air Forces, John reported to his local draft board on July 31, 1942. He was granted a brief deferment that allowed him to complete his studies at Rutgers before reporting for basic training in Miami Beach, Florida. In January 1944, after serving at Lincoln Air Base in Nebraska, he was accepted into the AAF's Statistical School at Harvard University's Graduate School ofBusiness Administration. Upon completion of the program, he received his commission as a statistical control officer. At Esler Field, Louisiana, he ~ompiled statistical reports for fighter groups under Brigadier General Fairleigh Ford. John was discharged as a first lieutenant in March 1946.

After one semester at Rutgers, Robert enlisted in the US Navy Reserve on December 7, 1942, hoping to become a pilot. He was ordered to return to New Brunswick and finish his second semester before reporting for duty. His two years of flight training began as a cadet in the V -5 Naval Aviation programs at Colgate, Cornell and UNC-Chapel Hill. After graduating from the primary and advanced flight courses at Bunker Hill and Pensacola Naval Air Stations, he earned his wings at Pensacola on May 7, 1945. He then joined the cadre at Pensacola as a flight instructor. He was separated from active duty as an ensign in January 1946. -53-

William entered the US Army Reserves in 194 7. When he retired in 1969 as a brigadier general, he was the commanding general of the Army Reserves in Metropolitan New York. In his civilian life, he managed the Cruise and Shore Excursion Department of Thomas Cook Travel. John used the GI Bill to earn Masters degrees in education from Rutgers University and Columbia University's Teacher's College. He became an elementary school teacher and principal in several New Jersey school districts. Robert returned to Rutgers on the GI Bill and graduated in 1948. After four years in the Air Force Reserves, he resigned as a lieutenant, junior grade, in May 1950. He became a partner in the Little Falls Laundry Company and later worked in the insurance industry as a senior vice-president at Morgan Stanley.

Army Air Forces Statistical School Certificate

After completing basic training, John Archibald was assigned to Lincoln Air Base, where, as a "surplus" enlisted man, he was assigned to mostly menial work details, like KP and guard duty. By late 1943, having grown weary ofthese monotonous duties, he applied for OCS. He was accepted and completed an all-purpose officer's course in Miami Beach. He then attended the Technical Training Command's Statistical School at Harvard University's Graduate School of Business Administration. John received this certificate upon graduating from the course on April 29, 1944. From the Personal Collection ofJohn L. Archibald

Recommendation for Promotion of Officer Form

This Recommendation for Promotion of Officer form summarizes John Archibald's career in the Army Air Forces up to 1946 and describes his statistical control duties. As the 372nd Fighter Group's statistical control officer, he was in charge of tracking and organizing the unit's manpower, operations and equipment statistics. In this capacity, he reviewed the daily roster, assessed the unit's housing situation, maintained an inventory of their supplies and reported on the operational status of the aircraft. As a member ofthe commanding officer's staff, John would prepare reports on a variety of special details. From the Personal Collection ofJohn L. Archibald

Orders from the Office of Naval Officer Procurement

This December 8, 1942 document marks the beginning of Robert Archibald's career in the US Navy Reserve. As per its insistence that he complete a full year of college, the Office of Naval Officer Procurement assigned him to the V -1 Accredited College Program, in which he could continue studying while on inactive duty. From the Personal Collection ofRobert V. Archibald

"Orders for active duty with pay-Appropriation 'Naval Reserve"'

After completing one full scholastic year at Rutgers, Robert Archibald received his orders to active duty on June 7, 1943. Issued by the Naval Aviation Cadet Selection Board of the Third Naval District, the orders posted Robert to the V -5 Aviation program at Colgate University as a Naval Reservist. Unlike the V-1 program, he would be considered on active duty while studying -54- at Colgate. As indicated in the document, he only had one day to get his affairs in order and report for duty in New York City. From the Personal Collection ofRobert V. Archibald

GI Bill of Rights

This document informed servicemen of the benefits and services they were entitled to under the GI Bill ofRights. Officially known as the Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944, the GI Bill extended a variety of educational, employment and housing benefits to veterans. Former servicemen could take advantage oflow-rate "GI mortgages" and preferential status in purclmsing houses and building materials. Veterans also received preferential treatment when applying for employment. Ex-Gls could collect a twenty-dollar unemployment stipend each week for up to fifty-two weeks; taking advantage of this benefit became known as 'joining the 52-20 Club." Best known for its educational benefits, the GI Bill covered the tuition of veterans who enrolled in college or vocational training and supported them with living allowances during the course of their studies. As a result, over 7.5 million veterans enrolled in institutions ofhigher learning and technical training programs. From the Personal Collection ofJohn L. Archibald

Rutgers Undergraduate On Leave Bulletin

The University kept in touch with its alumni in uniform through the Rutgers Undergraduates On Leave Bulletin (RUOL). Newsletter editor Tom Van Nuis brought his readers up-to-date on events "on the Banks" and tracked the movements and promotions of Rutgers men in the service. In the January 1944 edition, Van Nuis notes that Robert Archibald, then an aviation cadet, visited the Rutgers campus while on leave. From the Personal Collection ofRobert V. Archibald

Transport Loading Data Dossier

William Archibald began his military career in the US Army's Transport Quartermasters (TQM). The TQM's Amphibious Section assumed a critical role in the Armed Forces' plans when it became apparent that seaborne invasions would be a major component of its strategy to win the war. The TQM developed procedures for "combat loading" vessels so that vital items, such as ammunition, could be unloaded quickly and sent up to the front. The Transport Loading Data dossier, compiled by the AFAF, serves as an instruction manual for outfitting a ship for an invasion. The figure shown, the "Loading Plan Profile ofUSS Samuel Chase," features a diagram ofthe USS Samuel Chase, a Coast Guard attack transport. From the William Archibald Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

"Report on Combat Loading"

This October 17, 1942 report summarizes a training exercise conducted at the Hampton Roads Port of Embarkation from October 8th to the 16th. Lieutenant William Mees, the exercise's commanding officer, outlines the operation's accomplishments and scrutinizes the problems his men encountered. After supply bottlenecks during the August 1942 invasion of Guadalcanal nearly cost the Allies the island, early amphibious plans were replaced with meticulously -55- constructed landing schemes formulated on the beaches of Virginia. The lessons learned from such drills helped William Archibald and his compatriots avoid logistical snarls during subsequent invasions in the Pacific. From the William Archibald Collection

Meeting Lieutenant General Leslie J. MeNair

William Archibald began a meteoric ascent through the ranks soon after entering the Army in 1941, becoming a major in under three years and a lieutenant colonel by the end of the war. As an expert on combat loading techniques, he was frequently called upon to lecture generals, admirals, government officials and enlisted men on his specialty. In this photograph, which later appeared in the Rutgers Alumni Monthly, Major Archibald shakes hands with Lieutenant General Leslie J. McNair, Commander of US Army Ground Forces, following Archibald's lecture to the Army-Navy Staff College. The accompanying August 12, 1943 letter lists the other generals and admirals who attended the lecture, which he describes as, "one of the high spots of my Army career." From the William Archibald Collection

Amphibious Forces Shoulder Patch and Matchbook

The red shield patch bears the insignia of the Marine Amphibious Corps of the Pacific Fleet, a golden alligator and three stars, representing the III Corps. The matchbook, distributed at the Amphibious Training Base at Camp Bradford, Virginia, also features an alligator. The alligator, the preferred symbol for the Amphibious Forces, denoted both their striking power and their amphibious nature. From the William Archibald Collection

Comments on Technical Quartermaster School

During his tenure as an instructor at the Technical Quartermaster School (TQM), William Archibald taught combat loading techniques to servicemen and women from all branches of the US Armed Forces and the militaries ofthe Allies. Following their completion of the course, each student was asked to critique the material and their instructors: These four samples, contributed by a US Army Calvary major, a Marine Corps lieutenant, a Marine Corps Reserve second lieutenant and a US Army private, first class, give some indication of the range of students William encountered. From the William Archibald Collection

"Sing 'Banks of Raritan' on Oahu"

This article, published in the Newark Evening News on February 24, 1945, lists "Major William T. Archibald ofMiddlebush, New Jersey," among the twenty-five alumni who formed a Rutgers Club for Rutgers men stationed in the Hawaiian Islands during the war. Informal clubs such as this formed wherever Rutgers men crossed paths, including Fort Benning, Georgia, and Manila. William Archibald even founded a club on Iwo Jima with a total of two members. From the William Archibald Collection -56-

"A Christmas Prayer"

President Robert C. Clothier (1885-1970) was a fixture at Rutgers through its most trying period. He arrived "on the Banks" in 1932 and guided Rutgers through the Great Depression, World War II and the transition into the State University ofNew Jersey before his retirement in 1951. In 1941, just days after Pearl Harbor, President Clothier sent this Christmas card, consisting of a prayer and a short, handwritten note, to all of the Rutgers men already serving in the Armed Forces. By the end of the war, nearly six thousand Rutgers alumni would serve in uniform and over two hundred would sacrifice their lives. From the William Archibald Collection

"Major Archibald Wins Bronze Star"

William Archibald earned the Bronze Star for his actions under enemy fire on the beaches of Iwo Jima, where he supervised the successful landing and unloading of six ships full of men and supplies. This article appeared in the Somerville edition of the Messenger-Gazette on July 19, 1945. The photograph depicts Major Archibald receiving his medal from his commander, Lieutenant General Holland "Howling Mad" Smith. From the Alumni Biographical Files, Rutgers University Archives

FMF-PAC Patch

This red patch was worn by members ofthe Fleet Marine Force ofthe Pacific (FMF-PAC) during World War II. Major Archibald wore this patch while serving on Holland Smith's staff. He was one of the few US Army officers authorized to wear a Marine Corps patch on his uniform. From the William Archibald Collection

The Amphibian

The November 4, 1943 edition of The Amphibian, the Amphibious Force's periodical, contains a collection of true stories of both a serious and humorous nature pertaining to Operation: HUSKY, the invasion of Sicily. The lead story focuses on a Lieutenant Halperin, whose actions under fire as a forward spotter during the Sicily landings earned him a battlefield promotion. The back cover presents a comical, yet accurate, description of the Amphibious Force's edict. Given the sensitive nature of some of the information contained within, The Amphibian was labeled, "Restricted." From the William Archibald Collection

"Tonight I really have something to write about."

William Archibald penned this June 25, 1945 letter to his parents from Luzon in the Philippines following the completion of operations at Okinawa. While preparing for the invasion of the Japanese Home Islands, he had two chance encounters with fellow Rutgers alums. His Delta Upsilon fraternity brother, Lieutenant Robert Jackson, RC '40, tracked him down after his ship intercepted a dispatch with William's name in it. Soon after visiting Jackson's ship, a mutual acquaintance connected him with Lieutenant William J. Godfrey, RC '40, a close friend from -57- college. William described his stay aboard Godfrey's submarine as a night in a fancy Pullman's car, complete with air conditioning. From the William Archibald Collection

Biography and item descriptions by Peter Asch

CASE 5: TURNING BACK THE JAPANESE IN THE PACIFIC

The bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japanese carrier-based aircraft on December 7, 1941, forced the United States into World War II as an official combatant. With this surprise attack, the Japanese intended to neutralize the threat posed by the American Pacific Fleet to the flanks of their invasion of resource-rich Southeast Asia. Emperor Hirohito's forces quickly overwhelmed Allied resistance in the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, Malaya, the Philippines and Burma. By early 1942, the Japanese were poised to conquer India, Australia and New Zealand and strike a decisive blow in their long war with the Chinese.

American airmen and sailors succeeded in blunting the Japanese advance in two pivotal air-sea engagements. At the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 1942), the first naval battle in which the opposing fleets did not come within sight of each other, US Navy pilots thwarted the invasion of Port Moresby, New Guinea. In June 1942, Navy and Army flyers achieved one ofthe most decisive victories in naval history at Midway, surprising the Japanese fleet and destroying four aircraft carriers and 250 planes.

From late 1942 to early 1944, operations in the Pacific centered on the campaigns in the dense jungles ofNew Guinea and the Solomon Islands. From August 1942 to February 1943, US Marines drove the Japanese off of Guadalcanal while fierce battles raged in the skies and seas around the tiny island. American forces then advanced through the rest of the Solomons, capturing New Georgia (August 1943) and Bougainville (March 1944) and neutralizing the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul (February 1944). In eastern New Guinea, American and Australian forces captured Buna (January 1943), Lae (September 1943) and Finschhafen (October 1943), then carried out a series oflandings along the island's north coast that culminated in the fall ofHollandia in April 1944.

The Emperor's Army and Navy sacrificed many of their best units in the South Pacific. The US Navy completed its destruction of the Imperial Navy by shooting down 400 Japanese planes during the Battle of the Philippine Sea (June 1944) and decimating its surface fleet in the Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 1944). Japanese garrisons throughout the Pacific, deprived of air and naval support and facing the withering effects of the US submarine force's attacks on Japanese shipping, increasingly relied on desperate tactics, such as banzai charges. Thus, Marine and Army divisions faced tenacious resistance during the battles for Saipan (July 1944), Tinian and Guam (both in August 1944) in the Marianas and Leyte in the Philippines (October 1944). -Nicholas Molnar -58-

MR. ALEXANDER M. BELL, JR., RUfGERS COLLEGE OF PHARMACY CLASS OF 1942

Alexander M. Bell, Jr., (1920-) grew up in East Orange, New Jersey, in a family of pharmacists that sent four sons to war. Drafted into the Army in 1942, Bell went to Camp Pickett, Virginia, for basic training, then, to Fort Harrison, Indiana, for pharmaceutical lab technician training. While on a pass to Indianapolis, he met his future wife, Bertha Moskovitz (1922- ), at a dance held in a United Service Organizations (USO) club where she worked as a hostess. Bell originally served as a lab technician, but the Army soon recognized and took advantage of his pharmacy degree by assigning him to regular pharmacist's duties.

Bell rose to the rank of staff sergeant and served in the South Pacific onboard various troopships, one of which was formerly a millionaire's pleasure yacht. These troopships transported sick and wounded soldiers from combat zones to rear area medical facilities in the Pacific. In times of need, Bell and his men augmented the ship's medical staff by dressing wounds and distributing pills. In this capacity, Bell participated in the 1944 and 1945 campaigns in New Guinea and the Philippines, including the invasion of Luzon.

When stationed on an island, Bell would either work in the pharmacy or, if his services were not required, in the mailroom, sorting and delivering mail to the soldiers. Keeping in touch with the loved ones and lives they left behind improved the morale of most men serving in the primitive and remote islands of the South Pacific. Alexander especially cherished the letters he received from Bertha, which he described as a morale booster

Bertha and Alexander married on January 12, 1946, soon after his discharge. He remained in the Reserves for three more years, but was never recalled. The Bells owned a family pharmacy in Edison, New Jersey, until the mid-1970s. Alexander also established the pharmacy at the Hurtado Health Center on Rutgers University's College Avenue Campus.

"I am really lost here without you."

In this January 18, 1943 letter, written shortly after his transfer from Fort Harrison, Indiana, to Memphis, Alexander asserts that he is probably one of the only men who is enjoying his time in the service, because, if not for the Army, he never would have met her. He confesses that he was reluctant to reveal his true feelings about her while he was stationed nearby. He writes that he, "held back [his feelings] because things were so indefinite [in the Army]." By this time, he had also started to work in the pharmacy, where he compounded prescriptions and made drug preparations. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Wartime Censorship

As is common in World War II letters, Alexander cloaks his whereabouts in ambiguity in his September 16, 1943 letter, written while stateside. He simply tells Bertha that his new location is more Army-like than the last; the soldiers continue to carry out their basic training activities. The censor, however, felt he was not careful enough and cut out two passages. Although there -59- were minimum guidelines for a censor, usually an officer from the enlisted man's unit, to follow, the extent of the expurgations depended upon the individual's discretion and varied from censor to censor.

A man of many words, Alexander dedicates a significant portion ofthe April28, 1944letter to voicing his opinions on mail censorship within the military. He composes for Bertha a sample letter that a soldier could post without fear of having parts excised. Despite his jokes about censoring, Bell and most other service personnel recognized its place in the military security system, because mail might be intercepted and even ostensibly innocuous pieces of information could aid the enemy. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

Western Union Telegrams

Western Union telegrams offered military personnel the only means of sending short messages to loved ones rapidly across the United States and the world during World War II. Sometimes, the messenger boy brought good news, such as a soldiers' return from overseas; for too many families, the telegrams told of the capture, injury or death of their son or daughter. Alexander sent both of these messages to Bertha on December 17, 1945. In the first telegram, transmitted from Los Angeles, Alexander notifies Bertha that he has arrived safely aboard the Sea Perch. The second, sent from Wilmington, California, announces that he will be discharged from the Army after reaching Indiana. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

"I Cease Resistance" Leaflet-United States Psychological Warfare Branch

Propaganda leaflets such as this, dropped from Allied planes over enemy positions, urged Japanese soldiers to lay down their arms and surrender, using this document as a guarantee of safe passage. With Leaflet 17-J-1, the Psychological Warfare Branch aimed to overcome the challenge posed by the stigma attached to surrender within Japanese military culture. Its designers hoped to convey to the Japanese, by blacking out the surrendering soldiers' eyes in the photograph, that the US Army would protect their anonymity. The Army reinforced their plea with the threat that what the Japanese had faced in combat up to then was nothing compared to what they would face if they continued to resist. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

Note from a Japanese Soldier

Bell recovered this sheet of paper from a Japanese foxhole on April4, 1945. Translated from Japanese, the two large characters read, "Throwing stone." The line of smaller characters translates as, "Eighteenth year [of the] Showa [Era], tenth month, twentieth day," or October 20, 1944. The "Eighteenth year" refers to the eighteenth year ofEmperor Hirohito's reign, which began in 1926. The US invasion of the island of Leyte in the Philippines began on October 20, 1944. At the time, Bell was stationed in New Guinea. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection -60-

August 5, 1945, Letter and Map of Santo Thomas Internment Camp

In the letter, Bell describes his overnight stay at his cousin's mansion, located in the heart of the internment camp at Santo Thomas in Manila. The corresponding map shows the mansion's location near the center of the camp, marked with a star and circled in red. Since his cousin had been rendered severely handicapped by polio years earlier, the Japanese deemed him no threat and allowed him to enter and exit the compound at will. He used his freedom of mobility to pass information along to Filipino and American forces and later assisted the war crimes trial proceedings. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

We Return

This booklet, distributed to American servicemen by the US Army, served as a pocket reference guide for the troops and features information on the history of the Philippines, including the Japanese invasion and occupation, the Filipino people and their culture and Tagalog, the national language of the Philippines. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

Pacific War Zone Snapshots

Bell's photograph collection, a mixture of shots he snapped personally and pictures traded with other servicemen, captures the breadth of a GI' s experiences in the Pacific. The photos included here depict a bombed out town in the Philippines, American soldiers fighting in a trench, a sign capturing the brutality of the war in the Pacific, soldiers enjoying some rest and relaxation on a beach and an Allied Landing Ship, Medium (Rocket) firing missiles. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

Notes from a Long-Distance Romance

Alexander's April25, 1944 V-mail includes a poem written by one of his buddies entitled G.I Wish that expresses the feelings of loneliness and longing shared by many soldiers overseas. He used illustrated V -mails to offer Bertha holiday greetings from New Guinea for 1944. In the undated birthday card, Alexander conveys his desire to celebrate her next birthday by her side. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

"This one is going to be the last Thanksgiving that we are apart."

Lamenting his fourth Thanksgiving away from Bertha, Alexander writes optimistically of returning to America in time to celebrate Christmas and New Year's with l;ler. Confident that he will be stateside and they will be married by the end of 1945, he devotes most of the letter to discussing their future lives together. Historian Mark Van Ells has noted that, "During the war, soldiers often imagined civilian life as a kind of paradise where all of their immediate problems would be solved." While this led to disillusionment after the war for many Gis, Alexander did get his wish when Bertha and he wed in January 1946. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection - 61 -

Thanksgiving Menu

This menu, published in the Philippines in November 1945, includes roast turkey, mashed potatoes and pumpkin pie with whipped cream. In an army of occupation with little to do besides count the days until their expected discharge, festivities such as this helped to buoy morale. From the Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection

Biography and item descriptions by Susan Yousif

CASE 6: THE NORMANDY INVASION

By mid-1944, with successful amphibious landings in North Africa and Italy behind them, the Allies stood ready to launch an attack on Hitler's "Fortress Europe" and open a second front against Germany in Western Europe. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Allied Supreme Commander, knew that surprise would have to be on the Allies' side since they would be outnumbered during the initial stages of the invasion. After breaching a Continental coastline bristling with defenses, his nine divisions would face fifty-five German divisions under Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. An elaborate deception plan, codenamed Operation: FORTITUDE, was developed to lead the Germans into believing that the main attack would be directed at the Pas de Calais, just a short distance across the English Channel. As German intelligence monitored FORTITUDE's imaginary army of inflatable tanks and trucks in southeast England, Eisenhower marshaled his forces in Britain's southern ports for a thrust aimed at the distant beaches ofNormandy.

The invasion ofNormandy, "D-Day," began on the night of June 5-6, 1944, when three airborne divisions parachuted into Normandy to destroy bridges and gun batteries, capture crossroads and wreak havoc upon the German garrison. That morning, 6,000 aircraft and 6,000 naval vessels from the United States, the British Empire, France and other Allied nations directed an intense bombardment at the five main assault beaches. Landing at the easternmost beaches, codenamed Gold, Juno and Sword, the British and Canadians reaped the rewards of FORTITUDE; two Panzer divisions designated to reinforce the German defenses were held in reserve because Hitler believed the Normandy attacks were merely a prelude to an invasion at Calais.

The American Gis who hit Utah Beach also met limited resistance, thanks to the destruction of enemy gun emplacements by Rangers and paratroopers during the early hours of the invasion. At Omaha Beach, however, inaccurate aerial and naval gunfire left the German defenses intact and rough seas claimed numerous landing craft. Roughly one-third of the men in the first wave reached the beach and German fire swiftly decimated the units that did make it ashore. The situation became so critical that Eisenhower and his staff contemplated withdrawing from the beach. Only the heroism of the individual soldiers and squads who cleared the cliffs overshadowing Omaha Beach of Germans averted the crisis.

The Allies suffered 4,900 casualties on D-Day, more than half of them at Omaha Beach. By nightfall, the Normandy Beachhead stretched fifty-five miles and 175,000 men had waded ashore. By the end of June, over a million men had crossed the Normandy beaches on their way to liberate Western Europe. -Nicholas Molnar -62-

MR. HERBERT I. BILUS, RUTGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1942

Born in Jersey City, New Jersey, Herbert Bilus (1921-) was raised in nearby Hoboken, where his parents owned a women's apparel store. In 1938, he entered Rutgers College as a history and political science major with aspirations of becoming a lawyer. While at Rutgers, he joined the Phi Epsilon Pi fraternity and participated in ROTC for the mandatory two years.

In 1942, Bilus enlisted in the Coast Guard as an apprentice seaman and spent four months in basic training at the Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut. He then advanced through the officers' training program to earn his commission as an ensign. In September 1943, Bilus shipped out for North Africa, where he joined the crew of the LCI(L)-96, a Landing Craft, Infantry (Large)-type vessel, as a deck officer. His duties included sustaining the crew's morale, running the ship's store and commanding the ship during tours as the watch officer.

The LCI-96 sailed for England in November of 1943 as part of the Allied build-up prior to the Normandy landings. On June 6, 1944, Bilus and his crew saw action during the invasion and survived a dive-bombing attempt by the Luftwaffe. On D-Day, LCI-96landed men on Utah Beach and transported others to Omaha Beach. In the weeks that followed, the LCI-96 delivered supplies to the beachhead and transported prisoners of war to England for internment.

The LCI-96left the European Theater of Operations in October 1944, destined for further service in the Pacific. Shortly after Bilus returned to the United States, he was ordered to the Third Naval District in New York City and given command ofthe US Coast Guard Cutter Kimball (WSC-143), which conducted air-sea rescue operations off of Staten Island. He was separated from the active service in June 1945 as a lieutenant, senior grade, and remained in the Reserves for ten years. After returning home, he embarked upon a successful career as the owner of his own women's apparel store, Lady Jane, in Bloomfield, New Jersey.

1943 Holiday Greeting V-mails

These V -mails offer two examples of illustrated holiday greetings sent from the European Theater. The November 15, 1943 message, mailed to Bilus's parents, was based upon artwork by T. W. Warren of the US Naval Reserve. Over the silhouette of the London skyline, Warren depicts the barrage balloons deployed to force German aircraft to fly at higher altitudes, thus reducing their accuracy, and searchlight beams forming a "V," the ubiquitous symbol of Winston Churchill's V-for-Victory campaign. On November 17, 1943, Bilus sent the "Greetings from Britain" V-mail to his sister and brother-in-law in Jersey City. Sketched by a "Wingirt," the cartoon depicts harmony and brotherhood within the Allied camp. From the Herbert Bilus Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

"I've got a salutation/But am out of conversation... "

While stationed in England, Bilus composed several whimsical poems for his parents. In his January 13, 1944, V -mail, he bemoans the fact that his mail arrives infrequently in verse: "But I've lost my admiration/For our dearly, beloved nation/Cause our mail appears on ration." From the Herbert Bilus Collection -63-

"Another sack of morale builders arrived today."

Bilus reveals the impact of mail on a sailor's morale in his June 30, 1944 V -mail to home. Positive letters helped men cope with both long hours of boredom and monotonous work and the stress of combat. Conversely, bad news, like "Dear John" letters, where women broke up with their beaus through the mail, could be devastating. From the Herbert Bilus Collection

"So, you see I'm not loafing all the time."

Bilus's February 19, 1944letter to his parents offers a glimpse into life onboard an amphibious ship. He describes his hectic thirty-six hour shift as operations officer for LCI(L) Flotilla 4, a formation of twenty-four LCis. Bilus then details his responsibilities onboard the LCI-96, such as running the canteen (ship's store), purchasing supplies on shore and censoring mail. He tells his parents that, "1. .. read [your letters] several times before destroying;" this indicates just how little personal space each man had on such a small vessel. The Navy, he notes, requested that every sailor use V -mail more often, in order to save space on mail transports. He signals his intention to send primarily V -mails, " ... [A ]fter all, I do have to set some sort of example for the men aboard!!!" From the Herbert Bilus Collection

Cincinnati Times Star-June 6, 1944

Newspapers across the country spared no ink to proclaim that the long-awaited invasion of Continental Europe was in progress. The news elicited both trepidation and elation on the home front. In Philadelphia, the Liberty Bell was rung for the first time in over one hundred years. At the same time, families across the nation awaited word on how their sons fared. This a reprint issued to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the invasion. From the Rutgers Oral History Archives

"No doubt the big news of the invasion is the main topic of discussion."

Written the day after D-Day, Bilus's June 7, 1944 V-mail reveals some ofthe concerns faced by the common serviceman, as well as the limitations of wartime correspondence. He primarily aims to soothe his parents' minds, since they knew, in all likelihood, that their son had participated in the invasion. He also seeks to alleviate the worries of others by reporting that a family friend's son was also safe. While his message lacks any specific details about the landings, ostensibly due to Navy restrictions, Bilus, like many servicemen, also practiced self­ censorship, carefully wording their letters home to spare their families anxiety. From the Herbert Bilus Collection

"... [T]he kids line the roads and give the familiar V for Victory sign ... "

After weeks of round-the-clock supply runs across the Channel, Bilus finally went ashore to tour the countryside and villages ofFrance, as he details in his July 13, 1944letter to his parents. While cycling over shell-pocked roads, French children greeted Bilus and his shipmates with the -64-

Allied V -sign. "However," he notes, "we did see one little shaver with his arm out-stretched, Nazi style. Probably no one told him that that salute was old fashioned." He also records their amazement at finding items in French shops that were then unattainable in Great Britain, particularly nail files, combs, pens and pipes. From the Herbert Bilus Collection

"If the war maintains its present pace, it'll be over... by Christmas."

In his August 4, 1944 letter home, Bilus discusses the frantic pace of his work in delivering supplies to the Continent. Until the Allies captured major ports, such as Cherbourg, which fell on July 27, 1944, the millions of tons of equipment and provisions and thousands of fresh troops needed to fuel the Allied advance in Europe arrived via amphibious vessel over the Normandy coastline. He also notes that he is eagerly awaiting news of Warsaw's capture by Soviet forces. He declares his hope that the Russians with make the Germans, "holler 'uncle,"' and surrender by Christmas. (Warsaw did not fall to the Red Army until January 1945.) From the Herbert Bi/us Collection

"[T]hat Xmas deadline I spoke of several weeks ago seems surer than ever now."

In his August 30, 1944 letter home, Bilus again echoes the widespread belief that the war in Europe will end before 194 5; he draws his confidence from the enormous amount of supplies the LCI(L )-96 and other ships have delivered to the Continent. His letter also touches upon the manpower problems caused by the Coast Guard's policy of rotating men and officers back to the United States after eighteen months. During a visit by Vice Admiral Russell R. Waesche, the Commandant of the Coast Guard, the eligible officers indicated that they were more interested in returning home after completing their tours than receiving medals. From the Herbert Bilus Collection

Biography and item descriptions by Susan Yousif

CASE 7: THE WAR IN WESTERN EUROPE

The narrow lanes and thick hedgerows of the French countryside slowed the Allied advance considerably after D-Day. However, in late July 1944, after fierce fighting, the Allies broke out of the bocage at Saint-Lo. Hitler's decision to counterattack at Avranches enabled the Allies to effect a pincer movement; the maneuver created the "Falaise Pocket," where the Allies captured 50,000 prisoners and nearly destroyed the German Army in the west. The Allies swept through Northern France, capturing Paris on August 25, 1944. On August 15th, the Allies launched Operation: ANVIL-DRAGOON, the invasion of southern France, and linked up with General GeorgeS. Patton's Third Army in the north on September 11th.

The German Army rallied in September to thwart Operation: MARKET-GARDEN, Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery's ambitious attempt to cross the Rhine River by securing a series of bridges in the Netherlands. In December, Hitler launched a massive counteroffensive against the sparsely defended US line in the Ardennes Forest. During the ensuing Battle of the Bulge, outnumbered and isolated American defenders, like the 101 st Airborne Division at - 65-

Bastogne, Belgium, fiercely resisted the German advance until reinforcements arrived. When the poor weather cleared, Allied airpower and ground reinforcements smashed the exposed Nazi forces. In March 1945, the Allies secured their long-coveted Rhine River bridge at the town of Remagen. After establishing a bridgehead, the Allies quickly encircled 350,000 Germans in what became known as the "Ruhr Pocket."

As Allied soldiers penetrated into Germany, they uncovered the horrors of the Holocaust. On April4, 1945, US Army units freed the surviving inmates of the slave-labor camp at Ohrdruf. After General Eisenhower toured the camp, he ordered the local German civilians to view and bury the thousands of bodies that remained. American forces also liberated Buchenwald (April 15th), Dachau (April 29th) and Mauthausen (May 3rd). When British troops came across the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp on April 15th, they found 10,000 unburied corpses, a raging typhus epidemic and 60,000 sick and dying prisoners crammed into overcrowded barracks without food or water.

On April25, 1945, American forces linked up with the Russians at the town ofTorgau on the River Elbe. With his dreams of a thousand-year Reich shattered, Hitler committed suicide five days later in his Berlin bunker, beneath the feet of the invading Red Army. On May 8, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally. Although the fighting had ceased, the task of rebuilding the shattered nations of Europe and bringing the perpetrators of the war and the Holocaust to justice lay ahead. -Nicholas Molnar

LIEUTENANT COLONEL LEWIS BLOOM, RUTGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1942 & MRS. ADA GLASSER BLOOM, NEW JERSEY COLLEGE FOR WOMEN CLASS OF 1941

Lewis Bloom (1917-) and Ada Glasser (1919- ), both New Brunswick residents, wed at Camp Kilmer (now the Livingston Campus of Rutgers University) on July 7, 1943.

Ada, an economics and library studies major, began working at Pathe News in 1941 as a film librarian, cataloging and archiving newsreels. In the spring of 1943, she left Pathe for the Office of War Information (OWl), where she set up and managed a library for foreign, captured and enemy propaganda films coming into the OWL The materials she supervised were used frequently by the military and the private sector throughout the war.

Drafted in July 1942, Lewis completed his basic training at Fort Meade, Maryland, and earned his second lieutenant's bars at the Coastal Artillery Officers' Candidate School. After serving a year with an antiaircraft battalion, he trained at Camp Ritchie, Maryland, as an aerial photo interpreter and order of battle analyst. Ordered to the European Theater, Bloom joined the 28th Infantry Division, but a bout of pneumonia forced him from the front in the weeks before the Battle of the Bulge. After recovering, he served with Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) before being redeployed as the order of battle analyst for the 1OOth Infantry Division. - 66-

The Blooms reunited in 1946 when Lewis returned from overseas. Ada left the OWl in March of 1946 to become a school librarian in Metuchen. Lewis worked in the textile industry for forty­ one years and served as a councilman in Edison, New Jersey. He also continued his military career in the Reserves and answered the call to active duty once more during the Berlin Crisis in 1961 and 1962. He retired from the Reserves in 1977 as a lieutenant colonel.

Marriage during World War II

On July 7, 1943, Lewis and Ada Bloom were joined as husband and wife in a simple ceremony officiated by the Jewish chaplain on duty at Camp Kilmer. Two soldiers cleaning the temple for Friday night services acted as witnesses. The couple had originally planned to wed later in the month, after Lewis completed OCS. His mother wanted to postpone the marriage until a more elaborate ceremony could be held. Knowing that the overseas orders in Lewis's pocket would prohibit this, Lewis and Ada opted for a simple, private ceremony. Less than a month later, he left for Europe and the couple remained apart until 1946.

Like the Blooms, wartime pressures accelerated the wedding plans of many couples. After Pearl Harbor, the marriage rate in the United States increased by twenty percent. Couplings between men and women born in distant areas resulted from the continental migration of soldiers and defense workers. Between 1940 and 1948, the average age ofmarriage decreased by one year, the most significant drop in the median marrying age in recent history. Many young people looked to marriage as a shield against the loneliness and instability wrought by the war.

Towns outside of military bases swelled with servicemen's wives. These women faced limited local housing and job markets and found ways of stretching every cent of their twenty-dollar dependent's allowance. By V -J Day, one in three servicemen wore a wedding ring. Many wartime marriages ended in divorce, but, overall, after 1944, divorce rates plummeted below the 1930 level. The upswing in nuptials naturally led to the Baby Boom, which lasted from 1946 to 1964.

Order of Battle

An order ofbattle analyst specializes in categorizing the men, units and armament of an enemy's military. As an order of battle analyst for the 28th and 1OOth Infantry Divisions, Lewis Bloom evaluated the morale, structure, troop strength, combat readiness, preferred tactics of the German units facing his division. Bloom served in each division headquarters' G-2 (intelligence) section. Many of the artifacts and documents in this case are drawn from a collection of raw data gathered by Bloom and used in developing timely and accurate assessments of German forces. After V -E Day, he was assigned to prepare an order of battle report on the Japanese Army for his division's planned role in the invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

"Technical Notes: Small Arms, Mortars, Projectors"

Lewis Bloom compiled this tan packet to assist him in identifying the rifles, pistols, mortars and projectors, i.e., rocket launchers, used by German units engaged in combat with his division. A unit's weaponry could offer valuable clues as to where the unit came from, its combat-readiness -67- and the vigor of German supply lines. Bloom culled the information within from materials taken off of captured or deceased enemy soldiers and data passed along from SHAEF and other intelligence units; the packet is annotated with his own handwritten and typed comments. While in the European Theater, Bloom assembled a library of similar packets on German tanks, artillery and other weapons. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

The Battle of Bitche

After Lewis Bloom had assembled and analyzed all available data, he would compose a report and submit it to the division commander. The reports and map displayed here relate to the 100th Infantry Division's actions during and after the Battle ofBitche in France from December 3, 1944, to March 15, 1945. During the German Ardennes Offensive, popularly known as the Battle of the Bulge, the 100th Division's resistance at Bitche held the Allies' southern flank and subsequently provided a jumping off point for the counteroffensive by Patton's Third Army. The colonel in charge ofthe 100th Division's G-2 Section recommended Bloom for a Bronze Star for his work during the battle.

Division Interrogation Report-February 6, 1945

This report outlined intelligence gathered through prisoner interviews conducted that day. Interrogation specialists working for the G-2 Section would draw information on outlying German units from captured Wehrmacht and SS personnel. Regulations dictated that Bloom could not partake in the interviews, but he would often assist the interrogators by supplying them with information about the soldier's unit in an effort to surprise the interviewee and trick them into revealing new details. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

G-2 Periodic Report-March 17, 1945

A summary of the G-2 Section's findings, this report alerted the 100th Division's commanders to enemy movements, the size of their units and other relevant information. Armed with these daily reports, headquarters could quickly locate the information needed to properly prepare a defensive position or organize an offensive operation. In this case, the document covers the aftermath of the Bitche confrontation. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Aerial Reconnaissance Photo of Bitche, France

This aerial reconnaissance photograph was scrutinized by the G-2 Section's photo interpreters for evidence of troop and artillery dispositions. Lewis Bloom drew upon their findings when compiling his recommendations for the commander of the 1OOth Division. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom - 68-

Taschenbuch USA-Heer

Lewis Bloom's counterparts in the Wehrmacht's order ofbattle sections also produced materials for studying the Allies' armed forces. As the war progressed, a number of these documents fell into Allied hands. This book familiarized German soldiers with the uniforms, equipment and armaments of their opponents in the USA-Heer or US Army. Bloom collected similar volumes on the English Army and other Allied units. Order of battle analysts found that these books offered useful insights into how the enemy viewed the Allies. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Order of Battle "Bible"

While in training at Camp Ritchie, Lewis Bloom was issued a textbook, Order ofBattle ofthe German Army-February 1944. Already obsolete by its publication date, the text was used only as a training supplement. Bloom decided to break the text up into two binders and use them as a foundation for his work. He supplemented the text with any information he obtained on the Wehrmacht and maintained the volume as a relevant reference source. These unique binders proved so indispensable in identifying enemy units and providing information for use in interrogations that Bloom dubbed them his "bible." From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Hunting "The Desert Fox"

Field Marshal Erwin Rommel (1891-1944) became famous for his blitzkrieg tactics in the German conquest of France in 1940 and as commander of the Afrika Korps in North Africa, where the British Eighth dubbed him "the Desert Fox." After the Allies liberated North Africa, Rommel took charge of defensive preparations along the coast of Northern France in anticipation of an Allied cross-Channel invasion. Following a failed attempt on Hitler's life in July 1944, which the Field Marshal had prior knowledge of, but declined to report, the Gestapo forced Rommel to commit suicide. One of Lewis Bloom's responsibilities was to track down high­ ranking enemy personnel, including Rommel, who remained a target for study by order of battle analysts even after his death.

Photographs of Erwin Rommel

After the 100th Division captured Sillenbuch in the Swabia region of Germany, where Rommel's family resided, Bloom tracked down his sister, Helene Rommel, and arranged for her protection during the American occupation. Ironically, Frau Rommel and most members of the Rommel family were pacifists. She supplied Bloom with information about her brother and several photographs, including the images displayed here of Field Marshal Rommel riding in an open car with an SS officer and the Field Marshal being laid to rest. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Kultur und Erziehung

Helene Rommel, a member of the Swiss Anthroposophical Society, gave this book, an Anthroposophical Society publication, to Bloom as a token of her appreciation for his protection. - 69-

The inscription translates as, "We wish for an understanding and for the finding of a rapprochement between human beings." From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

"Me & Russ. Army Major"

The Red Army and the US Army officially met on April25, 1945, at Torgau, Germany, and finalized the Allied goal of squeezing the Nazi Reich out of existence. This photograph, taken during a post-war military review in Goppingen, Germany, on June 26, 1945, depicts Lewis Bloom and another American officer with a Red Army major. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Dachau

On April29, 1945, the Seventh Army liberated the Dachau concentration camp, the first camp established by the Nazis. Battle-hardened veterans broke down in tears after encountering the horrors of the Nazi's racial theories and extermination policy. The Counter-Intelligence Corps of the US Seventh Army issued this short publication in an effort to explain the systematic · detainment, exploitation and murder of Jews, Gypsies, Communists and other "enemies" of the Reich. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Sources of Intelligence

These are some examples of the documents and materials gathered from captured or deceased German soldiers that provided Lewis Bloom with intelligence for his order of battle reports.

Identification Disk

German "dog tags" were worn around a serviceman's neck and listed his serial number, blood type and unit on two identical halves. Upon a soldier's death, the tag would be broken in two; one half remained on the body for identification and the other was used by the unit to keep accurate casualty lists. This soldier was a member of a replacement construction battalion and had type A blood. From the Personal Collection of Lewis Bloom

Bordello Pass

With this pass, a German soldier could patronize a house of prostitution licensed by the German military while on leave. The German Army followed this practice as a means of keeping its men content and disease-free. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom - 70-

Organisationsbuch der NSDAP

The "Organization Book of the NSDAP," written by Robert Ley, Chief of Organization of the NSDAP, and published in 1943, propagates the NSDAP (Nazi) Party's history, ideology and goals. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Waffen SS Soldier's Diary

All members of the Waffen SS, the military branch of the Schutzstaffel (SS), were issued this small, black volume, a combination diary and regulations manual. In addition to blank pages for personal entries, the book contains the SS pledge of loyalty to Adolph Hitler, the uniform dress code of the SS, advertisements for civilian products and a section outlining the Japanese battle plan for the attacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines. This diary belonged to an SS trooper named Heind. After utilizing personal items such as this, Lewis Bloom often went to great lengths to return them to their owners, although this was not always possible in the chaos of war. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

German Picture Postcard

This postcard depicts Wehrmacht Pioniere (Combat Engineers) erecting a pontoon bridge. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Order of Battle Intelligence Course Certificate

Camp Albert C. Ritchie in Maryland served as the US Army's Military Intelligence Training Center during World War II. In early 1944, Lewis Bloom, then a second lieutenant in an antiaircraft artillery battalion, was ordered to report there for training to become the intelligence officer for a new brigade. When he arrived along with several hundred other "assistants," it became clear that they were there for more than just basic intelligence training. After completing a course in aerial photography analysis and basic intelligence work, he entered the Order of Battle Intelligence Special Course, a program offered to only a select few who were then segregated from the rest of the camp. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Lazarett

Bloom enjoys a cigarette outside of a German lazarett (field hospital) in the Wurtemberg-Baden area after supervising the 3000-man facility's surrender shortly before V-E Day. German officers can be seen conversing in the background. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom - 71 -

A German Jet

Bloom stands before the remains of a Messerschmitt ME-262, the world's first operational jet fighter. The photograph was taken along the Reichsautobahn, Germany's superhighway, between Ulm and Augsburg in June 1945. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

A Smashed Tiger Hunter

In these three photographs, taken in June 1945, Bloom sifts through the rubble of the Geislingen Railroad Yard to show the remains of a German Jagd-Tiger or "Tiger Hunter" tank destroyer. He highlights the self-propelled gun's thick frontal armor and powerful128-mm shell. The Jagd-Tiger was built upon the chassis of a Tiger II or "King Tiger" tank. From the Personal Collection ofLewis Bloom

Biography and item descriptions by Peter Asch

CASE 8: THE AIR WAR

Pre-war Army Air Forces doctrine put forth that formations of heavy bombers could cripple the enemy's war making capability through strategic daylight strikes against key industrial centers and military installations while sustaining acceptable losses. This theory was first put to the test by the Eighth Air Force in Europe, which initiated its strategic bombing campaign on July 4, 1942, with a raid on Luftwaffe airfields in the Netherlands. In the summer and fall of 1943, after cultivating a critical mass of men and aircraft in England, the Eighth mounted raids against such long-range targets as the ball-bearing factories in Schweinfurt and aircraft factories in Kassel and Regensburg. Although most raids inflicted considerable damage, the human and material costs to the Eighth Air Force and the Germans' ability to quickly reconstitute and disperse their war industries forced the AAF to alter its strategy. The bomber force's fortunes improved in early 1944 after large numbers of long-range escort fighters, P-51 Mustangs and drop-tank equipped P-47 Thunderbolts, arrived in the theater. Furthermore, the fighters adopted more aggressive tactics, pursuing and attacking German planes in addition to protecting the bomber formations.

The Eighth Air Force and the Fifteenth Air Force, which began operating from air bases in Italy in December 1943, brought enormous pressure to bear on the Luftwaffe's air defenses. In anticipation of the Normandy invasion, the strategic bombing forces aimed to hamper the movement of enemy ground forces by targeting the Third Reich's railway system and synthetic oil industry. By March 1944, the Allies had gained air superiority and could proceed with devastating raids against Berlin, Dresden and other "deep penetration" targets. Strategic bombing also succeeded in hindering the Nazi war machine by forcing the Germans to divert troops and weapons from the front to air defense.

Throughout the war, the AAF's tactical forces flew ground support missions that contributed greatly to the defeat of the Axis armies. During the landings at Sicily and Salerno, tactical aircraft repelled counterattacks against the ground forces. When Marines, sailors and Gis made amphibious assaults against Japanese-held islands, their comrades in the air served as "flying artillery," bombing machine gun nests and heavily fortified targets. As the Allied sphere of air -72- superiority spread, fighter-bombers made daylight movement by Axis ground forces almost impossible.

AAF leaders adapted strategic bombers to a wide variety of roles in the Pacific. Heavy bombers flew reconnaissance missions, delivered humanitarian aid and dropped supplies to POWs and rebel forces. Low-level incendiary raids shattered key targets throughout Japan, but at a high cost in human life; for example, a March 9-10, 1945, B-29 raid on Tokyo demolished twenty-two strategic targets over sixteen square miles of the city and killed eighty to ninety thousand civilians. The strategic bombing offensive culminated with the dropping of the "Little Boy" atomic bomb on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and the "Fat Man" bomb on Nagasaki three days later. -Nicholas Molnar

MR. JAMES T. KENNY, RUTGERS COLLEGE CLASS OF 1942 & MR. WILLIAM E. KENNY, RUTGERS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE CLASS OF 1947

Charles and Theresa Kenny of Midland Park, New Jersey, sent five of their six children to Rutgers University, including their two youngest sons, James (1920-) and William (1924- ).

James entered Rutgers College in 1938. As a junior, he enrolled in the Civilian Pilot Training Program (CPTP), a course intended to provide the Army Air Forces (AAF) with able-bodied pilots. After he left "the Banks" to enlist as a flight cadet in April 1942, the University gave him credit for his final semester and granted him a diploma. James received his wings and commission in March 1943. Following a stint as a flight instructor, he joined the Eighth Air Force's 34th Bomb Group in Mendlesham, England, as a B-17 pilot. During the final months of the war in Europe, James and his crew carried out two food airdrops over Holland as part of Operation: CHOWHOUND.

William enrolled in the College of Agriculture in 1941. In December 1942, after a year-and-a­ half at Rutgers, he followed James into the AAF as an aviation cadet candidate. William's training curriculum eventually led him to Key Field, Mississippi, where he trained as a tactical reconnaissance pilot. Arriving in Europe at the time of the Battle of the Bulge, he supported the operations of Patton's Third Army from airfields in France and Germany near the front lines as part of the Ninth Air Force's 363rd Tactical Reconnaissance Group. Flying an F-6, a P-51 Mustang outfitted with cameras, William photographed German positions and called in artillery and air strikes.

After a brief stint in the Reserves, James settled into a career in the savings and loan business in New York. William returned to Rutgers on the GI Bill in February 1945 and graduated in 1947. He remained in the Air Force Reserves, retiring as a major. He pursued a career in agriculture, eventually becoming New Jersey's Assistant Secretary of Agriculture.

Allied Identification Flag

As American and Soviet forces approached each other in early 1945, the problem of Americans crashing in Russian-held areas carrie to the fore. In response, the AAF issued this identification -73- flag to its airmen. Made of silk and featuring two American flags and printed instructions in English and Russian, the flag directs its user to employ the phrase, "Ya Amerikanets," meaning, "I am an American." The flag was buttoned onto the breast pocket in case of a crash or if the airman had to bailout. The instructions contain several warnings on how to properly engage Russian troops and caution that, until a competent officer verified his nationality, Soviet troops would take an airman into custody as a prisoner. From the Rutgers University Veterans History Collection, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries

Earning the Air Medal

In this photo, shot on May 28, 1945, Lieutenant Colonel J. M. McNabb of the Ninth Army Air Force Headquarters bestows the Air Medal with an Oak Leaf Cluster upon Second Lieutenant William Kenny. Established by President Roosevelt in May 1942, the Air Medal was awarded to both Army and Navy airmen, "for meritorious achievement while participating in aerial flight." From the Alumni Biographical Files, Rutgers University Archives

Letter of Recommendation

In this January 17, 1942letter, Assistant Dean ofMen Edgar C. Curtin recommends James Kenny for the US Navy's aviation training program. The University sent thousands of similar letters to the Armed Forces in support of its students and alumni in uniform. Curtin points out that James completed two special courses, "Control Private Flying 62" and "Aircraft and Navigation 81 ,"just two of several courses offered at Rutgers to prepare its students for the service. James entered the Army Air Forces' training program after the Navy rejected him for having malocclusion, a dental flaw. From the Alumni Biographical Files, Rutgers University Archives

Map of Amsterdam

In the winter of 1944-1945, the German occupation of the Netherlands took on a brutal tenor as Reich Commissioner Arthur Seyss-lnquart wrecked the nation's railways and withheld food from the population. During the "Hunger Winter," the people of Holland were reduced to eating tulip bulbs and sugar beets; 16,000 Dutch civilians perished. On April28, 1945, bombers from the Eighth Air Force and the Royal Air Force commenced a relief operation codenamed Operation: CHOWHOUND by the AAF and MANNA bythe RAF. Over ten days, the Anglo­ American effort delivered 14.5 million food packages to the starving masses in Holland.

James Kenny's B-17, the Flying Dutchmen (43-38286), flew on two of the six food missions conducted by the 34th Bomb Group between May 1st and 7th. This map, annotated by his navigator, Lieutenant William Gombos, indicates that they flew from Veleroord and dropped their "mercy bombs" near Hannan Leiden. From the Rutgers University Veterans History Collection -74-

Air Force Unit Patches

The Eighth Air Force's insignia incorporates its numerical designation and the winged star symbol of the Army Air Forces. James Kenny served in the Eighth Air Force's 34th Bomb Group. Like the Eighth's patch, the Ninth's insignia features the Army Air Forces' winged star symbol and its numerical designation. James Kenny served in the Ninth Air Force's 363rd Tactical Reconnaissance Group. Patches such as these helped to imbue a unit's members with a sense of esprit de corps. From the Rutgers Oral History Archives

Biography and item descriptions by Susan Yousif

CASE 9: THE END OF THE WAR

With its naval and air forces in ruins after the Battles of the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf, Japan would never again possess the ability to challenge the United States Armed Forces on equal terms. As a result, the Japanese turned to desperate, unconventional tactics.

During the invasions oflwo Jima and Okinawa, kamikaze suicide planes damaged or sunk hundreds of Allied ships and killed over 5,000 sailors, twice the number of men lost at Pearl Harbor. The war on the ground was equally bloody. The US Army and Marine Corps victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa came at a cost of more than 50,000 American casualties. In light of the resolve with which the Japanese defended these outlying islands, American military planners projected that the invasion of Japan would result in 200,000 to over a million casualties.

Throughout 1945, the Navy and Army Air Forces tightened the noose around the Japanese Home Islands. Submarines blockaded supply routes and destroyed ships laden with raw materials and foodstuffs. B-29s firebombed Japanese cities and carrier-based Navy aircraft roamed the skies over Japan practically at will. So vast and destructive was the bombing agenda that General Curtis LeMay believed the AAF would run out of targets by October 1945.

Despite a series of defeats at the front, a naval blockade that threatened to starve the entire population and a relentless air campaign that burned entire cities to the ground, the will of the Japanese remained unbroken. The Japanese Armed Forces fanatically fought on in the hope of forcing a negotiated peace. However, the Allies demanded nothing less than unconditional surrender. On August 6, 1945, the B-29 Enola Gay dropped the world's first atomic weapon over the city of Hiroshima. Unleashing the power of20,000 tons of TNT, that single bomb killed 60,000 people in an instant. On August 9th, a second bomb destroyed the city of Nagasaki, killing 35,000 more. Casualties would continue to mount as tens ofthousands of people succumbed to radiation poisoning.

The Emperor ordered his forces to lay down their arms on August 14, 1945. The formal Instrument of Surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Supreme Allied Commander Douglas MacArthur, with representatives from every Allied nation looking on, accepted the surrender. -Nicholas Molnar -75-

DR. CALVIN MOON, RUTGERS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE CLASS OF 1948

Calvin Moon (1924-) was born in Yardville, New Jersey. In 1942, while a senior at William MacFarland High School in Bordentown, he volunteered as an airplane spotter in the Civil Defense. Entering Rutgers that fall on a State Scholarship, Moon immediately delved into pre­ veterinary studies in the agricultural research curriculum. He participated in one year of ROTC before enlisting in the Navy at age nineteen.

Moon trained at Bainbridge, Maryland, to become a radio/radar specialist in the Navy's "Silent Service," submarine duty. From July 1944 to September 1945, he served onboard the USS Razorback (SS-394). As a radar specialist, Moon would determine the ranges and bearings of targets and report them to his captain. The Razorback and other Batao-class submarines could reach depths over a hundred feet below the limits of their predecessors, which protected them from Japanese antisubmarine weapons. The Navy pressed this advantage against the Japanese merchant and battle fleets. The Razorback also conducted surveillance operations in support of the invasion of Palau and "lifeguard duty," rescuing downed airmen from the waters off of Japan. Moon served on the Razorback for five patrols and witnessed the September 2, 1945, surrender ceremony in Tokyo Bay from the boat's deck.

Moon was discharged in New York in 1946 and immediately used the GI Bill to reenroll at Rutgers. He then attended the University ofPennsylvania Veterinary School. He completed his ROTC training while at Penn and entered the Veterinary Corps Reserves upon graduation, but was never recalled for active service. He worked as a veterinarian in New Jersey for forty-seven years.

US Navy Communication

In this brief July 1944 message, the commander of the USS Razorback requests a new radio technician, second class, to replace a crew member who had taken ill and required hospitalization. The office of the Commander, Submarine Force, United States Atlantic Fleet, (COMSUBLANT), responded by assigning Calvin Moon to the boat. From the Rutgers University Veterans History Collection

Diary of Calvin Moon (1944-1946)

Calvin Moon's diary spans his five combat patrols as a radio/radar technician onboard the USS Razorback. The entries occupy the middle third of the notebook, marked "Confidential;" the first and last sections were left blank, with the exception of several pages in the back. Moon structured the diary in this way to conceal his journal, in light of a US Navy ban on diaries onboard submarines. The diary also contains several illustrations sketched by Moon of the boat's logo and enemy vessels. The scattered pages of content in the back contain a page of short, humorous incidents, a hand-drawn map of the areas in the Pacific where the Razorback saw action and a glossary of Japanese phrases. On the last page, there is a tally of all the bombs, mines and depth charges the boat survived. -76-

During his first patrol (September 8-0ctober 7, 1944), he discusses the boat's trial runs and training exercises, reconnaissance duty off of Palau in anticipation of the invasion of the island and attacks by Japanese aircraft. Between November 15, 1944, and New Year's Day 1945, Moon's second patrol, the Razorback engaged its first convoy, sinking a large transport off of Luzon. His third patrol (February 1-March 14, 1945) offered Moon, "some of that renowned Empire Duty," off ofKyushu; during this patrol, the Razorback took several Japanese survivors prisoner. On Moon's fourth patrol, which began on May 7, 1945, the Razorback performed "lifeguard duty" in Tokyo Bay, rescuing B-29 and P-51 aircrews involved in the daily bombardment of the Home Islands. The submarine's fifth patrol, beginning on July, 22, 1945, took the crew to the Sea of Okhotsk, where they raided coastal sea trucks and shadowed Soviet vessels. During the surrender ceremony on September 2, 1945, Moon and his crew members viewed the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay as a fleet of aircraft roared above. From the Rutgers University Veterans History Collection

" ... 1 am able to tell you where we've been and what we have done."

Written on three sheets of"liberated" Japanese stationary at the Yokosuka Naval Base, Tokyo Bay, one day after the surrender, Moon summarizes his experiences on the Razorback for his parents in this September 3, 1945 letter. He begins with embarking upon his first patrol from Saipan and concludes with the boat's final stop in Tokyo Bay during the surrender ceremony. Previously, strict regulations had limited what he could say in his letters home, but, after the Navy lifted its censorship restrictions, Moon was able to include more details. Moon used Japanese typewriter keys and stamps that he found on a Japanese battleship to make the characters printed on each page. From the Rutgers University Veterans History Collection

Biography and item descriptions by Susan Yousif -77-

EXHIBIT CASES BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources

Manuscripts

Rutgers University, Special Collections and University Archives, New Brunswick, NJ:

William Alexander Collection Alumni Biographical Files Alexander and Bertha Bell Collection Herbert Bilus Collection Walter R. Bruyere III Collection William Carl Heyer Collection Barton H. Klion Scrapbook Rutgers University Veterans Collection Rutgers University Archives Photograph Collection

Oral Histories

Rutgers University, Rutgers Oral History Archives, New Brunswick, NJ:

John L. Archibald Robert V. Archibald Alexander M. Bell, Jr. Bertha M. Bell Herbert I. Bilus Adaline G. Bloom Lewis Bloom Walter R. Bruyere III William Carl Heyer James T. Kenny William E. Kenny Barton H. Klion Calvin Moon

Secondary Sources

Articles

"At Twenty-Three He Plans Invasions." Rutgers Alumni Monthly. March 1944.

Books

Allen, Thomas B., and Norman Polmar. World War II: America at War, 1941-1945. Random House, 1991. - 78-

Ambrose, Stephen E. D-Day, June 6, 1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II. Simon & Schuster, 1994.

Life: World War IL History's Greatest Conflict in Pictures, ed. by Richard Stolley. Little, Brown, and Company, 2001.

Linderman, Gerald F. The World Within War: America's Combat Experience in World War II. Free Press, 1997.

Maslowski, Peter, and Allan R. Millett. For the Common Defense: A Military History ofthe United States ofAmerica. Free Press, 1994.

McCormick, Richard P. Rutgers: A Bicentennial History. Rutgers University Press, 1966.

0' Neill, William. A Democracy at War. Free Press, 1993.

Stein, Barry Jason. US Army Patches: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Cloth Unit Insignia. University of South Carolina Press, 1997.

The Oxford Companion to American Military History, ed. by John W. Chambers II. Oxford University Press, 1999.

Turner, Barry. Countdown to Victory: The Final European Campaigns ofWorld War II. W. Morrow, 2004.

Van Ells, Mark D. To Hear Only Thunder Again: America's World War II Veterans Come Home. Lexington Books, 2001.

Walton, Gary M., and Hugh Rockoff. History ofthe American Economy. 8th ed. Dryden Press, 1998.

Websites

American Red Cross Museum. World War II Accomplishments of the American Red Cross: http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/ww2a.asp

Rutgers University Libraries, Special Collections and University Archives. Leadership on the Banks: Rutgers' Presidents, 1766-2004: Robert C. Clothier, 1932-1951: http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/libs/scua/university archives/clothier.shtml - 79-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to take this opportunity to express our appreciation to everyone who has labored to bring the Witnesses to War exhibition to fruition. First, we would like to thank Ms. Marianne Gaunt, the Director of the Rutgers University Libraries, Mr. Ronald Becker, Head of Special Collections and University Archives (SC/UA), and Tom Frusciano, University Archivist, for granting us the opportunity to work with SC/UA on this joint exhibit. We also wish to thank the Friends of the Rutgers University Libraries for providing funding for the opening reception and promotional efforts. The publicity staff of the Rutgers University Libraries, particularly Harry Glazer, Communications Coordinator, and Ken Kuehl, Graphics Coordinator, did outstanding work in getting the word out about Witnesses to War.

We owe a deep debt of gratitude to Dr. Fernanda H. Perrone, Archivist and Head ofthe Exhibition Program, for fitting this project into the Gallery '50 exhibit schedule and shepherding us through the process of organizing and publicizing an exhibition, and Timothy S. Corlis, Head of Preservation, for taking wonderful care of our artifacts. Both have shown us near limitless kindness and patience. We also appreciate the work of Leah Gass, Sharon Grau, Romina Gutierrez and Luis Martinez, the SC/UA student staff members who aided in the production of the exhibit's many display devices. As always, we are indebted to Erika Gorder, Associate University Archivist, and David D'Onofrio, the best thing we ever sent down to Special Collections.

We are grateful to Professor William L. O'Neill for sharing his wealth of knowledge on the Second World War with our guests at the September 14, 2005, opening reception. We also wish to recognize the continued support of the Rutgers History Department and its chair, Professor Ziva Galili. We may never be able to adequately thank Professor John W. Chambers II, Chair of the Rutgers Oral History Archives Advisory Board, for all of his assistance now and in the past.

We hold the deepest appreciation for the hard work of the Rutgers Oral History Archives' Alumni Coordinating Committee. Under the current chairman, Bart Klion, and past chairmen Tom Kindre, Frank Kneller and the late Bert Manhoff, the Committee has provided us with the funds that allow us to pursue endeavors such as Witnesses to War.

Of course, Witnesses to War would not have been possible without the actual "witnesses to war" who have donated their letters, diaries and other personal effects to the SC/UA through the Rutgers Oral History Archives. We would like to thank Daniel and Pam Thompson, the family of Colonel Walter Bruyere III, for their help in bringing the Bruyere Collection to the University; Lynn Marley, a former staff member, for bringing the Heyer Collection to Rutgers on behalf of his family; and John and Robert Archibald for collecting and delivering the papers of their late brother, William. These men and women have aided us in showcasing the lives of their loved ones.

Mr. John L. Archibald, Mr. Robert V. Archibald, Mr. and Mrs. Alexander M. Bell, Jr., Lt. Col. and Mrs. Lewis Bloom, Mr. Herbert I. Bilus, Mr. James T. Kenny, Mr. William E. Kenny, Mr. Barton H. Klion and Dr. Calvin Moon graciously donated the materials that appear in the cases in Gallery '50. All were exceptionally generous in answering our questions and explaining the - 80- significance of the artifacts. We also wish to thank the following people for donating the materials displayed on the second floor ofWinants Hall from May to December 2005: Mr. Carlo Ginobile, Mr. Donald M. Hillenmayer, Mrs. Ida Perlmutter Kamich, Mr. Thomas A. Kindre, Mr. Franklin Kneller, Mr. Edwin Kolodziej and Mr. Doug McCabe.

Finally, we thank our families and friends for their love and support.