Ii Pullambadi Canal

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS St. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE (Autonomous) (Affiliated to Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli) TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 002.

Dr. G. GNANASEKARAN M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Head & Research Advisor.

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY OF FARMERS IN PULLAMBADI CANAL OF TIRUCHIRAPPALLI AND ARIYALUR DISTRICTS, TAMIL NADU” submitted by Mr. G. IRUTHAYARAJ (Reg. No. 011148 / Ph.D.2 / Economics / F.T. / July 2007) is a bonafide record of research work done by him under my guidance as a full time scholar in the Department of Economics, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli and that the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award to the candidate of any degree or any other similar title. The thesis is the outcome of personal research work done by the candidate under my overall supervision.

(G. GNANASEKARAN) Station: Tiruchirappalli Date :

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work embodied in this thesis has been originally carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr. G. GNANASEKARAN , Head and Research Advisor, Department of Economics, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli - 620 002. This work has not been submitted either in full or in part for any other degree or diploma at any university.

(G. IRUTHAYARAJ) Research Scholar

Place: Tiruchirappalli Date :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to place on record the valuable help rendered by various people to complete this dissertation work.

I would like to express my profound sense of gratitude to my research adviser and Best Teacher Awardees Dr. G. Gnanasekaran M.A., M.B.A., M.Phil., Ph.D., Head and Associate Professor of Economics, for his stimulating guidance by spending his valuable time with me in sharpening my thinking and analysis, valuable suggestions and continuous encouragement throughout the study.

I sincerely and whole heartedly thank Rev. Dr. A. Sebastian SJ , Principal, St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), the Management of St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli my Alma Matter, for having kindly permitted me to carry out this research work.

My sincere thanks to University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi for permitting me to do this research work under Faculty Development Programme.

I am grateful to Dr. R. Rajendran , Associate Professor of Economics, Periyar E.V.R. College, Tiruchirappalli, Member, Doctoral Committee for providing useful tips to this study.

I wish to express my cordial thanks to Dr. Sanmugavadivelu, Dean Academic, Dr. Stephen Vincent , Department of Statistics, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirappalli for editing the questionnaire and processed the data with the help of SPSS.

I am specially thankful to those staff in the Public Works Department Pullambadi Canal Section Tiruchirappalli, especially Thiru. Ashokan, Junior Engineer who provided me the necessary secondary data for this study.

I express my gratefulness to the various authors of the valuable literatures and articles referred for this study. I extend my thanks to Dr. D. Kumar, Reader in Economics, Jamal Mohamed College, Tiruchirappalli for his unstinted support through out this study.

My sincere gratitude to the staff of the libraries viz., St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirappalli, District Central Library, Tiruchirappalli, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Irrigation Management Training Institute, Thuvakkudi, Tiruchy and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore .

I feel obliged to the sample farmers of the various villages not only for helping me in supplying the necessary information but also for their cooperation and hospitality extended to me during my visit. And also I am very much thankful to Mr. G. Johnson, Mr. M. Lawrence, Mr. R. Kamaraj, Mr. K. Jesuraj, Mr. John, (Videographer) Thiru. A. Meenachi Sundaram (Secretary Water Users Association, Alambakkam) have helped me at the time of data collection to elicit the cooperation from the farmers, as they are well reputed persons in the study area.

As a personal note I feel quite indebted to my parents, my wife Mrs. Latha and my daughters for all their support, cooperation and encouragement in my academic endeavours including this study.

Finally I am thankful to Golden Net Computers, Tiruchirappalli-2 for the neat typing work of this dissertation in an excellent form.

G. IruthayaIruthayarrrrajajajaj CONTENTS

Chapter No. Title Page No.

I. Introduction 1

II. Review of Literature 10

III. Profile of the Study Area 99

IV. Analysis and Interpretation of data 129

V. Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion 258

Bibliography B1

Appendices

(i) Questionnaire A1

(ii) Government Order A24

(iii) Paper Published A29

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page Title No. No. 3.1 Census of India 2011 Tamil Nadu Provisional Population Data Sheet 101 3.2 Census of India 2011 Tamil Nadu Provisional Population Data Sheet 103

3.3 Lalgudi Taluk – Revenue Villages 105

3.4 Details of Sources of Irrigation in Tiruchirappalli District 108

3.5 Ariyalur District 111

3.6 Number of Blocks 112

3.7 Number of Taluks 112 3.8 Ariyalur Taluk – Revenue Villages 113

3.9 Pullambadi Canal Ayacut Statement 118

3.10 Storage position of tanks as on 28.10.2007 119

3.11 Hydraulic Particulars of Tanks under Pullambadi Canal System 121 from Mile 32/2 to 52/2

3.12 List of Encroachment Tanks in Ariyalur District 124 4.1 Taluk wise Classification of Respondents 129

4.2 District wise Classification of Respondents 130

4.3 Cultivation of Land on the basis of Sex 131

4.4 Age Composition of the Respondents 132

4.5 Education 133

4.6 Community 134 4.7 Religion 135

4.8 Secondary Occupation 136

4.9 Family Members Engaged in Agriculture 137

4.10 Farm Experience of the Respondents 138

4.11 Average size of the holdings according to districts 139

4.12 Pattern of land holdings in different regions 140 4.13 Type of Farmers 141

4.14 Average land holding 142

4.15 Cultivable Area 143

4.16 Value of the Produce (in `) 145

4.17 Cropping Pattern on the basis of Farmers 147

4.18 Changing Cropping Pattern 149

4.19 Wet Crops 150

4.20 Dry Crops 151

4.21 Reasons for Changing Crops 152

4.22 Change of Cropping Pattern 154

4.23 Expectations of the Respondents about the water received for 156 Paddy cultivation

4.24 Availability of water for the Paddy growers 157

4.25 Impact of expectation of water on cropping pattern 158

4.26 Expectation of water for Sugar cane cultivation 159

4.27 Water received for Sugar cane cultivation 160 4.28 Change in canal water supply status 161

4.29 Causes for reduction of water supply 162

4.30 Change in canal water status 2001-2005 163

4.31 Reasons for reduction in water supply 164

4.32 Change in canal water supply 165

4.33 The reasons attributed to the changes in the water supply 166 4.34 Effect of reduction in the water on the cropping pattern 167

4.35 Water Required for the Crops 168

4.36 Water delivered at the distributaries 170

4.37 Water delivered at the distributaries for Sugar cane 171

4.38 Reasons for Inadequacy of supply of water 172

4.39 Reasons for adequacy of supply of water 174 4.40 Critical period of water use 175

4.41 Critical period of water use and the period of crop 176

4.42 Critical period and the availability of water 177

4.43 Supplementary sources of canal water 178

4.44 Present Irrigational Status of the Farmers 179

4.45 Bore well depth 180

4.46 Horse power used by farmers to lift the water for irrigation 182

4.47 Opinions of the Respondents about the Maintenance of the Canal 183

4.48 Receiving share of water 186

4.49 Chi-square test for Regions and Type of Irrigation 187

4.50 Water reaches every plot of holding falling within the field channel 188

4.51 Chi-square Test for Regions and Effectiveness of Field Channels 189

4.52 Reasons for water not reaching every plot of holding falling 190 within the field channel

4.53 Chi-Square Test for Regions and the Reasons for water not 191 reaching all the plots

4.54 Mode of draining out excess water 192 4.55 Distance from the main canal 193

4.56 Field channel between outlet and their holding 194

4.57 Excavation of Field Channel 195

4.58 Chi-Square Test for Regions and Periodicity of Excavation Work 196

4.59 Cost of Irrigation 197

4.60 Amount spent by the respondents to maintain field channels 198 4.61 Chi-Square Test for Regions and the Amount Spent on Field 199 Channels

4.62 Reasons for not Excavating the Field Channels 200

4.63 Water Supplied in this area 201

4.64 Practice of Night Irrigation 202 4.65 Farmers Practicing Night Irrigation 203

4.66 Difficulties in Night Irrigation 204

4.67 Problems related to Irrigation 205

4.68 Extralegal Practices 207

4.69 Volume of Information Received by the Respondents 209

4.70 Irrigation Efficiency 211

4.71 Water Use Efficiency of the Study Area 212

4.72 Regression Model for Water Use Efficiency 215

4.73 The Impact of Irrigation on Farm Investment 217

4.74 Institutional Arrangement 218

4.75 Constitution of Water User Association 219

4.76 Participation of Irrigation Department Officials in the Water 220 Users Association Meeting

4.77 Functioning of Water Users Association 221

4.78 Reasons for not forming of Water Users Association 222

4.79 Suggestions to form Water Users Association 223 4.80 Training Programme for Water Users Association Members 224

4.81 Meeting took place under Water Users Association 225

4.82 Opinions of Respondents about the Role of Water Users Association 226

4.83 Contribution of Farmers towards the formation and working of 230 WUA

4.84 Farmers Contribution towards WUA 231

4.85 Factors lead to the success of WUA 232 4.86 Chi-square Test for Prioritising the Factors Responsible for the 233 Success of WUA

4.87 Factors lead to failure of the functioning of WUA 234

4.88 Chi-square Test for Prioritising the factors responsible for the 235 Failure of Water Users Association

4.89 Facilitating the Evolution of Water Users Association 236 4.90 Working of Water Users Association (WUA) 237

4.91 Chi-square Test for Regions and Opinions of the Respondents of 238 the Different Regions about the Working of Water Users Association

4.92 Management of Uncertain Canal water 239

4.93 Chi-square Test for Prioritizing the Methods to mitigate the 240 Water Shortages

4.94 Alternative Cropping Pattern 242

4.95 Chi-square Test for Alternative Cropping Pattern 243

4.96 Better Management of on going water problem in the entire region 244

4.97 Chi-square Test for the Methods Suggested by the Respondents 245

4.98 Sources of finance to meet out the cost of production 246 4.99 Reasons for Non-Payment of Loans 247

4.100 Income Spent 249

4.101 Savings 250

4.102 Operation of Irrigation System under Canal 251

4.103 Chi-Square Test for Finding the Association between Regions 252 and the Opinions of the Respondents about the Operation of Irrigation System 4.104 Wastage of water below the outlet 253

4.105 Ranking of Farmers Initiatives: Friedman Test 254

4.106 Chi-square Test for Ranking the Initiatives of Farmers to Develop 255 Land

4.107 Factors Affecting Canal Irrigation 256

4.108 Reasons for delay of Cultivation in this area 257

Chapter ––– III

Introduction 1

CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

Agricultural performance is fundamental to India’s economic and social development. Agriculture contributes 22 per cent of GDP, 60 per cent of employment and is a primary source of livelihood in rural areas which accounts for 72 per cent of India’s population. During 2009-10 Agricultural growth of India has been at the lowest level of 0.4 percent and it is expected to grow at 4 per cent 2010-11 (Central Statistical Organisation Report 2010). Water is becoming a looming crisis affecting domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. By 2025, scarcity of water would threaten 30 percent of the human population as 70 percent of the water withdrawals are used in irrigated agriculture globally. Africa and Asia had already experienced an increasing shortage in per capita water availability. Irrigation demand is expected to increase keeping pace with the need to increase agriculture production. Irrigated agriculture needs to be increased by 23 million hectares i.e., 19 percent over and above the area lost under water logging and Salinization. The majority of the area would fall in South Asia. The changes of disastrous crop failures have been used in many countries through the expansion of irrigation. The irrigation economics is concerned with two divergent trends in water use pattern. On the one hand the demand for water is increasing for household, agriculture and industrial purposes. On the other hand there is sever depreciation in the quantity and quality of water available to feed the ever growing demands of the society. This has resulted in the water crisis. The crisis is aggravated by injudicious use of water by people and ineffective management of project authorities. The present share of irrigation in the total water resources annually utilized in India is 83 percent and it is expected to be in the region of 79 percent 2050. A study conducted by Veeraiah and Madan Kumar (2008) pointed out that water entering upper-ganga canal, as much as 44 percent was lost in canal, in distributaries and in village water courses. 2

Of the remaining 56 percent actually entering the field, the farmer wasted another 27 percent in excessive irrigation and thus the water actually used by crops was only 29 percent. Other researches conducted in various parts of India unambiguously have been showing there is large amount of inefficiency in water used by the farmers. This calls for judicious water management practices in storage, delivery, technology, knowledge, agronomic practices, water use charges and stakeholders. Hence an economic analysis of water use efficiency of farmers in Pullambadi canal of Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur districts is worth researchable.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The monsoon rain viz., South West monsoon and North East monsoon determines water resources of the states. But the monsoon is highly erratic and fails at times. Tamil Nadu is the second water starved state next to the state of Rajasthan, which does not have any perennial river. Further, Tamil Nadu with 7 per cent of the population of the country and 4 per cent of land area is endowed with 4 per cent of fresh water resources in India. The water use efficiency is of paramount importance in the years to come. The major problem is the conservation of rainfall received. Surface runoff, evaporation, infiltration and deep percolation account for the total volume of the rainfall received and stored. The run-off coefficient of a basin normally depends on the mean temperature, humidity, pattern of rainfall, intensity of rainfall, vegetation and topographical features of the basin. According to Kumaraswamy (1974), the run-off coefficient is found to vary between 0.40 and 0.55 in Tamil Nadu. There is a mismatch in the water use in India. The demand for water is increasing tremendously due to continuous surge of population, urbanization and industrialization. But the availability and supply of water are relatively inelastic especially in Tamil Nadu. This calls forth judicious water management policies and practices among the stakeholders. In this context India has the lowest water use efficiency of 30-40 per cent against 55 per cent in China. The poor water use efficiency is the result of lack of scientific irrigation and cropping pattern. According to various studies, India can 3

augment the water use efficiency by 40 to 50 per cent by implementing better use of conveyance, delivery and allocation. In India, many irrigational projects have yet to reach even 50 per cent of the irrigation potential. Here an attempt is made to study the water use efficiency and practices of the farmers of Pullambadi canal, Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur districts. For the sake of better analytical convenience, the gross area under irrigation is divided in to three regions viz., 1. The area where the canal originates 2. The area which lying in the middle of the gross irrigated area and 3. The tail-end area of irrigation. A comparative analysis of those regions with respect to their irrigation potential and its likely impact on the farming practices were investigated to prepare a blueprint for better and efficient water use management for the study area based on the finding of the study. Economic aspect of water use efficiency is farmer’s interest to improve economic return from the investments in irrigation water supply. The water use efficiency is measured in terms of input efficiency by two methods a) The ratio of yield to supplementary cost incurred by the farmers for irrigation and b) The ratio of yield to prime cost incurred by the farmers for irrigation The measurement of water use efficiency is based on the cost benefit aspects of water used by the farmers in the study area.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY The general inadequacy of irrigation water and growing demand for crop production including remunerative cropping in modern times needs a systematic study of irrigation problems and methods of efficient and economic use of water. Since irrigation potential is created at a huge cost, it is necessary to derive maximum benefit from the created potential, often a gap exists between irrigation potential created and its utilization that makes the situation more serious. A large amount of water is wasted in conveyance and distribution systems where lining of canal, distributaries and water courses has either not been undertaken or has been ill-maintained. Improper irrigation scheduling, land grading and leveling and faulty method of irrigation lead to waste of water in crop land. 4

Irrigation, being one of the important inputs of agriculture, becomes an equally important component of the rural infrastructure for the development. Hence, in any planning for development sufficient weightage has to be given to irrigation development. It is much so in the case of a country like India where agriculture sector is the main stay of the national economy, provides employment for a major part of the population and sustenance to about 70 per cent of it, and yet by and large it depends on the vagaries of monsoon. The main function of irrigation is to mitigate the impact of inadequate and irregular rainfall, with wide fluctuations from year to year, which often results in even semi-famine conditions. Water is becoming increasingly scarce and most of the Asian nations including India are expected to face serious water scarcity in the next 10-15 years thus, threatening the sustainability of irrigated rice production in Asia. Currently the irrigation efficiency in canal and tank irrigation system in India is only about 30-40 per cent and in well irrigation it is about 60-65 per cent. On an average only 40-45 per cent of irrigation water is actually used by the crop. The water use efficiency can be considerably increased in canal water irrigation in India, since the inefficiency level is 55-60 per cent. It can be substantially reduced with proper irrigation management practices. Hence a study on water use efficiency by the farmers assumes a greater significance in the Pullambadi canal of Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur districts, Tamil Nadu.

OBJECTIVES The main objective of the present research is to examine the canal water utilization of the farmers in the study and following are the specific objectives of the research. i) To examine the cropping pattern of the farmers and the factors influencing the shift in the cropping pattern ii) To study the factors responsible for the adequacy and inadequacy of water available to the farmers iii) To examine the various causes of water wastages and the measures needed to arrest the wastages iv) To analyse factors determining the water use efficiency of the farmers 5

v) To study the role of Water Users Association in augmenting the water use of the farmers and vi) To suggest appropriate policy measures to enhance the water use practices of farmers.

HYPOTHESES The following are the hypotheses formulated to probe deeply the objectives of the study. i) Water related problems are more decisive in determining the cropping pattern of the farmers than non-water related problems. ii) The water use efficiency differs widely among the farmers in the study area. iii) There is a significant variation among the farmers with regard to the functioning of Water Users Association and iv) The methods pursued by the farmers in the three regions in mitigating water shortages are quite distinct.

METHODOLOGY The study is an evaluative study to examine the water use efficiency of the Pullambadi canal. The focus of the study is the water users of the Pullambadi canal. The sample respondents are selected at three levels. The sample responders who are at the origin of the Pullambadi canal forms the first level, the sample respondents who are at the middle of the Pullambadi canal form the second level and the tail-end farmers using the canal water formed the third level. Simple random sampling is administered to select the respondents in the study area. Weighted random sampling is used. Weighted sampling is used to select the respondents in equal number from the three regions. The first region (Head region) depends predominantly on Pullambadi canal, the second region (Middle region) relies on both Pullambadi canal water as well as on lakes and tanks and third region (Tail-end region) exclusively depends ground water and lakes and tanks which receive water from Pullambadi canal. The divergent irrigation practices of the farmers facilitate the researcher to go for weightage sampling to select 100 samples equally from all the three regions. Voters list are 6

used to identify the respondents in those areas and village records maintained by Village Administrative Officers and sample respondents are selected through Tippets table of random numbers. To elicit information from the respondents about water use a well structured comprehensive questionnaire is drafted. The data related to inflow and outflow of water, storage of water are collected from the Executive Engineer P.W.D. R.C. Division, Tiruchirappalli-1 and Junior Engineer, P.W.D. Pullambadi Canal / Section, Thirumanur. The sample respondents are selected from the areas irrigated by Pullambadi canal from its origin to till end. The revenue villages covered by the Pullambadi canal and are arranged in the ascending order of magnitude. The revenue villages coming under the Pullambadi canal are categorized on the basis of availability and use of water in to three categories viz., 1. The Head Region 2. The Middle Region and 3. The Tail-end Region From the Head Region, revenue villages are selected at random and from the revenue villages farm households are selected by random sampling method. The same procedure is followed in middle and tail-end Regions. From the three regions apportioned on the basis of the water availability, 100 farm house holds are selected randomly from each segment. The total size of the sample thus constitutes 300.

Sample Distribution

Households S. Revenue Size of the Area Selected from No. sample Villages each village

1 Head 5 20 100

2 Middle 5 20 100

3 Tail-end 5 20 100

Total 15 60 300 7

A well structured schedule is prepared to collect information about water use practices of the respondents. Direct Interview technique is administered to elicit information from the respondents. The interview method is the most appropriate method of collecting information since cross checking and observations are possible under this method.

PERIOD OF STUDY The study covers a period of 2009-2010. It covers all the three seasons of agriculture viz., Kuruvai, Thaladi and Samba. But this area is characterized by only single crop (paddy) and one season (Samba) only.

STATE OF THE ART This descriptive study is focusing on well defined objectives. The research design is prepared keeping in view with the objectives of the study and resources available. The study ensures maximization of objectivity and minimization of subjectivity arising out of bias and personal prejudices. The state of art of this research work is referred to as a survey design and it takes into account all the four aspects of overall Research design. i) Sampling design: Probability sampling design. The work is carried out with the help of sample respondents chosen on the basis of simple random sampling. The size of the sample is 300 which of equally apportioned in all the three regions viz., Head region, Middle region and Tail-end region. ii) Statistical design: Pre planned design for analysis of data is utilized. SPSS is used to test the hypotheses and reduce the data. (data reduction techniques) iii) Observation design: A comprehensive and a well structured schedule is prepared by the researcher to elicit information from the respondents. iv) Operational design: A well thought out operational procedures are laid out.

STATISTICAL TOOLS USED FOR ANALYSIS The primary aim of the study is to estimate the water use efficiency of farmers of Pullambadi canal in Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur Districts. The computation involves Costs Benefits analysis of water used by farmers in the study area. The economic interpretation of water use efficiency is attempted in this research work. 8

The costs is involved in acquiring and using water is measured in monetary terms and benefits from water by the way of yield is also measured in terms of money. The Cost Benefits ratio is computed for the head, middle and tail-end regions of the study area. Since the study involves indepth analysis of behaviour of farmers in using water Cross tabulation is widely used. For comparing the above mentioned regions Chi- square test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) are used. These tools used to explain the variation in the water availability, cropping pattern and to find the differences of opinions among farmers in the successful functioning of Water Users Association. The Non Parametric Friedman Ranking test is used to rank the factors in exerting influence on the working of the Water Users Association and the same test is used to rank the factors responsible for the failure of Water Users Association in the study area. Multiple Regression is used to indentify the causal relationship between water use efficiency (dependent factor) and labour cost, fertilizer and pesticide cost, extent of mechanization and types of seed as independent factors. Simple averages (means) and diagrams are used to highlight the observations.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study concentrates only on the water use efficiency of farmers in the Pullambadi canal basin. The flow of water is constrained and regulated by Tamil Nadu government G O which stipulates the water level at the Mettur reservoir should exceed 94 feet for releasing the water to Pullambadi Canal. Under this unique constraint farmers availed and used the water for irrigation purpose in this study. This rare and distinct situation may not prevail in other agricultural river basins. Hence the results and policy implications of the study are restricted only to the study area. The results of the study can not be generalised uniformly to other regions of the country. The primary objective of this research work is to estimate water use efficiency of farmers of Pullambadi canal of Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur districts. There are various scientific tools used to compute water use efficiency of farmers. It comprises Conveyance efficiency, Storage efficiency and Allocative efficiency. The researcher instead of pursuing those efficiencies which are based on engineering concepts, chosen economic interpretation of water use efficiency. The water use efficiency is studied through cost benefit analysis and this has not incorporated the engineering and 9

technical aspects of water use. This study has analysed the water use efficiency from the point of view of farmers but it has not viewed from the point of other stakeholders viz., government, general public and private water bodies.

RESEARCH GAP The researcher has attempted to study the water use efficiency of the farmers of Pullambadi canal, Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur districts. Pullambadi canal is a seasonal canal which covers head, middle and tail-end regions. The study is confining with water use of the farmers only for a period from 1 st August to 15 th December. The future researcher can venture upon water use efficiency of farmers in perennial rivers. The water use efficiency is estimated only on the basis economic interpretation of water use and no technical methods or techniques are used by the researcher to measure the use of water in physical quantities. The future researchers can measure the use of water in terms of physical quantities. Another gap in the research is the lack of analytical treatment on capital rationing and optimal cropping pattern. These are the virgin areas on which future researchers can research upon.

CHAPTER SCHEME The chapterisation is carried out in accordance with the research design of the study. Chapter I covers Introduction, Statement of the Problem, Scope of the Study, Objectives, Hypotheses, Methodology, Period of Study, Tools used for Study, Limitations of the Study and Chapter Scheme. Chapter II encompasses exhaustive Review of Literature and Definition of Terms and Concepts. Chapter III comprises the Profile of the Study Area, Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur Districts and Area of the Study. Chapter IV furnishes Analysis and Interpretation of Data. Chapter V furnishes Findings, Suggestions, Conclusion and Policy Implications of the Study. Chapter ––– IIIIII

Review of Literature 10

CHAPTER - II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Chapter II provides an exhaustive review related studies conducted in several parts of the world. This review enables the researcher to study the areas which are untravelled and plug the loop holes exist in the form of research gaps of this area. The review is done on the basis of concepts wise classifications arranged in chronological order.

BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION Gadgil D.R. (1954) 1 in the title on ‘The Industrial Evolution of India in Recent Times’ studied the economic effects of irrigation and concluded that the total direct and indirect effects of irrigation projects were very favourable to the farmers. With irrigation, farmers received higher levels of income and they were able to make additional investment on cattle, farm implements and on commercial crops like sugarcane and cotton. Further, it generated additional employment opportunities as well. Planning Commission (1964) 2 in the study on ‘Criteria for Appraising the Feasibilities of Irrigation Projects’ during 1958 to 1961 observed that canal irrigation had helped in promoting greater utilization of land, enlarging the average size of the farm generating demand for additional farm labour, shifting to new and better varieties of crops, increasing additional production investment in farm business and widening the scope for increasing the revenue. Moorthi T.V. and Mellor W.J. (1972) 3 after a study on ‘Cropping Pattern Yields and Income under Different Sources of Irrigation with Special Reference to IADP, Aligarh District, Uttar Pradesh’, concluded that farmers with private tube-wells

1 Gadgil D.R. (1954), “The Industrial Evolution of India in Recent Times”, Calcutta: Oxford University Press, pp. 128-133. 2 Planning Commission, (1964), “Criteria for Appraising the Feasibilities of Irrigation Projects”, Government of India, New Delhi, p.7. 3 Moorthi T.V. and Mellor W.J. (1972), “Cropping Pattern Yields and Income under Different Sources of Irrigation with Special Reference to IADP, Aligarh District, Uttar Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 27(4), pp.117-125.

had better control over water supply in terms of timely availability in adequate quantity. This resulted in higher cropping intensity, yield, higher crop income and cultivation of high yielding crops in such farms. This was attributed to the flexibility factors in quantity and timing available in those farms. Shukla V.P. (1973) 4 in his paper on ‘Well Irrigation – Its Costs and Benefits in Jabalpur District in Madhya Pradesh’ examined how far irrigation from wells either through electricity or diesel pumps was profitable in Jabalpur district in Madhya Pradesh, especially in the context of advanced technology. Vyas V.S. and Mathai G. (1978) 5 in their paper on ‘Farm and Non-farm Employment in Rural Areas: Perspective for Economic Planning’ confirmed the direct relationship between irrigation and use of other inputs like fertilizers and chemicals. They also concluded that it resulted in increased labour use. Suryawanshi S.D. and Kapase P.M. (1985) 6 have analysed in their research paper on ‘Impact of Chod Irrigation Project on Employment of female Agricultural Labour’ that agricultural labour and farm cultivation as the main areas of economic activities for rural women. The National Sample Survey has shown that the percentage contribution of women in agriculture is higher than men, where most of the key operations at farm are done by them. Labour employment depends on many factors such as irrigation potential, cropping pattern, intensity of cropping and such other labour intensive activities. Irrigation has proved beneficial to the country in the context of the above. The findings of their study are i) irrigation facilities gave them better opportunities for providing education to their children, rather than employing them in agriculture. In fact due to irrigation both male and female members got higher employment in agriculture. ii) the cropping pattern was changed and shifted in favour of cash and labour intensive crops which gave more employment. The authors have suggested that women have to be involved in the process of modernization and transfer of new technology.

4 Shukla V.P. (1973), “Well Irrigation – Its Costs and Benefits in Jabalpur District in Madhya Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 28(4), p.235. 5 Vyas V.S. and Mathai G. (1978), “Farm and Non-farm Employment in Rural Areas: Perspective for Economic Planning”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 28(6, 7), p.85. 6 Suryawanshi S.D. and Kapase P.M. (1985), “Impact of Chod Irrigation Project on Employment of female Agricultural Labour”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. XL, No. 3, July- September, pp.240-244.

However, this paper does not trace the factors underlying the increase in labour use with irrigation. How is irrigation lead to an increase in cropping intensity, a change in cropping pattern, a more intensive use of HYVs, and fertilizers, etc. These changes in turn would affect labour use. Also a disaggregation by farm size, and farm location (since head-enders usually manage to get a disproportionately large share of canal water relative to the tail-enders) would have been useful. Rajesh Sharma and Acharya S.S. (1989) 7 studied on ‘Maldistribution of Canal Water in Command Areas and its Impact on Cropping Pattern and Land-Water Use Efficiency’. This study was examined the extent of maldistribution of canal water between head and tail-end farmers, its impact on cropping patterns. The study pertained to Guda Irrigation Project area in Bundi district of Rajasthan. Linear programming technique was used to develop optimal cropping plan. The study indicated that tail-end farmers are at a disadvantage in terms of actual number of irrigations available to them from the canal. There was great divergence between existing and optimal cropping plans. It is revealed that equitable distribution of water between head and tail-end farmers leads to increase in overall efficiency of both land and water. It is also implied that supplementary source of irrigation should be advocated and encouraged in canal command areas. Navalawala B.N. (1995) 8 stated in the article on ‘Waterlogging - Problems and Solutions’ that drainage is a measure to remove excess water from the soil or from the soil surface. It is known that canal irrigation upon overuse often leads to rise of water table and drainage is essential but even today adequate attentions is not being paid to this while designing and planning of canal irrigation projects. Owing to this neglect, many irrigation projects in the arid and semi-arid areas have created serious problems of water logging and of salinity and alkalinity. Rasis Ahmad (1998) 9 in his article on ‘Water for Irrigation-An Overview’ pointed out that for raising productivity of agriculture one has to shift from traditional

7 Rajesh Sharma and Acharya S.S. (1989), “Maldistribution of Canal Water in Command Areas and its Impact on Cropping Pattern and Land-Water Use Efficiency”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep. pp.269 - 270. 8 Navalawala B.N. (1995), “Waterlogging – Problems and Solutions”, Yojana, Vol.39, No.11, September 11, p.39. 9 Rasis Ahmad (1998), “Water for Irrigation-An Overview”, edited by Farooq Khan, Water Resource Management Thrust and Challenges, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p. 195.

to modernized and scientific system of farming for which regular supply of water for irrigation is necessary. In India position is quite different as 2/3 farmers are small and marginal farmers and most of them continuing traditional system of farming. 2/3 cultivable area is dependent on scanty rainfall and any change in the timing of monsoon either before time or delayed and excess or less rainfall may cause extensive damage to crops. The rainfall is thus most unreliable and is marked by wide variations in different parts and also variation from year to year in the quantity, incidence and duration. India is served by south-west and the north-east monsoons . Most of the rainfall i.e. about 73.7 per cent occurs during June-September, while rains amount only 2.6 per cent; post monsoon rains are about 13.3 per cent and premonsoon rains about 10.4 per cent. He has mentioned two types of artificial irrigation systems. First is flow irrigation and the second is lift irrigation. The flow irrigation is dependent on the surface water and it is collected in rivers and canals. The second type is lift irrigation, which is very economic and certain source for having adequate water for irrigation of various crops at proper time.

Roy L.B. et al. (1999) 10 described in the title on ‘Farmers’ Participation and the hare irrigated project’ that generally most farmers do not irrigate during night time because of the fear from mosquitoes, snake bites, hyenas and other wild animals. Sometimes as it is expected everywhere, some conflicts arise during irrigation period. Some farmers used to illegally divert the water from the canal for continuous irrigation. Then the other farmers will report this matter to the local water committees. If a person is found guilty of such things, he will be charged up to 50 birrs as per the ‘local water law’. All the farmers will pay revenue to the Government. Narendra Kumar I. and Chandrasekar Rao G. (2007) 11 have analysed in the title on ‘Impact of Irrigation on Employment’ on the basis of micro study that irrigation reduces the risk and uncertainty inherent in the rain fed cropping. Irrigation has a stabilizing impact on agriculture and generates farm employment through higher levels of cropping intensity adoption of new agricultural strategy, growth of high

10 Roy L.B., Rheenen W.V., Abraham T. and Habte A. (1999), “Farmers participation and the hare irrigation project”, Integrated Development for Water Supply and Sanitation, 25 th WEDC Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 252. 11 Narendra Kumar I. and Chandrasekar Rao G. (2007), “Impact of Irrigation on Employment”, Southern Economist, Vol.46, No.7, August 15, pp.13-14.

yielding crops and multiple cropping. Their study pertains to Kurnool district of Andra Pradesh with the objective of Impact of Canal and Bore Wells irrigation sources on the farm output and generation of employment relating to the crops like paddy and cotton. They conclude that there is no significant difference between canal and bore well irrigation with in the human labour and bullock labour. The important suggestions as follows: i) The main canals up to farm lands are to be lined cement can be avoid leakage of water ii) Ground water potentiality will be increased by different methods like check dams, watersheds and percolation tanks and iii) Micro irrigation is encouraged at every village level, so that the previous water is to be saved.

Somashekaraiah N.T. and Mahendra Kumar S. (2008) 12 in their article, an attempt has been made to assess the impact of tube well irrigation on resource use efficiency in agriculture with special reference to paddy cultivation in the study area.

To them, tube well irrigation has made a drastic change in the sample villages. There has been upward trend in the number of tube wells and a change in the pattern of tube wells. More and more tube wells have been energized. The cropping pattern has undergone a forcible change. The traditional crop, ragi has been replaced by paddy. There has been remarkable increase in the level of income of the farmers and in the level of employment of the households. The households have also undergone socio-economic changes. The literacy level has gone up and the banking habits increased. In short, the life-style of the sample village folks has under gone drastic changes in recent years due to resource use efficiency.

Vairavan K. (2010) 13 said that by adopting the ‘Drip Irrigation Technology in Sugarcane’, the farmers could save water up to 50 per cent and achieve higher yield of 60 tonnes per acre.

12 Somashekaraiah N.T. and Mahendra Kumar S. (2008), “Tube Well Irrigation on Resource Use Efficiency in Agriculture”, Vol. 47 No.12, Southern Economist, October15, pp. 9-13. 13 Vairavan K. (2010), “Drip Irrigation Technology in Sugarcane”, The Hindu, April 3, p.6.

CROPPING PATTERN Anderson R.L. (1968) 14 in their research article on ‘A Simulation Programme to Establish Optimum Crop Pattern in Irrigated Farms Raised on Pre-Season Estimation of Water Supply’ has developed a simulation model to make the most efficient use of the predicted water supply throughout the season for higher net returns. The Model determined the optimum cropping pattern for each farm based on the individual farm water supply, crops grown, minimum and maximum acreage of each crop and water requirement of each crop. Bandenhop M.P. and Cashdoller P.P. (1974) 15 in the article on ‘Land Water Use Potentials, Thungabhadara Irrigation Project’ determined the most profit-mix- able crop that could be grown on the soils in the Thungabhadra Irrigation project under the alternative sets of land and water use regulations that might be adopted by project officials. Linear programming techniques were used to ascertain the most profitable crop combinations under twelve situations for each of the four selected representative farms. A study conducted by the Evaluation Division of the State Planning Board (1975) 16 in a title on ‘Minor Irrigation in Kerala: An Evaluation Study’ revealed that the minor irrigation beneficiaries have very little awareness about the efficiency of water use. The farmers were found to be under the notion that the more water they use, the better would be the crop. It was noted that the cultivators seemed to ignore the use of irrigation water for alternative crops either through ignorance or negligence. Left to themselves they tended to grow only rice although its water requirement was much higher than that of other crops. William K. Easter and Lee R. Martin, (1977) 17 viewed in the title on ‘Water Resource Problems in Developing Countries’ that the location of the villages from the main canal happened to be the main factor influencing the cropped area and in turn the cropping intensity.

14 Anderson R.L. (1968), “A Simulation Programme to Establish Optimum Crop Pattern in Irrigated Farms Raised on Pre-Season Estimation of Water Supply”, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 50(5), p.15. 15 Bandenhop M.P. and Cashdoller P.P. (1974) “Land Water Use Potentials, Thungabhadara Irrigation Project”, Karnataka, University of Agricultural Science, Technical Series No.4, pp.1-38. 16 State Planning Board, (1975) Minor Irrigation in Kerala: An Evaluation Study, Government of Kerala, Trivandrum, pp. 44-45. 17 William K. Easter and Lee R. Martin (1977), “Water Resource Problems in Developing Countries”, Bulletin Number 3, University of Minnesota, pp. 1-107.

Mangalabhanu M. (1977) 18 had advocated in the title on ‘Project Report for Command Area Development’ that a change in the present cropping pattern, which is followed in Kerala, for better utilization of available water and thereby to maximize production. Palanisami K. (1980) 19 in his study on ‘Pattern of Allocation, use and Management in Lower Bhavani Project’ identified that the farmers in head reaches grew high-water-demanding-crops compared to the tail-enders. Kalirajan K. and Flinn J.C. (1981) 20 discussed in the article on ‘Allocative Efficiency and Supply Response in Irrigated Rice Production’ that a single crop, or be concerned with farming systems where one crop dominates cropping patterns in a particular season (e.g., rice in the kharif or wheat in the rabi season). Under such circumstances, the linear programming approach may be less advantageous and models based on variants of the production function techniques continue to have appeal. Bagi F.S. (1981) 21 viewed in the article on ‘Economics of Irrigation in Crop Production in Haryana’ that irrigation primarily reduces the uncertainty of crop production and consequently increases agricultural productivity in a number of ways. First, it can increase crop yields even without any increased use of agricultural inputs. Second, lower risk and uncertainty of crop production are likely to encourage greater use of inputs. Third, it makes possible to grow crops all year around and hence can increase the cropping intensity. Fourth, cultivation of better quality and high value crops may become feasible. Therefore, the development of irrigation infrastructure is nothing less than an agricultural revolution.

18 Mangalabhanu M. (1977), “Project Report for Command Area Development”, Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Kerala, pp.3-4. 19 Palanisami K. (1980), “Pattern of Allocation, Use and Management in Lower Bhavani Project”, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, Ph.D. dissertation Coimbatore: Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, p.25. 20 Kalirajan K. and Flinn J.C. (1981), “Allocative Efficiency and Supply Response in Irrigated Rice Production”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. XXXVI, No.2, April-June, p.16. 21 Bagi F.S. (1981), “Economics of Irrigation in Crop Production in Haryana” Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. XXXVI, No.3, July-September, pp.15-23.

Arun S. Patel (1981) 22 observed in his article on ‘Irrigation: Its Employment Impact in the Command Areas of Medium Irrigation Projects in Gujarat’ that the expansion of irrigation and the spread of new technology help to improve the standard of living and generation of additional employment opportunities at the required level of productivity. Irrigation brings changes in the crop pattern. They are: (i) a shift from inferior cereals and pulses to superior cereals, (ii) a shift from foodgrains to non- foodgrains both short and long duration crops, and (iii) a shift from crops if indigenous (desi) varieties to HYVs both in respect of foodgrain and also non- foodgrain crops and (iv) augmentation of area under double and multiple cropping which in turn provides more opportunities of work to the agriculturists at the farm level. Patel N.T. (1982) 23 in his book on ‘Inputs Productivity in Agriculture with an Emphasis on Irrigation and Farm Size’ found a positive relationship between cropping intensity and irrigation; and between cropping intensity and farm size. The introduction of irrigation (Mayong Lift Irrigation Project) has significantly raised the crop intensity. The average crop intensity in the lands within the command area for sample beneficiaries increased from 131 per cent in 1967-68 to 151 per cent in 1968-69. But it remained constant (106 per cent) for the land outside the command area. It was also found that it was the lowest (110 per cent) for the smallest group and the highest (159 per cent) for the largest group. In Yeshwanth’s study, the intensity of cropping is 100 per cent in the case of dry farms whereas it is 168 per cent in the case of pumpset owners. This indicates a positive relationship between the intensity of cropping and irrigation. Saikia P.D. (1982) 24 in the article on ‘Impact of Lift Irrigation on Small Farmers of North-East Region’ studied the impact of lift irrigation in Assam. He concluded that one-year after the irrigation project, the percentage of area under traditional paddy decreased from 54% per cent to 22% per cent, whereas the area

22 Arun S. Patel (1981), “Irrigation: Its Employment Impact in the Command Areas of Medium Irrigation Projects in Gujarat”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. XXXVI, No.4, October-December, pp. 20-22. 23 Patel N.T. (1982), “Inputs Productivity in Agriculture with an Emphasis on Irrigation and Farm Size”, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, pp.5-6. 24 Saikia P.D. (1982), “Impact of Lift Irrigation on Small Farmers of North-East Region”, Yojana 27:32.

under high yielding varieties of paddy increased from 2% to 32%. The average per hectare yields of hybrid varieties of paddy increased from 1306 kg. to 2199 kg. After implementation of irrigation project and the adoption of improved methods, the per family annual average income from agriculture increased from Rs.2,737/- to Rs.4,018/-. Thamodaran R. et al. (1982) 25 investigated in their article on ‘An Economic Analysis of Water Management Systems in Southern Tamil Nadu - Production Function and Programming Approach’ that even though farmers are applying more or less the recommended level of nitrogen, irrigation application seems to be low enough to reduce the productivity of nitrogen. The study made by Patil A.R. (1983) 26 in his article on ‘Irrigation Scheme and Small Farmers’ studied Masuda in Ajmer District shows that Lift Irrigation Scheme has helped the small farmers in terms of bringing more area under irrigation, increasing cropping intensity and increasing crop productivity per acre. The per acre productivity of various kharif and rabi crops increased during the post investment period. Leelambika Puttanna and Hema K. (1984) 27 in their article on ‘Modernisation of Gundamgera Tank’ studied the method of water use and assessed the impact of lining the channel on socio-economic conditions. They suggested a shift in cropping pattern (from wet to dry). The proposed new cropping pattern increased productivity in tank command areas. Hiremath K.C. (1984) 28 in his article on ‘Report on Socio-Economic Impact of Irrigation Projects’ concluded that income inequality among the farmers would be generated due to their unequal resource endowments and lack of knowledge on optimal cropping pattern. These two, when removed, would ensure maximum returns. He also suggested that to ensure justice to tail-enders in canal irrigated areas, of rigid control on water supply should be enforced.

25 Thamodaran R., Shashnka Bhide, and Earl O. (1982), “An Economic Analysis of Water Management Systems in Southern Tamil Nadu - Production Function and Programming Approach”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. XXXVII, No.1, p.48. 26 Patil A.R. (1983), “Irrigation Scheme and Small Farmers”, Kurukshetra 31 (21), pp.7-11. 27 Leelambika Puttanna and Hema K. (1984), “Modernisation of Gundamgera Tank”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 39(3), p.559. 28 Hiremath K.C. (1984), “Report on Socio-Economic Impact of Irrigation Projects”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, 39(3) p.559.

Singh D.V. and Saraswat S.P. (1984) 29 have stated in the article on ‘Impact of Irrigation on Cropping Pattern and Farm Income under Optimal Solution’ that the existing cropping patterns in the Valleys of Himachal Pradesh are sub-optimal, indicating thereby that even without bringing additional lands under cultivation, agricultural production can be substantially increased by adopting optimum crop plans with the existing resource base and irrigational facilities. Ashturkar B.W. (1986) 30 made a study on ‘Progress and Prospects of Irrigation Water Management in Maharastra’ and reported that jowar, bajra, paddy and cotton based cropping systems were equally profitable compared to sugarcane. The water requirement of these crops were much less when compared to sugarcane and hence if the area under sugarcane was restricted, large areas could be brought under irrigation, which ultimately would increase and stabilize the production and productivity of major cereals, pulses and oil seed crops in the state. Dhawan B.D. (1986) 31 in his rapporteur’s report on ‘Irrigation and Water Management’ said that linear programming exercises indicate considerable room for raising productivity of irrigation water in water-scarce regions by altering existing crop patterns. Chadra D.R. and Singh G.N. (1987) 32 in their research article on ‘Impact of Irrigation on Crop Production in Ram Ganga Command Area’ evaluated the Command Area Development Programme and found that the programme led to a significant increase in the average wheat and rice yields in Kanpur district. The yield increase was up to 625 kg/ha. Ramakrishnan and Sivanantham M. (1989) 33 in the research article on ‘Water Use Pattern in Tambaraparani Irrigation System’ viewed that water is a crucial input in agricultural development and it also influences the use and productivity of other

29 Singh D.V. and Saraswat S.P. (1984), “Impact of Irrigation on Cropping Pattern and Farm Income under Optimal Solution”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 39(3), pp.540-541. 30 Ashturkar B.W. (1986), “Progress and Prospects of Irrigation Water Management in Maharastra”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 41(4), pp.523-528. 31 Dhawan B.D. (1986), “Irrigation and Water Management”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.41, No.3, July-September, p.425. 32 Chadra D.R. and Singh G.N. (1987), “Impact of Irrigation on Crop Production in Ram Ganga Command Area”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. 42 (9), pp.781-786. 33 Ramakrishnan and Sivanantham M. (1989), “Water Use Pattern in Tambaraparani Irrigation System”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 44, No. 3, July-Sept. p. 266.

resources in crop production. The study made at the head and tail reach situated farmers of the Tambaraparani irrigation system revealed that the cropping intensities were 300 per cent and 260 per cent in the head and tail reaches respectively, indicating significant difference between the farms in the two reaches in input use. The coefficient of variation of water supplied in channels in tail reach was higher in the head reach indicating the uncertainty of water to the farmers at the tail reach. The crop water use efficiency and the field water use efficiency were higher in the tail reach due to low consumption of water. The farmer in head reach had a surplus of water than their demand, which ranged between 21.20 per cent to 33.25 per cent between the seasons. But the farmers in the tail reach faced deficit during both the seasons. Because of this a larger percentage of farmers in the tail reach favoured the adoption of water management practices and formation of water users organization. Chhikara O.P. and Panghal B.S. (1989) 34 had written an article on ‘Effects of Interaction of Irrigation, Capital and Labour on Optimum Cropping Pattern in Semi- Arid Tropic Area (SAT) of Haryana State’. Linear Programming technique was used to optimise the resources on different synthetic farm situations both at the existing and improved levels of technology under existing resource supplied as well as with the relaxed capital, labour and irrigation resources. Significant changes were noticed in the cropping patterns in the optimum plans at both the levels of technologies, thereby increasing the total cropped area and net returns on all size of farms. The net returns increased considerably in the optimum plans at the existing level of technology with the existing resource restrictions. Thus optimum plans at the improved technology gave higher net returns over the existing plans. Amrik Saini S. et al. (1989) 35 investigated in the title on ‘Spatial Differentials in Canal Water Use - A Case Study,’ revealed that after the launching of Giri Canal Irrigation System in the command area of 25 villages, the farmers of the head reach due to adequate availability of water, allocated a considerable proportion of area to more water intensive high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of rice, maize and wheat. In

34 Chhikara O.P. and Panghal B.S. (1989), “Effects of Interaction of Irrigation, Capital and Labour on Optimum Cropping Pattern in Semi-Arid Tropic Area (SAT) of Haryana State”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep., p.269. 35 Amrik Saini S., Thakur D.R., Moorti T.V. (1989), “Spatial Differentials in Canal Water Use - A Case Study”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 44, No. 3, July-Sep., p. 296.

contrast, because of inadequate and uncertainty of canal water, the farmers in the tail reach allocated a larger proportion of the total cropped area to local varieties of these crops. Further, the farmers in the tail reach and middle reach applied a larger quantity of seeds of maize, rice and wheat that the recommended rates, which was mainly due to the fear of germination being less because of low moisture availability. However, the use of chemical fertilisers was the highest in the head reach and the lowest in the tail reach. The average yield rates of major crops, viz., rice, maize and wheat and sugarcane were the highest in the head reach and the lowest in the tail reach. The non- availability of sufficient water at the right time particularly for wheat in the case of pre-sowing irrigation and irrigation at the time of crown root initiation was the major problem of the farmers in the tail reach followed by middle reach. The study suggested that canal authorities concerned should take appropriate measures to do away with the aforesaid anomalies in the existing water use.

Verma R.C. and Banga H.K. (1989) 36 focused on “Impact of Rescheduling of Irrigation Water on Farm Incomes and Cropping Pattern - A Case study of Jaisamand Dam in Alwar District of Rajasthan”. In this study Linear programming technique was used to develop optimal cropping pattern for the command area. The optimal cropping pattern in turn resulted in optimal distribution of irrigation water of the reservoir. The results of the study showed that the existing pattern of distribution of water is not proper. Water is released only during the months of October, November and December mainly for the sowing of rabi crops. For the rest of the year, water is not released even at critical stages of crop growth. Moreover, all the water available in the reservoir is not utilised for irrigation. About 30 to 40 per cent of the water remains unutilised.

Suhas L. Ketkar (1989) 37 wrote an article on ‘Measurement of Inefficiency in Indian Agriculture - A Programming Model’. In this article he noted that the principal sources of inefficiency are two-fold. The subsistence nature of agriculture

36 Verma R.C. and Banga H.K.(1989), “Impact of Rescheduling of Irrigation Water on Farm Incomes and Cropping Pattern – A Case study of Jaisamand Dam in Alwar District of Rajasthan”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep., p.297. 37 Suhas L. Ketkar (1989) “Measurement of Inefficiency in Indian Agriculture – A Programming Model”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep. p.25.

may result in farmers adopting an excessively diversified cropping pattern. This diversification behaviour may stem from a desire a. to minimize risk (by not putting all the eggs in one basket) or b. to produce certain minimum quantities of each food grain to meet family and livestock requirements. The second source of inefficiency lies in the selection of incorrect processes by the farmers to produce the various crops. Among the choice of incorrect processes are included such factors as inadequate ploughing, insufficient plant protection measures, untimely application of fertilizers and irrigation water. Amitava Mukherjee, Avebury (1995) 38 analysed in their book on ‘Structural Adjustment Programme and Food Security: Hunger and Poverty in India’ that power and irrigation have many second round positive effects on the poor. Also, irrigation in north and south India has been responsible for having enough stocks of foodgrains for the public distribution system. Kanchan Chopra (1998) 39 in his article on ‘Institutions for Sustainable Agricultural Development’ pointed out that introduction of paddy in the state is responsible for the increased and unsustainable demand for ground water. In view of this, it is only substitution with maize that may be the appropriate policy from the viewpoint of prudent ground water use. Ranjit Kumar et al. (2003) 40 discussed in their research work on ‘Water Resources in India: Need for Holistic Development and Cautious Exploitation’ that choice of cropping pattern is one of the most important factors influencing the demand of water for agricultural purposes. The study suggests i. genetic improvements targeted towards saving water including the development of crop varieties with better tolerance to drought, which reduce evapo-transpiration, have great potential for raising yields. ii. the use of drip / sprinkler irrigation system has resulted in economical use of precious irrigation water and iii. rainwater harvesting along with the entire range of watershed development measures like, check dams and sub-surface dykes proved to be the best measures to recharge the groundwater. The

38 Amitava Mukherjee, Avebury (1995), “Structural Adjustment Programme and Food Security: Hunger and Poverty in India”, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., Aldershot, Hants, U.K., 1994, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. L, No.4. October – December, p.719. 39 Kanchan Chopra (1998), “Institutions for Sustainable Agricultural Development”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.53, No. 3, July-September, p. 432. 40 Ranjit Kumar, Singh N.P. and Singh R.P. (2003), “Water Resources in India: Need for Holistic Development and Cautious Exploitation”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.58, No. 3, July-September, pp.459 - 462.

authors also focused that under-pricing of canal water is leading to a vicious circle of low revenue recovery, poor maintenance of structures, low distribution efficiency, farmers’ dissatisfaction with the irrigation services and therefore, huge resistance to hike in water charges. Srinivasa Prasad A. et al. (2006) 41 suggested in their research work on ‘Optimal Irrigation Planning under Water Scarcity’ that irrigation managers and farmers are advised to adopt low water-consuming crops with a maximum area under deficit irrigation when water availability is low. Sir Gordon Conway (2009) 42 said in his paper on ‘Climate change will devastate Africa’ that Africa is warming faster than the global average, with more warm spells and fewer extremely cold days. Northern and southern Africa are likely to become as much as 4C hotter over the next 100 years, and much drier, which can expect more intense droughts, floods and storm surges. ‘Projected reductions in crop yields could be as much as 50 per cent by 2020 and 90 per cent by 2100’, the paper said. He also said new technologies must be part of the African response to tackling droughts. In certain circumstances the country need GM crops because it won’t be able to find the gene naturally. GM may be the speediest and most efficient way to increase yields. Drought tolerance is governed by a range of genes. It is a big problem for breeders of (both) GM and ordinary plants he said. Dharmalingam S. and Periasamy, G. (2010) 43 in their article on ‘Erratic Monsoon and Indian Economy’ pointed out that erratic monsoon has impacted in Indian Economy in the form of distress to farmers and their families, commodity trading and price movement and food inflation. The important suggestion advocated by them is promote through Gram Sabhas community food and water security systems. They should involve establishing at the village level seed, grain and water banks. Seed banks will help to introduce alternative cropping strategies and contingency plans to suit different rainfall patterns. Also they have hoped that the recommendations of the Punchhi Commission would enable the central government to take proactive decisions on the issue facing the water sector.

41 Srinivasa Prasad A. Umamahesh N.V. and Viswanath G.K. (2006), “Optimal Irrigation Planning under Water Scarcity”, Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ASCE, Volume 132, Number 3, May/June, p.236. 42 Sir Gordon Conway (2009), “Climate change will devastate Africa”, The Hindu, October 30, p.9. 43 Dharmalingam S. and Periasamy, G. (2010), “Erratic Monsoon and Indian Economy”, Southern Economist, Volume 48, Number 18, January 15, pp.8-10.

IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT Nathan K.K. et al. (2001) 44 observed in the title on ‘Irrigation Development and Future Possibilities’ that prior to 1854 all the irrigation works were financed from general revenue only. After 1854, the categories of irrigation viz., major and minor irrigation came into existence. Indian Irrigation Commission (1903) recognized the importance of small irrigation and assessed that they were responsible for more than half of the irrigated area in the country. The importance of minor irrigation was later stressed by Royal Commission on Agriculture in 1928. The campaign for minor irrigation stressed under ‘Grow More Food’ Programme in 1943 for which government provide financial assistance. Although irrigation work in India can be traced back to the Pre-historical period, substantial development took place only during 20 th century. Irrigated area in the country increased from about less than 1 million ha, in the year 1800 to about 5 million ha, in 1900, 16 million ha, in 1925 and 19 million ha, in 1947. Realising the importance of irrigation, Grow More Food Inquiry Committee (1952) Foodgrains Enquire Committee (1957) and Agricultural production team of the Food Foundation (1959) have all emphasized the importance of minor irrigation to food production. With the partition of India after Independence, the country was left with total irrigated area of 19 million ha. from all sources. The major irrigation source in India today are wells, canals, and tanks, which irrigate about 30 per cent of net cropped area. Of this, well account 49 per cent, canals 38 per cent and tanks 7 per cent. A case study of irrigation projects in Tamil Nadu (Agricultural Situation in India, March 1983) revealed their poor state of tanks, fields channels, unauthorized cultivation and tapping of water in upper reaches, absence of proper lining etc., resulted in loss of water due to evaporation, seepage, percolation etc. Navadkar D.S. et al. (2003) 45 described that in India, tremendous development has been witnessed through the successive Five Year Plans by developing the irrigation potential. They have explained the pattern of the expenditure for irrigation in India with the help of the data provided by Economic Survey, 2008-2009.

44 Nathan K.K., Sharma R.K. and Singh A., (2001), “Irrigation Development and Future Possibilities”, Yojana, Vol.45, July 2001, p.23-26. 45 Navadkar D.S. Birari K.S. and Kasar D.V. (2003), “A Boon for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Maharastra”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No. 3, June, p.141-145.

They pointed out that during the first plan 15.82 per cent of the total outlay was spent on irrigation and flood control. After the First Plan the importance given to irrigation was slightly reduced. In the Second Plan the amount earmarked for irrigation and flood control was only 9.13 per cent and in the Third Plan it further reduced to 7.75 per cent and in the Annual Plan the government allotted only 7.11 per cent for irrigation and flood control. In the fourth and fifth plans the outlay has increased to 8.58 per cent and 9.83 per cent respectively. In the Annual Plans 1979-80 the government spent 10.58 per cent on irrigation. In the Sixth Plan the government spent 10 per cent on irrigation and it has fallen to 7.58 per cent in Seventh Plan. During the Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Plan there is a substantial fall in the outlay allotted for irrigation and flood control. In the Tenth Plan the amount spent on irrigation is very low and outlay 6.77 per cent of the total outlay is spent on irrigation. This shows clearly irrigation expenditure has been falling steadily during the plan period. Reforms in Irrigation Sector: The state government has taken policy decision in July, 2001 for formation of Co-operative Water Users Associations (WAU) and handing over the irrigation management to WUAs and policy seeks to i. reduce the gap between irrigation potential created and actual area irrigated ii. to restrict expenditure on maintenance and repairs of irrigation system iii. to increase water use efficiency of irrigation management and iv. to recover government water charges effectively.

John Briscoe and Malik R.P.S. (2007) 46 narrated in their book on ‘Hand Book of Water Resources in India Development, Management and Strategies’, that Irrigation in India has been practiced from pre-historic times and appears to have been contemporary with agriculture itself. Numerous references are found in the Vedas and other ancient Indian literature to wells, tanks, canals and dams, their importance to the community, their efficient maintenance and operation, and the duties of the state in these matters. Many of the tanks in central and southern India are many centuries old. While irrigation from shallow wells always has been, and still is, the result of individual private effort, the development of irrigation (mostly inundation)

46 John Briscoe and Malik R.P.S. (2007), “Hand Book of Water Resources in India Development, Management and Strategies”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp.47-52.

from surface flow has traditionally been the result of state enterprise. Archaeological investigations at the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization reveal evidence of stone- dams (‘gabarbunds’) and earthen embankments (‘kachbunds’). In southern India, irrigation was in vogue in the Cauvery delta more or less in the same periods as the Indus Valley Civilization. The Grand Anicut across the Cauvery was built in the second century AD. Besides river diversion works, thousands of minor irrigation tanks were constructed in the fifth century AD by the Cheras, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. The Western Yamuna Canal was built in the fourteenth century AD, renovated by Mughals in the sixteenth century AD, and repaired in the nineteenth century by the British. Irrigation development in the British period was financed by the revenue collected. An effort to promote irrigation through private companies with a government guarantee of 5 per cent return on capital invested was unsuccessful. In 1866, important changes were made in the principles and policy governing the execution and financing of irrigation projects, keeping in view that large investments were required to expand irrigation and the poor response to privatization. It was decided that irrigation projects would be executed only by the state and would be financed from public loans. A number of projects like the Sirhind Canal (Punjab), the Lower Ganga Canal, the Agra Canal, the Betwa Canal (Uttar Pradesh), the Periyar system (Tamil Nadu), and the Mutha Canals (Maharashtra) were accordingly completed. In 1901, the then GOI appointed the ‘Indian Irrigation Commission’ to report on irrigation as a protection against famine in India. Based on the Commission’s recommendations, the Triple Canal Project (now in Pakistan), the Tribeni Canal (Bihar), the Godavari Canal, the Pravara Canal and the Nira Right Bank Canal (Maharashtra), the Sarda Canal (Uttar Pradesh) were completed. A significant change in the policy governing the administration and financing of irrigation projects was brought about with the introduction of the Montague – Chelmsford Reforms in 1921. The provincial governments were authorized to raise loans themselves for financing of irrigation. The Krishnarajasagar (Karnataka), the Nizamsagar (Andra Pradesh), the Mettur Dam (Tamil Nadu), the Bikaner Canal

(Rajasthan), and the Sutlej Valley Canals and the Sukkur barrage (now in Pakistan) projects were taken up by the provinces after this authorization. In 1935, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act according to which the subject of irrigation was transferred from the control of the centre to the provincial or state governments. The centre was no longer concerned with the development of irrigation except where disputes arose among co-basin states. The constitution-makers, after independence, thought it prudent to continue this arrangement resulting in the centre losing all control over irrigation. Many of the malaise confronting the irrigation sector today can perhaps be traced back to this decision of 1935. India does not have a national water law or code. There are many laws at the state level and some at the central level relating to different aspects or uses of water or having a bearing on water, but there is no overarching umbrella legislation on water per se. There is a National Water Policy but it has no statutory backing or force. According to Ramaswamy R. Iyer there are divergent perceptions relating to water. Water is seen variously as a riparian right; as essential to life and therefore as a fundamental right or a human right; as an integral part of the ecological system and of planet Earth; as a sacred resource; as an ‘economic good’ or tradable commodity; as a ‘common pool resource’ or ‘commons’; and as private property. These divergent perceptions lead to divergent policy prescriptions, such as state control, community management, privatization, and water markets. Unfortunately, the diverse water- related laws at the state and central levels add to the complexity and confusion. Similarly, no answers have so far been found to the problems created by the prevalence of ownership rights in relation to groundwater. The need to regulate the extraction of groundwater and the operation of groundwater markets with reference to the objectives of conserving and protecting the resource from depletion and pollution / contamination and ensuring equity and social justice is evident, but hardly any progress has been made in those directions.

The Planning Commission and Planned Development Irrigation has formed an important component of each of the Plans. The important thrust areas identified by each Plan insofar as irrigation is concerned have been as follows:

First Plan - double area under irrigation in next fifteen to twenty years. - desirability of taking steps to charge betterment levy on all new projects (betterment levy is the government’s share in the increase in the value of land that accrues as a result of provision of irrigation facilities); - setting up non-lapsable irrigation development fund by each state to meet all expenditure on irrigation and power projects; stress on economic use of water. - setting up of a body to advise on relative priority of different projects after they are technically cleared in the Central Water Commission; and - while large irrigation projects would be undertaken by state, village cooperatives or association of landholders to be encouraged to take up small irrigation works.

Second Plan - Engineering Personnel Committee appointed to assess requirement of engineers for infrastructure development; and - Completion of canals hand in hand with dams for quick utilization of potential.

Third Plan - special steps to be taken to bring about substantial improvement in financial return; - revision of water rates; and - although legislation for betterment levy was enacted by all states except Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, enforcement has lagged behind.

Fourth Plan - stress on command area development to close gap between potential created and utilized; - earmarking 10 per cent of aggregate central assistance for allocation to specific projects; and - integrated river basin planning.

Fifth Plan - programme for command area development launched; and - classification of major, medium, and minor irrigation projects was changed from cost-based to area-based criterion (in 1959, the norms for major, medium, and minor projects cost were greater than Rs 50 million, between Rs. 50 million and Rs. 1 million, and less than Rs. 1 million, respectively. This was changed to cultivable command area greater than 10,000 hectares, between 2000 and 10,000 hectares, and less than 2000 hectares).

Sixth Plan - Expeditious completion of ongoing projects; - New projects in drought prone, tribal, and backward areas to remove regional imbalances; - Initiating investigation for a national plan for inter-basin transfer of waters; and - Focus on groundwater.

Seventh Plan - irrigation development at 2.5 million hectares per year; and - accelerate exploration and exploitation of groundwater especially in eastern and north-eastern regions.

Eighth Plan - holistic approach in formulation of projects with stress on environmental issues; - concern about large number of ongoing projects-need for prioritization; - strengthening of data base, use of remote sensing; - modernization of existing systems, improvement of minor irrigation tanks; and - extend coverage of flood forecasting network

Ninth Plan - criticality of water in doubling agricultural production in next ten years realized;

- focus of improved water-use efficiency; - bridging gap between potential created and utilized; - promoting participatory irrigation management and conjunctive use; and - accelerating groundwater development with proper regulatory mechanism.

Tenth Plan - focus on completion of on-going projects; - steps to avoid proliferation of projects; - benchmarking of projects; - lag between potential created and utilized; - Participatory Irrigation Management; - water logging, improvement of water-use efficiency; - revision in water rates; - groundwater legislation; and - nodal ministry at the centre for water resources, that is, Ministry of Water Resources would be in charge of overall coordination of all programme / schemes relating to water.

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT Castle E.N. (1961) 47 in his article on ‘Programming Structures in Watershed Development, Economics of Watershed Planning’ used linear programming technique to allocate water optimally between two agricultural regions. The linearity concept underlying the problem was that the water users in the two regions would expand their use of other inputs of production in proportion to the additional water made available to the regions. He also explained the use of linear programming in three simple resource situations. The first one related to the structure capacity and water usage; the second to the interdependent structure, and the third to the alternative use relationships.

47 Castle E.N. (1961), “Programming Structures in Watershed Development, Economics of Watershed Planning”, edited Tolley G.S. and Riggs F.E. Ames: Iowa State University Press, pp.127-216.

Moore C.V. (1961) 48 in his article on ‘A General Analytical Framework for Estimating the Production Function for Crops Using Irrigation Water’ used linear programming techniques for a representative farm situation to examine the effect of variations in available irrigation water supply. Anderson et al. (1966) 49 in their research work on ‘Estimation of Irrigation Water Values in Western Oklahama’ estimated the optimum allocation of alternative levels of available water among crops in West Oklahama using linear programming analysis on typical farms, with different water levels. Alternative crop systems, farms resource situations, systems of farming, rainfall conditions and rates of water application were analyzed. The results indicated that irrigation significantly increased farm income through the availability of adequate water supply. Heady et al. (1973) 50 in the research paper on ‘Agricultural Water Allocation, Land Use and Policy’ employed linear programming models to determine optimal water and land allocation and agricultural water needs of the whole of the United States agriculture in the year 2000. They concluded that the problem facing the United States was not a water shortage for agriculture, but an improved allocation of this resource. Moorthi et al. (1973) 51 in their research work on ‘Cost-Benefit Analysis of Irrigation on High Yielding Wheat in Nainital Tarai Region of Uttar Pradesh’ highlighted the benefits of irrigation under scientific water management practices. The experimental findings led to the conclusion that it was not only the quantity of water which was important but the timing of irrigation at different stages of plant growth was also responsible for the crop yields.

48 Moore C.V. (1961), “A General Analytical Framework for Estimating the Production Function for Crops Using Irrigation Water”, Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 67(3), pp.240-255. 49 Anderson D.D. Cook N.R. and Badger D.D. (1966), “Estimation of Irrigation Water Values in Western Oklahama”, Processed Series No.528, Oklahama Agricultural Experimental Station, pp.1-34. 50 Heady E.O., Madsen H.C., Nicol K.T. and Hargrove S.H. (1973), “Agricultural Water Allocation, Land Use and Policy”, Paper of the Technical Council of Water Resources Planning and Management, Journal of the Hydraulic Division, Vol. 99(10), pp.1795-1812. 51 Moorthi T.V.B. Lal and Varma K.K. (1973), “Cost-Benefit Analysis of Irrigation on High Yielding Wheat in Nainital Tarai Region of Uttar Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.28(4), p.241.

The study conducted by Shingakey M.K. and Sohoni D.K. (1973) 52 conducted a study on ‘Benefit Cost Analysis of Agricultural Projects’ in Wardha District, Maharastra. The cost and returns of the beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries were used to estimate the benefits and associated cost after the commencement of the project respectively. The results showed that the cost-benefit ratio increased with increase in irrigation utilization. Hedges T.R. (1974) 53 in his research article on ‘Water Supplies and Cost in Relation to Farm Resource Use Decisions and Profits on Sacraments Valley Farms’ developed a series of linear programming models within the framework of 28 constraints and evaluated the potential effect of varying water quantities and prices on total farm net returns over variable expenses. The constraints were related to seasonal, total inter-seasonal water quantities available, total tillable land and the maximum acreage of individual crops within this total and harvested hours per season. He found that increase in the availability of total seasonal water quantities from zero to the maximum level was associated with increase in net returns. Thomas Wickham (1975) 54 in his research paper on ‘Predicting Yield Benefits in Lowland Rice through a Water Balance Model, Water Management in Philippines Irrigation System : Research and Operations Manila’ explained the adequacy of water service and the efficiency of the system as the most important parameters of water management. The former was a measure of how completely the system served its farms, while the latter was a measure of water wastage which, if saved, could be used to irrigate a larger area. The farmer in general would look at water adequacy, while irrigation research concentrated on efficiency. Sivanappan R.K. and Balasubramanian M. (1976) 55 in their article on ‘Water Management Practices in Rice Fields Coimbatore’ defined water management as a practice which included the integrated process of intake, conveyance, regulation,

52 Shingakey M.K and Sohoni D.K. (1973) “Benefit Cost Analysis of Agricultural Projects”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 28(4), p.285. 53 Hedges T.R. (1974) “Water Supplies and Cost in Relation to Farm Resource Use Decisions and Profits on Sacraments Valley Farms”, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Giannian Foundation on Agricultural Economics Research Report No.320, p.62. 54 Thomas Wickham, (1975), “Predicting Yield Benefits in Lowland Rice through a Water Balance Model, Water Management in Philippines Irrigation System: Research and Operations Manila”, IRRI, 1975, pp.155-181. 55 Sivanappan R.K. and Balasubramanian M. (1976), “Water Management Practices in Rice Fields Coimbatore”, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, 1976, p.2.

measurement, distribution, application and use of irrigation water in farms and removal of excess water from farms with proper amounts and at the right time for the purpose of securing maximum crop production and water economy. The author advocated land levelling, proper irrigation and drainage system and control of water through well laid out control system as measure of water management. Charan A.S. (1978) 56 in his article on ‘Economic Evaluation of an Irrigation Project: A Study of the West Banas Project’ revealed that the introduction of irrigation in the region had helped primarily the agricultural sector in fairly estabilizing agricultural production first, and through increased use of inputs in increasing production. The cost-benefit ratio was greater than one. This clearly proved the economic feasibility of the project. Sadegihi J.M. (1978) 57 in his research work on ‘Economic Impacts of Increased Water Supply on Small Farms in Iran’ analyzed the changes in the production function of small farms as a result of increased water supply and examined the nature of adjustments in input allocation before and after the increase in water supply. A Cobb-Douglas type model analysis showed the impact of additional water supplied by the Davis dam on rice production function indicating an increase in the productivity coefficients and values of the intercepts. Sisodia J.S. (1978) 58 applied cost analysis in ‘Economic Evaluation of Chambal Irrigation Project in Madhya Pradesh’. Since expert evaluation of the project was attempted in this study, it dealt with a comprehensive study of the economy of the command and non-command area. The level of technology used, yield per hectare and gross farm output in all the farms were seen to be significantly higher in the canal irrigated areas as compared to that in non-command area, and the government investment was justified on these grounds.

56 Charan A.S. (1978), “Economic Evaluation of an Irrigation Project: A Study of the West Banas Project”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 33(4), p.261. 57 Sadegihi J.M. (1978), “Economic Impacts of Increased Water Supply on Small Farms in Iran”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 32(2), pp.62-69. 58 Sisodia J.S. (1978), “Economic Evaluation of Chambal Irrigation Project in Madhya Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.33(4), p.263.

Vaidyanathan A. (1980) 59 points out in his book on ‘Water Resources Management, Institutions and Irrigation Development in India’, that irrigation has several phases (namely control of the water source, the delivery of water, the actual application of water to crops and drainage), each of which involves a number of distinct functions (namely facility construction, operation and maintenance, water allocation and conflict resolution).

Vaidyanathan A. (1980) 60 in the book on ‘Water Resources Management, Institutions and Irrigation Development in India’ reveals that most countries in Asia attack great importance to rapid development of irrigation and flood control and have spent massive resources for this purpose. Experience shows however that there is great deal more to this than the construction of reservoirs and canals.

Shepperdson M.L. (1981) 61 in his article on ‘The Development of Irrigation in Indus River Basin, Pakistan’ studied Social and Environmental Impact of Irrigation. He pointed out that a comprehensive account of irrigation development in Indus River Basin, Pakistan and its impact on social, economic and environmental conditions in the region. Macro data-area used to analyse the problems and prospects of irrigation. He opines that adverse effect of irrigation like water logging and salinity are essentially due to cultivation of paddy and other water-intensive crops and adoption of traditional farming methods. This shows that farmer’s awareness and understanding of modern technology is essential to implement irrigated farm technology. This aspect remains still unexplored.

Emery N. Castle (1982) 62 in his research article on ‘Agriculture and Natural Resource Adequacy’ argued that major problems plague agricultural water management in the United States on both a micro and macro basis. A basic fact that most of the low-cost opportunities for irrigation in the United States already have been exploited. Private development of both surface and ground water to increase

59 Vaidyanathan A. (1980), “Water Resources Management, Institutions and Irrigation Development in India”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p.2. 60 Ibid, p. 3. 61 Shepperdson M.L. (1981), “The Development of Irrigation in Indus River Basin, Pakistan” in Suranjit K. Sha and Christopher J. Barrow (eds.), Rivar Basin Planning: Theory and Practice. 62 Emery N. Castle (1982), “Agriculture and Natural Resource Adequacy”, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Volume 64, Number 5, December, pp. 814-815.

agricultural output will occur only with greater economic and environmental costs. Salinity is a problem in many parts of the West, and nonagricultural water uses have been growing in importance for several decades. Under such circumstances one logically looks to ways that might make more effective use of existing water supplies. With regards to water adequacy and agriculture the work of Frederick leads to believe that increased irrigation can not be expected to contribute to greater agricultural output in the future to the extent that it has in the past. On balance, irrigated acreage will increase, but at a slower rate, and the increases will occur in less hospitable environments, for example, the Sand Hills of Nebraska, and costs correspondingly will be higher. The author does expect greater economic incentives for the better utilization of water both in irrigated and rain-fed areas; but this would be much greater, of course, if water markets are reformed. The consumptive nonagricultural water uses now on the horizon are not large enough to affect aggregate agricultural output significantly if water were put to more efficient use in agriculture. Higher energy prices are affecting water for irrigation in many areas. This is especially true for groundwater, where pumping lifts are increasing as water tables are dropping. Thus, even though it is hard to visualize a natural water shortage, water allocation and management will be major resource problems for many areas, and agriculture will be at the centre of the conflicts that will occur. However, only agriculture will be forced to adjust if more realistic pricing and allocation policies are adopted. Rajan Mishra (1984) 63 in his article on ‘Impact of Production and Factor Use - A Case Study of Mayrakshi Canal in West Bengal’ used production function to examine the effect of irrigation technique on rice and concluded that there was an upward shift in production function in the neutral way by introducing irrigation. Ramakrishnan, C. (1985) 64 in his study on ‘Water Use Pattern and Resource Use Efficiency in Tambaraparani Irrigation System’ used a linear production function and among the inputs used in rice cultivation, irrigation water was found to be highly significant indicating the scope for increasing rice yield through water management.

63 Rajan Mishra, (1984), “Impact of Production and Factor Use - A Case Study of Mayrakshi Canal in West Bengal”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 39(3), p.548. 64 Ramakrishnan C. (1985), “Water Use Pattern and Resource Use Efficiency in Tambaraparani Irrigation System”, M.Sc. (Agri) dissertation, Madurai: Agricultural College, pp.82-86.

Chikara I.J. and Singh (1986) 65 in their research work on ‘Optimisation of Land and Water Resources in Semi and Tropics of Hisar District in Haryana’ had revealed that there existed the possibility of increasing net returns at farm level through optimization of land and water resources at both existing level and improved levels of technology. Dhawan B.D. (1989) 66 in the article on ‘Water Resource Management in India: Issues and Dimensions’ has suggested from the field-based study in the Sriramsagar (formerly Pochampad) project, that spatial unevenness in our water bounty is inevitable for a country of continental dimensions. What is truly striking are the temporal variations in our water availability, both within the agricultural year and from one year to the next. Whereas spatial unevenness necessitates heavy investment in long distance transfer of water from the more endowed to the less endowed tracts, temporal unevenness makes sizable investments in water storage works imperative. Lodha N.R.S. et al. (1989) 67 had discussed on ‘Canal Administration and Main System Versus Farm Systems Linkages in a Newly Commenced Irrigation Project in a Tribal Belt of Rajasthan’. This study pointed out that the majority of the farmers have knowledge about the hazards of excess use of water. The farmers, by and large, welcome services designed to impart better knowledge of water use technology in relation to other technological inputs. Generally no conflict arises and if at all any conflict occurs the same is resolved by farmers themselves. Farmers are aware of technological gap and the need to bridge it. The extension services need adequate strengthening in the project area. The high degree of recognition between Main system Managers and farmers followed by effective but informal farm level cooperation and the right rationale of tribal farmers on proper water use and technology adoption widen the scope for development of tribal areas through irrigation projects.

65 Chikara I.J. and Singh (1986), “Optimisation of Land and Water Resources in Semi and Tropics of Hisar District in Haryana”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 41(4), pp.548-549. 66 Dhawan B.D. (1989), “Water Resource Management in India: Issues and Dimensions”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep., pp. 235-240. 67 Lodha N.R.S. Solanki A.S. and Varghese K.A. (1989), “Canal Administration and Main System Versus Farm Systems Linkages in a Newly Commenced Irrigation Project in a Tribal Belt of Rajasthan”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep., pp.292-293.

Desai S.N. Birari K.S. and Patil P.D. (1989) 68 attempted to study in the paper on ‘Role of Irrigation Layout to Check Over-Irrigation’ and the study revealed that absence of appropriate land shaping and grading, improper maintenance of field channels, water availability time, uneven flow of water, lack of training in water management, absence of improved crop production technology and knowledge of water measuring devices were the major causes of over-irrigation. Singh A.J. and Joshi A.S. (1989) 69 examine in their article on ‘Important Aspects of Economics of Irrigation in India with Special Reference to Punjab State’. The study has shown that the progress of irrigation development has been rather sluggish due to inter-state disputes and lack of adequate resources. It has been suggested that irrigation should be converted in to a central subject or the riparian principles should be followed to avoid inter-state disputes. Further, the study shows that the potential created should be fully utilized. Hirashima S. and Gooneratne W. (1990) 70 in their book on ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia’ pointed out that the existing irrigation facilities operate far below their actual potential is well recognized in many countries. While continuing under-performance contributes to a significant loss of production and employment, prevailing management deficiencies have also resulted in widening inequality in access to irrigation water and in income disparities. It has been noted that an increase of as much 20 per cent in total production can be achieved merely by improving the performance of irrigation systems through ‘management reform’. The two case studies from Indonesia and the Philippines clearly demonstrate the ability of community management systems to efficiently operate and manage small irrigation facilities by mobilization of local resources (which include not only labour but also financial and material resources), maximizing production and employment through effective and regular system maintenance and efficient management of resources by strict allocation of water and judicious crop planning and

68 Desai S.N. Birari K.S. and Patil P.D. (1989), “Role of Irrigation Layout to Check Over-Irrigation”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep. p.294. 69 Singh A.J. and Joshi A.S. (1989), “Important Aspects of Economics of Irrigation in India with Special Reference to Punjab State”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July- Sept., p. 264. 70 Hirashima S. and Gooneratne W. (1990), “Irrigation and Water Management in Asia”, edited, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pp. 7-8.

ensuring equitable distribution of obligations and benefits. This is successfully achieved by assessing obligations in proportion to the share of water received by each user and by strict enforcement of established rules and regulations. Kay, M.G. (1990) 71 made a review on ‘Recent Developments for Improving Water Management in Surface and Overhead Irrigation’ that for surface irrigation, by far the most common method of applying water, there are two important technology related factors which have contributed to this situation. Firstly, there is a lack of good water management at farm level, primarily because of a poor understanding of the principles and practices of water application methods and scheduling techniques. Secondly, irrigation has largely been considered as a separate and distinct activity from other aspects of production. On the farm conflicts have arisen between the layout and management of irrigation and the requirements of cultivation and mechanisation. On larger irrigation schemes, using canal systems to deliver water to several farms, it has led to inflexible supply oriented systems which are unable to respond easily and rapidly to changing farm water requirements. This has resulted, all too often, in poor water distribution and unreliable and/or inadequate water supplies. However, the efficient use of irrigation water relies as much on the skills of the farmer as it does on the physical layout of the system. Niranjan Pant (1990) 72 has focused in his article on ‘The Administrative Aspects of Canal Irrigation of Kosi Project in Bihar’. According to him, ‘it is not sufficient to set up an irrigation system. The most important task is to evolve an organizational system which can operate it successfully’. Hence he attributes the gap in utilization mainly to inefficient management of water supplies at the system level. The main constraints affecting the efficiency in utilization of water are noted to be lack of cooperation among the bureaucracy and the beneficiaries, non-completion of residual work, faulty design of canals and outlets and non-implementation of warabandi. With regard to the issue of productivity and equity in irrigation systems, he attributes the gap to faulty statistics and inequality in distribution of water between

71 Kay, M.G. (1990), “Recent Developments for Improving Water Management in Surface and Overhead Irrigation”, Agricultural Water Management, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam – Printed in The Netherlands, 17, pp. 7-23. 72 Niranjan Pant (1990), “The administrative aspects of canal irrigation of Kosi Project in Bihar”, edited by Mohammed Yousuf, ‘Irrigation Plan Practice Perspective’, Ajanta Publications (India), Jawahar Nagar, Delhi. p. 6.

the head reach and tail-end farmers. Inequality in distribution of water lowers the productivity. He observes that the upper reach farmers resort to multiple wet crops whereas the tail-end farmers realise only one third of the benefits corresponding to the more privileged groups. Hence he suggested that inequalities should be removed by improving the system management. Maria Saleth R. (1995) 73 reviewed the book of Clarence Maloney and K.V. Raju, ‘Managing Irrigation Together: Practice and Policy in India’, that unless a radical reform is urgently undertaken to change our present water institution (i.e., water policy, water law and water administration), it will be almost impossible to salvage and sustain our water economy. The emphasis first was given a people- centered approach to water management - not on any romantic or idealistic grounds but on practical counts. The second was the crucial role of social engineering aspects in irrigation management. Since irrigation is not merely a physical or hydro-geological system but equally also an economic and social system, a mere engineering perspective could miss other important aspects like agronomy, economics, sociology, etc., so essential for improving the performance of the system as a whole. Thirdly, as the title speaks better, not only the farmers, irrigation officials, training and technical institutions, and private development agencies need to come together in managing irrigation but also different segments of the system ranging from catchments to drainage systems need to be managed together. Fourthly, the authors highlight a serious legal deficiency, i.e., the unsuitability of the prevailing Acts for legally registering Water Management Associations (WMAs). While the involvement of profit precludes their registration under the Societies and Trust Acts, cumbersome procedures, bureaucratic hurdles, and income tax problems discourage their registration under the Co-operatives and Trust Acts. Fifthly, the authors also deal with one of the most crucial technical snags in ensuring equitable allocation of water and cost by WMAs, i.e., the issue of measuring water cost effectively at the farm-gate level.

73 Maria Saleth R. (1995), “Managing Irrigation Together: Practice and Policy in India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. L, No. 4, October – December, pp. 715-717.

Sixthly, while the need for WMAs is clear and the policy environment becomes increasingly favourable for their formation, WMAs are not always spontaneous except in cases where they face an immediate common threat like severe water shortage or share a common social bond. Dewan J.M., Sundarshan K.N. (1996) 74 in their book on ‘Irrigation Management’ pointed out that new development in irrigation technology plus complementary advances in plant breeding, crop protection, and agronomy packages have increased productivity and profitability of irrigation agriculture. They stress that proper irrigation can increase area cropped, promote intercropping and multiple cropping, ease changes in cropping pattern to more profitable crops, increase yields by avoiding moisture stress which facilitate profitable use of other inputs and reduce risks and encourage on - farm investment would facilitate food security. Dewan J.M., Sudarshan K.N. (1996) 75 in their book on ‘Irrigation Management’ highlighted that ‘Irrigation, being one of the important inputs of agriculture, becomes an equally important component of the rural infrastructure for the development. Hence, in any planning for development sufficient weightage has to be given to irrigation development. It is much so in the case of a country like ours where agriculture sector is the main stay of the national economy, accounting for almost half its national income provides employment for a major part of the population and sustenance to about 70 per cent of it, and yet by and large it depends on the vagaries of monsoon. The main function of irrigation is to mitigate the impact of inadequate and irregular rainfall, with wide fluctuations from year to year, which often results in even semi-famine conditions’. Dewan J.M., Sudarshan K.N. (1996) 76 also mentioned that the average size of holding in India is as low as 2-3 hectare and that too is handicapped with scattered plots fields of the farmers. Besides, the condition is further, aggravated on fragmentation on holdings of the farmers. Further, the imbalance between the distribution of control over land and the number of dependents on it breeds, social and economic inequalities. It also leads to unequal access to irrigation water more

74 Dewan, J.M. and Sundarshan, K.N. (1996), “Irrigation Management”, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 14. 75 Ibid, p. 121. 76 Ibid, p. 184.

particularly to surface water, i.e. canal, and also to development activities, institutional facilities, decision making process. Dewan J.M., Sudarshan K.N. (1996) 77 further said that canals were long thought to be much superior in the quality of irrigation service they can provide. Experience in recent decades has, however, produced much disillusionment about the performance of canals. The only group of irrigators in canal commands who usually have no or few complaint about the quality of irrigation service are in the mid-reach areas of the system. Those at the head-reach suffer from too much water, especially below ground surface, contributing over a period of time to water logging, soil salinity and reduced land productivity; while tail-enders of canal systems are in much the same situation as tank irrigators - on most canal systems, the irrigation service, if any, that tail-enders receive is usually neither timely, nor reliable, nor adequate. Extensive evidence suggest that wells offer better quality irrigation service is that of control over timing and quantum of water application that they do not enjoy with canal irrigation. In the case of canal, farmers have to use water when the canal managers choose to release it or when their turn comes, which may be after a week or two or more. So farmers prefer to make supplementary use of well water when possible. Shekhawat M.S. and Singh K.K. (1997) 78 stated in his article on ‘Better Management of Water’ that in India just 25 percent rain water is being utilized for irrigation. The overall irrigation efficiency in the canal command area is very low and there is huge gap between the potential created and exploited. The loss of water is not only wastage of scarce resource created at huge cost but it results in the twin problems of water logging and soil salinization. India’s crop production suffers not only from drought, but also from unscientific use of the available irrigation water. They have suggested methods of water application in the following way. Irrigation water may be applied to crops by flooding it on the field surface, by applying it beneath the soil surface, by spraying it under pressure or by applying it in drops. The water supply, the type of soil, the topography of the land and the crop to be irrigated determine the correct method of irrigation to be used. Whatever the method of irrigation, it is necessary to design the system for the most efficient use of water by the crop.

77 Ibid, pp.106-107. 78 Shekhawat M.S. and Singh K.K. (1997), “Better Management of Water”, Yojana, Vol. 41, No. 7, July, pp.17-20.

Dhawan B.D. (1998) 79 assessed on the title ‘India’s Irrigation Sector: Myths and Realities’ that just as in studies pertaining to cost of cultivation where we use a couple of cost variants, we may have to do something similar while costing canal irrigation. Three cost variants readily come to mind: Cost I, Cost II and Cost III. Cost I could be viewed as the book value cost of canal irrigation that is aptly conveyed by the following expression: Cost I = WE + r.K + d.K where WE stands for annual working expenses (excluding interest charge), K stands for cumulative capital outlay, r stands for interest rate, d stands for depreciation rate. He also mentioned that a widely held view is that under-pricing of public irrigation in India is due to political reasons. This can best be done by focusing on the determinants of farmers’ ability to pay for canal waters. Benefits exceeding costs is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for full cost recovery from canal beneficiaries. He also said that canals act as a great source of “artificial’ groundwater recharge that helps in mitigating the rising pressure on groundwater resources and another incidental benefit of canal irrigation is the reduction in instability in farm economy. This stability gain implies reduction in year-to-year fluctuations in crop area, crop yield, crop output, farm incomes, and farm employment. Ratna Reddy (1998) 80 argued in the title on ‘Institutional Imperatives and Coproduction Strategies for Large Irrigation Systems in India’ hitherto the debate on irrigation management in India is polarised between ‘top down (centralised) and ‘bottoms up’ (farmers’ participation) approaches. But institutional reforms within the irrigation department are not given due importance in the recent debates (Vaidyanathan, 1996). Instead, lack of willingness and low ability of the farmers to pay for irrigation water are often used as excuses for continuing irrigation subsidies at the top level(especially at the state level). He argues that this is a false dichotomy and an integrated (‘topdown’ and ‘bottoms up’) approach is necessary for the success of pricing and institutional mechanisms in irrigation management.

79 Dhawan B.D. (1998), “India’s Irrigation Sector: Myths and Realities”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.53, No.1, Jan-March, pp. 4-10. 80 Ratna Reddy (1998), “Institutional Imperatives and Coproduction Strategies for Large Irrigation Systems in India”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.53, No. 3, July-September, p.440.

Pasricha N.S. (2001) 81 viewed in his article on ‘Growth in Irrigation Development and Fertiliser Use in India-Impact on Food Production’ that the irrigated area for all crops has increased rapidly since the beginning of Green Revolution. Despite the fact that total irrigated land in the country increased tremendously, but the per capita irrigated land will drop from 0.047 ha. in 2000 to 0.028 ha. in the year 2030. He observed that meeting the challenges on the food-front in the coming decades will depend on the quantum and direction in investments made today. However, unless considerations of ecological sustainability are coupled with those of economic efficiency in both development and dissemination of news technology, the future of agriculture will be not very bright. Therefore, producing more food from less land, water and energy is a task that will call for the integration of the best in modern technology with ecological strength of traditional wisdom of farming practices. Tewari D.N. (2001) 82 in his research article on ‘Optimum Use of Water Resource in Agriculture’ pointed out that to feed a population of one billion and growing and the goal of ‘Food for All’ is to be achieved land and water care constitutes the foundation for building. There are both costs and benefits attached to use of water for increasing agricultural production. India has no option except to produce more from less per capita arable land and irrigation water in this century. With the net sown area almost stagnant in the country at about 142 million hectares and 63 per cent of the cultivated land under rain fed, further expansion of irrigation, including additional irrigation through modernization / renovation of irrigation capacity is needed as a critical input to achieve the targeted growth rate of agricultural production. Dinesh K. Marothia (2003) 83 addressed in the his article on ‘Enhancing Sustainable Management of Water Resource in Agriculture Sector: The Role of Institutions’ that investment in canal and groundwater irrigation development has enhanced the productive capacity of land resources which has in turn enabled the

81 Pasricha N.S. (2001), “Growth in Irrigation Development and Fertiliser Use in India-Impact on Food Production”, Agriculture Situation in India, Vol. LXIII, No.2, May, pp. 46-49. 82 Tewari D.N. (2001), “Optimum Use of Water Resource in Agriculture”, Yojana, Vol. 45, No. 1, pp. 21-23. 83 Dinesh K. Marothia (2003), “Enhancing Sustainable Management of Water Resource in Agriculture Sector: The Role of Institutions”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.58, No. 3, July-September, pp. 410-414.

nation to achieve steady agricultural growth. However, the impacts of irrigation systems, particularly of canal irrigation, are besieged with a number of management and environmental problems. Management problems related to the allocation and use of water within the distribution network are exacerbated by poor maintenance and degraded infrastructure. Some of the environmental problems associated with the irrigation systems include water logging, salinity and weed infestation in many projects are not commensurate with the large public investment and subsides given to the farmers (Chambers, 1988; Gulati and Narayanan, 2003; Vaidyanathan, 1994; Marothia, 1997; 2002). Diwan (2003) 84 analysed in the title on ‘Conflict Resolution in Water Sector through Institutional Development’ that an inequity in Irrigation water supply that in existing irrigation projects there is often considerable inequity in distribution of water to the disadvantage of the farmers in the lower reaches of the command. The anomalous situation arises over a period of time as the upstream farmers gradually switch over to high water consuming crops like sugarcane and paddy because of incentives and higher returns offered by market forces. In extreme cases, because of the riparian rights of these farmers, established over the years, the objectives of original project planning in terms of area covered and cropping pattern are only partially realized besides adverse environmental impacts like water logging and soil salinity. This leads to conflicts between the irrigation department and the lower-end farmers. In some areas where the farmers are resourceful, excessive ground pumping is resorted to, which ultimately leads to violation of permissible limits of ground water exploitation fixed by the concerned authorities. These areas are declared as “Grey” or “Black” to prohibit further exploitation. The unrestricted changes in cropping pattern adopted by upper-end farmers is difficult to regulate through administrative or legislative interventions. This could only be achieved through mutual understanding and cooperation among the farmers through institutional development at the farmers levels in the form of Water Users Association (WUA) which should also take the responsibility of operating the distribution system. There

84 Diwan (2003) “Conflict Resolution in Water Sector through Institutional Development” edited Kamata Prasad, ‘Water Resources and Sustainable Development Challenges of 21 st Century’, Shipra Publications, Delhi, pp. 348-349.

are wide disparities in water allowances in different regions. In some projects in South India it is 50 cusec / 1000 acre where as in Haryana and Rajasthan it is as low as 3 cusec / 1000 acre. Any reduction in water allowances, where these are high, could lead to serious law and order problem. Such issues would need to be addressed through farmers education/ training in water use technologies and confidence building measures. Dinesh Kumar M. (2003) 85 in his article on ‘Demand Management in the Face of Growing Water Scarcity and Conflicts in India Institutional and Policy Alternatives for Future’ expressed that in India, irrigation water is heavily subsidized. The annual irrigation subsidies are estimated to be around 5400 crore rupees. After independence, the Indian governments saw irrigation as a means of welfare and were reluctant to raise the irrigation fee charged to poor farmers. As irrigation services declined and the agencies weakened, farmers became reluctant to pay the water charges (Brewer et al., 1999). Also, the charges are paid on an acreage basis and are not reflective of the volume of water used. It is believed that the lack of linkages between volumetric water use and water charges, and lack of agency capability to recover water charges and penalize free riders create an incentive for overuse or wasteful practices. A few successes have been seen in areas where farmers have shown the willingness to pay more for irrigation services to the Water User Associations (Ballabh et al., 1999). A recent analysis of Gujarat shows that the negative impact of rice in the cost of irrigation water can be offset by the differential yield due to increased reliability of irrigation water delivery (Kumar and Singh, 2001). Thus the rates for canal water can be increased to substantially higher levels, provided the quality of irrigation water is enhanced. But, water pricing for irrigation can impact poor farmers adversely, if pitched at higher levels. One of the ways to reduce the negative impacts on access equity is to introduce a progressive pricing system.

85 Dinesh Kumar M. (2003), “Demand Management in the Face of Growing Water Scarcity and Conflicts in India Institutional and Policy Alternatives for Future” edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp.115-124.

Jayanta Bandyopadhyay and Bidisha Mallik (2003) 86 in their article on ‘Ecology and Economics in Sustainable Water Resource Development in India’ mentioned that uncontrolled and ill-informed extension of the deep tube-well and energized pumping technologies for irrigation in agriculture has, for instance, led to groundwater over-draughts, incurring abstraction level far exceeding the recharge. The ecological implications of this range from the drying up of dug-wells, dwindling base flows in rivers in the lean season, disappearing wetland areas, land subsidence, a declining groundwater level that falls below the depth of shallow wells, and a mobilization of low-quality water sources into the fresh aquifers. Vayas, V.S. (2003) 87 in his book on ‘India’s Agrarian Structure, Economic Policies and Sustainable Development’ quoted that according to the Central Water Commission, India receives average annual precipitation of 4000 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM). However, the total annual utilizable water resource of the country is estimated at 1122 BCM or 28 per cent of the average annual precipitation. Bulk of this water is used for irrigation, which accounted for 83 per cent of the total water use in the country (in 1990). Use of water for irrigation has expanded phenomenally during the last 21 years or so. The net irrigated area increased from 31.1 mha. in 1970-71 to 53.5 mha in 1995-96. The area irrigated more than once has increased from 7.1 mha. (in 1970-71) to 18 mha. (in 1995-96). Now approximately 38 per cent of the gross cropped area in the country is irrigated. In three states in the country more than 2/3 of the net sown area is now irrigated. These states are Punjab (93 per cent), Haryana (76 per cent) and Uttar Pradesh (66 per cent) (CMIE, Agriculture, September 1999 Statistical Abstract of India, various issues). Abdeen Mustafa Omer (2004) 88 stated in his article on ‘Water Resources Development and Management in the Republic of the Sudan’ that the most important research and development policies which have been adopted in different fields of

86 Jayanta Bandyopadhyay and Bidisha Mallik (2003), “Ecology and Economics in Sustainable Water Resource Development in India”, edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp.67-68. 87 Vayas, V.S. (2003), “India’s Agrarian Structure, Economic Policies and Sustainable Development”, Academic Foundation, New Delhi, pp.102-103. 88 Abdeen Mustafa Omer (2004), “Water Resources Development and Management in the Republic of the Sudan”, Water and Energy International, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, Vol. 61, No.4, October-December, pp. 29-30.

water resources are : i) the water resource; ii) irrigation development; iii) the re-use of drainage water and groundwater; iv) preventive maintenance of existing facilities, including canals; v) aquatic weed control and river channel development and vi) protection plans for water resources in general. To him privatisation is part of a solution to improve services in delivery of water and of sanitation sector. At present, there is a transitional situation characterised by: i) A resistance to payment of water charges; ii) insufficient suitable law and inadequate law enforcement; iii) insufficient capacities to provide services; and iv) inadequate interaction between the private citizen, business opportunities, and government. Rao S.V.N. et al. (2004) 89 observed in their article on ‘Water Use of Surface and Groundwater for Coastal and Deltaic Systems’ (2004) that management of water resources in coastal and deltaic regions irrigated by run-of-the-river schemes involves two issues: First, availability of water resources in space and time, and Second, seawater intrusion. Improper management arising out of successive irrigation or increased groundwater exploitation often leads to water logging or seawater intrusion problems respectively. Any conjunctive use model must address these two issues for application to coastal and deltaic regions. Sivanappan, R.K. (2005) 90 has elucidated in the article on “Ensuring Water for All” that water has emerged as the most crucial factor for sustaining the agricultural sector in the coming years. India accounts for 16 percent of the world’s human population and nearly 30 per cent of the cattle with only 2.4 per cent of the land area and 4 per cent of water resources. Even if the full irrigation potential is exploited, about 50 per cent of the country’s cultivated area will remain unirrigated, particularly with current level of irrigation efficiency. The availability of water per person per year is about 2200 M3 for India and about 800 M3 for Southern States. The share of water for agriculture would reduce further with increasing demand from the other sectors. According to him

89 Rao S.V.N., Murty Bhallamudi S., Thandaveswara B.S. and Mishra G.C. (2004), “Water Use of Surface and Groundwater for Coastal and Deltaic Systems”, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, ASCE, Vol. 130, No. 3, May / June, pp. 434-440. 90 Sivanappan, R.K. (2005), “Ensuring Water for All”, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture 2006, pp.154-156.

inappropriate policies leading to indiscriminate use of water, lack of appropriate technologies, poor technology transfer and inadequate and defective institutional support systems have led to serious agro-ecological and sustainability problems in irrigated areas. The Water Use Efficiency (WUE) in Indian agriculture, at about 30-40 per cent, is one of the lowest in the world, against 55 per cent in China. The International water Management Institute forecasts that by 2025, 33 per cent of India’s population will live under absolute water scarcity condition. The per capita water availability, in terms of average utilizable water resources in the country, has dropped drastically from 6008 M3 in 1947 to 2200 M3 in 2005 and is expected to dwindle to 1450 M3 by 2025. The National Commission on integrated water resources development has assessed that about 450 million tonnes of food grains will required by the year 2050. In 2050, the cropping intensity should be about 150 per cent and the percentage of irrigation to gross cropped area about 50 per cent. This scenario can be changed by adopting water management practices in surface irrigation and introducing drip and sprinkler irrigation as recommended by the Task Force on micro irrigation (2004). He further pointed out that the methods of irrigation and cropping pattern are the same old ones in spite of various technologies / crops are available and hence the wastage of water with less productivity. More than 60 per cent of the irrigation water is used only for rice and wheat crops in India and all other crops use only 40 per cent. In Tamil Nadu about 75-80 per cent of water is used for growing paddy and 3 per cent for sugarcane crop use. The following strategies are suggested to ensure adequate water for irrigation. - land leveling smoothing to apply water uniformly especially in paddy irrigation. - SRI method for paddy to reduce water by 50 per cent and increase yield by 30-35 per cent. - Efficient sprinkler method of irrigation to apply water for closely spaced crops other than paddy in tank and canal irrigation systems. - Clearing water ways and improving the efficiency of irrigation systems. - Managerial: Better irrigation scheduling by knowing how much and when to irrigate the crops.

Reclamation of sewage and effluent water and using it for irrigation as in the case of Israel where 65 per cent of domestic waste water is used for crop production. - Agronomic: Selecting crop varieties/ species with high yields per litre of water consumed. Better cropping pattern to suit soils, climate and quality of water. - Optimal irrigation efficiency is about 55-60 per cent in canal & tank system i.e., in surface irrigation and about 75 per cent in ground water schemes. Thus there is a scope of increasing water use in irrigation by about 35 per cent. If the improvement in efficiency is about 10 per cent the saved water will be sufficient to meet 40 per cent of the domestic and industrial water requirements. He concluded that with the above measures and with proper demand management, economy in water use and extensive local water harvesting and watershed development, it is possible to ensure adequate water for all farmers in the country in the coming years. Koli P.A. and Bodhale A.C. (2006) 91 argued in their book on ‘Irrigation Development in India’ that successful cultivation is not possible in large part of our country; due to a lack of irrigation facilities. In the absence of such facilities, there are large areas in the country which often produce one crop. John Briscoe and Malik R.P.S. (2007) 92 have discussed in the article on ‘India’s Water Economy An Overview’. According to them irrigation is the predominant user more than 80 per cent) of water resources in India. The performance of irrigated agriculture, which contributes more than 55 per cent of agricultural output, will be the most important influence on the objectives of growth, employment generation, food security, and poverty reduction. Although India has one of the largest irrigation systems in the world, irrigation development has not been impressive over time. India has a highly seasonal pattern of rainfall. With 50 per cent of precipitation falling in just fifteen days and over 90 per cent of river flows in just four months. India can still store only relatively small quantities of its fickle rainfall. Whereas arid- rich countries (such as the United States and Australia) have built over 5000 cubic

91 Koli P.A. and Bodhale A.C. (2006), “Irrigation Development in India”, Serials Publications, New Delhi, p. 1. 92 Op. Cit., pp.1-9.

metres of water storage per capita, and middle-income countries like South Africa, Mexico, and China can store about 1000 cubic metres per capita, India’s dams can store only 200 cubic metres per person. India can store only about 30 days of rainfall, compared to 900 days in major river basins in arid areas of developed countries. Water can be transformed from a curse to a blessing only if major investments are made in water infrastructure (in conjunction with soft adaptive measures for living more intelligently with floods). Recognizing this, the Prime Minister has recently called for the establishment of a Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) for the Brahmaputra which would combine major water infrastructure with modern management approaches to make water a stimulus for growth. A World Bank study of Tamil Nadu, for example, shows that if a flexible water allocation system were adopted, the state economy in 2020 would be 20 per cent larger than under the current, rigid, allocation procedures. A central element of a new approach must be that users have well-defined entitlements to water. The broader messages are that the ideas of the 1991 economic reforms must be drilled down from the regulatory and financial sectors into the real sectors (including water sector) if India is to have sustainable economic growth, and that the role of the Indian water state must change from that of builder and controller to creator of an enabling environment, and facilitator of the actions of water users large and small. John Briscoe and Malik R.P.S. (2007) 93 mentioned in the book on ‘Hand Book of Water Resources in India Development, Management, and Strategies’ with regard to water stress and scarcity, the temporal and special variability of rainfall in India is a well-recognized fact. The average annual precipitation is 1170 mm but varies from 11,000 mm in the north eastern region to 100 mm in the western desert. Fifty per cent of the precipitation takes place in 15 days or so and less that 100 hours altogether in a year. In a monsoon dependent rainfall environment, 90 to 95 per cent of the flows in rivers occur in the four months of June to September. The per capita availability of water has been steadily declining since independence from 6008 m 3 to 1829 m 3 as of now. A water availability of less than 1700 m 3 per capita is termed as a water stress condition while less than 1000 m 3 is water scarce. Broadly, the breakdown of 1000 m 3 is 600 m 3 for food security, many

93 Op. Cit., pp.63-64.

basins like Pennar and Sabarmati are already water scarce. One of the main reasons for water problems in the country is the low per capita storage (only about 200 m 3) as compared to Russia (6103), Australia (4733), Brazil (3145), Turkey (1739), Mexico (1245), Spain (1410), China (1111), and South Africa (753). For water stress to be avoided, a minimum per capita storage of 750 to 1000 m3 needs to be achieved. India has no option but to go ahead with its dam construction programme. So far 177 BCM storage has been created and another 77 BCM is from projects under construction. Planned projects will add another 132 BCM. All this totals up to not even 400 m 3. Supplemental measures like transbasin water diversion, water conservation, and rainwater harvesting would need to be adopted to make up for the deficiency in storage. There is also concern about the indiscriminate mining of sand from river beds in some states leading to groundwater depletion. Lakshmi Narasaiah M. (2007) 94 in his book on ‘Irrigation and Economic Growth’ said that a sharp inequality in water supplies between farmers in the head reaches of irrigation systems and those located downstream is another manifestation of poor performance. Investigations in the Tungabhadra Irrigation scheme reveal that the tail-end of a major distributory commanding 25 per cent of the total area, received approximately 20-40 per cent of the targeted discharge while the upper reaches got more than their share. To him lack of maintenance has caused many systems to fall into disrepair, further inhibiting performance. Over time, distribution canals have become silted up, increasing the likelihood of breaching, damage to out lets and leading to salt build-up in the soil. Andharia J.A. (2008) 95 in his article on ‘Agricultural Production and Problems of Agriculture in India’ pointed out that food and water are considered as the most essential for maintaining our lives. To him India’s major food problem is irrigation. He observed that irrigation in India has yet remained dependent upon rainwater and a seasonal one. A huge amount of plan outlay has spent on small, medium and large irrigation schemes in India during Five Year Plans. Yet, irrigated land has not been covered fully.

94 Lakshmi Narasaiah M. (2007), “Irrigation and Economic Growth”, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi pp.2-3. 95 Andharia J.A. (2008), “Agricultural Production and Problems of Agriculture in India”, Southern Economist, Volume 47, Number 11, October 1, pp.7-9.

Ayan Hazra (2008) 96 studied on ‘Socio-Economic Evaluation of Water Management Activities in Chhattisgarh’ and he found out that in the traditional mind set of top down communication processes and farmers are regarded as passive receptor, ignorant, conservative and unwilling to change up with new paradigms. They have well tested and proven traditional technologies for their own specific local situations. Therefore, farmers should be allowed to play significant role in the decision making process. In such situation, instead of an insensitive or inflexible top down approach, there should be shift to faster mutual understanding and cooperation through bottom up approach of consultations. For them the IWDP watershed projects have checked soil erosion, arrested runoff, improved in-situ moisture conservation, increased productivity, increased water availability and improvement in local ecology and hydrology in Durg, Raigarh, Raipur Rajnandgaon and Sarguja districts. Pandey M.P. and Ghosh A. (2008) 97 in the article on ‘Challenges to the Future of Agriculture-Global Perspective’ pointed out that water is becoming a looming crisis. By 2025 scarcity of water world threaten 30 per cent of the human population as 70 per cent of water withdrawals are used in irrigated agriculture globally. Africa and Asia have experienced an increasing shortage in percaput water availability. Irrigation demand is expected to increase keeping pace with the need to increase agriculture production. Irrigated agriculture needs to be increased by 23 million hectares, i.e. 19 per cent over and above the area lost under water logging and salinization. The majority of the areas would fall in South Asia. About 35 per cent of the land under assured irrigation is at risk due to poor management. They suggested that farmers ensuring proper drainage and irrigation design can promote efficient use of water. Small-scale schemes executed by local government could reduce many problems while backed by national policies that effectively support appropriate technologies, credit, marketing, energy supplies and maintenance of equipment suitable ecology based cropping program therein.

96 Ayan Hazra (2008), “Socio-Economic Evaluation of Water Management Activities in Chattisgarh”, Journal of Agricultural Issues, Vol. 13(1): 80-86, pp. 82-84. 97 Pandey M.P. and Ghosh A. (2008), “Challenges to the Future of Agriculture-Global Perspective”, Indian Farming, Vol. 58, No. 7, October, pp. 7-10.

Jat M.L. et al. (2009) 98 in their research article titled on ‘Water Resources Management in a Water Deficit State’ that there is a big gap between water resources available and which is used in Rajasthan. The water resources availability, therefore, needs to be increased by adopting appropriate strategy in the state. The strategies are 1. Rainwater harvesting through farm ponds. 2. Recharging the ground water e.g. recharge through dead wells, nala bunding and anicuts are found to be very suitable for recharging ground water. 3. Conservation of stored water in reservoirs and also in small water harvesting structures. 4. Technique for compartmentation is an effective tool for water saving. 5. Increasing water use efficiency through micro irrigation systems saving in water is possible if techniques like sprinkler and drip are adopted. By drip saving in water use can be of the order of 40-50 per cent and by sprinkler 8.3-34.7 per cent and gave higher yields. 6. Legislative measures for management of ground water: Unchecked and unplanned exploitation of ground water, in some parts of the country, has resulted into problems of salinity intrusion on the sea coast and high salinity in other areas.

Gargi Parsai (2010) 99 reported in the title on ‘Double Farm Growth Rate to Ensure Food Security Sustainable Technologies that can Produce More Need’. He pointed out that India commands about 2.3 per cent of the world’s land area and about 4 per cent of the earth’s fresh water resources, but feeds 17 per cent of the world population. This puts tremendous pressure on our resources and makes the need for newer and better technologies even more critical and which could produce more from less. He stressed the three fundamental principles of sustainable agriculture, viz., i. a live soil ii. Protection of biodiversity and iii. Precision farming and nutrient cycle.

98 Jat M.L., Jain P.M., Sharma S.K. and Jain L.K. (2009), “Water Resources Management in a Water Deficit State”, Journal Indian Water Society, Vol. 29, No. 3, July, p. 6. 99 Gargi Parsai, Manmohan (2010), “Double Farm Growth Rate to Ensure Food Security Sustainable Technologies that can Produce More Need”, The Hindu, June 20, p. 9.

PRODUCITON AND PRODUCTIVITY Mahajan V.S. (1990) 100 in the book on ‘Agriculture and Rural Economy in India’ stated that availability of extensive cultivation facilities is most essential for increase in agricultural production. The supply of land being inelastic, accelerated growth in agricultural production is possible only through the realization of increased crops productivity, which, in turn, is highly dependent upon irrigation. He focused on the benefit derived from canal irrigation by farmers from selected villages and also how far it was possible to recover the cost spent on the improvement of their lands so that they got the optimum benefit from the canal irrigation. He concluded that the irrigation benefit derived by the farmers as a consequence of land improvement was immense and which was also reflected in the rise of their income from higher farm output. And also added that the benefit could have been still higher if there was more assured water supply in the canal. This shows that canal irrigation is most suitable when regular supply of water to these canals is assured. Robert Mendelsohn et al. (1994) 101 studied in the United States on ‘The Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture: A Ricardian Analysis’ that examines the impact of climate and other variables on land values and farm revenues. The analysis suggests that climate has a systematic impact on agricultural rents through temperature and precipitation. Irrigation is left out of the regression because irrigation is clearly an endogenous reaction to climate. However, when include, irrigation is a strongly positive variable, increasing land values substantially; which is not surprising, given the crucial importance of irrigation in many areas of the arid west and suggested that global warming may be slightly beneficial to American Agriculture. Dewan J.M. (1996) 102 argued in the title on ‘Irrigation Management’ that the availability of water for irrigation is not sole factor for increased production. In Madhya Pradesh where irrigated wheat is much less, the average yields are low. He

100 Mahajan V.S. (1990), “Agriculture and Rural Economy in India”, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, p.6. 101 Robert Mendelsohn, William D, Nordhans and Daigee Shaw (1994), “The Impact of Global Warming on Agriculture: A Ricardian Analysis”, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 84, Number 4, pp. 753-769. 102 Op. Cit., pp. 19-20.

explained from the fact that Haryana and U.P. having created high percentage of irrigation have not registered increase in production as compared to Punjap. This point reflects to the fact that for optimal water use efficiency a complete crop production technology is needed in which water is one of the important components. Kushwaha K.S. et al. (1997) 103 in their research article on ‘Impact of Prudent Canal Water Use on Land Utilisation Pattern and Productivity in District Ghazirpur, Uttar Pradesh’, found that the productivity of paddy (kharif), wheat, vegetables, green fodder and moong (rabi and zaid) has gone up but for coarse grains in kharif and peas and gram in rabi their productivity has gone down. The total production has increased by 39 per cent between 1990-91 and 1995-96 due to prudent use of canal water. Vaidyanathan A. (1999) 104 in the book on ‘Water resources management, Institutions and Irrigation Development in India’ attempted that water control institutions, their role and evolution sorted out the key elements of the physical, the technological and the socio-economic environment that have a bearing on the nature of the water control problem and hence on the institutions for handling it. To him the ultimate purpose of water control is to help increase agriculture production, it is appropriate to begin by spelling out the relation between water control and agricultural production. Vaidyanathan A., (1999) 105 pointed out that the precise magnitude of the increase in productivity per unit area (and in total production) depends not only on the extent of the water control system and its quality, but also on several other factors, notably climate, soils and the genetic characteristics of the crop varieties grown. And yield per hectare is likely to be higher at any given level of nutrient use, and the maximum amount of nutrients that the plants can use will be also higher under irrigated conditions than under rain-fed cultivation. Narayanamoorthy A. (2000) 106 studied ‘Farmers Education and Productivity of Crops in the Villages of Pudukkotai District of Tamil Nadu’. He found that farmers’ education has only a limited role in increasing the productivity of the corps.

103 Kushwaha K.S., Singh G.N., Gupta B.K., Vinod Kumar and K. Prasad (1997), “Impact of Prudent Canal Water Use on Land Utilisation Pattern and Productivity in District Ghazirpur, Uttar Pradesh”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.52, No.3, July-September, p.548. 104 Op. Cit., p. 4. 105 Op. Cit., p. 7. 106 Narayanamoorthy A. (2000), “Farmers’ Education and Productivity of Crops: A New Approach”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 55, No. 3, July-Sept., pp. 511-518.

The most important factors influencing the productivity are fertilizers and irrigation. The efficient use of irrigation has a positive and also significant influence on paddy output. Archana Mathur S. et al. (2006) 107 pointed out in the paper on ‘Status of Agriculture in India Trends and Prospects’ that the role of public investment / government expenditure on agriculture as being the crucial determinant in stepping up the rate of growth of agricultural production. Given other factors a constant increase in public investment to 15 per cent per annum should lead to agricultural growth of 4 per cent, which is concomitant with the project the projected growth rate in the Eleventh Plan. They concluded that enhanced government expenditure particularly on investment in rural infrastructure comprising irrigation and water management, processing, storage and marketing, timely supplies of improved inputs, credit, research and extension services and the upward trend in this direction is required to continue. Subbaiah (2006) 108 in his article on ‘Several Options Being Tapped’ pointed out that the challenge ahead is sustaining the productivity growth without endangering the natural resource base. Projection of India’s rice production target for 2025 AD is 140 million tones, which can be achieved only by increasing the rice production by over 2.0 million tones per year in the coming decade. This has to be done against the backdrop of diminishing natural resource bases like land, labour and water, which is a challenge. Water is becoming increasingly scarce and most of the Asian nations including India are expected to face serious water scarcity in the next 10-15 years thus, threatening the sustainability of irrigated rice production in Asia. Aerobic rice is a new concept aimed at decreasing water requirement in rice production. Onyenweaku C.E. and Ohajianya D.O. (2007) 109 in their research work on ‘Technical Efficiency of Rice Farmers in South Eastern Nigeria’ pointed out that the wide variations in the level of technical efficiency indicate that ample opportunities exist for farmers to increase their productivity and income through improvements in

107 Archana Mathur S., Surajit Das, Subhalakshmi Sircar (2006), “Status of Agriculture in India Trends and Prospects”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLI, No. 52, December 30, pp. 5337-5344. 108 Subbaiah (2006), “Several Options Being Tapped”, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture 2006, p. 50. 109 Onyenweaku C.E. and Ohajianya D.O. (2007), “Technical Efficiency of Rice Farmers in South Eastern Nigeria” Indian Journal of Economics, Vol. LXXXVIII, Part I issue No: 348 July 2007, p.51.

technical efficiency. Credit, education, farming experience, farm size, membership of farmer’s associations, co operative society, use of improved rice varieties, extension contact system of production and timeliness of farm operations were found to be positively and significantly related to technical efficiency. The study found no relationship between age, tenancy status and off-farm employment and technical efficiency in the study area. Swaminathan M.S. (2009) 110 opined in the title on ‘Monsoon Blues may hit Rice Output by 15 pc’ that due to poor monsoon and scanty rains are likely to lower rice production by 15 per cent this kharif season. Kharif rice production in 2008-09 was 86 million tonnes. If there is 15 per cent decline in production this year, rice output may be about 73 million tonnes. Latest Government data show the sowing of paddy across the country has fallen by 21 per cent to 114.63 lakh hectares as on July 17, compared with 145.21 lakh hectares in the year-ago period. Jharkhand, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh are the worst affected states. Jelle Bruinsma 111 in his book on World Agricultural Towards 2015/2030 At FAO Perspective, ‘crop production and natural resource use’ observed that share of irrigated production in total crop production of developing countries has been increasing. In 1997-1999, the share of arable land is 21 percent and it is expected to increase to 22 in 2030. Similarly the share of irrigated production in total production is 40 percent in 1997-1999 and it is expected to move to 47 percent in 2030. Yehuda Shevah 112 in his research work on “Irrigation and Agriculture experience and Options in Israel” pointed out that Israel make irrigation imperative for the development of intensive agriculture and food production available renewable potential is already fully utilized, while the widening gap between supply and demand is made up with marginal resources especially reclaimed municipal waste water which is becoming an increasing important source of water for agricultural and industrial purposes.

110 Swaminathan M.S. (2009), “Monsoon Blues may hit Rice Output by 15 pc”, The New Indian Express, July 20, p. 13. 111 Jelle Bruinsma, World Agricultural Towards 2015/2030 at FAO Perspective, “crop production and natural resource use” Food and Fertilizer Technology Centre for Asia and Pacific Region (FFTC) published research article on “Improving water use efficiency in Asian agriculture”. 09.07.2009 112 Yehuda Shevah “Irrigation and Agriculture experience and Options in Israel”, TAHAL Consulting Eng. Ltd., Isreal, Thematic Review IV. 2:Assessment of Irrigation Options. 08.09.2010

THEORETICAL ASPECTS Hanumantha Rao (2003) 113 in his article on ‘Sustainable Use of Water for Irrigation in Indian Agriculture’ pointed out that water savings in global crop production in the last few decades have accrued indirectly from a rise in crop yields and very little directly from improvement in water-use-efficiency (CGIR, 2001a). This is particularly so in developing countries like India where the improvement in irrigation efficiency has been very slow. A clear focus on water productivity, that is, productivity per unit of water used is a new concept for the International Agricultural Research system (CGIAR, 2001b). Nearly two hundred years ago, Thomas Malthus focused on the fixity or scarcity of land in relation to population growth as the cause for recurring famines. This perception prompted the evolution and use of land-saving technologies and practices which substantially raised productivity per unit of land. However, the growing competition for water demand among industry, by urban areas for household consumption as also for environmental purposes in the developed countries like Europe, North America and Japan has been exerting pressure to save the water allocated to irrigation. Besides the rising level of water pollution is accentuating the scarcity of fresh water in all sectors. Of the area under foodgrains since irrigated area accounts for the bulk of the increase in foodgrains output, growth of foodgrains output in relation to the growth of irrigated area under foodgrains would give a good measure of the changes in the productivity of irrigation water. During the 1980s, the Green Revolution was broad- based covering rice in the central and eastern regions of the country where high rainfall supplements irrigation. Thus, foodgrains output grew at a higher rate than irrigated area resulting in a positive growth in the productivity of irrigation water. However, in the post-reform decade of the 1990s, there was a deceleration in the growth of foodgrains output leading to a significant decline in the productivity growth of irrigation. As far as irrigation is concerned, the failures have been massive on all the three fronts, namely, property rights, institutions and public policy. It would be instructive, to identify the major problems afflicting irrigation in each of these areas.

113 Hanumantha Rao (2003), “Sustainable Use of Water for Irrigation in Indian Agriculture” edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

The author has raised one question that what are the major theoretical possibilities for raising the productivity of irrigation water?

Firstly the technological changes which raised crop yields per unit of land have so far been the major source of the rise in productivity per unit of irrigation water. Genetic improvements for raising the productivity of land, significantly raise water productivity, especially if such genetic improvements are targeted towards saving water. These improvements include the development of crop varieties with better tolerance to drought, cool seasons which reduce evaporation and evapotranspiration, and saline conditions. The potential of biotechnological to raise yields and impart stability in adverse environments is well known (CGIAR, 2001b).

In India, technological changes to improve water productivity by raising crop yields seem to hold a better promise in the short and medium-term that the attempts to improve water-use-efficiency, which can be expected to yield significant results only in the long-run, owing to the severe political constraints, and managerial and institutional bottlenecks besetting these efforts.

Secondly, the productivity of irrigation water can be raised by skillfully supplementing it with rain water.

Third, water losses may occur between the point of delivery from the system to the farmer’s field due to evaporation, flow of usable water to sinks, pollution, salinity and waterlogging. Such losses cannot eventually be recovered at the basin level. These can be minimized with appropriate management practices, provided there are adequate incentives to farmers for adopting water-saving practices.

Fourth, farmers are known to reallocate land and water to high value crops in response to the changing demand. However, policies for trade and price as well those for input subsidies, including policies on irrigation water, would determine whether farmers would be induced to switch over to water-conserving enterprises.

Finally, globalization opens up opportunities for countries faced with water scarcities to specialize in the production and export of water-saving crops and import water-intensive ones.

John Briscoe and Malik R.P.S. (2007) 114 pointed out in their book on ‘Hand Book of Water Resources in India Development, Management, and Strategies in India’ that Arthur Cotton and other pioneering engineers were worshipped as saints, and dams became ‘the temples of modern India. The very success of this enterprise, as in other societies and for other issues, carried the seeds of its own downfall. As an infrastructure platform was built, the ‘Type 2’ and ‘Type 3’ challenges of maintenance, operation, and management started to emerge. The uni-functional (build) and uni-disciplinary (engineering) bureaucracy adopted the command-and- control philosophy of the early decades of independence, seeing users as subjects rather than partners or clients. The Indian state water apparatus still shows little interest in the key issues of the management stage - participation, incentives, water entitlement, transparency, entry of the private sector, competition, accountability, financing and environmental quality. The implicit philosophy has been aptly described as build-neglect-rebuild. This problem is serious in its own right, but it also means that public financing is not available for the vital tasks of providing new irrigation, water supply, and waste water infrastructure to serve growing populations and the unserved poor. Most recent irrigation and water supply projects assisted by the World Bank, for example, have not financed new infrastructure, but the rehabilitation of poorly maintained systems. The sector is facing a major financing gap. The real financial needs of the sector are growing to meet the costs of rehabilitating the exiting stock of infrastructure and to build new infrastructure. These needs are amplified by the fact that large proportions of recurrent budgets are spent on personnel, not on real maintenance, and on electricity, irrigation, and water supply subsidies. On the supply side there are ultimately only two sources of financing - tax revenues and user charges. The budgetary allocation to the water sector is falling, as are payments by users. The net result is a large and growing financial gap, which can only be met by a combination of methods which include greater allocations of budgetary resources, and greater contributions from water users. This decline in the quality of public irrigation and water supply services would normally be expected to produce social unrest and political pressure.

114 Op. Cit., pp.1-9.

IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY Prajapati M.N. (1992) 115 in his book on ‘Irrigation Management and Agricultural Development’ has classified irrigation efficiency in two heads viz. (i) conveyance efficiency, and (ii) field application efficiency. Conveyance efficiency can further be sub-divided into two sub heads viz. (a) conveyance efficiency above canal outlet in the channels maintained by State Irrigation Department i.e. conveyance efficiency in main canal, branches, distributaries and minors, and (b) conveyance efficiency below canal outlet, i.e., conveyance efficiency in water courses, field channels, guls etc. maintained by the farmers. A schematic representation of the irrigation system is shown in the following formula. Vci Ei = Vdi where, Ei = Efficiency of water application in i th sector. Vci = Volume of water beneficially consumed in i th sector Vdi = Volume of water delivered in i th sector. This definition of efficiency is a general one when i th sector represents the field i.e., i = 1, then this equation gives field application efficiency. For i > 1, this equation gives conveyance efficiency of that particular sector and Vci = Vdi - 1. Overall efficiency is given in the following equation.

j Eij = ∏ Ei i=1 where, Eij is the overall efficiency upto j th sector.

Conveyance Efficiency Methods of Seepage Measurement The following are the methods of measuring Seepage Viz. i. Ponding Method ii. Inflow-Outflow Method iii. Tracer Technique Method iv. Analytical Method

115 Prajapati M.N. (1992), “Irrigation Management and Agricultural Development”, Kanishka Publishing House, Delhi, pp. 85-87.

Measurement of Losses 1. Seepage losses by ponding method 2. Seepage losses by tracer technique method 3. Conveyance losses by inflow-outflow method 116

Field Application Efficiency Field application efficiencies are determined by the following methods: i. Soil moisture content method ii. Excess application method (a) Linear and symmetrical distribution (b) Linear and non-symmetrical distribution iii. Theoretical simplified model iv. Recession time method v. Advanced and recession time method 117

Proposed Improvements Following improvements in the area are proposed – i. Improvement of field application efficiency ii. Improvement of conveyance efficiency of water courses iii. Improvement of conveyance efficiency of minor iv. Fixing of outlet ventage rationally v. Installation of proper number of tubewells and fixing their running time vi. If required, increase or decrease the command area and adjustment in cropping pattern. 118

Criteria for Evaluation of Water Distribution Evaluation of water distribution is necessary to improve irrigation system operation. For the evaluation of the water distribution practice of Janjokhar minor, the following criteria are used: 1. Productivity of water 2. Equity of water distribution

116 Ibid, pp. 106-108. 117 Ibid, p. 145. 118 Ibid, p.206.

3. Timeliness of water supply 4. Delivery system efficiency -- Field application efficiency -- Conveyance losses and conveyance efficiency 5. Cost of distribution 6. Organisation of water distribution 7. Environmental Stability 8. Monitoring

9. Scope for malpractices.119

THEORETICAL BASE Robert Chamber (1988)120 explained in the book on ‘Managing Canal Irrigation Practical Analysis from South Asia’, productivity means output divided by input. There are many meanings and measures for it, depending on choices of output and input. Water is not always the scarcest input, or may be the scarcest input only at certain times of the year. Water can also be in excess. But productivity of water is often a key criterion because, on so many irrigation systems, for so much of the time, water is the main factor limiting production, and is the main factor being managed. Lenton (1984a) has described various operational measures for productivity performance. He points out that the numerator (output) can be water delivered, are irrigated, yield, or income; and the measures can be at level of the farm, of an outlet, or at higher levels of aggregation. Which is best depends on circumstances. The denominator for the productivity of water can be water in the root zone, at the farm gate, at the outlet, or at higher points in the system, including the point of diversion or storage. All of these versions of productivity are, in principle, measurable. Which is best operationally depends on the cost and accuracy of data collection, the timeliness with which it can be analysed, its utility for management purposes once analysed, and the relationships between it and other criteria and benefits. Measures of productivity

119 Ibid, p. 224. 120 Robert Chamber (1988), “Managing Canal Irrigation Practical Analysis from South Asia”, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p.34.

and water use efficiency correspond interestingly with the criteria of different persons and specialists for good irrigation or good irrigation management. Typical points of input and output measurements for different professions and disciplines. At both general and operational levels, one useful meaning and measure of productivity, where water is limiting, may be the gross value of production divided by the water available at the point of storage or diversion. This sounds straightforward, but hardly anything to do with water is simple. The techniques and problems of measurements of productivity of water and of the operational use of such measurements are a subject in its own right and deserve separate analysis and discussion. The most serious complications are rainfall, groundwater, and non-water factors. Rainfall can quite easily be measured; but conjunctive or independent use of groundwater within a command is much harder to measure. It is difficult to know what irrigated production to attribute to canal water, what to groundwater deriving from other sources. Non-water factors, finally, qualify the usefulness of a water productivity criterion. Without any change in water deliveries, other factors such as pests, fertiliser supplies, marketing arrangements, and prices affect production (Abernethy 1986: 6-8). However, improved performance in the quality of a water supply influences the adoption of high-yielding practices by farmers which then tends to validate the productivity criterion of performance.

Less water better delivered Robert Chamber (1988)121 opined in his book on ‘Managing Canal Irrigation Practical Analysis from South Asia’, many adjectives can be, and have been, used to describe the characteristics of a good irrigation water supply. There are physical characteristics of the water such as temperature, salinity or silt load. But if we limit ourselves to the delivered flow, some other terms used are, in alphabetical order: adequate, adjustable, appropriate, assured, certain, constant, controllable, convenient, demandable, dependable, equitable, flexible, guaranteed, manageable, measurable, monitorable, observable, predictable (predictably adequate, predictably variable, etc), productive, punctual, regular, reliable, stable, steady and timely.

121 Ibid, p.122.

Faced with such a list, one may despair. The mind craves a few simple concepts. Even after merging synonyms like dependable and reliable the list is still long. In practice, authors usually shorten it to three, though which three varies. Thus we have Bottrall (pers. Comm. 1981: 41) with reliable, timely and adequate, Keller (1981) with equitable, reliable and predictable, and Pai (1983:55) with timely, reliable and equitable. Choice and discussion are made difficult by the complexity of the subject, the lack of definition of terms, and lack of clarity about which parts of systems and whose points of view are being considered. The tendency is to lump together all aspects of main system water distribution including delivery to outlets and also water distribution within the chak, and to mix the points of view of managers and farmers. But in practice, different characteristics matter in different places and to different people. We are concerned here only with what matters to farmers and what they may be prepared to trade-off against quantity of water, receiving less water but better supplied.

WATER USE EFFICIENCY Prasher C.R.K. (1965) 122 in his article on ‘Some Problems of Irrigated Land’ pointed out that the performance of an irrigation system is determined by the mode of its operation and maintenance. The efficiency of the system may be poor due to transmission losses in the unlined and poorly maintained canals and channels. Prasher reported that the seepage losses between distributory and cultivator’s field was 40 percent of the total flow in canal command. Kanwar (1968) 123 in his article on ‘Irrigation Efficiency: The Key to Better Agriculture’ estimated the water losses through seepage and evaporation in the channels during transit from reservoir to cultivators field as high as 60 percent in Punjab and Haryana.

122 Prasher C.R.K. (1965), “Some Problems of Irrigated Land”, Indian Journal of Agronomy, 35(2) pp.18-22. 123 Kanwar J.S. (1968), “Irrigation Efficiency: The Key to Better Agriculture”, Indian Farming, 17(20) p.12.

Hiremath K.C. (1973) 124 in his research work on ‘Temporal and Spatial Allocation of Irrigation Water in the Krishna Rajasagar Project (Mysore)’ applied the functional analysis model related to the general methodology of obtaining new benefits as a function of the amounts and timing of water use under any array of magnitudes and variety of other technical and non-technical inputs used in the production process. The estimation of empirical production function was the basis for measuring the allocative efficiency in this approach. The model consisted of a set of production function, each of which characterized a distinct part of a sub-process in the totality of the production process complex. But, due to a large number of variables and time-consuming nature, the differential calculus approach was seldom used as the principal optimization method. Rogetio C. Lazardo (1975) 125 pointed out in the title on ‘Land Classification as a Tool of Water Management’, that location of the land, size of the land and type of land would directly determine the water requirements and water use pattern on farms. Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (1977) 126 in the title on ‘A Report of the National Commission of Agriculture’ opined that irrigation as at present practised in the country was extravagant in the use of water. In view of the inadequacy of water resources to meet requirements, there was need for a greater deal of efficiency and economy in water use. Sivanappan R.K. and Karal Gowder K.R.(1977) 127 had estimated in the title on ‘Irrigation and Drainage’ that the water requirement of different crops in hectare centimeters was 40-45 for maize, 100-120 for paddy, 20-25 for pulses, 60-65 groundnut, 220-225 for banana and 225-250 for sugarcane. Gupta D.K. (1982) 128 in his research work on ‘Impact of Lining of Water Course on Agricultural Output - A Case Study’ studied the impact of water course lining on the extend of irrigated area, cropping intensity, cropping pattern and also

124 Hiremath K.C. (1973), “Temporal and Spatial Allocation of Irrigation Water in the Krishna Rajasagar Project (Mysore)”, Ph.D. dissertation Mysore: Division of Agricultural Research Institute, p.25. 125 Rogetio C. Lazardo, (1975), “Land Classification as a Tool of Water Management”, Water Management in Philippines Irrigation Systems, Research and Operations Ios Banos: IRRI, pp.1-12. 126 Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (1977), “A Report of the National Commission of Agriculture”, Govt. of Kerala, pp.3-4. 127 Sivanappan R.K. and Karal Gowder K.R. (1977), “Irrigation and Drainage”, Madras: Popular Book Depot, p.12 128 Gupta D.K. (1982), “Impact of Lining of Water Course on Agricultural Output - A Case Study”, Wamana, 2(4), pp. 1-16.

various problems faced by the share-holders in Bargudha Development Block of Birsa District (Haryana). The results showed that as conveyance efficiency improved, irrigation intensity, cropping intensity, input use and yield of farm holdings increased. Dhawan B.D. (1986) 129 in the article on ‘Irrigation and Water Management in India: Perception of Problems and Their Resolution’ pointed out that water conveyance efficiency, as also efficiency in field application, is quite low in Indian surface irrigation works. The overall efficiency, defined as a ratio of irrigation water used by a crop (for its evapo-transpiration purpose) to the water released from the headworks, is alleged to be of the order of 30 per cent only. To him wasteful use of irrigation water at the farmer’s level due to lack of channel supervision by an irrigator, field-to-field irrigation in the absence of field channels that connect individual fields to the canal outlet, the surface run-off of irrigation water because of lack of field leveling and the problem of over-irrigation. The farmer’s practice of over-irrigating his field is because of (i) uncertainty about his next turn for irrigation from a system that is outside his control and (ii) his inability to correctly assess the full wetting of the crop root zone. It can be curbed by appropriate pricing of irrigation water. Selvarajan S. and Subramanian S.R. (1988) 130 in their study on ‘Water Resource Budgeting in Amaravathi River Basin’, basing on their month-wise and season-wise observations, reported that conveyance loss of the irrigation system was 25 percent, of which 11 percent occurred in Amaravathi main canal, and 14 percent in the distributaries excluding the field channels. They also estimated the loss at 46,201 ha cm of water of which, 26,968 ha cm was lost through seepage and the remaining by evaporation. Deshpande D.D. and Supe S.V. (1989) 131 analysed on ‘Problems of Farmers in Canal Irrigation’ and they examined the problems related to efficient utilization of water in Mordham Nalla Irrigation Project in Nagpur district of Maharashtra. The

129 Dhawan B.D. (1986), “Irrigation and Water Management in India: Perception of Problems and Their Resolution”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.41, No.3, July-September, pp.273-278. 130 Selvarajan S. and Subramanian S.R. (1988), “Water Resource Budgeting in Amaravathi River Basin”, Agricultural Situation in India, 43(4), pp.289-294. 131 Deshpande D.D. and Supe S.V. (1989), “Problems of Farmers in Canal Irrigation”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep. p.290.

analysis indicated that the farmers at the head and middle reaches used one and a half times more water than their normal requirement. It was noticed that because of improper outlets and field channels farmers at the tail-end could not get the expected flow-rate of irrigation water. The majority of farmers in the canal area found graded bunds and field drains useful for irrigation management in fields. Though crop loan is an exogenous input in irrigation management, inadequate credit was the main hurdle (for 72 per cent of farmers) in the efficient use of canal irrigation. For improving the efficiency irrigation water, the measures suggested are proper maintenance of field channels and outlets and rigidly adhering to the water distribution schedule in the canal area. Pokharkar V.G. (1989) 132 attempted to study on ‘Irrigation Use Efficiency: A Case Study of Mula Irrigation Command Area’. In this study he found out the factors influencing irrigation water use efficiency at the farm level in Mula Irrigation Command area. The findings of the study revealed that the irrigation water use efficiency of the Mula irrigation command area is low at the farm level. Irrigation water was used inefficiently by the sample farmers in the command area. The causes for low irrigation water use efficiency were the late availability of canal water for kharif sowing, traditional cropping pattern, unleveled land, lack of drainage, inefficient management of the irrigation allocation system by the department, lack of infrastructure conducive to adoption of modern technology and malpractices in the distribution of canal water. Yadav D.B. et al. (1989) 133 made a study on ‘Factors Associated with Under- Utilisation of Canal Irrigation Water - A Case Study’ in the command area of Kukadi Irrigation Project (Maharashtra). The results of the study revealed that among the various factors responsible for under-utilisation of canal irrigation water, the difference between the gross command area and the cultivable command area, delay in sanction for the use of water, defective distributaries, elevated area and untimely supply of water were the major constraints in utilising the canal water. For efficient

132 Pokharkar V.G. (1989), “Irrigation Use Efficiency: A Case Study of Mula Irrigation Command Area”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep., p.292. 133 Yadav D.B. Rahane R.K. and Rasane D.S. (1989), “Factors Associated with Under-Utilisation of Canal Irrigation Water - A Case Study”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.44, No.3, July-Sep., p. 296.

and judicious use of canal water it is suggested that construction of dams and quality distribution system should be started simultaneously. It is also necessary to develop the lands for irrigation, ensure proper and timely supply of water, impart training to the farmers regarding better water management practices and bring about better co-ordination between agricultural scientists and irrigation engineers.

Kail J.L. and Sukhjeet Sekhon (1989) 134 studied in the title on ‘Flexibility and Reliability of Irrigation Systems and Their Effect on Farming - A Case of Punjab’. According to them average returns per rupee invested along with the level of total output indicate economic efficiency under different sources of irrigation. In the case of wheat crop the highest returns were obtained on the farms with diesel plus electric alternative source of irrigation, i.e., Re.1.86 per rupee of investment. Higher reliability is associated with higher yield as regards both the crops. With the increase in the degree of control over water supply, there appears to be an upward shift in the production function leading to a downward shift in the average cost curve.

Water use efficiency was calculated by dividing gross returns per acre by the quantity of water used for irrigation an acre. From their study the average returns for wheat crop for one cum of water were the highest (Rs.2.38) on the diesel plus electric farms, followed closely by the diesel operated tubewell farms. Gooneratne W. and Hirashima S. (1990) 135 analysed in their book on ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia’. They pointed out that irrigation water is not simply an input of agricultural production. It bears a strong relationship to social organization. Irrigation development in most developing countries has taken the form large-scale public projects. However, it is now recognized that technologically advanced projects have failed in many cases to achieve their initial objective. The most important reason for their failure has been identified as inefficiency in water management. One advocates the necessity of learning from traditional water management systems. The other suggests a shift of emphasis in irrigation investment from large-scale projects to small to medium-scale ones, and from new projects to the

134 Kail J.L. and Sukhjeet Sekhon (1989), “Flexibility and Reliability of Irrigation Systems and Their Effect on Farming - A Case of Punjab”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 44, No. 3, July-Sep., p. 591. 135 Gooneratne W. and Hirashima S. (1990), “Irrigation and Water Management in Asia”, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pp.1-17.

rehabilitation of existing systems. It can be argued that irrigation efficiency depends on sophistication of the technology used, mode of irrigation, and agent of water management. The study also mentioned that the crop production could be increased even up to 20 per cent merely by improving the performance of irrigation systems through ‘management reform’. There is strong case for introducing decentralized type of management in public irrigation systems to increase their efficiency by giving a role to the water users. Community - level associations can best serve as the link between the irrigation bureaucracy (State) and the farming community in such a decentralized system of management. Decentralized systems can ensure the bureaucracy’s accountability to water users and at the same time contribute to grater local resources mobilization, cost-saving and increased water-use efficiency. Gunadasa J.M. (1990) 136 in his article on ‘Aspects of Water Management under Reservoir Irrigation - A Study of the Giant’s Tank System in Sri Lanka’, viewed that identification of the degree of water use efficiency in an irrigation system is a first prerequisite to exploring the ways and means to improve it. Also for practical purposes, the concept of water use efficiency has to be given an empirical meaning and a quantitative expression. To serve these purposes, the water use efficiency in the GT system can be identified in terms of four indicators: 1. Overall waste in the system level from canals, control structures and terminal reservoirs and at the field level. 2. Waste at farm level Practices like staggering, flooding the fields for weed control and keeping water impounded to a maximum depth possible in the field are the main causes for farm level water waste. 3. Low cropping intensity is a result of water shortage and 4. Non-cultivation of less-water-consuming crops in the Yale season. Cultivation of paddy is a desirable form of land use in the Maha season in view of the climate conditions and also the subsistence needs of the farmers. When compared with the alternatives available however, paddy is not the most profitable crop for the Yale season. During this season, with the water used for paddy cultivation a much larger acreage could be brought under less-water-consuming crops.

136 Gunadasa J.M. (1990), “Aspects of Water Management under Reservoir Irrigation - A Study of the Giant’s Tank System in Sri Lanka”, ed. Gooneratne W. and Hirashima S., ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia’, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pp.216-233.

The author has concluded that the current system of water management results in a severe under-utilisation of the irrigation water resources. This has very serious consequences on the level of output realized, employment generated and on the overall utilization of a very important national capital stock. It is also clear that a broad-based and comprehensive programme of reorganization of the operation and management of the system would be required to tap the full production and employment potential. Any attempt at reorganization needs, however, to be carried out by taking into account such questions as socio-economic feasibility and the administrative and institutional capability. Gooneratne W. and Hirashima S. (1990) 137 argued in the title on ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia’ that irrigation efficiency in many large-scale systems in the developing countries of Asia is quite low. Efficiency measured in terms of the proportion of water consumed by the crop in field out of the total water delivered ranges from 25 to 90 per cent, averaging 55-60 per cent in Asian countries. When we compare two irrigational systems characterised by high and low efficiency, efficiency can be determined at two levels; the macro level or main system and the micro level or in the fields. In either case, both the civil engineering and managerial aspects are important considerations. However, one may observe a high correlation of performance at both the macro and micro levels. The study revealed that there is positive correlation between the supply price of irrigation water and irrigation efficiency. It is clearly shown that efficiency increases when the relative price shifts from r1 to r2. This suggests that the urgent task of irrigation administration is to make farmers realise that irrigation water is not a free good. Sutawan N. et al. (1990) 138 studied in the title on ‘Community-Based Irrigation System in Bali, Indonesia’ came to conclusion were made recommendations based on the study findings is to secure a just distribution and more efficient use of irrigation water it is necessary to encourage subaks to adopt a rotational system of water allocation and to adopt more accurate measurement of water allocation.

137 Op. Cit., pp.16-17. 138 Sutawan N. Swara M. Windia W. et al. (1990), “Community-Based Irrigation System in Bali, Indonesia” edited by Hirashima S. and Gooneratne W., ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia’, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pp. 142-144.

Leslie E. et al. (1991) 139 are dealt in their book on ‘Farmer-Financed Irrigation: The Economics of Reform, Wye studies in Agricultural and Rural Development’ with the ubiquitous problem of cost recovery in public irrigation systems. They argue here for the creation of financially autonomous institutions to collect user fees, so as to ensure to the farmers efficient irrigation service that is so central to modern, high yield farming. In several large developing countries like China, India, Indonesia and Pakistan, half of all agricultural investment goes into irrigation. The author stated that contrary to many others that users fee will encourage individual farmers to be more efficient in their use of water. Bhuiyan S.I. et al. (1995) 140 studied in their article on ‘Improving Water Use Efficiency in Rice Irrigation through Wet-Seeding’ that recently wet-seeding of rice, a method of rice crop establishment in which pregerminated seeds are directly sown in puddle field, has been found to replace the transplanting method of crop establishment in some parts of Asia. This wet-seeding is becoming more and more popular in the irrigated areas of Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines. For example, in an area of Central Luzon, the rice bowl of the Philippines, wet-seeded rice area increased from about 8,000 ha in 1989 to about 15,000 ha in 1991. In practice, the WS-TSA consumed substantially less water and consequently achieved higher water use efficiency with a smaller flow rate and shorter time, due to its inherently more water-efficient system. Dewan J.M. Sudarshan K.N. (1996) 141 in his book on ‘Irrigation Management’ used the idea given by Robert wade that the comprehensive account of the scale, workings and impact on irrigation efficiency, and how O&M contracts are tapped for a share of contractors’ profits; for allowing shoddy, sub-standard work (e.g. removal of less silt than in a canal clearing contract); by diverting illegal earnings to business partnerships etc. Bribing is not a lubricant to the operating system, it is corrosive. In an era where the quality of aid is of increasing concern donars could perhaps play a role in the two most attractive solutions advocated: First to promote irrigation user

139 Leslie E. Small and Ian, Carruthers (1991), “Farmer-Financed Irrigation: The Economics of Reform, Wye studies in Agricultural and Rural Development”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 218. 140 Bhuiyan S.I. Sattar M.A. Khan M.A.K. (1995), “Improving Water Use Efficiency in Rice Irrigation through Wet-Seeding”, Irrigation Science, Springer - Verlag 16:1-8, pp. 1-7. 141 Op. Cit., pp.84-85.

associations as a countervailing voice; Second, to encourage professional training and a cadre of people dedicated to professional norms of efficient canal operation. Such small endeavours could have useful impact. Ghulam Nabi Bhat & Akram Ahmad Khan (1998) 142 in their article on ‘Sustainable Water Management: A Necessity for Sustainable Agriculture’ pointed out that in the formulation of its policy regarding utilization and management of water resources, the Government did not consider the role and significance of traditional sources of water viz., ponds and tanks, small rivers and watershed. Their importance as sources of drinking water means of irrigation, usefulness for controlling an moderating floods, use for in land and fisheries. According to them the allotment of water for irrigation will go down from the present level of 90 per cent to 75-80 per cent in the next 10-15 years. Water supply can be augmented by adopting efficient irrigation techniques. Modern technology offers cost effective options not only to increase areas but also to increase productivity. While efficiency is 35 per cent in traditional surface irrigation, it is 50-60 per cent in irrigation sprinkler and can be as high as 80-90 per cent in micro-irrigation. For instance the evapotranspiration (ET) requirement for growing paddy is about 800-1000 mm whereas in canal/tank command areas farmers use as much as 2000-25000 mm which is not only wasteful but also affects the yield due to the drainage problem. Scientists have found that there is no need to flood the paddy field to a depth of 15-20 cm as practiced by farmers and it is enough to irrigate the field up to a depth of 3-5 cm as soon as the standing water disappears. This will reduce the water use by 30 per cent while productivity can be increased subsequentially. Suraj Bhan (1998) 143 in his article on ‘Some Aspects of On-Farm Irrigation Management for Higher Crop Productivity and Water Use Efficiency’ to improve water Productivity in agriculture need correct decision making is to be done in the selection of crops and their varieties, fixing cropping patterns in consistency with the availability of water, scientific and systematic application of water in right quality

142 Ghulam Nabi Bhat & Akram Ahmad Khan (1998), “Sustainable Water Management: A Necessity for Sustainable Agriculture” Edited by Farooq Khan, ‘Water Resource Management Thrust and Challenges’, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp.138-143. 143 Suraj Bhan, (1998), “Some Aspects of On-Farm Irrigation Management for Higher Crop Productivity and Water Use Efficiency”, edited by Farooq Khan, Water Resource Management Thrust and Challenges, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 49 & 63.

with proper method and at the most critical stages of crop growth, adequate fertilization, timely weed control, mulching on soil surface in between the rows, irrigation in alternate furrows in crops like potato and sugarcane, practices like pudding and compaction in transplanted and direct seeded rice respectively, furrow irrigation with frequent and light waterings in crops grown on salt effected soils. The productivity of available water per unit area and time could be enhanced considerably if more and more area is brought under double, treble and intercropping system. Tewari D.N. (2001) 144 studied the ‘Optimum Use of Water Resource in Agriculture’. He observed that with the net sown area almost stagnant in the country at about 142 million hectares and 63 per cent of the cultivated land under rainfed, further expansion of irrigation including additional irrigation through modernization / renovation of irrigation capacity is needed as a critical input to achieve the targeted growth rate of agricultural production. He also suggested that to improve water use efficiency through renovation and modernization of existing and farmers to be involved in the management of irrigation systems in a phased manner. Sivanappan R.K. (2001) 145 argued in his article on ‘Sustainable Management of Water Resources’ that the allocation of water for irrigation will be reduced from 84 percent to 71 percent and it will be increased to 20 percent from percent 8 percent for industries and municipal needs. In India about 40-45 percent of water allotted for agriculture is used to grow rice crops and this figure is about 75-80 percent in Tamil Nadu. If the available water management practices are applied for paddy crops it is not difficult to save 10-15 percent of water. The average productivity of paddy in India is only about 3T/Ha (it is about 5-6T/Ha in Tamil Nadu) which is very low. Even in some developing countries like Egypt, Korea and Taiwan the yield is about 7-10T/Ha. Currently the irrigation efficiency in canal/tank irrigation system is only about 30-40 percent and in well irrigated area it is about 60-65 percent. On an average only 40-45 percent of irrigation water is actually used by the crop.

144 Tewari D.N. (2001), “Optimum Use of Water Resource in Agriculture”, Yojana, Vol.45, No.1, January, pp. 21-23. 145 Sivanappan R.K. (2001), “Sustainable Management of Water Resources”, Kissan World, Vol. 28, No.5, May, pp.20-21.

Dinesh Kumar M. (2003) 146 in the article on ‘Demand Management in the Face of Growing Water Scarcity and Conflicts in India Institutional and Policy Alternatives for Future’ that the crisis perpetuated by the growing water scarcity can be mitigated only through interventions that are aimed at achieving higher efficiencies in the existing uses and transferring water to high valued uses. According to him water conservation has three distinct components: i. conservation by preventing the loss of stored water; ii. conservation by preventing the loss of water from the system during conveyance from supply source to the point of usage; and iii. conservation of water at the user level by adopting efficient water use technologies. Hanumantha Rao (2003) 147 focused in his article on ‘Sustainable Use of Water for Irrigation in Indian Agriculture’ water resources are becoming extremely scarce. According to the projections made by the National Commission for Integrated Water Resource Development Plan, the requirement of water for irrigation in India will grow by more than 50 per cent in the next 50 years. The water requirements for household consumption and industry would rise even faster. In view of this, even after fully exploiting the usable water resources, the balance between the supply and demand for irrigation water can be achieved only improving the level of irrigation efficiency in a big way from about 36 percent efficiency in 1993-94 to 60 per cent in the year 2050 (Government of India, 1999). A ten per cent improvement in the efficiency of water use would be equivalent to adding some 14 million hectares of gross irrigated area (Saleth, 1996). Hanumantha Rao (2003) 148 expressed in his article on ‘Sustainable Use of Water for Irrigation in Indian Agriculture’ that the steps taken so far for improving water-use-efficiency through modernization / renovation of exiting systems have not significant and which have deteriorated over the years. According to the Mid-Term Appraisal of Ninth Five Year Plan, the progress achieved so far in Participatory

146 Dinesh Kumar M. (2003), “Demand Management in the Face of Growing Water Scarcity and Conflicts in India Institutional and Policy Alternatives for Future”, edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 107-113. 147 Op. Cit., p. 16. 148 Op. Cit., pp. 17-26.

Irrigation Management (PIM), designed to improve water-use-efficiency, is rather slow. The irrigated area transferred to Water Users Associations (WUAs) in India is only about 7 per cent as against the 45 per cent in Indonesia, 66 per cent in Philippines, and 22 per cent in Thailand (Government of India, Planning Commission, 2000). As regards groundwater, the rate of extraction has been far above the rate of recharge. As a result, the number of over-exploited and dark blocks has increased by nearly 70 per cent over the last 14 years (government of India, Planning Commission, 2000). According to him the technology and public policy, institutions concerning water use hold the key to raising water productivity by bridging the vast gap that now exists between knowledge and its application. Water institutions are a relatively new and challenging area is highly inter-disciplinary. Singh C.J. (2003) 149 in his research work on ‘Efficient Use of Water in Canal Command of Punjab’ studied the adaptive research-cum-demonstration trials were conducted in the canal command area of the water course of the village Jaisingh wala, at the tail-end of the Bathinda distributory. The trials on wheat, cotton, mustard, berseem and jawar crops were intended to evaluate the soundness of the improved irrigation practices and other farming techniques which directly or indirectly reduce the wasteful expense of scarce irrigation water and increase the water use efficiency. Palanisamy (2004) 150 revealed in his research work on ‘Policies for Sustainable Use of Water’ that inequities in water supply are more predominant in tail-end region of each distributor resulting in conflicts and inefficiency in water use. Improved crop and water management have not been properly adopted by the farmers due to in equal water supplies. He pointed out that investment in secondary and tertiary distribution system to improve the water use efficiency. An’Yoji Hisao and Yasuda Hirsoshi (2005) 151 in their study on ‘Necessity to Increase Efficiency of Irrigation’ pointed out that about 40 percent of the world’s food

149 Singh C.J. (2003), “Efficient Use of Water in Canal Command of Punjab”, edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, p.175. 150 Palanisami K. (2004), “Policies for Sustainable Use of Water”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 59, No. 1, January-March, pp.48-50. 151 An’Yoji Hisao and Yasuda Hirsoshi (2005), “Necessity to Increase Efficiency of Irrigation”, Sand Dune Research, Yollsa, China. 07.08.2010

crops is produced from irrigated agricultural fields which constitute only 17% of the total agricultural field. It is estimated that food production must be increased to 1.4 times the present level by 2025 to support an increasing world population. Although irrigated agricultural fields must be expanded to enhance the food in the world, the rate of expansion is decreasing continuously. He concluded that to increase irrigation efficiency is the key for sustainable and effective use of the already developed water resources. Anil Kumar Singh and Rajput T.B.S. (2005) 152 mentioned in their article on ‘Optimizing Water Uses and Recharging of Aquifers’ that the dominant method of irrigation practiced in the country is flood irrigation, in which the crop utilizes only one-half of the water released and the rest is lost in conveyance, application, runoff and evaporation. Accordingly, the efficiency of surface irrigation methods is low. In the two decades (1970-1990) ground water irrigated area increased by 105%. However, over the same period the area irrigated by surface water increased by 28% only. They concluded that if the number of overexploited blocks continues to grow at the present rate of 5.5% per annum, by 2018 roughly 36% of India’s blocks will face serious problems. Declining groundwater levels cause huge environmental, social and economic costs because of four main factors: i. salinization of aquifers (due to seawater intrusion), which affects drinking water and crops ii. pollution of aquifers (e.g., by arsenic and chromium) that affects drinking water and crops and has serious health consequences. iii. Increased costs of pumping (ground water energy nexus) Abandonment of wells (from which water can no longer be pumped) Singh K.K., Ojha C.S.P. (2005) 153 revealed in their article on ‘Improvement in Irrigation Efficiency Using On-Farm Reservoir and its Efficient Operation’ that during irrigation of the crops a huge quantity of water is wasted due to poor efficiencies of irrigation systems. This wastage can be minimized by adapting

152 Anil Kumar Singh and Rajput T.B.S. (2005), “Optimizing water uses and recharging of aquifers”, Indian Farming, Volume 54, No.12, March, pp.35-36. 153 Singh K.K., Ojha C.S.P.(2005), “Improvement in Irrigation Efficiency Using On-Farm Reservoir and its Efficient Operation”, Central Board of Irrigation and Power (Formerly Irrigation & Power Journal), Vol.62, No. 1, January-March, p.61.

suitable storing excess water of irrigation in on-farm reservoir (OFR) and later using this water in a specific way. The study suggests that the use of stored water of OFR invariably increases water irrigation efficiency. However, a particular operation procedure of OFR yields maximum water irrigation efficiency.

OFR: OFR is a ditch of a particular shape provided in the field, which stores agricultural or rainfall runoff water for later use, thus reducing the demand on the basin-wide system in times of need. It is the most useful and powerful on-farm storage system under suitable conditions. Most recently, OFR and its use has been advocated to augment supplemental irrigation for paddy crop particularly in arid areas from the rainfall-harvested water. OFR can also hold nutrient-laden runoff water from field for reuse and also in preventing degradation of river water quality.

Haque T. (2006) 154 in his research article on ‘Resource Use Efficiency in Agriculture’ pointed out that low irrigation charges encourage farmers not to care about water use efficiency and also cause the problem of rapid depletion of ground water in Punjab and Haryana. He also pointed out that one should keep in mind that the availability of good quality of irrigation water, coupled with flexibility of irrigation and drainage system and appropriate methods of application as well as pricing of irrigation water would be crucial for sustainable use of land and water resources.

Narasaiah (2006) 155 in his book on ‘Agriculture and Water Management’ investigated in the Tungabhadra Irrigation Scheme revealed that the tail-end of a majority distributory commanding 25 per cent of the total area, received approximately 20-40 percent of the targeted discharge while the upper reaches got more than their share. Lack of maintenance has caused many systems to fall into disrepair, further inhibiting performance. Over time, distribution canals have become silted up, increasing the likelihood of breaching, damage to outlets and leading to salt build-up in the soil.

154 Haque T. (2006), “Resource Use Efficiency in Agriculture”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 61, No. 1, January-March, pp.65-74. 155 Narasaiah (2006), “Agriculture and Water Management”, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp. 36-38.

According to him successful irrigation in the future will be that which supports much higher levels of agricultural productivity enhances responsiveness to more diversified and dynamic crop markets, stimulates more profitable irrigated agriculture for wide numbers of rural poor, substantially improves water use efficiency and supports the sustainable use of scarce land, biomass and water resources.

Ronald C. Griffin (2006) 156 pointed out in his article on ‘Achieving Water Use Efficiency in Irrigation Districts’ that achieving efficient water use in the presence of common property institutions such as irrigation districts presents an important challenge. The main problem is not that these districts using water for irrigation, but rather that their operational rules are not designed for the modern era of water scarcity in which IDs both nonmembers as well as members. The members lack individual entitlements, thereby implying that they have incomplete incentives for behaving in an efficient manner.

Suresh Pal (2006) 157 pointed out in the article on ‘Resource Use Efficiency, Particularly in Irrigated Area’ that efficiency of water use has been increased over time but still remains less than 40 per cent. They argued that present price policy regime, there are strong incentives for growing rice and wheat and there is little possibility of large-scale diversification to other crops, which require less water and generate higher income. They also felt that mere withdrawal of subsidy on electricity may not shift incentives in favour of diversification of the cropping system. This will require several other measures like effective direct control on the use of water, participation of farmer organisations in water management, and educating farmers about sustainable use of water resources. India can learn from the Australian experience where long-term farm planning based on suitability of land, pricing and control of water, and farmers’ participation in water use, input supply and R & D are found to be very successful.

156 Ronald C.Griffin (2006), “Achieving Water Use Efficiency in Irrigation Districts”, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, ASCE, Vol.132, No.6, November / December, pp.434-440. 157 Suresh Pal (2006), “Resource Use Efficiency, Particularly in Irrigated Area”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.61, No.1, January-March, pp. 85-86.

Bhagirath (2007) 158 pointed out in his article on ‘Year 2007 Declared as Water Year’ that at present the per capita storage capacity in India is only about 207 cubic metres as compared to 1111 cubic metres in China. As a result of growing population, the per capita water availability of India is declining every year and as per an estimate, it will be about 1,341 cubic metres by the year 2025 and about 1,140 cubic metres by the year 2050 which is much below the water-stress threshold of 1,700 cubic metres. Therefore, it is necessary to create infrastructures and adopt appropriate management practices to augment the utilizable water resources and improve the efficiency of the created facilities.

John Briscoe and Malik R.P.S. (2007) 159 explained in the title on ‘Irrigation Water Use Efficiency’. At the planning stage, irrigation efficiency (at the field level – the basin level is different and often much higher since one person’s losses are another’s recharge) is assumed as 55 to 60 per cent but in actual practice, the efficiencies obtaining on the ground are around 30 per cent or even lower.

A recent basin-wise study based on potential evapotranspiration and withdrawals for irrigation shows efficiency in the range of 26 to 27 per cent (Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery), and 43 to 47 per cent (Indus, Ganga) with overall 37.7 per cent for the country as a whole. Irrigation efficiency is low in the country due to a combination of factors-low water tariff, poor state of canal system due to lack of maintenance, absence of rotational supply, and “use it or lose it” implicit right. Unfortunately no scientific study of overall irrigation efficiency in large systems is available. Sharda, V.N. (2007) 160 highlighted in the article on ‘Managing Natural Resources’ that India envisages a growth rate of 4 per cent per annum in the agriculture sector, so as to achieve a target of over 300 million tonnes of food grain production by the year 2020. Against the targeted production of 230 metric tonnes for the X Plan, the actual production has never crossed 212.9 metric tonnes. Gap between the target and actual production is a matter of serious concern as the growth rate of

158 Bhagirath (2007), “Year 2007 Declared as Water Year”, Indian Water Resource Quarterly, Vol. LIV, No.2, April – June, p.11. 159 Op. Cit., p.66. 160 Sharda, V.N. (2007), “Managing natural resources”, The Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture, pp.135-137.

Indian agriculture during the past decade has sharply decelerated from 3.2 per cent per annum during 1980-81 to 1996-97 to an average rate of only 1.5 per cent thereafter against 4 per cent envisaged in the NAP. India has only about 4 per cent of the world’s fresh water resources and occupies only 2.42 per cent of its area to meet the ever increasing demand of food grains, fodder, fuel wood and fibre of its growing populations. The net sown area in the past 30 years has remained static between 138 million ha to 142 million ha, and consequently the size of land holdings is continuously reducing. Between 1971-72 and 2002-03, it declined from 2.2 ha to 1.4 ha. The proportion of small holdings (< 2 ha) in the total number of holdings increased from 68 per cent to 86 per cent, which in actual terms has more than doubled from 38 million to 87 million during this period. Hanumantha Rao C.H. (2008) 161 in his article on ‘Wastages and Inefficiencies in Water Use’ pointed out that because of absence of financial accountability on the part of the project authorities and the low rates charged for water, there is a lot of wastage of water and inefficiency in water use. In this context, the quotes a study by Veeraiah and Madankumar which says that out of the water entering upper Ganga Canal, as much as 44 per cent was lost in canal, in distributaries and in village water courses. Of the remaining 56 per cent actually entering the fields, the farmer wasted another 27 per cent in excessive irrigation and thus the water actually used by crops was only 29 per cent. As against this, in the advanced systems of the West as much as 60-70 per cent of the water diverted in large surface system is available for plant use. Another problem is that because of underpricing of surface water, the farmers at the headreaches water their fields intensively, leaving the tail-enders with sparse supplies. Arvind Panagariya (2008) 162 stated in book on ‘India: The Emerging Giant’ pointed out that bigger the farmer, the larger the amount of water and electricity he uses because of free electricity. According to him the subsidies are distortionary because they lead to highly wasteful use of canal water, ecological degradation from water logging, and excessive use of electricity. The fiscal burden created by free water and electricity has led the states to neglect maintenance of electricity lines and

161 Misra S.K. Puri V.K. (2008), “Indian Economy”, Himalaya Publishing House, New Delhi, p.280. 162 Arvind Panagariya (2008), “India The Emerging Giant”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi p.323.

canals. In this respect, the subsidies have been a lose-lose proportion. He suggested that from the efficiency and equity viewpoints, it is desirable to charge farmers for the electricity they use. Pandey M.P. and Ghosh A. (2008) 163 in his article on ‘Challenges to the Future of Agriculture-Global Perspective’ pointed out that an estimation by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the average temperature would increase by about 0.3 c per decade over next century. Consequently, level of sea water could rise by at least 2-4 cm per decade. Therefore, impact of global warming on entire agricultural growth is apprehended to be worse. Water is becoming a looming crisis. By 2025, scarcity of water would threaten 30 per cent of the human population as 70 per cent of water withdrawals are used in irrigated agriculture globally. Africa and Asia has experienced an increasing shortage in percaput water availability. Irrigation demand is expected to increase keeping pace with the need to increase agriculture production. Irrigated agriculture needs to be increased by 23 million hectares, i.e. 19 per cent over and above the area lost under water logging and salinization. The majority of the areas would fall in South Asia. About 35 per cent of the land under assured irrigation is at risk due to poor management. The most basic of human right is the right of food and nutrition. Farmers ensuring proper drainage and irrigation design can promote efficient use of water. Small-Scale Schemes executed by local government could reduce many problems while backed by national policies that effectively support appropriate technologies, credit, marketing, energy supplies and maintenance of equipment by suitable ecology based cropping program therein. Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007 to 2012 (2008)164 under the caption of ‘Improving Water Use Efficiency’ pointed out that for a gross irrigated area of about 87 MH, the water use is 541 bcm which gives a delta of 0.68 m per ha of gross irrigated area. The average annual rainfall is 1170 mm (1.17m). Taking 70 per cent of

163 Pandey M.P. and Ghosh A. (2008), “Challenges to the Future of Agriculture-Global Perspective”, Indian Farming, Vol. 58, No.7, October, pp.7-10. 164 Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012 (2008), “Agriculture, Rural Development, Industry, Services and Physical Infrastructure Volume III Planning commission Government of India”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, p. 58.

the rainfall as effective for crop consumptive use, the gross water use is anout 1.45 m (4.8 feet) per ha of the gross irrigated area. This is very high as compared to water use in irrigation systems in say the US where water allocation is about 3 feet. This overuse in the country reflects a low irrigation efficiency of about 25 per cent to 35 per cent in most irrigation systems, with efficiency of 40 per cent to 45 per cent. The reasons that contribute to low irrigation efficiency can be identified as follows: • Completion of dam / head works ahead of canals. • Dilapidated irrigation systems. • Unlined canal systems with excessive seepage. • Lack of field channels. • Lack of canal communication network. • Lack of field drainage. • Improper field leveling. • Absence of volumetric supply. • Inadequate extension services. • Low rate for water. The Eleventh Five Year Plan 2007-2012 (2008) 165 stated that the equitable and optimal use of water from canal irrigation has been a matter of continuing concern. The participation of actual beneficiaries through Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) and the maintenance of village-level distribution channels through WUAs have been found useful. There is broad consensus that this has been a step in the right direction. This needs to be pursued more vigorously with genuine empowerment of WUAs. The experience across States has been uneven. It is reported that 55501 users associations has been created in India. The Hindu (2009) 166 editorial on ‘Uncertain Monsoon and Agriculture’ pointed out that the need is for clear-sighted and firm policy intervention that provides confidence to the people that the system can cope with any contingency. Government must urgently regulate the use of water and power and control panic-driven misuse.

165 Ibid, pp.58-59. 166 The Hindu, (2009) “Uncertain Monsoon and Agriculture”, July 15, p.10.

N. Bashkaran (2010) 167 in his report on ‘Lining of Canals can Improve Irrigation Efficiency by over 15 per cent’ stated that only around 53 per cent of the water from head reservoirs actually reach farmers' fields the rest represents losses during transit due to percolation and evaporation. He suggested that Plastic or concrete lining of canals can reduce water seepage and percolation losses by 15 per cent or more, thereby significantly improving irrigation efficiency levels. For example Mr. Appalwar's company recently undertook a study on the Goki Project in the Vidarbha region in collaboration with the Yavatmal Irrigation Division. The study revealed water savings of over 15 per cent arising from lining the distribution canals with woven polypropylene sheets. Smajstrla et al. 168 had studied “Efficiencies of Florida Agricultural Irrigation System” pointed out that in Florida seepage losses from reservoirs is the major cause of Reservoirs storage efficiency. They suggested that seepage losses may be reduced by lining reservoirs with impermeable soils (typically clays) or man made liners such as plastic sheets, metal, plastic or fiber glass and tanks may be used as reservoirs to eliminate seepage losses. Transpiration losses from reservoirs occur as a result of vegetation growth in and around the reservoir.

WATER USERS ASSOCIATION Sundar A. Rao P.S. (1981) 169 discussed in their paper on ‘Farmers’ Organisation for Efficient Water Use in Irrigated Agriculture - An Overview’, that the farmers’ group management of irrigation water distribution as a perquisite for efficient utilization of irrigation potential. In order to improve the utilization of irrigation potential and crop yields, they suggested proper maintenance of the main canal and distribution system above the pipe-outlet, development of field channels, adoption of a rotational system, on-farm development, extension education, coordination among the development departments and training personnel at various levels.

167 N. Bashkaran (2010) ‘Lining of canals can improve irrigation efficiency by over 15 percent’ Business Line Monday, Jan 04. 08.09.2010 168 Smajstrla et al., “Efficiencies of Florida Agricultural Irrigation System”, Institute of Food and Agricultural Science (UF/IFAS), Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. 09.09.2010 169 Sundar A. Rao P.S. (981), “Farmers’ Organisation for Efficient Water Use in Irrigated Agriculture- An Overview”, Wamana, 1(4), Bangalore, Taken from Mohammed Yousuf (1990) ‘Irrigation Plan Practice Perspective’, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, p. 9.

Palanisami K. (1984) 170 in his book on ‘Irrigation Water Management, the Determinant of Canal Water Distribution in India - A Micro Analysis’, conducted a study of Lower Bhavani Project in Tamil Nadu, that the efficient utilization of water which, depends on the extent to which farmers enjoy predictability, certainty and control over canal water. The conclusion of the study is that farmers served by the canal water only experienced water uncertainties and had no water control. Hence, once they received their supply, they tried to irrigate as much as they could. The tendencies of the farmers over irrigation at the top-end and under irrigation at tail-end result in both inefficiency and inequality in the distribution system. However, farmers with ground water certainty and hence over use as well as under use was avoided to some extend. Vijaya Bhaskar Y. (1989) 171 in his research work on ‘Group Action on Irrigation - Equity and Productivity Analysis’, observed that voluntary participation of the farmers is essential for better utilization of created potential in surface irrigation projects. One such act of participation had occurred in Karlapalem mandal of Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh. Farmers facing water shortages in the tail-end areas of the canal formed into a society. They collected funds to implement a lift irrigation project on a perennial drain running close to the affected area. The universe (448 ryots) is divided into two strata taking cumulative total of the area owned. ‘Before- After’ approach was used for estimating the impact of the project on the farm economy. The working expenses as well as the total costs of cultivation (cost C) had increased significantly. There were significant increases in the gross action farms. With the provision of supplemental irrigation, there was also an increase in the resource productivity. The income differences were reduced in group action farms as revealed by the low Gini concentration ratios, thus indicating stable incomes of the farm economy.

170 Palanisami K. (1984), “Irrigation Water Management, the Determinant of Canal Water Distribution in India – A Micro Analysis”, Agricole Publishing Academy, New Delhi, Taken from Mohammed Yousuf (1990) ‘Irrigation Plan Practice Perspective, Ajanta Publications, Delhi, p. 6. 171 Vijaya Bhaskar Y. (1989), “Group Action on Irrigation - Equity and Productivity Analysis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 44, No. 3, July-Sep., p. 293.

Hirashima S. and Gooneratne W. (1990) 172 in his book on ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia’ pointed out that the need to involve the farmers (i.e., the water users) in planning and executing irrigation improvement and rehabilitation programmes is no longer a subject of dispute. Active involvement of the farmers is important for several reasons: firstly, to ensure that community organizations, where they exist, are preserved and strengthened, secondly, to design the improvement in such a way that they correspond with experience, traditions and capabilities; and thirdly, to make the operation and management of improved / rehabilitated systems more self-reliant and less dependent on external agencies for funds and expertise. Robert Y. Siy Jr. (1990) 173 in his research article on ‘Local Resource Mobilisation and Management A Study of Indigenous Irrigation in Northern Philippines’, pointed out that the expansion of irrigated initiated either by independent local communities or by government. In most of the developing world, irrigation development will continue to be pursued as a means of raising land productivities and of expanding farm employment opportunities. In this effort, greater attention will have to be paid to institutional aspects of irrigation development. First of all, irrigation development has always been costly. Most governments have failed to recover even a part of such costs. The existence of organized groups of farmers can facilities cost recoveries; it eventually be possible to charge and collect payments from groups of farmers rather than from individuals. In this regard Water Users Associations may be able to contribute labour and materials in the construction and operation of irrigation facilities. The mobilization of such resources from local communities will definitely help in conserving investible funds by lowering the potential share of governments in such projects. As such, there are sufficient economic incentives for irrigation authorities to develop, encourage and support active associations of water users. Bala Raju Nikku (2003) 174 has stated in his article on ‘Irrigation Reforms, Institutions and Livelihoods Opportunities and Challenges Case of Andhra Pradesh, South India’ that the ‘Modal of AP irrigation reforms’ is unique especially in the scale

172 Op. Cit., p. 9. 173 Robert Y. Siy Jr. (1990), “Local Resource Mobilisation and Management A Study of Indigenous Irrigation in Northern Philippines”, edited by Hirashima S. and Gooneratne W. (1990) ‘Irrigation and Water Management in Asia, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, pp.76-77. 174 Bala Raju Nikku (2003), “Irrigation Reforms, Institution and Livelihoods Opportunities and Challenges Case of Andhra Pradesh, South India”, edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, pp. 343-344.

of its implementation and operation. The state is committed to the implementation of the PIM approach throughout the state uniformly. It has developed a Vision 2020 document and an Irrigation sector policy paper to guide the sectoral development. A clear legal framework Andhra Pradesh Farmer’s Management of Irrigation Systems (APFMIS Act of 1997) extended to the whole state has further legitimized the reform process. The WUAs are the local level organizations that are empowered with fee collection, operation, maintenance, water management, distribution and conflict- resolution. The driving force behind the reforms has been the political will and the recognition of the need to reduce the state expenditure for the irrigation sector and to protect the system decay by involving users. The Act further emphasizes, ‘scientific and systematic development and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure is considered best possible through farmers’ organizations’. The Act also empowers, ‘such farmers’ organizations have to be given an effective role in the management and maintenance of the irrigation system for effective and reliable supply and distribution of water’ (APFMIS Act, p.1). Navadkar D.S. et al. (2003) 175 described in their article on ‘Irrigation Development: A Boon for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Maharashtra, Agricultural Situation in India’ that the state govt. has taken policy decision for the formation of Co-operative Water Users Associations (WUAs) and handling over the irrigation management to WUAs and policy seeks to i. reduce the gap between irrigation potential created and actual area irrigated ii. to restrict expenditure on maintenance and repairs of irrigation system iii. to increase water use efficiency of irrigation management and iv. to recover govt. water charges effectively. Bala Raju Nikku (2003) 176 in his research article on ‘Irrigation Reforms, Institutionas and Livelihoods Opportunities and Challenges Case of Andhra Pradesh, South India’ stated that the main thrust of reforms in existing irrigation system management by the shift of responsibilities from the state to the Water User Associations’ (WUAs).

175 Navadkar D.S. BirariK S. et al. (2003), “Irrigation Development: A Boon for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Maharashtra”, Agricultural Situation in India, Vol. LIX, No.3, June, pp. 141-145. 176 Bala Raju Nikku (2003) “Irrigation Reforms, Institutions and Livelihoods Opportunities and Challenges Case of Andhra Pradesh, South India”, edited by Kanchan Chopra, Hanumantha Rao Ramprasad Senguptha Indian Society for Ecological Economics, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, p. 343.

Navadkar D.S. et al. (2003) 177 in their article on ‘A Boon for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Maharastra’ described that in India, tremendous development has been witnessed through the successive Five Year Plans by developing the irrigation potential. They have also mentioned that reforms in irrigation sector the state government has taken policy decision in July, 2001 for formation of Co-operative Water Users Associations (WAU) and handing over the irrigation management to WUAs and policy seeks to v. reduce the gap between irrigation potential created and actual area irrigated vi. to restrict expenditure on maintenance and repairs of irrigation system vii. to increase water use efficiency of irrigation management and viii. to recover government water charges effectively. Vayas, V.S. (2003) 178 in the book on ‘India’s Agrarian Structure, Economic Policies and Sustainable Development’ viewed that participatory management is the king-pin in the delivery of the major goals of agricultural policies like to preserve ecological balance, improving the incomes and living standards of rural producers, ensuring food and nutritional security for the population. However, participatory management which is the king-pin in the delivery of these programmes and a prerequisite to genuine people’s participation is an institutional underpinning. To him the capable of delivering economic goods and services in an equitable manner would possible, provided the gross inequities in the ownership of assets, particularly with a large section being assetless to be minimized. Vishwa Ballabh (2003) 179 opined in the title on ‘Politics of Water Management and Sustainable Water Use’ that the farmers’ involvement in the management of irrigation systems is not new. India has historically been known as an irrigation civilization. The involvement of farmers in the phad system of Maharashtra, the ahar-pyne system of Bihar, and the tank irrigation system in South India are but a few notable examples of farmer managed irrigation systems (Agarwal and Narain, 1997). These systems were fully controlled and managed by the people.

177 Op. Cit., pp.141-145. 178 Vayas, V.S. (2003), “India’s Agrarian Structure, Economic Policies and Sustainable Development”, Academic Foundation, New Delhi, p. 24. 179 Vishwa Ballabh (2003), “Politics of Water Management and Sustainable Water Use”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol.58, No. 3, July-September, p. 471.

Sometimes the state provided resources only for construction purposes but the operation and management including water distribution was done by people’s institutions (Agarwal and Narain, 1997). The state of Gujarat was the first in India to initiate the organization of farmers’ irrigation cooperatives in the canal command. Among its well-known experimentation is the Mohini Water Cooperation Society. Many state governments issued a guideline to involve farmers in the management of irrigation projects. So far however these efforts have been limited in the formation of user groups at the tertiary level. They have been patchy and not conspicuously successful (Vaidyanathan, 1999). Lakshmi Narasaiah M. (2007) 180 in his book on ‘Irrigation and Economic Growth’ pointed out that Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems (FMIS) is also known as traditional, indigenous, communal or people’ systems, are often classified ‘minor’ or small-scale irrigation systems, although they may be found in command areas of 15,000-20,000 hectares. Research has revealed that FMIS contribute to the production of a significant portion of the subsistence food supply. The hectarage under farmer- managed ground-water irrigation farmer-managed tank irrigation systems cover about 8.5 million hectares in this country. Successful irrigation in the future will be that which supports much higher levels of agricultural productivity, enhances responsiveness to more diversified and dynamic crop markets, stimulates more profitable irrigated agriculture for wide numbers of rural poor, substantially improves water-use efficiency and supports and sustainable use of scarce land, biomass and water resources and to meet the food needs of rapidly growing population. Arvind Panagariya (2008) 181 in his book on ‘India: The Emerging Giant’ stated that India is well behind other countries in Asia in the use of participatory irrigation management. According to Planning Commission (2000), irrigated land transferred to water users associations in India is only 7 per cent, compared with 45 per cent in Indonesia, 22 per cent in Thailand, and 66 per cent in the Philippines.

180 Lakshmi Narasaiah M. (2007), “Irrigation and Economic Growth”, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, p. 2-3. 181 Op. Cit., p. 324.

Gupta K.R. (2008) 182 in his edited book on ‘Water Crisis in India’ pointed out that management of the water resources for diverse uses should incorporate a participatory approach by involving not only the various governmental agencies but also the users and other stakeholders, in an effective and decisive manner, in various aspects of planning, design, development and management of the water resources schemes. Necessary legal and institutional changes should be made at various levels for the purpose. Water Users’ Associations and the local bodies such as municipalities and gram panchayats should particularly be involved in the operation, maintenance and management of water infrastructures / facilities at appropriate levels progressively, with a view to eventually transfer the management of such facilities to the user groups / local bodies. He also mentioned that conservation of water consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives. Gupta K.R. (2008) 183 in his book on ‘Water Crisis in India’ said that so far 11 states, namely Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Rajashtan and Tamil Nadu have either enacted new act or amended the existing irrigation act to facilitate Participatory Irrigation Management. Presently more than 61,000 Water Users’ Associations (WUAs) have been formed in 23 States covering an area of about 12.55 million ha. Some of the remaining States have been encouraging participation of farmers in irrigation management at outlet level under cooperative / society acts. Despite this progress, PIM is not working effectively in all States. The constraints in implementing the PIM effectively like deficiencies in the irrigation supply system and lack of training and leadership, cooperation of Irrigation Departments need to be addressed adequately. Vishwanath S. (2009) 184 narrated in his article on ‘Let Us Go by Sydney Experience, Multiple Sourcing is Clearly Seen as the only way and Public Participation the Only Alternative’. Let look at Sydney, Australia has faced the big dry for some years, lack of rainfall and falling levels in the major dams especially

182 Gupta K.R. (2008), “Water Crisis in India”, Atlantic publishers & distributors (P) Ltd., New Delhi, pp. 195-197. 183 Ibid, pp. 216-217. 184 Vishwanath S. (2009), “Let Us Go by Sydney Experience, Multiple Sourcing is Clearly Seen as the only way and Public Participation the Only Alternative”, The Hindu, November 22, p. 8.

since rainfall has been below normal in these inland catchments for the last decade and more. Sydney has responded with the Water4 life programme for the sustainable water supply - Dams, recycling wastewater, water efficiency through demand management and desalination. Dams which stored rainwater in inland catchments will continue to provide the bulk of the water but will steadily decline as a proportion. Recycling wastewater has benefited of treating a polluting stream but also providing and substituting for fresh water especially for industrial process use. Water efficiency through demand management will save about 24 percent of the total water demand. Desalination is the ultimate climate proof water. All around the world are moving to understand their consumer and water demand and then to look at sources of sustainable supply to cater to this water requirement. In the bag of tricks rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge and management, wastewater treatment and recycling, desalination and demand management all feature. However the only alternative way to solve the problem is the public participation plus engagement. Utilities in India will need to learn from these experiences and change from within institutionally first so as to be able to cope with the challenges. Climate change will have a profound impact on water resource availability.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS AND CONCEPTS I) DEFINITION OF TERMS Principal Crops Food Crops

Food crops includes paddy, jowar (cholam), bajra (Cumbu), ragi, other millets, pulses, sugarcane, other food crops.

Non-Food Crops

Non food crops includes cotton, groundnut, gingelly, coconut, other oil seeds, tobacco, fodder crops, coffee, other non-food crops.

Duration of Crop Paddy is the principal crop extensively cultivated in all the districts of the state. There are three crops based on duration. 1. The Kuruvai (the short term crop) with duration of three and a half to four months from June to July to October to November. 2. The second crop is called the Thaladi that grown in 5 to 6 months October- November to February to March. 3. Third is Samba and has a duration of almost 6 months from August to January.

Discharge Discharge is a flow of water through any conveyance channel such as canal, distributary and watercourse. Its unit is cusecs. .(٨3/s Cusecs is defined as volume (cubic feet) of water flowing per second, (ft

Conversion 1 cusec = 28.31 1/sec

1 hectare = 2.47 acre = 10,000m 2

Irrigation The term irrigation defined as the application of water by either human being or by machines in the process of agricultural production.

Laskar Lowest employee of the Irrigation Department is called Laskar. Laskar refers to those people who are responsible for the local management of water. They open the outlets according to a pre-planned system.

Inputs Purchased inputs such as labour, bullocks and organic manure which originate in the agricultural sector itself and the following which are produced in the nonagricultural sector like fertilizers, pesticides, electric power, diesel oil and farm equipments / machinery.

Water User Water user means any individual or corporate body or a society using water for agriculture, domestic, non domestic, power, commercial, industrial or any other purpose from a government or the corporation source of irrigation. This can also be understood as someone using water for his/her own benefit or for some one else. A user can benefit from a service provided by an organization or an individual. Hence the WUA as an association of farmers who enjoy land rights in a declared command can also be seen as a user.

Gross Farm Household Incomes The value of the total output produced by a farmer is physical production of agricultural products including by-products x market prices. Household income - the total income received from agricultural products, wages, milk production and other sources.

Farmer A farmer is a person, engaged in agriculture that raises living organisms for food or raw materials, generally including livestock husbandry and growing crops such as produce and grain. A farmer might own the farmed land or might work as a labourer on land owned by others; but in advanced economies, a farmer is usually a farm owner, while employees of the farm are farm workers and farmhands.

Farmer Household A farmer household was defined as one which had at least one farmer as a member. A person who possessed some land and was engaged in agricultural activities on any part of that land during the last 365 days was considered as a farmer for the purpose of Survey. Agricultural activity was taken to include cultivation of agricultural crops and horticultural crops, growing of trees and plantations such as rubber, cashew, coconut, pepper, coffee, tea, etc; animal husbandry, poultry, fishery, bee-keeping, vermiculture, sericulture, etc. A farmer who had been engaged in activities related to production of crops by tillage and ancillary jobs was categorised as a cultivator.

Yield Yield refers to crop output divided by crop area. Thus, over all irrigated yield refers to aggregate crop output from irrigated areas divided by gross irrigated area. This will transform to land productivity under irrigated area if we replace gross by net irrigated area.

Sluices Sluices means little doors.

Ayacut Ayacut refers the Irrigation water.

Water Use Efficiency Water Use Efficiency is expressed by the economic yield. It is also expressed as better understanding of water requirements and better management of irrigation water.

Water Logging Water logging is a condition where soil is saturated and stagnant water level is present in the field for some period.

II) DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS Cropping Pattern Cropping pattern refers to the proportionate area under different crops during a fasli year.

Cropping Intensity Cropping intensity refers to the ratio between the Gross area sown and the Net area sown.

Cropping Intensity Index The cropping intensity index is the ratio of the gross cropped area to the net cultivated area in percentage.

Area, Production and Productivity Factors such as fertility of land, monsoon behaviour, rainfall, irrigation, application of fertilizers, climatic conditions, marketing facilities, prices, and availability of agricultural labourers determine the area and productivity of any crop.

Gross Area Sown The Gross area sown represents the total area cultivated under all food and nonfood crops including the area sown more than once during the fasli year,

Net Area Sown Net area sown represents the area sown under first crop during the fasli year.

Area Sown More than Once The area sown more than once represents the difference between the gross area sown under all crops and the net area sown during the fasli year.

Gross Area Irrigated Gross area irrigated includes the net area irrigated and the area irrigated more than once.

Irrigation Intensity The irrigation intensity refers to the ratio of gross area irrigated to net area irrigated or percentage of gross irrigated area to the net irrigated area. Gross irrigated Intensity in irrigated area = ×100 Net irrigated Gross unirrigated Intensity in unirrigated area = ×100 Net unirrigated Cropping intensity with gross Gross Cropped Area cropped area in percentage = ×100 Net Cultivated Area Cropping intensity with Seasonal Area seasonal area in percentage = ×100 Net Cultivated Area

Definition: Irrigation Water Use Efficiency Formula I

Y IE = i ×100 Yr

Yi – yield of irrigated plant [kg/ha]

Yr – yield of non irrigated plant [kg/ha]

Irrigated Water Use Efficiency IWUE [kg/mm]

Y - Y IWUE = i r I

IWUE [kg/ha]

Yi – yield of irrigated plant [kg/ha]

Yr – yield of non irrigated plant [kg/ha]

I – irrigation amount [mm]

Formula II Irrigation Efficiency Volume of water beneficially used IE = Volume of water delivered to field

IRRIGATED RATIO (IR) Net Irrigated Area IR = Net Sown Area

Inefficiency The technique of linear programming is used to quantify the ‘inefficiency’. A planning (programming) model is used to determine the potential impact of the new technology on Indian agriculture and any shortfall of the actual output from programme results is termed ‘inefficiency’. This is not necessarily inefficiency of the farmers; but that of the entire agricultural system.

Classification of Farm Household As small, medium and large is based on the concept of an operational land holding. It implies the total area owned by that household plus the cultivation of leased- in area and minus the leased-out area. It consists of irrigated area, dry area and current fallow. 0 – 2.47 acres of land - marginal households 2.47 – 4.94 acres of land - small households 4.94 – 24.7 acres of land - medium households 24.7 acres and above of land - large households

Cost of Cultivation Direct Cost - Production of individual crops, includes expenditure on seeds, fertilizers, manures, pesticides, hired labour and rent in kind, [expenditure on irrigation in terms of water charges, betterment levy, maintanance charges are fixed by the government in the villages which are covered by canal irrigation-overhead costs.

Arable Land Arable land refers that land under temporary crops (double cropped areas are counted once only), temporary mudows for mowing or pasture, land under market or kitchen gardens and temporarily fallows (less than 5 years)

Land and Permanent Crops Land under permanent crops means that land cultivated with crops that occupy the land for long periods and need not be replanted after each harvest, such as cocoa, coffee and rubber; this category includes land under flowering shrubs, fruits trees, nut trees and vines but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber.

Cropping Pattern Cropping pattern of an area means farmer’s cropping choices in favour of one or preference for one over other competing crops. These choices are directly governed by family requirements of grain, requirement of fodder for livestock, irrigation facility, soil type, marketing facility and economic returns from growing the crop.

Harvested area Cropping Intensity = ×100 Arable or actual area

Rotational Water Supply Rotational Water Supply or Warabandi is a system of equitable water distribution by turns, according to a predetermined schedule specifying the day, time and duration of water supply to each farmer in proportion to his holding size in an outlet command. The Rotational Water Supply schedule is prepared after executing the On Farm Development works by Agricultural Engineering Department and handed over to the farmers for implementation.

Chapter ––– IIIIIIIII

Profile of the Study Area 99

CHAPTER - III

PROFILE OF STUDY AREA

Introduction

Tiruchirappalli district is an important region in the state and had been a Centre of activities for many historical events from the days of the early Cholas. Rock Fort, Thayumana Swamy, Pillaiyar Temple, Teppakulam, the Nawab’s palace, the Nadir Shah Mosque, Sri Rangam Temple, Thiruvanai Koil, Subramanyaswami Temple, Upper Anicut and Grand Anicut are some of the important monuments and temples reflecting the history, culture and traditions of the district.

Geographical Location

Tiruchirappalli district is located at the Central part of Tamil Nadu surrounded by Perambalur district in the north, Pudukkotai district in the south, Karur and Dindigul districts in the West and Thanjavur district in the East. It lies between 10°10’ and 11°20’ of the Northern latitudes and 78°10’ and 79°0' of Eastern longitudes in the centre part of the Tamil Nadu. The general slope of the district is towards east. It has a number of detached hills, among which Pachamalai Hill is an important one, which has a peak up to 1015m, located at Sengattupatti Rain Forest. Tiruchirappalli district is one of the important districts in Tamil Nadu and had a population of 2418366 as per 2001 census and 2713858 as per 2011 census. According to the composition of urban and rural population, Tiruchirappalli district ranked 10 th among the other districts in Tamil Nadu. Tiruchirappalli district comprises of eight taluks viz., Thuraiyur, Lalgudi, Musri, Tiruchirappalli, Thottiyam Mannachanallur, Srirengam and Manapparai, which included 14 blocks, 408 Village Panchayats and 1590 Villages. This district consists of four municipalities viz., Ponmalai, Srirangam, Thuraiyur and Manapparai. Tiruchirappalli is the only Municipal Corporation which is also the Head Quarters of the District. Agriculture sector provides the major source of income to the population of the district and the major crops in this district are paddy, cholam, cotton, groundnut, maize etc. In 100

addition, the other allied sectors like dairy, sheep / goat, sericulture and inland fishing are the major sectors contributing to the district economy as well as act as a major source of providing livelihood for improving the income and standard of living of the people.

Meteorological Information The variation of temperature throughout the year exhibits hot and dry climate with high temperature and low degree of humidity. The region experiences four main seasons: Cool Months - December to February Hot Months - March to May Windy Months - June to August and Rainy Months - September to November Generally, the region has a long spell of hot climate with a short spell of rainy season and winter.

Temperature Temperature is low during the month of January with average mean daily temperature of 28°C. The maximum daily temperature recorded during the hot season in the month of May was 42°C.

Rainfall The district receives seasonal rainfall from September to December. The average annual rainfall was 841.9 mm, of which major quantity of rain was received during the North East Monsoon period i.e. from October to December. South West monsoon generally sets in at the beginning of June and blows with great force till the end of August. 1

1 15.10.2010. 101

Demographic Table – 3.1 Census of India 2011 Tamil Nadu Provisional Population Data Sheet

Population Percentage Density 0-6 population decadal India/State/ variation of 2001 2011 population 2001 2011 District 2001 2011 Change Total Total Male Female 2001 2011 Total Total Male Female

INDIA 1028610328 1210193422 623724248 586469174 21.5 17.6 325 382 57 163819614 158789287 82952135 75837152

TAMILNADU 62405679 72138958 36158871 35980087 11.7 15.6 480 555 75 7235160 6894821 3542351 3352470

Tiruchirappalli 2418366 2713858 1347863 1365995 10.1 12.2 536 602 66 270043 253633 129947 123686

Ariyalur 695524 752481 373319 379162 9..3 8..2 358 387 29 89099 76775 40579 36196

Source: Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu

102

The population of Tiruchirappalli district which was 10,72,756 in 1951, increased to 24,18,366 persons in 2001. The average decadal growth rate of population was 21.0 per cent between 1951 and 1991. Among the taluks, the maximum population was concentrated in the Tiruchirappalli taluk, which accounted for 45 per cent to the total population of the district. The trend in death rate and infant mortality rate in the district was recorded as 12.09 and 48.30 per thousand persons in 1951 and this rate had declined to 5.71 and 23.18 per thousand persons respectively in 1991. The birth rate had decreased from 31.82 per thousand persons in 1951 to 17.21 per thousand persons in 1991, which showed improved medical facilities in the district. Literacy level in the district was 77.9 per cent as per 2001 census, which is less than that of State literacy level. Male literate constituted 55.35 per cent and female literate constituted 44.65 per cent to the total population. The census of India 2011, Tamil Nadu provisional population data sheet shows Tamil Nadu’s population is 72138958. According to 2011 Census Tiruchirappalli district has a population of 2713858 comprising 1347863 males and 1365995 females. The total population of Ariyalur District is 752481 of which 373319 are males 379162 are females. 103

Table – 3.2 Census of India 2011 Tamil Nadu Provisional Population Data Sheet

Literates Literacy rate Gender India/State/ Sex ratio Child sex ratio gap in 2001 2011 2001 2011 Literacy District 2001 2011 Change 2001 2011 Change Total Total Male Female Total Total Male Female 2011

INDIA 933 940 7 927 914 -13 560687797 778454120 444203762 334250358 64.8 74.0 82.1 65.5 16.7

TAMILNADU 987 995 8 942 946 4 40524545 52413116 28314595 24098521 73.5 80.3 86.8 73.9 13.0

Tiruchirappalli 1001 1013 12 955 952 -3 1673478 2055742 1096125 959617 77.9 83.6 90.0 77.2 12.8

Ariyalur 1006 1016 10 949 892 -57 388605 486446 273058 213388 64.1 72.0 82.1 62.2 19.8

Source: Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu

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The census of India 2011 Tamil Nadu provision population data sheet indicates that overall sex ratio is 1013 males for 1000 females in Tiruchirappalli and 1016 males for every 1000 females in Ariyalur District. But child sex ratio shows that both Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur have adverse sex ratio. The literacy rate of Tiruchirappalli district is 83.6 per cent compared to 72.0 per cent of Ariyalur. The following table 3.3 gives the list of revenue villages of the entire Lalgudi taluk of Tiruchirappalli District. 105

Table – 3.3 Lalgudi Taluk – Revenue Villages Name Revenue Villages Number of Revenue Villages 92 Aadhikudi Aalambadi Aalambakkam Aalangudi Mahajanam Aangarai Appathurai (23) Ariyoor Chathamangalam Chembarai Edaiyatrumangalam El.abhisekapuram Esanakorai Garudamangalam North Garudamangalam South Idangimangalam Jangamarajapuram Kallagam Kallakkudi Kanakilliyanallur Kannaakudi Keeramangalam Komaagudi Koohur Kovandakkurichi Kumuloor Ma.Kannanoor Maadakkudi Maalvaai Magizhambaadi Manakkal (west) Manakkal (East) Mangammalpuram Maruthur Melarasur Mettupatti Mummudicholamangalam Muthuvathur Nagar Nambukkurichi Nanjai Sangenthi Nathamaangudi Neikulam Neikuppai (north) Neikuppai (south) Nerunchalakkudi Oottathur Orathur Pambaramchuthi Periyakurukkai Peruvalanallur (east) Peruvalanallur (west) Peruvalappur Poovalur (east) Poovalur (west) Pudukkudi Pullambadi (north) Pullambadi (south) Punjai Sangenthi Puthur Uthamanoor Puthurpalayam Re. Valavanoor Reddimaangudi Saathurbaagam Saradamangalam Seshasamuthiram Sevanthinathapuram Sirukalapur Sirumaruthur Sirumayangudi (east) Sirumayangudi (west) Siruthaiyur Tha.Kalligudi Tha.valavanoor Thalakkudi Thappaai Thatchankuruchi Theeranipalayam Thinniyam Thirumanamedu (east) Thirumanamedu(west) Thirumangalam Valaadi Vanthalaikoodalur Varaguppai Ve.thuraiyur Vellanoor Vengadajalapuram (north) Vengadajalapuram(south) Viragaloor Source: www.tn.gov.in 106

Resources: Land Resources: Land Utilisation The total geographical area of Tiruchirappalli district is 4,40,383 hectares, of which net sown area occupied 1,78,076 hectares and this accounted for 40 per cent of the total area in the district. Area under not available for cultivation accounted for 21 per cent of the total land in the district, i.e. 93,492 hectares. Nearly 26 per cent of the area were classified under fallow lands and 6 per cent of the lands was under forest coverage. The remaining lands were classified under groves and orchards category.

Agriculture and Horticulture Basically, Tiruchirappalli district is agriculturally rich due to the availability of fertile lands and presence of perennial rivers. Cauvery with numerous tributaries forms the basis of sustained paddy cultivation on an extensive scale throughout the year.

Major Crops and Varieties in the District i) Crops Paddy, Banana, Millets and other cereals are the principal crops in Tiruchirappalli district.

Important Food Crops Paddy, Banana, Cholam, Cumbu, Red gram, Green gram, Black gram, Horse gram, Turmeric, Sugarcane, Mango, Tapioca, Groundnut & Gingelly Important Non-food Crops Cotton, Castor and Fodder Crops

Soil In Tiruchirappalli district, majority of the area is under Red Sandy soil and this soil type covers 18 per cent of the total area in the district. Black soil is distributed along the rivers of Cauvery and Ayacuts near big tanks, this soil type cover 14 per cent of the total area in the district. The other soil types like Clay, Red Ferruginous, etc., are occupying the remaining extent of land cover the district. Out of the total area nearly 93678 hectare of lands are identified as soil problem area with Salinity and Alkalinity, which is 29per cent to total area of the district. More over, nearly 1,31,785 hect of lands are identified to be prone to soil erosion in the district. The district has been provided with 463 percolation ponds in order to safeguard the agricultural practices in the region. Soil conservation practices have been undertaken in about 13934 hectares. 107

Water Resource

The Cauvery river is the most important river in the district and the tributaries of Cauvery, i.e. Coleroon river, Koraiyar river, Ariyar, Malattar channel, Uyyakondan channel, and Pullambadi canal also drain in this district. i) The Cauvery and Coleroon River

Cauvery is one of the major rivers in South India and Tamil Nadu, which flows towards east. The Cauvery Basin extends over an area of 81155 Sq.km, which spread across the States of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Tiruchirappalli district, the river splits into two branches, the northern branch being called the Coleroon (Kolidam) and the southern branch is called river Cauvery. The total length of the river in this district is about 125 Kms, and the area of river basin extends about 17,200 hectares of land. Ponnaniar, Uppamodai and Siddhayalli reservoir are mainly used for irrigation purpose. ii) Koraiyar River

Koraiyar River rises from Karuppur Reddiyarpatti hill R.F at an elevation of about 500m. The river carries water from catchment areas of Puttanattam, Viralimalai, Malaikudippatti, Tennalur, Illupur, Kalluppatti, Arur, Kulakkattai gudi, Keeranur and Thuvarankurichi. The catchment area of river is 632 sq.km and the length is 75 km. The entire catchment of the river is covered by a large number of tanks. iii) Ariyar River Ariyar River rises in Manapparai area from Pallivelli Mukku at an elevation of about 700m. The river carries water from Kadavur and Semmalai reserved forests, Vairampattai, Kulattur and Manapparai areas. The catchment area of the river is about 832 Sq.km. iv) Upper Anicut A dam known as upper Anicut was constructed in 1836 at a place where the Cauvery branches off into two at the west end of Srirangam, to regulate the flow of water in the Cauvery and Coleroon rivers. In its original form, the upper Anicut 108

consisted of a simple masonary dam of 230 meters in length divided into three parts. Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery further splits into two, one being called the Cauvery and the other, the Vennar River. These channels are utilised as the main canals for irrigation. v) Grand Anicut Karikala Cholan, an early Chola King, constructed the grand Anicut. It is situated on the northern bank of Cauvery about 16 km east of Tiruchirappalli town and mainly used for irrigation purpose. With regard to water spread area, 75 system tanks and 99 seasonal / rainfed tanks were found to exist and then covered 5751.14 ha. and 9164.16 ha. respectively in the district. In Tiruchirappalli District 1,86,778 ha. (42.41 per cent to the total geographical area) of land are under irrigated area. The major source of irrigation is through wells and Canals (below Table 3.4). Table – 3.4 Details of Sources of Irrigation in Tiruchirappalli District Area Irrigated No. Details Length / No (in hectares) Net Gross 1 Major rivers-Canals (Delta) 440/98 51012 60940 2 Small rivers-Canals 54/37 3025 3883 3 Lakes & Tanks 1767 20422 21144 4 Open wells 63177 45013 51668 5 Tube-wells 2329 4294 4891 6 Bore-wells 45 102 117 7 Filter points 605 511 746 Subsidiary Irrigation Sources 1 Tube-wells 132 613 863 2 Filter points 1144 1362 1570 3 Open wells 5440 1886 3184 Source: Centre for Agriculture and Rural Development Studies (2008), Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Comibatore.

The presence of canal irrigation is found in all blocks of Tiruchirappalli with the exception of Thuraiyur, Marungapuri, and Thathaiyangarenpet blocks. 109

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ARIYALUR DISTRICT PROFILE

Introduction

Ariyalur District is centrally located in Tamil Nadu and is 265 K.M. away in southern direction from Chennai. The Ariyalur district was carved out of Perambalur district on January 1, 2001. But, it was merged subsequently on March 31, 2002 on economic grounds. Ariyalur district came into existence by bifurcating Perambalur and reborned as per G.O.Ms.No.683 Revenue RA1(1) Department dated 19.11.07. As 31 st district of the Tamil Nadu State. Vaithiyanatha Swamy Temple at Thirumazhapadi, kaliyuga Varadaraja Perumal Kovil at Kallankurichi and Siva Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram are the important holy places for the Hindus, Elakurichi 32 Kms from Ariyalur is famous for its ancient church built by the famous Catholic Missionary Constantino Joseph Besky an Italian Jesuit who become a renowned Tamil scholar of his time popularly known as VEERAMA MUNIVAR on the year 1711. The Gandaikonda Cholapuram Siva Temple built by Rajendra Chola son of Raja Raja Chola is almost a miniature of Thanjavur Pragadeeswar Temple and a famous fosil tree is present in this district are some of the important monuments and temples reflecting the history, culture and traditions of the district.

Geographical Location

The district is bordered by the districts of Cuddalore in the north, Perambalur and Tiruchirapalli in the west, Thanjavur and Tiruvarur in the south and Nagapattinam in the east. Ariyalur district will comprise three taluks - Ariyalur, Udayarpalayam and Sendurai, Three Assembly segments - Ariyalur, Andimadam and Jayankondam, Six Blocks - 1. Ariyalur 2. Andimadam 3. Sendurai 4. Thirumanur 5. T. Palur and 6. Jayankondam, 195 Revenue villages, 2 municipalities and 201 Village Panchayats.The District has an area of 1949 Sq.Km. It is an inland district without coastal line. The District has Vellar River, Kollidam River and Maruthiaru River.

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Demographic Details As per 2001 census, the population of Ariyalur is 695524, with male 346763 and female 348761. The following tables give the demographic details of Ariyalur District. Table – 3.5 Ariyalur District

Parameter Total Male Female Percentage Sex Ratio Population 695524 346763 348761 100 1006

Population (0-6) 89099 45726 43373 14.69 949

Scheduled Castes 151220 75326 75894 24.94 1008

Scheduled Tribes 8529 4228 4301 1.41 1017 Literates 388605 232385 156220 64.08 672

Illiterates 306919 114378 192541 35.92 1683

Workers 345891 201196 144695 49.73 719

Main Workers 251606 167679 83927 36.18 501

Main Cultivators 97135 69827 27308 38.61 391

Main Agricultural labourers 88517 48591 39926 35.18 549

Main Workers in household 16104 9590 6514 6.4 679 industries

Main Other Workers 49850 39671 10179 19.81 40075

Marginal Workers 94285 33517 60768 13.56 8

Marginal Cultivators 14201 5893 8308 15.06 1410

Marginal Agricultural 70506 23263 47243 74.78 2031 labourers

Marginal Workers in 3654 805 2849 3.88 3539 Household industries

Marginal Other Workers 5924 3556 2368 6.28 666

Non Workers 349633 145567 204066 50.27 1402

Households 165569

Source: Census 2001.tn.nic.in/pca2… 112

For administrative convenience, Ariyalur block has been divided 6 blocks. The blocks are Andimadam, Jeyankondam, T. Palur, Ariyalur, Sendurai and Thirumanur. The following table shows the block wise distribution of Ariyalur District. Table – 3.6 Number of Blocks Number of Blocks 6 Number of 201 Panchayat Villages Panchayat Panchayat Block Block Villages Villages Andimadam 30 Ariyalur 37 Jayankondam 35 Sendurai 30 T.Palur 33 Thirumanur 36 Source: www.tn.gov.in The above table 3.6 reveals that there are 6 blocks in the district. In the 6 blocks there are 201 Panchayat villages. Ariyalur block has the maximum number of panchayat villages (37), Andimadam and Sendurai have minimum number of panchayat villages (30 each). From the table 3.7it is inferred that there are 3 taluks in the Ariyalur District. In the 3 taluks there are 195 revenue villages. Table – 3.7 Number of Taluks Number of Taluks 3 Number of Revenue Villages 195 Taluk Revenue Villages Ariyalur 68 Sendurai 28 Udayarpalayam 99 Source: www.tn.gov.in The table 3.7 shows that Ariyalur, Sendurai and Udayarpalayam are the three taluks in the district. The biggest taluk of the district is Udayarpalayam with 99 revenue villages, followed by Ariyalur taluk with 68 revenue villages. The smallest taluk is Sendurai with 28 revenue villages. 113

The list of revenue villages of the entire Ariyalur taluk is given in the following table. Table – 3.8 Ariyalur Taluk – Revenue Villages Name Revenue Villages Number of Revenue 68 Villages Alagiyamanavalam Alanthuraiyarkattali Ameenabath Andipattakadu Annimangalam Ariyalur Ariyalur(s) Arunkal Ayan Athur Ayansuthamalli Chennivanam Chinnapattakadu Elakurichi Elanthakudam Govindapuram Idayathankudi Iluppaiyur Kadaugur Kairlabath Kallankurichi Kamarasavalli Kandirathertham Karaiyavetti Karupilakattalai Karupur-senapatti Kavanoor Keelakavattankurichi Keelakolathur Keelapalur Kelaiyur Koil Esanai (east) Koil Esanai (west) Kovilur Kulamanickam (east) Kulamanickam (west) Kuruvadi Mallur Manjamedu Melapalur Nagamangalam Oriyur Ottakoil Palinganatham Parpanacherri Periyanagalur Periyathirukonam Poondi Pottaveli Pudupalayam Pungankuzi Rayampuram Rettipalayam Sannavur Sannavur(s) Sathamnagalam Siruvalur Sullankudi Thelur Thirumalapadi Thirumanur Thuthur Vadugapalayam Valaja Nagaram Varanavasi Venganoor Vetriyur Vilankudi Vilupanakurichi Source: www.tn.gov.in

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Temperature The maximum temperature during summer is between 33°C - 40°C.

Rainfall The town gets major rainfall during the North West monsoon period. The annual normal rainfall is about 700 mm to 800 mm. Annual actual rainfall is 983.9 mm.

Agriculture Sugar cane is grown as a major commercial crop. One private sugar factory Kothari Sugars And Chemicals Ltd., Sathamangalam near keelapalur is functioning in the district with a capacity of crushing 3000 Tonnes per day. One of the main crops in Ariyalur district is cashew. The pre-dominate soil in the district is red sanding with scattered packers of black soil. The soil in the district is best suited for raising dry crops. The district has a high means of temperature and low degree of humidity. 2

2 google.co.in/ariyalur/xml 115

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AREA OF THE STUDY

Irrigation potential of Pullambadi Canal Pullambadi canal irrigates 8831 acres and its indirect potential is 13283 acres through tanks and has the total irrigation capacity of 22114 acres. The Pullambadi canal is one of the major tributaries of river Cauvery. The river Cauvery travels 320 Km in Karnataka and 480 Km in Tamil Nadu. Its basin falls in four states: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karaikal region of Pondicherry. In Cauvery basin, main reservoirs on the main Cauvery river are Krishnaraja Sagar (45 TMC) in Karnataka state and Staneley reservoir / Mettur dam (93TMC) in Tamil Nadu. On the tributaries, there are nine reservoirs / dams / anicuts in Karnataka and 15 reservoirs in Tamil Nadu. In the entire Cauvery river system at the offtake point of branches, control system is provided through regulators to improve management efficiency, Regulators across the main rivers are also provided to maintain the adequate water level for the head sluices to allow the required quantity in the channels as well as for draining the excess water in the delta. The channels which are taking off from the main rivers are called A-class channels and those branching off from A-class channels are called B-class channels and from B-class channels are called C-class channels. There are 1505 A-class channels, running totalling to about 5600 km but their branches and sub-branches numbering to 28376 are running more than 1800 km in the delta area. There are 22 well defined major drains totally to a length of 30 km in this delta. The river Cauvery bifurcates at Upper Anicut in Tiruchirappalli district in to two large arms. Of which the Northern one takes the name of Coleroon while the Southern one retains that of Cauvery. The main river above the bifurcation is known as Aganda (wide) Cauvery. At Upper Anaicut, on the left Kollidam is joining the offtakes which is mainly a drainage carrier on the Kollidam side viz., Pullambadi canal, Peruvali Voikal, Ayyan Voikal and from which after a certain distant deviating called Anguni Voikal are off taking on Kollidam side. On Cauveri side the canals Puduvathalai and Rama Vathalai are off taking. 117

The Coleroon is really the main drainage branch of the river and carries the bulk of the flood waters to the sea. It flows in an easterly direction along the northern boundary of the Thanjavur district and enters the sea at Devakottai. Irrigation supply was allowed opening the Mettur dam on 12 th June and closed on 31 st January. The release of water for irrigation in the Pullampadi canal is based on the directive of the government. The water would normally be released from this canal only if the storage at the Mettur dam was 94 feet. The table given below shows the complete details of the Pullambadi Canal Ayacut System. The table given below shows the complete details of the Pullambadi canal ayacut system. 118

Table – 3.9 Pullambadi Canal Ayacut Statement Ayacut S. Name of Total Name of Name of Mile In Name of Village No. Sluice Direct Ayacut Union Taluk Direct 1 26/0 Dy.No:1 1854 - 1854 Pullambadi, Mullal Pullambadi Lalgudi 2 27/3 Direct No:1 68.99 39.11 108 Pullambadi Pullambadi Lalgudi 3 28/0 Dy.No:2 1984 39 2023 Pullambadi, Mangudi Pullambadi Lalgudi 4 28/7 Direct No:2 109 - 109 Pullambadi, Venkatachalam Pullambadi Lalgudi 5 29/5 Dy.No:3 436 - 436 Kovandakurichi Pullambadi Lalgudi 6 30/0 Direct No:3 82 - 82 Kovandakurichi Pullambadi Lalgudi 7 30/5 Direct No:4 36 31 67 Kovandakurichi,Alambakam Pullambadi Lalgudi 8 31/3 Dy.No:4 882 - 882 Alambakkam Pullambadi Lalgudi 9 31/7 Dy.No:5 662 30 692 Alambakkam Pullambadi Lalgudi 10 32/2 Direct No:5 165 - 165 Vandrapalayam Pullambadi Lalgudi 11 32/5 Manodai Tank - 1718 1718 Palinganatham, Vandrapalayam Thirumanur Ariyalur Sluice No.2 12 33/4 Sluice No.1 - 602 602 Palinganatham, Vandrapalayam Thirumanur Ariyalur 13 33/6 Direct No:6 110 - 110 Palinganatham, Vandrapalayam Thirumanur Ariyalur 14 34/6 Dy.No:6 164 95 259 Vilagam Thirumanur Ariyalur 15 35/2 Dy.No:7 432 148 580 Vilagam, Kovilesanai Thirumanur Ariyalur 16 36/0 Dy.No:8 438 - 438 Venganur, Kovilesanai Thirumanur Ariyalur 17 36/5 Dy.No:9 197 - 197 Venganur Thirumanur Ariyalur 18 37/5 T.S.No:2 - 1823 1823 Venganur, Kovilesanai Thirumanur Ariyalur 19 38/6 T.S.No:1 - 72 72 Venganur, Kovilesanai Thirumanur Ariyalur 20 39/3 Dy.No:11 110 - 110 Venganur Thirumanur Ariyalur 21 40/5 T.S.No:3 - 366 366 Venganur, Karaivettiparathur Thirumanur Ariyalur 22 41/5 T.S.No:2 - 613 613 Karaivettiparathur, Palayapadi Thirumanur Ariyalur 23 42/2 T.S.No:1 - 1609 1609 Kavattankurichi, Senapati, Thirumanur Ariyalur Kunthapuram 24 44/7 Dy.No:16 110 4483 108 - 108 Kallur Thirumanur Ariyalur 25 45/1 Dy.No:16 322 240 512 Kallur, Keelakolathur Thirumanur Ariyalur 26 45/7 Dy.No:17 174 419 513 Ariyalur 46/7 Dy.No:18 175 336 511 Keelakolathur, Vadugapalayam Thirumanur 27 47/1 Tank Sluice 5 - 5 Vadugapalayam, Vilupanankurichi Thirumanur Ariyalur 28 47/6 Dy.No:19 664 50 714 Vadugapalayam, Sullangudi Thirumanur Ariyalur 29 48/1 Dy.No:21 278 115 393 Elakurichi, Kattur Thirumanur Ariyalur 30 48/5 Tank Sluice 204 106 310 Elakurichi, Kattur, Sullangudi Thirumanur Ariyalur 31 49/4 Head Sluice 139 - 139 Naryanur, Vanarapalayam Thirumanur Ariyalur 32 50/3 Dy.No:22 200 304 504 Elakurichi Thirumanur Ariyalur 33 50/6 Dy.No:23 242 18 250 Settukudi Thirumanur Ariyalur 34 53/0 Arasaneri - 120 120 Settukudi Thirumanur Ariyalur 35 53/4 Thuthur - 116 116 Thuthur Thirumanur Ariyalur 36 54/0 T.S.No:3 - 902 902 Kamarasavalli, Mathur Thirumanur Ariyalur 37 54/3 T.S.No:2 - 198 198 Kamarasavalli Thirumanur Ariyalur 38 50/0 T.S.No:1 - 1731 1731 Narannur, Oriyur, Komanthur Ariyalur Ariyalur 39 55/3 High Level - - 40 Narannur, Siluppanur, Attanur Ariyalur Ariyalur Total 10273 11841 22114 Total Direct Indirect Lalgudi T.K. 6418 6318 100 Ariyalur T.K. 5696 3955 11741 Total 22114 10273 11841 Source: P.W.D. R.C. Division, Tiruchirappalli 119

The table 3.9 reveals the complete details about the Pullambadi Canal Ayacut system. It reveals name of the sluices, extent of irrigation, villages covered under the Pullambadi canal irrigation and the length of the various sluices branching out from major Pullambadi canal. The following table furnishes informations about tanks which are the reservoirs of pullambadi canal water. Table – 3.10 Storage position of tanks as on 28.10.2007 Ayacut S. Name of Storage Name of Village Name of Tank in No. Taluk position acres 1 Ariyalur Palinganatham Monodai Tank 2710.65 Full 2 Ariyalur Vilagam Sivasubramaniya Udaiyar Eri 55.88 Full 3 Ariyalur Vilagam Vingirayar Eri 39.11 Full 4 Ariyalur Venganur Andiodai Tank 1894.68 Full 5 Ariyalur Karivetty Vettakudi Tank 3319.00 Full 6 Ariyalur Kallur Kallur Tank 130.35 80% 7 Ariyalur Kallur Two Kallur Tank 68.15 80% 8 Ariyalur Kallur Three Kallur Tank 171.94 80% 9 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Mottaiah Pillai Tank 415.73 80% 10 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Chetti Eri 24.60 80% 11 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Adidravidan Eri 156.16 80% 12 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam Appavoo Moopanar Eri 155.22 80% 13 Ariyalur Keelakukathur Elaya Perumal Eri 4.76 80% 14 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam Lakshmana Moopanar Eri 24.23 80% 15 Ariyalur Vadugapallayam Ramupillai Eri 25.88 80% 16 Ariyalur Sullangudi Ezheri 105.07 80% 17 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam Pudu Eri 80.80 80% 18 Ariyalur Sullangudi Thiruvengadapadayachi Eri 212.24 80% 19 Ariyalur Sullangudi Kuppan Iyyangar Eri 139.44 80% 20 Ariyalur Kattur Kattur Eri 139.44 80% 21 Ariyalur Elakurichi Vannan Eri 303.98 80% 22 Ariyalur Elakurichi Nedungulam Tank 17.68 80% 23 Ariyalur Kamarasavalli Sukkiran Eri 5914.62 80% 24 Ariyalur Kamarasavalli Arasan Eri 532.82 80% 25 Ariyalur Thoothur Thoothur Tank 416.36 80% 26 Ariyalur Kandiathirtham Kandiathirtham Tank 1853.20 80% Source: P.W.D,R.C.Division, Tiruchirappalli.

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The table 3.10 clearly shows that there are 26 tanks in Ariyalur district. The storage capacities of the tanks vary from 80-100 per cent. The most important tank in the study area is Sukkiran Eri which has a large ayacut area of 5914.62 acres. The next biggest tank is Vettakudi tank which has an ayacut area of 3319.00 acres. Monodai tank is another important reservoir of water which has the total ayacut area of 2710.65 acres. The Pullambadi canal is a seasonal canal and not a perennial canal. The tanks are acting as buffer for the farmers during the water distress times. The following table 3.11 shows the hydraulic particulars of tanks under Pullambadi canal. 121

Table – 3.11 Hydraulic Particulars of Tanks under Pullambadi Canal System from Mile 32/2 to 52/2

Capacity Surplus S. Name of Ayacut in No. of Assembly Name of Village Name of Tank in M.C. arrangements Union Channel No. Taluk acres Sluices constituency ft. No.

1 Ariyalur Palinganatham Monodai Tank 2710.65 116.00 2 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

Sivasubramaniya 2 Ariyalur Vilagam 55.88 2.910 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi Udaiyar Eri

3 Ariyalur Vilagam Vingirayar Eri 39.11 1.970 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi 3(a) Ariyalur Elandakudam Sambuvarayar 122.00

4 Ariyalur Venganur Andiodai Tank 1956.45 1894.68 98.730 2 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

5 Ariyalur Karivetty Vettakudi Tank 3319.00 145.10 3 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

6 Ariyalur Kallur Kallur Tank 130.35 5.080 2 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

7 Ariyalur Kallur Two Kallur Tank 68.15 2.005 2 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

8 Ariyalur Kallur Three Kallur Tank 171.94 4.080 2 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

9 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Mottaiah Pillai Tank 415.73 14.090 3 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

10 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Chetti Eri 24.60 0.896 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

11 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Adidravidan Eri 156.16 5.040 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

12 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam Appavoo Moopanar Eri 155.22 5.296 3 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

13 Ariyalur Keelakukathur Elaya Perumal Eri 4.76 - 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

(Contd...) 122

Capacity Surplus S. Name of Ayacut in No. of Assembly Name of Village Name of Tank in M.C. arrangements Union Channel No. Taluk acres Sluices constituency ft. No.

Lakshmana Moopanar 14 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam 24.23 1.660 2 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi Eri

15 Ariyalur Vadugapallayam Ramupillai Eri 25.88 0.420 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

16 Ariyalur Sullangudi Ezheri 105.07 2.250 3 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

17 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam Pudu Eri 80.80 - - 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

Thiruvengadapadayachi 18 Ariyalur Sullangudi 212.24 7.115 3 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi Eri

19 Ariyalur Sullangudi Kuppan Iyyangar Eri 139.44 3.000 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

20 Ariyalur Kattur Kattur Eri 139.44 3.000 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

21 Ariyalur Elakurichi Vannan Eri 303.98 0.420 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

22 Ariyalur Elakurichi Nedungulam Tank 17.68 0.420 1 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

23 Ariyalur Kamarasavalli Sukkiran Eri 5914.62 228.54 6 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

24 Ariyalur Kamarasavalli Arasan Eri 532.82 12.160 3 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

25 Ariyalur Thoothur Thoothur Tank 416.36 34.640 4 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Pullambadi

26 Ariyalur Kandiathirtham Kandiathirtham Tank 1853.20 66 8 1 Tirumanur Ariyalur Nandiar Source: Junior Engineer,P.W.D. Pullambadi Canal Section, Thirumanur. 123

The table 3.11 shows the hydraulic particulars of tanks coming under the purview of Pullambadi canal. The table contains particulars about Name of the tank, Location of the tank, Village, Union and taluk and assembly constituency particulars, total ayacut area in acres, storage capacity in Mcft, number of sluices, the surplus arrangements and major channels of the various tanks. The following table furnishes information about the encroachments. The extent of encroachment and their removal and the cost incurred for the removal are given in the following table.

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Table – 3.12 List of Encroachment Tanks in Ariyalur District Approximate Encroachm S. Name of Ayacut in Already To be amount for Name of Village Name of Tank ent area in Taluk acres Evicted No. acres Evicted eviction Rs. in Lakhs 1 Ariyalur Elanthakudam Shambuvarayar Kulam 148.45 37.41 - 37.41 12.90 2 Ariyalur Kallur Kallur Tank 130.35 5.00 5.00 - - 3 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Mottaiah Pillai Tank 415.73 3.00 3.00 - - 4 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Adidravidan Eri 156.16 10.00 10.00 - - 5 Ariyalur Vadugappalayam Appavoo Moopanar Eri 155.22 2.00 2.00 - - 6 Ariyalur Keelakulathur Elaya Perumal Eri 4.76 1.00 - 1.00 1.00 7 Ariyalur Sullangudi Ezheri 105.07 2.00 2.00 - - 8 Ariyalur Kattur Kallur Eri 139.44 2.00 - 2.00 2.00 9 Ariyalur Kamarasavalli Sukkiran Eri 5914.62 10.00 - 10.00 10.00 10 Ariyalur Kamarasavalli Arasan Eri 532.82 7.00 - 7.00 7.00 11 Ariyalur Kandiathirtham Kandiathirtham 1853.20 4.00 4.00 - - 83.41 26.00 57.41 32.90 Source: Executive Engineer, PWD, R.C.Division, Tiruchirappalli. 125

The table 3.12 reveals clearly that all the major tanks coming under the ambit of Pullambadi canal are affected by encroachments. The total encroachment area stood at 83.41 acres of which 26 acres are already evicted. The worst affected tank by encroachment is Shambuvarayar Kulam which has an encroachment of 37.41 acres and there is a efforts on the part of Public Works Department (PWD) to evict these encroachments. The Sukkiran Eri is also affected by encroachments to the level of 10 acres and here also there is eviction drive on the part of the PWD officials. The encroachments severely affect the storage and flow of water and ultimately undermine the efficiency of water use. 126

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Chapter ––– IVIVIV

Analysis and Interpretation of Data 129

CHAPTER - IV

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Analysis of data is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring that the research has all relevant information for making contemplated comparisons and to draw inferences. The collected data through primary method is classified, tabulated and analysed and interpreted. The data by itself can not reveal anything and only by processing and relating the data, the intricacies can be brought to light. In this chapter analysis of data is made to highlight the objectives and to test the hypotheses.

Taluk wise Classification of Respondents The study area comprises two taluks viz., Lalgudi and Ariyalur taluks. These are the two taluks which are irrigated by the Pullambadi canal. The following table shows the taluk wise classification of respondents in the study area.

Table - 4.1 Taluk wise Classification of Respondents

S. Taluk Name No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Lalgudi 100 33.3

2. Ariyalur 200 66.7

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.1 clearly shows the taluk wise distribution of the respondents. The study area encompasses to two taluks viz., Lalgudi and Ariyalur. The sample distribution of respondents shows that 66.7 per cent of the respondents are hailing from Ariyalur taluk and 33.3 per cent of the farm households are living in the Lalgudi taluk. The study area covers head, middle and tail-end regions of Pullambadi canal. They are all falling under either Lalgudi or Ariyalur blocks. 130

District wise Classification of Respondents The two districts covered under the study are Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur. The following table furnishes information related classification of respondents on the basis of above mentioned two districts.

Table - 4.2 District wise Classification of Respondents

S. District No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Tiruchirappalli 100 33.3

2. Ariyalur 200 66.7

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.2 shows the district wise distribution of respondents in the study area. In the study area covers two important districts Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur. The Pullambadi canal originates from Tiruchirappalli district and stretches to Ariyalur district catering to the water requirements of millions of farmers. The table shows that 66.7 per cent of the respondents are belonging to Ariyalur district and 33.3 per cent of the respondents are belonging to Tiruchirappalli district. This shows clearly that respondents of the head region are the farmers of Tiruchirappalli district and the farmers of middle and tail-end regions are primarily from Ariyalur district.

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Cultivation of Land on the basis of Sex The management and cultivation of land is solely done by the males in the study area. The following table shows that all the formers contacted by the researcher are males.

Table - 4.3 Cultivation of Land on the basis of Sex

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Male 300 100.0

2. Female 0 0

Source: Compiled from primary data

From the table 4.3 it is clear that farm operations are primarily carried out by men and women folk supports the farm activities of men. Even though ownership of land is with the males and females, cultivation work is carried out by only men.

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Age Composition of the Respondents The following table furnishes the particulars about age composition of the respondents in the study area. India is a very young country with 60 percentage of people are in the age category of 20-40 years. The study area also depicts more or less same pattern of young population having a higher proportion to the total population.

Table - 4.4 Age Composition of the Respondents

S. Age wise distribution (Yrs) No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. 15-29 21 7.0

2. 30-44 93 31.0

3. 45-59 125 41.7

4. 60-74 57 19.0

5. 75 & above 4 1.3

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.4 shows that old age people are not engaged in the farm work. The working age group comprising 15-29 years, 30-44 years and 45-59 years constitute 79.7 per cent of the respondents. The empirical evidence shows clearly that young and energetic people who are physically sound are engaged in farm work. The farming involves rigorous and energy sapping works. This is the primary cause for the high proportion of young people to be engaged in agriculture. 133

Education Tamilnadu is one of the most literate states of India with overall literacy of 67.5 percentage (2011 Census). The same trend of higher literacy is found in the study area. Table - 4.5 Education

S. Education No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Illiterate 44 14.7

2. 1-5 Standards 70 23.3

3. 6-10 Standards 139 46.3

4. +2 22 7.3

5. Collegiate 14 4.7

6. Professional 11 3.7

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.5 shows educational standard of the respondents in the study area. It reveals clearly a sizeable section of the farmers still not in a position to get quality primary education. The table explains 14.7 per cent of the respondent farmers are illiterates and 23.3 per cent of the farmers had received only less than 5 years of schooling. This shows clearly that 38.0 per cent of the respondents highly ill equipped in terms of education. This is a serious handicap with regard to farming operation like selection of crops, selection of farm inputs and their dosages, knowledge about price trends, usage of water and choosing the correct crop mix. A sizeable section of the farmers (46.3 per cent) had middle level education (6 years to 10 years), 7.3 per cent had higher secondary level education and higher education level of the farmers is only at 8.4 per cent. This shows that farmers of the study area are not having higher educational levels. There is a considerable amount of farmers who are still illiterates. 134

Community Social factors are playing crucial role in the economic development of India. Social stratification in the rural area is very obvious. The following table gives the community wise classification of respondents in the study area. Table - 4.6 Community

S. Community No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Forward Community 9 3.0

2. Backward Community 279 93.0

3. Most Backward Community 10 3.3

4. Scheduled Caste 2 0.7

5. Scheduled Tribes 0 0.0

6. Others 0 0.0

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.6 shows that 93.0 per cent of the farm households belong to backward community. This shows clearly that agriculture is primarily carried out by backward community people in the study area. Most backward community people (3.3 per cent) and Forward community respondents (3.0 per cent) are employed relatively in very small proportions in agriculture. Schedule caste people are forming a small proportion. They constitute a meager percentage of 0.7 per cent. Schedule tribes people are conspicuously absent in the study area.

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Religion Another significant social institution is religion. India is a secular nation and her constitution allows people to practice any religion of their faith. The following table gives religion wise classification of respondents. Table - 4.7 Religion

S. Religion No. of Respondents Percentage No

1. Hindu 241 80.3

2. Christian R.C. 59 19.7

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.7 gives religious wise distribution of respondents in the study area. Hindu being the primary religion in India is practiced by 80.3 per cent of the respondents. The other religion practiced in the study area is Christianity R.C. with 19.7 per cent. Tamil Nadu being a state with unique higher representation of Christianity is evident in the composition of respondents also. The another major religion Islam is not followed by any of the respondents in the study area. The inference is that a vast majority of the farmers in the study area owning and cultivating are Hindus.

136

Secondary Occupation Agriculture is the major source of livelihood in the rural area of India. The seasonal nature of agriculture allows the peasants to practice other occupations also. The following table gives the secondary occupations pursued by the respondents in the study area.

Table - 4.8 Secondary Occupation

No. of Secondary Occupations Percentage Respondents

1. Engaged in Secondary Occupations

a. Business 7 2.30

b. Private Companies 11 3.70

c. Government Sectors 5 1.70

d. Others 20 6.70

2. Not Engaged in Secondary Occupations 257 85.60

Total 300 100.00

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.8 reveals that 85.60 per cent of the respondents are not engaged in secondary occupations. The remaining 14.40 per cent of the respondents engaged in business (2.30 per cent), private companies (3.70 per cent), government sectors (1.70 per cent) and in other occupations (6.70 per cent). It implies that farmers are having supplementary occupations to support agriculture. The income from supplementary occupation is crucial for improving their livelihood.

137

Family Members Engaged in Agriculture Agriculture is carried out in India largely with the help of family members. The trend is changing with a large proportion of farm workers are hired labourers. The following table shows the total family members engaged in agriculture in the study area. Table - 4.9 Family Members Engaged in Agriculture

S. Total Members Engaged Particulars Percentage No. in Agriculture

1. Men 67 22.3

2. Women 203 67.7

Total 270 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.9 shows 270 family members in 300 households are directly engaged in agriculture. The women folk constitute 67.7 per cent of the total family members engaged in agriculture. This shows agriculture provides a durable employment to the vast section of rural women. This goes with the general pattern of employment in India, where 70.0 per cent of the population still engaged in agriculture and 67.7 per cent of the female family members are working as unpaid labourers in the study area. It also shows only 22.3 per cent male family members are involved in agriculture. This interesting phenomena shows that men deserting agriculture and going for greener pastures outside agriculture. This also reveals the general apathy of farming community about the dwindling fortunes in agriculture. 138

Experience in Farming Agriculture is not the attractive profession for young people. The old and experienced people in farming have the passion for farming. The following table shows the experiences of respondents in the farming.

Table – 4.10 Farm Experience of the Respondents

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. < 5 years 9 3.0

2. 6-10 years 27 9.0

3. 11-15 years 27 9.0

4. 16-20 years 18 6.0

5. 21-25 years 52 17.3

6. > 26 years 167 55.7

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.10 shows that the experience of the respondents in the farming operation. It is measured in terms of the number of years they have been in cultivation. The table also reveals that all the 300 sample farmers are having experience in farming. There are two important facts inferred from the above given table. The first one is that 55.7 per cent of the farmers are having 26 years of service and 17.3 per cent of the farmers are having the experience 21 to 25 years and it works out to be 73.0 per cent of the farmers are having very large experience in farming. Another important fact is that only a small percentage of people are having the experience of 5 to 10 years in farming and it indirectly implies that young people are averse to farming and they hesitate to engage in agriculture. If the trend continuous it is bad for agriculture and for the nation. 139

Average size of the holdings according to districts The size of agricultural holdings owned by the farmers varies marginally in the study area. The district wise classification average size of holdings is given in the following table. Table - 4.11 Average size of the holdings according to districts

S. District Land Holdings Average (acres) No.

1. Triruchirappalli 3.9751

2. Ariyalur 4.1964

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.11 shows that the average size of the holdings of the farmers according to the districts. As mentioned earlier the study area has covered Tiruchirappalli and Ariyalur districts. The average size of holding of the respondents is identical in the two districts, with Ariyalur district is having a slightly higher average with 4.1964 acres compared to 3.9751 acres of Tiruchirappalli district. The land holding pattern shows the average size of holding of the farmers is neither very high nor too small. Farmers in the study area are in possession of medium size holdings which allows mechanization and provides space for rational use of canal water. The study area has not any revealed skewed distribution of extreme disparities in the land ownership pattern.

PULLAMBADI CANAL

140

Pattern of land holdings in different regions The following table furnishes particulars about the pattern of land holdings in the three regions under study namely Head, Middle and Tail-end regions.

Table - 4.12 Pattern of land holdings in different regions

S. Average size of Land holdings Land holdings in different regions No. (acres)

1. Head 3.9751

2. Middle 4.4893

3. Tail-end 3.9034

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.12 shows the pattern of land holdings in different regions. The study area has been categorized in to three regions according to the irrigation potential created by the Pullambadi canal. They are i) Head region ii) Middle region and iii) Tail region. This table also clearly validates the previously mentioned fact that the average distribution of the land holdings is more or less identical. The average size of holdings in the middle region is marginally higher in the study area and it has 4.4893 hectares. It is followed by the head region with 3.9751 hectares and the farmers in the tail-end area are having the average size of holding of 3.9034 hectares. The above data shows that there is no marked disparity in the land ownership in terms of size of holdings of farmers in the study area. This uniformity in the size of land holdings owned by the farmers provides the elbow room for the researcher to compare and contrast the nature and extend of water use efficiency in the different regions. 141

Type of Farmers Farmers are generally classified on the basis of their ownership of land holdings. These are four types of farmers viz., marginal, small, medium and large. In the study area large farmers are conspicuously absent.

Table - 4.13 Type of Farmers

S. Type of Farmers (acres) No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Marginal (0 – 2.47) 108 36.0

2. Small (2.47 – 4.94) 173 57.7

3. Medium (4.94 – 24.7) 19 6.3

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.13 shows the broad classification of farmers on the basis of the ownership of the land. They are all classified into three types viz., i) Marginal farmers ii) Small farmers and iii) Medium farmers. The large farmers with very large holdings of 25 acres and above are virtually nonexistent in the study area. The study area is characterized by dominating presence of small farmers with 57.7 percent and marginal farmers with 36.0 percent. This closely resembles the land ownership pattern of the country. This enables the researcher to generalize the findings of the study area for the whole nation. The medium farmers are relatively very low in the presence and they constitute only 6.3 per cent of the farming community.

142

Average land holding The study area is inhabited by marginal, small and medium farmers. The following table shows the distribution of sample respondents on the basis of their land ownership. Table – 4.14 Average land holding

Average Land S. No. of Particulars Percentage holdings No. Respondents (in acre) 1. Marginal 108 36.0 1.5148 2. Small 173 57.7 4.7346 3. Medium 19 6.3 13.3737 Total 300 100.0 Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.14 shows that the study area is inhabited by marginal, small and medium farmers and large farmers are conspicuously absent. The study reveals that 57.7 per cent of the respondents are small farmers, 36.0 per cent of the farmers are marginal farmers and 6.3 per cent of the farmers medium farmers. The study also reveals that average land holding for the marginal farmers is 1.5148 acres; 4.7346 acres are for small farmers and 13.3737 acres for medium farmers. Only the marginal farmers are having uneconomic holdings. Small and medium farmers are endowed with economic holdings. But the holdings are not consolidated and found in a same place so that mechanization, efficient irrigation management can be applied. But the lands are scattered, fragmented in different places so the farmers are handicapped in applying scientific methods and improved methods of irrigation.

CROPPING PATTERN In Tamilnadu the gross cropped area under all crops has been decreased to 5815174 hectare in 2007-08 from 5842790 hectare in 2006-07. While the area under Food crops accounted for 72.8 per cent and that of non-food crops formed 27.2 per cent only, of the gross cropped area during the year 2007-08 (Season and Crop Report Tamil Nadu 2007-08 fasil - 1417). 143

Cultivable Area In the study area paddy is the major crop cultivated by the farmers. There are two popular varieties of paddy cultivated in the study area and they are K.43 and Andra ponni. The following table shows the water requirements for cultivating the above crops. Table - 4.15 Cultivable Area S. Head Region Middle Region Tail-end Region Crops Grown No. in acres in acres in acres 1 K. 43 160.75 32.5 313.96 45.6 210.66 50.0 2 Andraponni 183.05 37.0 194.30 28.2 65.39 15.5 3 Other IR20, Kalsar 33.55 6.8 9.25 1.3 14.33 3.4 4 Black gram 14.95 3.0 8.50 1.2 2.00 0.5 5 Green gram 1.60 0.3 3.35 0.5 0 0 6 Kampenikodi 11.25 2.3 19.00 2.7 3.50 0.8 7 Vegetables 1.90 0.4 8.80 1.3 0 0 8 Gingelly 19.95 4.0 14.00 2.0 15.40 3.7 9 Maize 4.00 0.8 14.90 2.2 0 0 10 Cotton 0 0 8.00 1.2 1.00 0.2 11 Sunflower 0 0 1.00 0.1 0 0 Annual Crops 12 Sugar cane 9.75 2.0 63.75 9.3 61.75 14.7 13 Others 2.75 0.6 0 0 1.00 0.2 Perennial Crops 14 Mango 0.66 0.1 0.20 0.02 2.95 0.7 15 Coconut 2.90 0.6 3.49 0.5 2.55 0.6 Dry Crops Velikaruvai (Acacia 16 32.17 6.5 21.10 3.1 17.83 4.2 milotica) 17 Savukku 3.00 0.6 5.15 0.7 12.00 2.9 18 R.S.Pathy 12.00 2.4 0 0 5.50 1.3 19 Bamboo 0.40 0.1 0 0 0.30 0.1 20 Cashew nut 0 0 0 0 5.00 1.2 Total 495 100.0 689 100.0 421 100.0 Source: Compiled from primary data 144

The table 4.15 shows the cropping pattern of the farmers. It reveals that paddy is the major crop cultivated in all the three regions. This is quite understandable because rice is the major food item and it occupies an important place in the dietary needs of the respondents. The K.43 variety of paddy is cultivated all the three regions, with 32.5 per cent in head region, 45.6 per cent in middle region and 50 per cent in tail-end region. Even though it is a coarse variety its yield is substantially higher than the other variety of paddy. This variety is very suitable to the soil texture of the study area. The next important paddy variety cultivated in the study area is Andraponni. It is soft variety and it fetches higher price and a highly remunerative crop. This crop is cultivated in all the regions. This is cultivated in large areas in the head region (37.0 per cent), in the middle region it is cultivated in 28.2 per cent of the area and in the tail-end region it is cultivated in 15.5 per cent. Andraponni is a water intensive crop compared to K.43. Other major food crops cultivated in the area is black gram. This is the basic ingredients for preparing the breakfast of any type of the people. Gingelly is the principal oil crop cultivated in the area. It needs lesser water and fetches a high price for the farmers besides satisfying the edible oil needs of the people. In the annual crops Sugar cane cultivated in all the three regions. Acacia milotica (Velikaruvai) is also grown in many parts of study area. It is not cultivated on systematic way but it is grown where even water is not available and the soil is not suitable for cultivation. The analysis of cropping pattern clearly shows that there is no rationality and sound agronomic basis in the selection of crops. The cropping pattern is not appropriate especially in the middle and tail-end region. For instance Sugar cane is a wet crop requires water thorough out the year is cultivated in 14.7 per cent of the total cultivable area. This region is relatively a dry region and it receives only residual water. Similarly in the head region, 32.17 per cent of the area is used for the cultivation of Acacia milotica (Velikaruvai). This satisfies only the firewood needs of the people and it is not a lucrative crop. This crop is not environmentally friendly and it saps lot of water and the cultivation of this poses grave danger to the sustainability farming. Another defective feature of the cropping pattern followed by the farmers in the study area is absence of crop rotation. This is not witnessed in the study area. The crop rotation ensures conservation of soil and better yield for the farmers. 145

Value of the Produce (in ```) Farmers’ primary interest are the produce of the farm and the prices of the farm produce. The value of farm produce produced by the farmers in the study area is furnished in the following table. Table - 4.16 Value of the Produce (in ```)

S. Head Middle Tail-end Crops Grown No. region region region 1 K. 43 1439110 1373350 16154330 2 Andraponni 1890975 1979110 720105 3 Other IR20, Kalsar 281025 143350 146310 4 Black gram 54800 42750 7500 5 Green gram 8540 8100 0 6 Kampenikodi 12500 25125 2500 7 Vegetables 44530 49000 0 8 Gingley 73500 55650 50500 9 Maize 5900 182650 0 10 Cotton 0 78200 12540 11 Sunflower 0 9000 0 Annual Crops 12 Sugar cane 287100 1346260 1782640 13 Others 5000 0 12500 Perennial Crops 14 Mango 1000 8000 7700 15 Coconut 22400 45900 21750 Dry Crops 16 Velikaruvai (Acacia milotica) 41200 46900 14500 17 Savukku 0 0 150900 18 R.S. Pathy 60000 0 0 19 Bamboo 2000 0 0 20 Cashew nut 0 0 10003 Total 4229580 5393345 19093778 Source: Compiled from primary data 146

The table 4.16 shows the value of the produce of the farming community. The value of the produce is cultivated on the basis of physical amount of yield of the crop multiplied by price (2010-11 prices). The surplus over and above the household consumption of the respondents which is coming as a marketable surplus is estimated. The imputed value of the self consumption is added to the value of produce presented in the above table. The value of the produce actually determines the income pattern of the respondents. This is a crucial determinant of the standard of living of the people in the study area. The major source of income is coming from paddy cultivation for the farmers in all the three regions. The distinctive feature of paddy cultivation in the study area is the cultivation of K.43 and Andraponni. Andraponni is the major money spinner for the farmers in the head and middle region. For the tail-end farmers K.43 is the major crop yields substantial income. Sugar cane is the major commercial crop cultivated in the area and it provides considerable level of income to the farmers. In all the three regions the vegetables which substantially increases the nutritional standard of the people is not cultivated with zest and zeal. The black gram and green gram are the important pulses cultivated in the study area but they are quite insignificant in generating income to the farmers. The heartening aspect of the cropping pattern of the farmers is that it is quite diversified. The grey area of the cropping pattern is that it is not substantially contributing to the incomes of the farmers.

147

Table - 4.17 Cropping Pattern on the basis of Farmers (in acres) Type of farmers Marginal Small Medium Total Particulars No. of No. of No. of No. of Mean Mean Mean Mean Respondents Respondents Respondents Respondents K.43 76 1.50 130 3.86 14 4.96 220 3.12 Andraponni 46 1.633 116 2.435 16 5.688 178 2.487 Other IR20, Kalsar 6 1.633 14 1.857 5 4.260 25 2.285 Black gram 2 .750 17 1.232 2 1.500 21 1.212 Green gram - - 7 .600 1 .750 8 .619 Kampenikodi 7 80 16 1.72 - - 23 1.47 Vegetables Gingley 3 .1333 6 1.5833 1 .8000 10 1.0700 Maize 4 .80 13 .572 - - 17 1.11 Cotton - - 4 2.25 - - 4 2.25 Sunflower 1 1.00 - - - - 1 1.00 Sugar cane 11 1.20 39 2.38 8 3.63 58 2.33 Others 1 1.000 - - - - 1 1.000 Mango 2 .350 6 .518 - - 8 .476 Coconut 3 .247 23 .291 4 .375 30 .298 Velikaruvai (Acacia milotica) 10 .83 42 1.29 4 2.30 56 1.28 Savukku 1 1.00 6 1.19 3 3.33 10 1.82 R.S.Pathy - - 2 1.50 3 4.83 5 3.50 Bamboo - - 1 .300 1 .400 2 .350 Cashew nut 1 1.00 4 1.00 - - 5 1.00 148

The table 4.17 shows the cropping pattern of the study area on the basis of farmers viz., marginal, small and medium farmers. There are no large farmers in the study area. There is over whelming presence of small farmers in the study area followed by marginal and medium farmers. The most important crop cultivated in the study area is paddy. It is cultivated by farmers of all the regions head, middle and tail- end and also by the farmers of all types viz., marginal, small and medium types. There are two important varieties of paddy crop widely cultivated by the farmers in the study area. They are K.43 and Andraponni which are high yielding and at the same time fetch higher prices for the farmers. Farmers in the study area are not opting for coarse varieties since they fetch lower price. The above table shows that on an average marginal farmers cultivate K.43 in 1.50 acres, small farmers cultivate in 3.86 acres. In case of Andraponni, marginal farmers cultivate it in 1.057 acres, small farmers it in 2.435 acres and medium farmers it in 5.688 acres. All the farmers in the study area on an average cultivate K.43 in 3.12 acres and Andraponni in 2.487 acres. Farmers in the study area especially in the head and middle region cultivate Sugar cane also. On an average in the study area 2.25 acres are used for the cultivation of Sugar cane. Medium farmers cultivate Sugar cane in large areas (3.63 acres per farmer) since they are using pump sets for the irrigation. In the tail-end areas Savukku and R.S. Pathy trees are cultivated in large areas. The reason is obvious, these crops consume less water and at the same time the return on investment is quite high for the farmers. Farmers during off season cultivate Vegetables, Maize and Pulses and Vellikaruvai (Acacia milotica) and they are called summer crops in the study area. Marginal farmers are cultivating Sunflower in small pockets. Bamboo and Cashew nuts, Mango trees are grown. The cropping pattern of the study area presents a mono cropping pattern of paddy as a major food crop. In case of other crops there is a considerable degree of diversification is present. The divergent cropping pattern enables the farmers to minimize the risks and uncertainties resulting from non availability of water and also enable them to earn some income to lead their livelihood.

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Changing Cropping Pattern Cropping pattern reveals the nature and extent of lands under each crop by the farmers for a particular agricultural season. The following table gives details about the changes happening in the cropping pattern followed by farmers in the study area. Table - 4.18 Changing Cropping Pattern

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Frequently 139 46.3

2. Occasionally 12 4.0

3. Rarely 135 45.0

4. Not at all 14 4.7

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.18 shows that the cropping pattern has been changing for 50 per cent of the respondents and for the remaining 50 per cent of the respondents, it has not been changing. Only 46.3 per cent of the farmers frequently changing their cropping pattern and 4.0 per cent of the farmers are changing their cropping pattern occasionally. Changing cropping pattern requires availability of water, availability of seeds, fertilizers, monsoon and availability of labour. Changing cropping pattern is important for retaining sustainability of land resource and more importantly the flexibility of the farmers to change for the crops according to the agronomic conditions. The rigid cropping pattern shows farmers are not practicing crop rotation and stick on to the stereo type of farming. Changing cropping pattern ensures diversification of cropping and enables the farmers to go for appropriate cropping pattern. But in the study area there is no flexibility in the cropping pattern practiced by the farmers.

150

Change in canal water supply status and shortage The following tables 4.19 and 4.20 trace the changes in the water supply from 1995 to 2010. The period is classified into 3 phases viz., 1995-2000, 2001-2005 and 2006-2010. Table - 4.19 Wet Crops

Period Paddy Sugar cane Maize Total

208 88 4 300 2006-2010 (69.3) (29.3) (1.3) (100.0)

268 24 8 300 2001-2005 (89.3) (8.0) (2.7) (100.0)

205 91 4 300 1995-2000 (68.3) (30.3) (1.3) (100.0)

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.19 shows the shift in the cropping pattern during the different periods of time. During the period 1995-2000, 205 respondents stick on to the cultivation of paddy and 91 farmers cultivated the Sugar cane. This period witnessed a slight shift in the choice of crops by farmers. Paddy remains as the major crop but Sugar cane and Maize are also cultivated by the farmers as alternative crops. The same trend is witnessed during 2006-2010. But the cropping pattern during 2001- 2005 is somewhat different from other periods. There is no major shift in the cultivation of wet crops, farmers had cultivated only paddy and desist from moving to other alternative crops.

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Dry Crops Farmers’ cultivate dry crops during slack seasons. The main dry crops cultivated in the study area are Pulses, Oil seeds and Fodder for the live stocks. The following table shows the details of dry crops cultivated in the study area. Table – 4.20 Dry Crops Oil Period Cotton Pulses Onion Maize Bajra Fodder Total seeds 1 15 18 2 0 0 7 43 2006-2010 (2.3) (34.8) (41.9) (4.7) (0.0) (0.0) (16.3) (100.0) 0 8 4 1 0 0 4 17 2001-2005 (0.0) (47.1) (23.5) (5.9) (0.0) (0.0) (23.5) (100.0) 0 4 20 0 3 1 1 29 1995-2000 (0.0) (13.8) (68.9) (0.0) (10.3) (3.4) (3.4) (100.0) The table 4.20 shows the dry crops cultivated at three different periods of time. In 1995-2000, 29 farmers had gone for alternative crops. Pulses is the preferred option for the 68.9 per cent of the respondents and Oil seeds is another alternative crop preferred by 13.8 per cent of the respondents. In the year 2001-2005, 17 farmers opted for dry crops. During this period Oil seeds is the preferred alternative crop for 47.1 per cent of the respondents followed by Pulses with 23.5 per cent. In 2006-2010, 43 farmers took dry crops as alternative to major crops. Pulses remain as the major alternative crops for 41.9 per cent of the respondents closely followed by Oil seeds with 34.8 per cent. This analysis clearly shows that at the time water distress farmers had gone for alternative crops to eke out a living. Pulses being a dry crop with less consumption of water prove to be the best odd for the farmers in the study area.

Reasons for changing crops Farmers change crops owing to several reasons. They are all broadly categorized in to i. Water related reasons and ii. Non water related reasons. The water related reasons are a. scarcity of water b. insufficient quantity of water c. field channel encroachment by the other farmers d. unfair practices of water seller e. delay in water release from canal and f. other reasons. The non water related reasons are a. labour problem b. low profitability c. attitude of the neighbour d. lack of finance e. diseases and f. any other issues.

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Table - 4.21 Reasons for Changing Crops

Water Related Reasons Non Water Related Reasons Delay Field channel Unfair in Scarcity Insufficient Lack Particulars encroachment practices water Labour Low Any of quantity of Others Neighbur of Diseases by other of water release problem profitability other water water finance farmer seller from canal

2006-2010 3 162 - - - 5 64 52 - - - 12

2001-2005 1 250 1 - 1 2 26 17 - - - 1

1995-2000 - 160 - - 1 2 59 57 - - 1 18

Source: Compiled from primary data

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The table 4.21 clearly shows that insufficient quantity of water is a major factor which influences the change in crops. In 1995-2000, 160 farmers changed their cropping pattern due to insufficient quantity of water. In 2001-2005, 250 farmers changed their cropping pattern for the same reason. In 2006-2010, 166 farmers made changes in the cropping pattern due to insufficient quantity of water. The non water related reasons, such as labour problem and low profitability significantly influence the cropping pattern. The labour problem arises due to shortages of labour, migration of agricultural labourers to other occupations, higher wage paid to the agricultural labourers and lack of enthusiasm and commitment to the agricultural work on the part of labourers. Low profitability in agriculture forced the farmers to switch on to alternative crops in pursuit of higher profit. The profit margin of the major crop cultivated in the area, paddy is wafer thin. The gambling monsoon also plays crucial role in the choice of crops by farmers in the study area. The table 4.21 also clearly shows that water related problems are more crucial and critical in influencing the shifting of cropping pattern. But non water related reasons also sometimes influence the cropping pattern decisively. The forgoing analysis clearly shows that there is a perceptible change in the cropping pattern effected by water related issues but the change is not bath breaking since it is confining within the paddy crops or sugarcane. This reveals that to manage the water related reasons farmers are not going for appropriate crops to suit the available water levels. The farmers are stereo typed and they are not going for out off box methods of using water prudently to enhance the productivity of crops. The first hypothesis states that water related problems are more decisive in determining the cropping pattern of the farmers than non-water related problems.

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Table - 4.22 Change of Cropping Pattern

Water Related Reasons Non - Water Related Reasons

Years

Total Total Total

Others Others Diseases Diseases Neighbur Neighbur Any other other Any Insufficient water seller seller water other farmer farmer other Field channel Field Delay in water in Delay Lack of finance finance of Lack Labour problem problem Labour Scarcity of water water of Scarcity Low profitability profitability Low quantity of water water of quantity encroa-chment by encroa-chment release from canal canal from release Unfair practices of practices Unfair

172 128 2006-10 3 162 - - 2 5 64 52 - - - 12 (57.33) (42.67)

256 44 2001-2005 1 250 1 - 2 2 26 17 - - - 1 (85.33) (14.67)

163 137 1995-2000 - 160 - - 1 2 59 59 - - 1 18 (54.33) (45.67)

Source: Compiled from primary data

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The hypothesis is proved correct. Farmers feel that water related reasons are more critical in determining the cropping pattern than non water related reasons. In all the three study periods respondents overwhelmingly expressed that water is a crucial input in planning their cropping pattern. During the period 1995-2000, 54.33 per cent of the respondents felt that water related reasons are predominantly influenced their cropping pattern and only 45.67 per cent of the respondents felt that non-water related factors influenced their cropping pattern. During 2001-2005, 85.33 per cent of the respondents feel that water related reasons had determined their cropping and only 14.67 per cent of the respondent felt that non water related issues had influenced their cropping pattern. The same view is shared by the respondents during 2006-2010 also. During that period, 57.33 per cent of the respondents had felt that water related reasons figure primarily in deciding their cropping than non water related reasons. The above analysis unambiguously proves that water related reasons such as acute water scarcity, insufficiency quantity of water, field channel encroachment by other farmers, unfair practices of water seller and delay in water release from the canal have major bearing on the planning and changing cropping pattern of farmers in the study area.

156

Expectations of the Respondents about the water received for Paddy cultivation The expectation of farmers about the water to be received from the Pullambadi canal holds the key for planning their agricultural operations. The following table furnishes information about the expectations of farmers on the water to be received for Paddy cultivation. Table - 4.23 Expectations of the Respondents about the water received for Paddy cultivation

S. No. of Particulars Percentage No. Respondents

1 Water received up to the expectations 241 83.1

2 Water received not up to the expectations 49 16.9

Total 290 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.23 shows that 83.1 per cent of the respondents are receiving water up to their expectations and 16.9 per cent of the respondents are not receiving water up to their expectations. This clearly reveals that there is no dearth of water for the paddy growers. It implies that the available water can be judiciously used to select appropriate crops, technology, and other agricultural inputs to optimize their farm incomes. It shows further there is an inbuilt tendency on the part of the farmers to misuse the water when they receive copious flow of water.

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Availability of water for the Paddy growers The following table shows the farmers opinions about the availability of water for Paddy cultivation in the study area.

Table - 4.24 Availability of water for the Paddy growers

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Water in sufficient quantity 277 95.5

2. Insufficient quantity of water 13 4.5

Total 290 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.24 reveals that 95.5 per cent of the respondents received water adequately. The quantum of water supplied by the Pullambadi canal is quite sufficient to cultivate the major food crop Paddy. A small proportion of farmers (4.5 per cent) felt that the water for Paddy cultivation is scanty and not up to their requirements. The mismatch between supply and demand is not highly pronounced in the Paddy cultivation. The availability of adequate water to the farming community provides the much needed elbow room to maneuver their agricultural practices.

158157

Impact of expectation of water on cropping pattern The following table gives the responses of the farmers about the impact of expectation and anticipation of farmers about water availability on cropping pattern. Table - 4.25 Impact of expectation of water on cropping pattern

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Totally 4 30.7

2. Slightly 6 46.2

3. No 2 15.4

4. Not at all 1 7.7

Total 13 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.25 shows that the impact of expectation of water on the cropping pattern of the farmers. It is clear from the table that the expectation of water has bearing on the cropping pattern planned by the farming community. The expectation of water has very serious impact on 30.7 per cent of the farmers. It is inferred that 46.2 per cent of the farmers make slight alterations in the cropping pattern based on the expectation of the water and its availability and non availability. In the study area 15.4 per cent of the farmers are not perturbed by the non availability of water. A small section of the respondents (7.7 per cent) felt that the availability of water is not at all influencing the cropping pattern. It shows clearly that the information about water availability, storage and monsoon has bearing on the choice of crops for different seasons. Farmers plan their cropping pattern according to the expectations about water availability.

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Expectation of water for Sugar cane cultivation The following table gives details about the expectation of farmers for sugar cane cultivation. Sugar is a water intensive crop and expectation of farmers about water supply to a large extent determines its cultivation. Table - 4.26 Expectation of water for Sugar cane cultivation

S. No. of Particulars Percentage No. Respondents

Water in sufficient quantity up to 1. 33 58.9 the expectations

2. Insufficient quantity 23 41.1

Total 56 100

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.26 shows that 58.9 per cent of the respondents expressed their experiences about the availability of water for Sugar cane cultivation as very satisfactory and quite sufficient and 41.1 per cent of the farmers felt that the water is insufficient for sugarcane cultivation. These two divergent views from the farmers arise due to different agro climatic regions. The head and middle regions are having the privilege of first use of water. So the farmers in those regions feel water is quite adequate for Sugar cane cultivation. In addition to that they are having pump sets and water from lakes to supplement the canal water. Farmers in the study area immensely benefited out of the free electricity given by the government of Tamil Nadu to the farming community. But the situations are different for the tail-end farmers who are experienced shortages because they receive only residual water.

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Water received for Sugar cane cultivation The following table summarizes whether the expected level of water is realized by the farmers or not. Table - 4.27 Water received for Sugar cane cultivation

S. No. of Particulars Percentage No. Respondents

1 Water received up to the expectations 5 9.3

2 Insufficient quantity 49 90.7

Total 54 100

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.27 shows that Sugar cane cultivation being a water intensive cultivation requires assured water throughout the year. It is inferred that 90.7 per cent of the farmers expect that the water to be received for Sugar cane cultivation is grossly inadequate and insufficient. And only 9.3 per cent of the farmers expect that the water received is up to their expectations and meet the requirements of Sugar cane cultivation. The canal water is available only for 4 to 6 months and Sugar cane being a wet crop needs a minimum of water supply raging from 10 to 12 months. This table reveals that canal water is not expected to serve the Sugar cane growers adequately and the canal water should be supplemented by other water bodies like bonds, lakes and groundwater.

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Irrigation Status Water Use Efficiency Change in canal water supply status The following table shows the observations of the respondents about the quantum of water supply during 2006 – 2010. Table - 4.28 Change in canal water supply status

S. No. of 2006 – 2010 Percentage No. Respondents

1. Decrease 13 92.9

2. Increase 1 7.1

Total 14 100

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.28 clearly shows that only 14 respondents felt that there are changes in the quantum of canal water supply during the study period. An overwhelming percentage of the respondents felt that there is decrease in the canal water supply and only 7.1 percentage of the respondents felt that there is increase in the water supply during the study period. It clearly shows that there is no change in the quantum of water supply for irrigation in the study area. If at all any change respondents felt that the change in the water supply means only decline in water supply.

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Causes for reduction of water supply The respondents feel that there a certain specific reasons for the reduction in water supply. They are listed in the following table. Table – 4.29 Causes for reduction of water supply

S. 2006 – 2010 No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Delay in opening Reservoir 2 14.3

2. Natural silt 4 28.6

3. No maintenance of canal 2 14.3

4. Encroachment 1 7.1

5. Low rain fall 3 21.4

6. Expansion in area 1 7.1

7. Others 1 7.1

Total 14 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

It is clear that there is no major change in the water supply of the canal in the study period. If at all any change in the water supply it means there is a fall in the water supply. The above table 4.29 lists the causes for reduction of water supply. The reasons mentioned by the respondents are 1. Delay in opening the reservoir 2. Natural silt 3. Poor maintenance of canal 4. Encroachment 5. Low rain fall and 6.Expansion in cultivable area. The major reason for reduction in the water supply according to respondents is the natural silt and this occurs due to vagaries of monsoon and poor maintenance of bunds and banks of the canal.

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Change in canal water status 2001-2005 The following table shows the opinions of respondents about the changes in the canal water level. Table – 4.30 Change in canal water status 2001-2005

S. 2001 – 2005 No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Decrease 10 90.9

2. Increase 1 9.1

Total 11 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The previous period 2001-2005 is not different from 2006-2010. The table 4.30 shows that only 11 respondents felt that there is a considerable change in the canal water supply. As in the case of 2006-2010, in this study period also majority of the respondents (90.9 per cent) felt that there is a decrease in the water supply and the reasons for decrease in water supply are mentioned in the following table.

164

Table – 4.31 Reasons for reduction in water supply

S. 2001 – 2005 No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Natural silt 2 18.2

2. No maintenance 4 36.4

3. Low rainfall 5 45.5

Total 11 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

There are three major reasons for reduction in water supply in the study period. They are 1. Natural silt 2. Poor maintenance and 3. Low rainfall. Farmers felt during that period there is reduction in the water supply primarily due to non maintenance of water bodies.

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Table – 4.32 Change in canal water supply

S. 1995 -2000 No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Decrease 10 90.9

2. Increase 1 9.1

Total 11 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.32 presents the opinions of the respondents about the changes in the water supply during the period 1995-2000. As in the case of previous study period only 11 respondents felt that there is substantial change in the quantum of water supply. The reasons attributed to the changes in the water supply are 1. Natural silt 2. Encroachment 3. Low rainfall and 4. The expansion of irrigated area. The analysis clearly shows that changes in water supply are felt by the farmers but the changes are only in the form of reduction in the quantity of water supply. According to the farmers the poor supply of water and its availability is due to encroachment and natural silt. This clearly indicates lack of adequate efforts on the part of the different stakeholders to maintain the Pullambadi canal in proper way. The improper maintenance has resulted in the natural silt and encroachment by some vested interests. If natural silts occur due to heavy rains and floods and encroachment of canal area for cultivation are reduced by the Public Works Department and Water Users Association, the quantum of water available to the farmers will be maintained and there will be no reduction in the water available to the farmers. This is explained in the following table.

166

Table – 4.33 The reasons attributed to the changes in the water supply

S. 1995 – 2000 No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Natural silt 3 27.3

2. Encroachment 1 9.1

3. Low rainfall 5 45.5

4. Expansion of irrigated area 2 18.2

Total 11 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

From the table 4.33, it is inferred that the main reason for changes in water supply in the canal is low rain fall. Pullambadi canal largely depends upon water from the main river Cauvery and monsoon water. If the monsoon fails the water supply in the canal is drastically affected. This is a natural factor which farmers have no control over it. Another major reason for changes in the water supply is due to natural silt. The natural silt caused by floods and excessive rains prevent the smooth flow of water and has led to wastages of water. Farmers feel gradual expansion of irrigated area is also one of the reasons for changes in the water supply. From the above analysis it is clear that both natural and man made factors are equally responsible for changes in the water supply.

167

Effect of reduction in the water on the cropping pattern The above mentioned factors affect the availability and utilization of water by the farmers. The opinions of the farmers about the effect of reduction of water supply on cropping pattern are given in the following table. Table – 4.34 Effect of reduction in the water on the cropping pattern

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Total - -

2. Slightly 39 73.6

3. No 12 22.6

4. Not at all 2 3.8

Total 53 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.34 clearly shows that only 53 farmers felt that there are drastic changes in the supply of water during different time periods. But they felt that the changes in the water supply have not affected the cropping pattern totally. It is inferred that 39 farmers (73.6 per cent) felt that the changes in the water supply have affected the cropping pattern slightly and 12 farmers (22.6 per cent) felt that the changes in the water supply have not affected the cropping pattern. Two farmers felt that changes in water supply have nothing to do with the cropping pattern. It is clear from the above analysis there is a small change in the cropping pattern due to fluctuations in the water availability.

168

Distribution Efficiency Water Required for the Crops The following table furnishes farmers’ responses about the various crops and the water required to cultivate those crops. Table - 4.35 Water Required for the Crops

Water Required Other type K.43 Andraponni Sugar cane in days of Paddy

76 113 12 0 90 – 120 (36.4) (62.8) (44.4) (0)

107 52 9 0 121 – 150 (51.2) (28.9) (33.3) (0)

26 15 6 0 151 – 180 (12.4) (8.3) (22.2) (0)

0 0 0 58 01 – 360 (0) (0) (0) (100.0)

209 180 27 58 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.35 shows the farmers’ opinions and their expected water requirement in terms of days. The major crops cultivated in the study area are 1. Rice and 2. Sugar cane. Farmers cultivate different varieties of Paddy and notable among them are K.43 2. Andraponni. They cultivate other crops, IR.20, Kalsur, White Ponni in small land areas. K.43 is a major paddy crop cultivated in the area. It is observed from the above table that 76 farmers felt that they need water for cultivating these crops for 90-120 days, 107 farmers felt that they require water for 121-150 days and 26 farmers felt that they need water for a minimum period of 151-180 days. The analysis shows that farmers are not cultivating short duration crops of 105 days. Majority of the farmers cultivating long duration crops ranging from 120 to 180 days.

169

If they shift from long duration crops to short duration crops they can save water and time the space created in terms of water and time may be used for going to alternative crops to augment their earnings. Unfortunately this is not practiced by the farmers in the study area. In case of Andraponni which is cultivated by 180 farmers, the water requirement is relatively low, 113 farmers stated that they need water for 90-120 days for the effective cultivation of Andraponni. Only 52 farmers felt that 120 to 150 days are necessary for the cultivation of this crop. Farmers cultivating Andraponni are in an advantageous position since it is a short duration crop and they may not experience any serious short falls in using canal water. For cultivating other crops like IR.20 and Kalsar, the water required for the majority of the farmers is 90-120 days. But they are not very popular crops in the study area. Farmers in general opined that for cultivating Sugar cane they need water throughout the year.

170

Water delivered at the distributaries The following table presents the opinions of the respondents about the quantum of water received by the respondents of the distributaries. Table – 4.36 Water delivered at the distributaries

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. More than requirements 22 7.3

2. Equal to requirement 225 75.1

3. Less than requirement 43 14.3

4. No paddy cultivators 10 3.3

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.36 shows that the availability of water is not a big bottleneck for the farmers. It is inferred that 225 farmers (75.1 per cent) felt that the water delivered at the distributaries is equal to their requirements. A small section of 43 farmers (14.3 per cent) felt that water available at the distributaries to cultivate Paddy is not adequate and it adversely affect the cultivation of Paddy crop. Interesting information given by the table is that 22 farmers (7.3 per cent) felt that they received water more than the requirement. The different opinions expressed by the farmers about the water delivered at the distributaries show that the intensity of water availability differs on the basis of area, duration of the crops and the structure of field channels.

171

Water delivered at the distributaries for Sugar cane The Sugar cane cultivation is done sporadically in the study area. The following table shows the opinions of the respondents about the water availability for Sugar cane cultivation. Table – 4.37 Water delivered at the distributaries for Sugar cane

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Equal to requirement 5 8.6

2. Less than requirement 53 91.4

Total 58 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.37 clearly shows that for the cultivation of Sugar cane water delivered at the distributaries is quite inadequate. It is observed that 91.4 per cent of the farmers felt that water available is less than the requirement for the cultivation of Sugar cane. Sugar cane cultivation covers a long period of one year and it is a wet crop requiring abundance of water. So farmers disgusted with the availability of water.

172

Reasons for Inadequacy of supply of water The following reasons attributed by the farmers for inadequacy of water in the Pullambadi canal. Table – 4.38 Reasons for Inadequacy of supply of water

S. No. of Respondents Particulars No. Paddy Sugar cane

1. Illegal method of irrigation 6 6

2. Low level of water in Mettur dam 55 12

3. Encroachment 5 5

4. Tail-end area 4 38

5. Lack of interest of officials 3 1

6. Poor maintenance of canal 91 33

7. Bad monsoon 85 39

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.38 analyses the reasons for inadequacy of canal water for the cultivation of Paddy and Sugar cane. There are two major crops cultivated in the study area. Majority of the farmers felt that poor maintenance of canal is a primary factor for the inadequacy of water available for cultivation. The canals are not properly desilted, renovated and maintained. The frequent lands slides due to monsoon adversely impaired the condition of canals and affect adversely the smooth flow of water. The bushes and other vegetations are the major deterrents in the free flow of water. Another important factor responsible for inadequate water supply is erratic monsoon. The years 2000 to 2004 are marked by heavy droughts. Water became scanty and farmers found cultivation impossible. There are some years marked by excessive rainfall and thereby leading to water logging. Another major

173

reason for low supply of water is low level of storage in Mettur dam. Farmers felt that only the Mettur dam breached 94 feet level. The state government releases water. The government G.O. states that only if the Mettur storage level touches 94 feet the Pullambadi canal is opened for irrigation. Mettur dam crosses 94 feet hardly one month per year and so water released through this canal is very much constrained by the existing government order. It is also relevant to note that for many years the Mettur dam has not crossed even the level of 94 feet. The farmers were deprived of water due to poor storage the Mettur reservoir in those years. Farmers felt that the stipulation of 94 feet and above at the Mettur dam for getting water is putting them in precarious condition to plan the cropping pattern aptly. They received water when the season for a particular crop is over. This actually reduces water use efficiency of farmers to generate employment and income in the study area. The untimely availability of water has led to following agrarian problems. 1. Appropriate cropping pattern suitable to the soil and the size of the farm has not been planned properly. 2. Low yield of the crop due to cultivation of crops at the inopportune time. 3. Lack of remunerative price after the harvest and inability of the farmers to sell to the Tamil Nadu Civil Supplies Corporation (TNCSC). 4. The quality of the yield is also drastically reduced.

174

Reasons for Adequacy of supply of water The following table furnishes the reasons for adequacy supply of water in Pullambadi canal. Table – 4.39 Reasons for Adequacy of supply of water

S. No. of Respondents Particulars No. Paddy Sugarcane

Land is situated nearer to the 1. 21 2 distributaries

2. Better maintenance of canal 15 -

3. Enough quantity for irrigation 113 2

4. Good monsoon 20 2

5. Getting water from another canal 3 -

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.39 shows the reasons for adequate supply of water during the years of water surplus enjoyed by the farmers. Majority of the farmers felt that they received sufficient amount of water for irrigation due to very good storage in Mettur reservoir. This shows clearly the storage of water influences considerably the cropping pattern of the farmers in the study area. Another important factor is the appearance of good monsoon. If monsoon is favourable bumper harvest is realised by the farmers. Timely and adequate water from good monsoon determines the supply of water. Some farmers get adequate amount of water by virtue of land located very nearer to the distributaries. But the farmers cultivating Sugar cane always experiences shortages in the supply of water. The Pullambadi canal is in full flow hardly one month but Sugar cane cultivation requires water throughout the year. So farmers cultivating Sugar cane hinges upon pump sets for irrigating Sugar cane.

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Critical period of water use Farmers experience water shortages during the farm work which adversely affect the farm yield. The following table gives the opinions of respondents about the critical period experienced by them. Table – 4.40 Critical period of water use

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1 Yes 110 38.7

2 No 184 61.3

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.40 shows that the critical period experienced by the farmers in availing the water. It is inferred that 38.7 per cent of the farmers felt that they always experienced water shortages and hardships in cultivating their crops. They feel the critical period especially water availability during the period of flowering and milky stages of paddy cultivation. Many crops withered due to non availability of water. Another important dimension of water use is that the fertilizer and nutrient applied to the land is not assimilated by the crops due to non availability of adequate amount of water. But the unfortunate thing is that even though they undergo periodically water crisis they are not going for alternative short duration low water consuming crops. Another saddening aspect is that they are not economizing the water use and enhance the Water Use Efficiency. The study revealed that there is absolutely no up gradation of technology for irrigating the lands. The researcher found that the farmers are not opting for sprinkler or drip irrigation to optimize the use of existing water. But majority (61.3 per cent) of the farmers feel that the critical period can be managed and tackled with better planning and execution of crops.

176

Critical period of water use and the period of crop The following table furnishes details about the critical periods of water use experienced by the farmers. The critical period here refers to the period at which the farmers experienced acute water scarcity in carrying out their farming operations.

Table – 4.41 Critical period of water use and the period of crop

S. Particulars Yes No No.

1 Before sowing 46 -

2 At the time of weeding 23 3

3 Before harvesting 54 -

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.41 shows that the critical period experienced by the farmers in different stages of their cultivation of crops is different. Majority of the farmers felt that they always experienced difficulties at the time of before harvesting the paddy. This period is very important for the crops to mature well. This necessitates adequate amount of water available for crops. Another important critical period for paddy cultivation is a period before sowing the seeds. From the table it is inferred that 46 respondents felt that huge amount of water is needed for preparing the land for sowing the seeds. Preparing the land for sowing the seeds require lot of water and proper leveling of land. This stage is a very crucial and complex stage of cultivation. A small section of the farmers felt that they need water at the time of weeding. Because they felt that if water is not available the weeds will be more and it adversely affect the growth and yield of the major crops. They felt that removing the weeds will prove to be a very costly operation.

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Critical period and the availability of water The following table provides particulars about the extent of availability of water at the time of water stress.

Table – 4.42 Critical period and the availability of water

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1 Excess to requirement 1 0.9

2 Equal to requirement 16 13.8

3 Less than requirement 81 69.8

4 No water at all 18 15.5

Total 116 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The critical period is defined as a period when water is absolutely essential and non availability of water will lead to significant falling of output. The table 4.42 explains that 69.8 per cent of the respondent felt that during the critical period they received water less that their requirements. So they felt critical period is really very hard and it has adversely affected their crop yield and thereby their income. This observation shows that during the critical period non availability of water severely dented the farm operations. It also demonstrates clearly the need for improving the use of water. Another major section of the farmers felt that during the critical period they have not received water at all. This is true in case of 15.5 per cent of the farmers. They felt that during the critical period they left high and dry due to non availability of water. This foregoing analysis shows clearly critical period faced by the farmers is insurmountable problem due to non availability of water. This once again calls for better and efficient use of water available. Only 13.8 per cent of the farmers felt that the critical period effectively countered and they received water equal to their requirement during the critical period.

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Supplementary sources of canal water Farmers use other water sources to supplement the canal water. The following table gives the sources other than canal water utilized by the farmers for cultivation. Table – 4.43 Supplementary sources of canal water

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1 Tanks 8 6.4

2 Bore wells 71 56.8

3 Wells 3 2.4

4 Purchase of water 17 13.6

5 Rain water 26 20.8

Total 125 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.43 shows the strategies adopted by the farmers to mitigate the problem of water shortage. If there is shortage of water in the canal farmers seek water from the following sources. 1. Tanks 2. Bore-wells 3. Wells 4. Purchase of water and 5. Rainwater. The table also pointed out that 56.8 per cent of the farmers seek water from bore wells and 20.8 per cent of the farmers avail water from rainwater source and 13.6 per cent of the farmers purchased water from farmers owning pump sets. The table further shows that bore well is the major source of water if canal water fails.

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Present Irrigational Status of the Farmers In addition to the canal water, farmers who are well off use electric motor and diesel engine to lift the water. The following table furnishes the details about type of irrigation techniques used by farmers. Table – 4.44 Present Irrigational Status of the Farmers

S. Particulars No. of Respondents No.

Hours power used to lift the water 1 a. Electricity motor 60 b. Diesel engine 43

2 Extend of area irrigated (in acres) 361

Source: Compiled from primary data

From the table 4.44 one can understand that 103 farmers own electricity motors and diesel engine to pump water to irrigate their lands. In the study area 60 respondents are having electricity motors and 43 respondents are having diesel engine. Farmers owning electricity motors and diesel engine are better equipped to face the vagaries of monsoon and shortages arising in canal water. Farmers owning electricity motors are having minimum irrigation cost due to the free electricity provided to the farmers by the Tamil Nadu government. The extent of area irrigated by electricity motors and diesel engine is worked out to be 361 acres.

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Bore well depth The water table in the study area is slowly dwindling. The following table shows the depth of bore wells erected by the farmers in the study area. Table – 4.45 Bore well depth

S. No. of Respondents Bore well depth (in feet) No. owning bore wells

1 Less than 20 feet 3

2 20 feet to 50 61

3 50 to 100 23

4 100 to 150 4

5 150 to 200 1

6 200 to 250 5

7 250 to 300 3

8 300 to 350 1

9 350 to 400 3

10 400 to 450 1

11 450 to 500 2

Total 107

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.45 pointed out that the bore well depth of the pump sets owned by the farmers in the study area. In the study area, out of the total respondents, 107 farmers are having bore wells to irrigate their lands. The sub soil water level of the study area is good and copious flow of water is available. Majority of the farmers (61) are having the pump sets with a depth of 20-50 feet, 23 farmers are having the pump sets with the depth of 50-100 feet. The study area is characterized by abundance of

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ground water availability. But salinity of water in some parts of the study area is a looming threat to the farmers. It also shows that out of 300 farmers only 107 farmers are having power driven pump sets and others primarily small and marginal farmers do not own any pump sets. For them non availability of water is a grave threat. Another disgusting future of the study area is that farmers who are using power driven pump sets over a long period of time are encountering two major issues viz., 1. The water table has fallen steeply and they have to dig out water from 400 to 500 feet. The above table shows that 3 farmers are forced to go for very deep wells. 2. The quality of water has deteriorated and the ground water became saline. Now the farmers in the study area once thought the pump sets are more than enough for cultivation realized their fooly. Now they realise that only canal water can provide sustainable water to them. Now they are all pressurizing the local governments to renovate the canal to have the flow of water. But the canal right now in those areas were in very dilapidated condition.

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Horse power used by farmers to lift the water for irrigation Farmers use electric motors and diesel engines to lift water for irrigation. The irrigation through diesel engines is expensive and hence the farmers strongly favour the use of electric motors. Tamilnadu government is supplying free electricity to all farmers. The following table shows the Horse powers of the motors used by farmers in the study area. Table – 4.46 Horse power used by farmers to lift the water for irrigation

S. Horse power used to lift the No. of Respondents Percentage No. water

1 5 25 24.5

2 6 6 5.9

3 7 11 10.8

4 8 53 51.9

5 10 7 6.9

Total 102 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

Farmers used electric motors and diesel engine for pumping water. The horse power used are 5 hp, 6 hp, 7hp, 8hp and 10 hp and for all the horse power motors electricity is supplied at free of cost. The table 4.46 shows that 53 farmers are using high horse power 8hp and 25 farmers are using 5hp and 7 farmers are using 10hp. As per government norms only 3hp electric motor should be used to lift the water for irrigation. This depicts the inefficient use of water by the farmers for irrigating their lands.

Opinions of the Respondents about the maintenance of the Canal The opinion of the respondents about the maintenance of Pullambadi canal is elicited in terms of 5 point scale. The following table depicts the opinions of the respondents about the various aspects of maintenance of Pullambadi canal.

ENCROACHMENT

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Table – 4.47 Opinions of the Respondents about the Maintenance of the Canal

Discipline of Maintenance farmers in Change Adequate Water Water Increase in Reduce the Maintenance and cleaning distribution Settling the water distribution distribution water water Attitude / and cleaning the field of water and of present supply to along the along field supply in supply in Opinions the canal channel maintenance disputes turn tail-end canal channels dry season wet season expressed system of field system areas channels

Highly 9 6 5 5 4 4 5 5 0 4 satisfied (3.0) (2.0) (1.7) (1.7) (1.3) (1.3) (1.7) (1.7) (0.0) (1.6)

151 91 90 87 65 46 73 72 21 149 Satisfied (50.3) (30.3) (30.0) (29.0) (21.7) (15.3) (24.3) (24.0) (95.5) (61.1)

17 14 17 15 18 18 10 10 0 22 Neutral (5.7) (4.7) (5.7) (5.0) (6.0) (6.0) (3.3) (3.3) (0.0) (9.0)

123 189 188 193 213 232 212 213 1 68 Dissatisfied (41.0) (63.0) (62.7) (64.3) (71.0) (77.3) (70.7) (71.0) (4.5) (27.9)

Highly 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 dissatisfied (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.4)

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 22 244 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

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The table 4.47 analyses the opinions of the sample respondents pertaining to the Pullambadi canal management and issues related to water supply from the canal. The opinions of the respondents are recorded in five point scale. With regard to maintenance and cleaning the canals only 50.3 per cent of the respondents are satisfied and 41.0 per cent of the respondents are dissatisfied with the maintenance and cleaning of the Pullambadi canal. It shows clearly that Pullambadi canal is not maintained properly by the authorities concern. With regard to maintenance and cleaning of field channel the situation is the worst. It is inferred that 63.0 per cent of the respondents are dissatisfied and only 30.3 per cent of the respondents are satisfied. This shows clearly that the field channels which are vital links between major canal and the field is not properly maintained and the feeding of water is not efficient and it leads to less water use efficiency. The third important opinion related to water distributed along the main canal is that the canal water is not equitably distributed and not timely. A major section (62.7 per cent) is not satisfied with the water distribution mechanism of the Public Works Department authorities and only 30 per cent of the respondents are satisfied with water distribution. This also shows that the water storage, water allotment by the authorities is not timely and judicious. Another important opinion of the respondents about the water distribution along the field channel as a corollary of the inequity in the distribution of water in the main canal, the distribution of water in the field canal is also marred by unscientific distribution. So 64.3 per cent of the farmers are dissatisfied with the water distribution in the field channel and only 29 per cent of the respondents are satisfied with the distribution of water in the field channel. Another important opinion of the respondents is about their own behaviour and it is related to discipline of farmers in the distribution of water and maintenance of the field channel. An interesting practice is that a vast majority (71.0 per cent) of the farmers are themselves feel that the discipline exhibited by the farmers in water distribution and maintenance of canal is appalling and there is a considerable scope for improving it. The farmers themselves are not water conscious and indisciplined in distributing the water and maintaining the field channel. Due to this the irrigation efficiency of the farmers has been considerably eroded. Even though there are Water Users Associations it is not able to inculcate the sprit of discipline and cooperation among the farmers in conserving and distributing the scarce agricultural input water. Another important area related to

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Pullambadi canal is the settling of disputes. The water disputes of this canal are having historical evidence often in the past it had led to riots and even shoot outs resulting in the precious loss of lives of the farmers. Till date the settling of disputes between the farmers belonging to the vast stretches of Pullambadi canal is arbitrary and myopic. This is evidenced by the fact that 77.3 per cent of the farmers are dissatisfied with existing settlement mechanism, the conflicts arising due to sharing of water during peak season some time reaches alarming proportion. This may result if not addressed properly to agrarian unrest and crisis. Another important aspect of the management of Pullambadi canal is its efficiency to supply the water during the period of stress and deficiency. Here also the management efficiency of authorities maintaining Pullambadi canal came as a cropper. This is vouched by 70.7 of the farmers in the study area. The inability of the Pullambadi canal to satisfy the needs of the people during distress is another pointer to the inefficiency of water management. Another important aspect of water management is the ability to reduce water supply during wet season. The authorities of the Pullambadi canal should have the maneuverability to adjust the supply of water according to the exigencies. The management should do the buffer means and it has to release the water at the time of distress and reduce and store the water at the time of plenty. But the management of Pullambadi canal is grossly inefficient in doing this important task. As a consequence the Water use efficiency has nosedived. Another important feature of canal water management is the implementation of the turn system. The table shows that farmers want to change the existing system and they want to have a new turn system catering to the requirements of different areas. This is the opinion of 95.5 per cent of the farmers and some farmers expressed the opinion that the turn system is defunct. The last aspect of the Pullambadi canal management of this study area is related to its ability to carry water to the tail-end areas. If the canal water management is good even the tail-end farmers must get their due but unfortunately 27.9 per cent of the respondents felt that they are not getting adequate water in the tail-end area. It is also inferred that 61.1 per cent of the respondents in the tail-end area are satisfied with water availability in the tail-end areas to cultivate Paddy.

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Conveyance efficiency Receiving share of water The availability of water to the farmers depends upon the availability of conveyances of water. If the conveyance is maintained properly the wastage of water can be reduced considerably. The following table gives the conveyances used by the farmers to irrigate their lands in the study area. Table – 4.48 Receiving share of water Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end Field Channel 97 99 98 294 Percentage (33.0) (33.7) (33.3) (100.0) Field to field 2 1 0 3 Percentage (66.7) (33.3) (0) (100.0) Others 1 0 2 3 Percentage (33.3) (0) (66.7) (100.0) Total 100 100 100 300 percentage with receiving share of (33.3) (33.3) (33.3) (100.0) water Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.48 shows the methods of receiving water through different channels. The regions are head, middle and tail-end and the channels are field channel, field to field channel and others. In the head region which is having the decisive advantage first receiving water have field channel which supplies 33.0 per cent, field to field channel supplies 66.7 per cent and other methods including tubes supplies 33.3 per cent. Farmers in the middle region receive water only through two channels. The field channel and field to field channel. There is no other method of receiving water. Farmers in the tail-end region receive water through field channel and other methods. The table shows field channel is the predominately the important method of receiving water and the method is flooding which is quite inefficient in terms of water use popularly used by farmers. This account for low water use efficiency of the farmers.

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Table – 4.49 Chi-square test for Regions and Type of Irrigation

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-square 4.020 4 .403

Likelihood Ratio 5.566 4 .234

Linear-by-Linear Association .000 1 1.000

N of valid cases 300

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.49 Chi-square test shows that there is no significant relation between type of irrigation followed and the different regions. The Pearson chi square depicts that there is no significant difference among the farmers’ methods of irrigating the land and the regions they belong to. The Pearson chi square shows that field channel is uniformly popular in all the three regions and it is not confining with only one region and it also shows that there is no significant innovative method in use for irrigating the lands. This proves that farmers are not using appropriate technology to optimize the available water.

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Water reaches every plot of holding falling within the field channel The field channels are the connecting links of canal and fields. The field channels facilitate the canal water to reach every plot of agricultural holdings. The following table gives the opinion of farmers about the reach of water to all the plots of landscape. Table – 4.50 Water reaches every plot of holding falling within the field channel

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 99 96 95 290 Yes (34.1) (33.1) (32.8) (100.0) 1 4 5 10 No (10.0) (40.0) (50.0) (100.0) Total 100 100 100 300 Percentage (33.3) (33.3) (33.3) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.50 shows that field channel is available in all the three regions. The table illustrates that whether the field channel is able to facilitate the flow of water to reach all the tiny holdings of the farmers. The field channels are very much facilitating the farmers, through them they carry water to all the tiny pieces of land they own. Farmers in a head, middle and tail-end regions felt that field channel even though not maintained properly facilitate the flow of water to reach the different pieces of land owned by them. Out of 300 farmers surveyed 290 farmers expressed their view that field channels are very effective and only 10 farmers expressed their view that field channels are not very effective to carry the water to different places of their lands. If field channels are maintained properly the seepages and breaches the field channel will be ceased and the water use efficiency will be considerably enhanced.

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Chi-square Test for Regions and Effectiveness of Field Channels Chi-square test is used to find out the association between the regions and the opinions of the respondents about the effectiveness of field channels to carry water to different areas. Table – 4.51 Chi-square Test for Regions and Effectiveness of Field Channels

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-square 2.690 2 .261

Likelihood Ratio 3.195 2 .202

Linear-by-Linear 2.474 1 .116 Association

N of valid cases 300

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.51 Chi-square test shows that the regions and the opinion of the respondents belonging to those regions about the effectiveness of field channels to carry water to the different areas. There is no change of opinions about the effectiveness of field channels in carrying water. There is no significant relation between opinions of the respondents and the areas they belong. So it is clear from the above table that there is no significant difference in the opinions of the respondents about the effectiveness of the conveyance. Farmers unanimously felt that field channels are quite effective and conveyance is hassle free.

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Reasons for water not reaching every plot of holding falling within the field channel The effectiveness of field channels to carry water to all parts of the field depends on variety of reasons. The reasons for water not reaching every plot of the holding are given in the following table. Table – 4.52 Reasons for water not reaching every plot of holding falling within the field channel

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 0 4 3 7 Weeding (0) (57.1) (42.9) (100.0) 0 0 1 1 Desilting (0) (0) (100.0) (100.0)

1 0 0 1 Encroachment (100.0) (0) (0) (100.0)

Total 1 4 4 9 Percentage (11.1) (44.4) (44.4) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.52 shows that water is not reaching every plot of the holdings in all the three regions. In the Head region 11.1 per cent of the farmers and in the middle and tail-end regions 44.4 per cent of respondents each felt that water is not reaching every plot of holdings. The growth of weeds is the primary obstacle which hampers the flow of water from reaching the every plot of holdings. The flow of water in the field channel is also hindered by silts and encroachments by farmers. The field channels have become so narrow due to the encroachments of some farmers in the study area.

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Chi-Square Test for Regions and the Reasons for water not reaching all the plots Chi-square test is used to associate the regions viz., Head, Middle and Tail- end and the reasons for water not reaching all the plots. The following table shows the results of the Chi-square test. Table – 4.53 Chi-Square Test for Regions and the Reasons for water not reaching all the plots

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-square 10.286 4 .036

Likelihood Ratio 7.809 4 .099

Linear-by-Linear Association 2.000 1 .157

The table 4.53 shows that there is significant difference between the regions and the reasons for water in reaching the different parts of the plot of the land holdings. The Pearson’s Chi-Square value is .036 which is lower than 0.05 and it shows that the relationship between different regions and the reasons for water not reaching the different parts of the plot is quite significant. This clearly explains the difficulties experienced by farmers in getting water are quite different among regions.

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Mode of draining out excess water Excess water in the field is as serious problem than deficient water. The excess water in the field has led to water logging and susceptibility of crops to pests. Farmers use different methods to drain out the excess water in the field. The following table gives the methods employed by farmers to drain out the excess water in the fields. Table – 4.54 Mode of draining out excess water

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 1 0 0 1 Pumping by motor (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) 39 74 90 203 Field to field (19.2) (36.5) (44.3) (100.0)

1 1 0 2 Waterlogging (50.0) (50.0) (0.0) (100.0)

0 0 1 1 Others (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) (100.0)

Total 41 75 91 207 Percentage (19.8) (36.2) (44.0) (100.0)

Source: Compiled from primary data The water logging is the problem faced by most of the farmers in the study area. The problem is very acute during monsoon season. The water logging affects adversely the crop yield. The crops are prone to pest attacks due to inundation of crops. The table 4.54 shows the modes of draining out excess water. The most popular method used by the farmers to drain out excess water is field to field method. But this method is absolutely inefficient. This method affects badly the growth of crops and washes away the nutrients of the soil. This method is followed by the farmers due to the absence of drainage outlets in the fields. This method is highly unscientific and time consuming. It will lead to water logging and impact the crop drastically. This analysis shows that there is a dire need for creation and maintenance of drainage outlets in the fields.

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Distance from the main canal The farm holdings located in close proximity with the canal have some inbuilt advantages. The farmers of those lands have first use of water. The following table shows the distance between farm location and canal. Table – 4.55 Distance from the main canal Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end < 1km 7 0 9 16 1 km 34 28 22 84 2 km 44 36 38 118 3 km 13 8 22 43 4 km 1 23 3 27 5 km 1 4 2 7 6 km 0 0 1 1 10 km 0 1 2 3 13 km 0 0 1 1 Total 100 100 100 300 Source: Compiled from primary data The table 4.55 shows the distance between main canal and fields owned by the farmers. Generally the larger the distance from the main canal greater will be the wastage of water due to conveyance problem. Since the field channels are not properly maintained, the larger distance from the main canal poses hard ship to the land owners. Only 16 farmers have the locational advantage since their lands are less than 1 km from the main canal. But 84 farmers have their lands located more than 1 km away from the canal, 118 farmers have lands 2 km away from canal, 43 farmer have lands more than 3 km away from canal and 27 farmers have lands more than 4 km away from canal. The table shows that majority of the farmers have no locational advantage. They suffer due to loss of water during transit period. The distance problem is associated with the farmers of all the regions. The problem can be tackled only by scientific irrigation methods and by better management of field channels.

ENCROACHMENT

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Field channel between outlet and their holding Existence of field channels enables the farmers to get avail water without wastages. The following table gives the opinions of the farmers about the existence of field channels in the study area. Table – 4.56 Field channel between outlet and their holding

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 100 99 97 296 Yes (33.8) (33.4) (32.8) (100.0) 0 1 3 4 No (0.0) (25.0) (75.0) (100.0) 100 100 100 300 Total (33.3) (33.3) (33.3) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.56 shows the existence of field channels in the study area. The most important aspect of farming in the study area is that existence of field channels. The field channels are much operational in the head, middle and tail-end regions. Only in the tail-end region, a very small section of the farmers felt that they are handicapped by non existence of field channel. The mere existence of field channels will not ensure water use efficiency. The field channels are marred by silts, encroachments and sand slides. They effectively prevent the free flow of water in the field channels.

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Excavation of Field Channel Excavation and renovation of field channels are carried out by the farmers themselves. The following table gives information about the periodicity of the excavation and renovation of field channels carried out by the farmers in the study area. Table – 4.57 Excavation of Field Channel Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 58 71 71 200 Every year one time (29.0) (35.5) (35.5) (100.0) 39 24 20 83 Every year two times (47.0) (28.9) (24.1) (100.0) 0 1 5 6 Every two years one time (0.0) (16.7) (83.3) (100.0) 3 3 1 7 Every two years two times (42.9) (42.9) (14.2) (100.0) Total 100 99 97 296 Percentage (33.8) (33.4) (32.8) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.57 shows the nature and frequency of excavation works undertaken by the farmers. In the head region 29 per cent of the farmers felt that excavation is done once in a year and 39 per cent farmers felt that the work is done twice in a year. The farmers in middle region expressed the same view, 35.5 per cent felt that renovation work is done once in a year. In the tail-end region the excavation work is quite good. In this region 35.5 per cent of the farmers stated that the excavation work is done once in a year and 24.1 per cent of the farmers felt that excavation is periodically carried out in this area, but they are not done effectively. The excavation work is done on only piece meal manner and not on permanent way.

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Chi –Square Test for Regions and Periodicity of Excavation Work Chi-square test is used to relate the different regions of the study area and the periodicity of excavation work done. The results of the Chi-square are given in the following table. Table – 4.58 Chi-Square Test for Regions and Periodicity of Excavation Work

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-square 17.059 6 .009

Likelihood Ratio 17.757 6 .007

Linear-by-Linear Association 2.298 1 .130

N of Valid Cases 296

The table 4.58 shows that the periodicity of doing excavation work and the different regions of the farm holdings. The Pearson Chi-Square coefficient is .009 which is lower than .05 which shows that there is statistically significant relation between regions and the periodicity of doing excavation works. Even though excavation work is done in all the three regions and it is not uniform in all the regions.

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Cost of Irrigation The water use efficiency of farmers hinges on the efforts taken by the farmers to maintain their irrigation structure. It involves cost. The following table gives details about the various sources of financing the cost of irrigation. Table – 4.59 Cost of Irrigation

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end

88 94 96 278 Own fund (31.7) (33.8) (34.5) (100.0)

8 2 2 12 Project fund (66.6) (16.7) (16.7) (100.0)

3 2 3 8 Both (37.5) (25.0) (37.5) (100.0)

1 0 0 1 Tail-end farmers (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) (100.0)

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.59 shows the cost of irrigation incurred by the 300 farmers through own funds, project funds, both own funds and project funds. In all the regions farmers had spent on irrigation from their own funds. A majority of the farmers (278) had spent on irrigation from their own funds. The cost of irrigation is relatively high for the farmers in the tail-end region and 96 farmers had very high cost of irrigation. The farmers in this region often experiences water scarcity and they are forced to spent money for getting water from the land owners having electric motors / diesel engines. The project funded irrigation which comes from the government is not popular in the study area. The Tamil Nadu governments’ “Namakku Namme” is proved to be the non starter in this area. Only in few areas both governments (Local bodies and State government) and individual farmers collectively undertake irrigation works and borne the cost jointly.

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Amount spent by the respondents to maintain field channels Farmers have been spending money to maintain field channels. The cost incurred by the farmers to maintain field channel is given in the following table. Table – 4.60 Amount spent by the respondents to maintain field channels Regions Amount in ``` Total Head Middle Tail-end 19 18 14 51 100 (37.3) (35.3) (27.4) (100.0) 8 0 0 8 150 (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) 30 31 28 89 200 (33.7) (34.8) (31.5) (100.0) 0 3 1 4 250 (0.0) (75.0) (25.0) (100.0) 11 16 10 37 300 (29.7) (43.2) (27.0) (100.0) 0 0 1 1 350 (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) (100.0) 6 7 16 29 400 (20.7) (24.1) (55.2) (100.0) 8 11 16 35 500 (22.9) (31.4) (45.7) (100.0) 4 2 4 10 600 (40.0) (20.0) (40.0) (100.0) 0 2 1 3 700 (0.0) (66.7) (33.3) (100.0) 0 0 3 3 750 (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) (100.0) 1 0 2 3 800 (33.3) (0.0) (66.7) (100.0) 3 5 1 9 1000 (33.3) (55.6) (11.1) (100.0) 1 1 0 2 1500 (50.0) (50.0) (0.0) (100.0) 91 96 97 284 Total (32.0) (33.8) (34.2) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

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The table 4.60 given above shows the amount of money spent by the respondents for repairing and maintaining the field channels. The table clearly shows that 284 respondents had incurred expenditure on maintaining the field channels. The amount varies from ` 100 to ` 1500 per year. Majority of respondents (89) spent ` 200 and 51 respondents spent just ` 100 per acre for maintenance. The over all inference from the analysis indicates that the amount earmarked by the respondents to maintain field channel is very paltry. This has led to the poor maintenance of field channels in the study area. As a consequence there is a wastage of canal water and seriously undermines water use efficiency.

Table – 4.61 Chi-Square Test for Regions and the Amount Spent on Field Channels

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-square 47.582 26 .006

Likelihood Ratio 52.672 26 .001

Linear-by-Linear Association 2.106 1 .147

N of Valid Cases 284

Source: Compiled from primary data

The Chi-Square table 4.61 shows that there is a significant difference between the farmers in the region and the amount spent on improving the field channels. The calculated value of Chi-Square is .006 which is lower than 0.05 so there is a statistically significant relation between the farmers in the three regions and the amount spent on field channels. The amount spent varies considerably from ` 100 to ` 1500 and it has led to the significant differences.

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Field channel was not excavated Field channels are maintained properly by the farmers themselves. The following table lists the reasons for not excavating the field channels. Table – 4.62 Reasons for not Excavating the Field Channels

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end

1 0 0 1 Lack of cooperation among farmers (100) (0.0) (0.0) (100)

0 0 0 0 Seeking government help (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0)

1 0 1 2 Use of pipeline from bore wells (50.0) (0.0) (50.0) (100.0)

2 0 1 3 Total (66.7) (0.0) (33.3) (100.0)

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.62 shows the major reasons for poor maintenance of field channels. The major reasons identified are lack of co-operative spirit among farmers and the use of pipeline through bore wells for irrigating the land. The most popular method of irrigation in the area is flooding and it has led to the water wastages and inefficient use of water.

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Water Supplied in this area Canal water is supplied during day time and night time. The following table shows the timing of water supply in the study area. Table – 4.63 Water Supplied in this area

S. Regions Particulars Total No. Head Middle Tail-end 0 0 0 0 1. Days only (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 0 0 0 0 2. Nights only (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 100 100 100 300 3. Both Days &Night (33.3) (33.3) (33.3) (100.0) 100 100 100 300 Total (33.3) (33.3) (33.3) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.63 shows the timing of water released during the season. The water is released for cultivation both in the day time and night time. Farmers prefer days only because it is convenient to them. Farmers actually get water thorough out the day and there are difficulties in the night irrigation. But the night irrigation is unavoidable. Farmers during night irrigation might be more vigilant otherwise breaches in the channels remain unnoticed. In the entire region water is released during day and night time. Practically it is not possible for the authorities to release water either in the day time or during night time.

202

Practice of Night Irrigation Cross table is constructed to relate the regions and the opinions of the respondents about the practice of night irrigation. Table – 4.64 Practice of Night Irrigation

Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 47 69 84 200 Yes (23.5) (34.5) (42.0) (100.0) 53 31 16 100 No (53.0) (31.0) (16.0) (100.0) 100 100 100 300 Total (33.3) (33.3) (33.3) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.64 explains the farmers’ practice of Night irrigation in the study area. The table shows that majority of the farmers (66.66 per cent) practice night irrigation and only 33.33 per cent of the farmers stated that they practice only day irrigation. The night irrigation is very popular in middle and tail-end regions and less popular in the head region. Farmers in the Head region have the privilege of first use. They have the advantage of day irrigation but the middle and tail-end region farmers have to practice night irrigation due to the non availability of water in the canal.

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Farmers Practicing Night Irrigation Night irrigation is widely practiced by farmers in the study area. There are obvious reasons for the practice of night irrigation and they are given in the following table. Table – 4.65 Farmers Practicing Night Irrigation Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end 29 64 79 172 Easy to Tail-end areas (16.9) (37.2) (45.9) (100.0) 25 14 31 70 Less disturbance to farmers (35.7) (20.0) (44.3) (100.0) 0 0 1 1 Less evaporation losses (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) (100.0) 12 6 5 23 Getting full of the water of that channel (52.2) (26.1) (21.7) (100.0) 0 0 0 0 Good to the crops (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 66 84 116 266 Total (24.8) (31.6) (43.6) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.65 shows the practice of night irrigation by the farmers in the study area. There are 5 important reasons for practicing night irrigation. There are 266 farmers practice night irrigation. The major reason for using the night irrigation by the farmers is less disturbances to the farmers during night. This factor is the primary reason for the farmers for the use of night irrigation. Majority of the farmers prefer night irrigation because it is smooth and fast due to moisture and water also reaches every nook and corner of the land very quickly. This opinion is shared by 16.9 per cent of the farmers in the head region, 37.2 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 45.9 per cent of the farmer in the tail-end region. The flow of water is swift and copious flow of water is available during night. This view shared by 52.2 per cent of farmers in the head region, 26.1 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 21.7 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region. There is less evaporation during night than day time. The night irrigation is more favourable by the farmers in the study area.

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Table – 4.66 Difficulties in Night Irrigation Regions Particulars Total Head Middle Tail-end Sleepless night affects other day 21 37 34 92 works (22.8) (40.2) (37.0) (100.0) Unknown biting of pests, snakes, 37 59 67 163 mosquitoes (22.7) (36.2) (41.1) (100.0) 6 4 24 34 Cold & shivering (17.6) (11.8) (70.6) (100.0) 4 8 10 22 Threaten from unknown people (18.2) (36.4) (45.5) (100.0) Seepage and breaches can not be 21 13 24 58 monitored and checked (36.2) (22.4) (41.4) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.66 gives an account of the problems encountered by the farmers during night irrigation. The major difficulty of night irrigation pointed out by respondents is the possibility of snake bites and the problems due to pests and mosquitoes. This problem is experienced by 22.7 per cent of the farmers in the head region, 36.2 per cent of the middle region and 41.1 per cent of the farmers in the tail- end region. Another major problem of night irrigation is the loss of sleep. This has led to the physical exhaustion and the farmers engaged in night irrigation are not able to perform farm work during day time. This opinion is shared by 22.8 per cent of the farmers in the head region, 40.2 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 37.0 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region. The third important difficulty of night irrigation is the non noticed breaches and seepages in the field channels. The breaches and seepages are not visible during night time and it may lead to waste of water. Even they are noticed it is not easy during night time to stop the leakages. Farmers also expressed the view that they experience extreme cold and shivering during night irrigation. In some villages night time is not very safe and some farmers opined that the night time work is not safe and they may face some physical assault or threats from enemies or unknown people.

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Usage Efficiency Problems related to Irrigation Apart from conveyance efficiency the usage efficiency of water is significant in improving the farm yield. The following table lists the problems faced by the farmers in using water. Table – 4.67 Problems related to Irrigation

Problems in delivery of water Irrigation Need Holes within Region through separate the field Any Total Encroachment drainage drainage channel and others channel canal distributaries 1 2 1 0 0 4 Head (25.0) (50.0) (25.0) (0.0) (0.0) (100.0) 0 4 0 0 1 5 Middle (0.0) (80.0) (0.0) (0.0) (20.0) (100.0) 0 5 1 1 0 7 Tail-end (0.0) (71.4) (14.3) (14.3) (0.0) (100.0) 1 11 2 1 1 16 Total (6.2) (68.7) (12.5) (6.2) (6.2) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.67 shows that water use efficiency of the farmers of the Pullambadi canal is impaired by several structural deficiencies. The irrigation structure lacks several facilities which led to the inefficient use of canal water. In the study area irrigation is done by drainage channels and separate channels for irrigation are absent. This has led to water wastage and this opinion is shared by 6.2 per cent of the farmers. The major difficulty of availing and utilizing the water is the encroachments made by some farmers. The encroachments are in the form of using the field channels for planting trees like banana and coconut, reducing the bunds of the field channels and using the lands for the cultivation. The encroachment of the farmers is a major hitch to 68.7 per cent of the farmers. In this connection Water Users Association (WUA) plays crucial role to remove the encroachments. If the WUAs are defunct the government has to initiate measures to remove the encroachments of lands now under the custody of some farmers. The study area is

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handicapped by the absence of separate distributaries and this problem is expressed by 12.5 per cent of the farmers. Similarly 6.2 per cent of the farmers felt that they need separate drainage channel, to avoid the excess water and water logging. Absence of irrigation channels adversely effect the crop yields and the submerged crops also prone to various pest attacks. A small section of the farmers i.e., 6.2 per cent felt that individuals near by field channels and distributaries are making holes in the field channels and distributaries to irrigate their land. The farmers in the study area felt that auction of lakes and tanks for fishing purpose prevents them from using the water when they require most. Similarly water released from the tanks after fishing damages crops and affects the crop yield also. This is a very serious problem which is not addressed by the government.

Extralegal practices There are extra legal practices followed by the farmers to utilize the scarce water. The following table gives the extra legal practices followed by the farmers in the study area.

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Table – 4.68 Extralegal Practices

Breaking or Farmers Obstructions Taking water Illegal outlets cutting the field taking more Damage to Damage to placed in the on another’s in the minor Particulars channel while water than field channel field channel minor to turn without or breaking other farmer is their regular by cattles by man raise the permission banks using water turn allows water level 59 42 42 41 42 42 41 Never (19.7) (14.0) (14.0) (13.7) (14.0) (14.0) (13.7)

107 121 121 121 121 121 121 Rarely (35.7) (40.3) (40.3) (40.3) (40.3) (40.3) (40.3)

79 84 84 84 84 84 84 Sometimes (26.3) (28.0) (28.0) (28.0) (28.0) (28.0) (28.0)

55 53 53 54 53 53 54 Usually (18.3) (17.7) (17.7) (18.0) (17.7) (17.7) (18.0)

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

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The table 4.68 shows that the farmers indulge in extra legal practices which undermine the efficient use of water. The researcher identified seven important extralegal practices of the respondents in the study area. It is clear from the above table that 18.3 per cent of the farmers indulge in the illegal practice of taking water on another’s turn without permission. 17.7 per cent of the farmers break or cut the field channel while the other farmers are using the water, 17.7 per cent of the farmers make illegal outlets or breath the bunds to get others water, 18.0 per cent of the farmers use water in excess of their requirement and more than their turn allows. 17.7 per cent of the farmer allow the cattles to damage the field channels, 17.7 per cent of the farmers agreed that damages are done by the farmers wantonly to the field channels to take water illegally and 18.0 per cent of the farmers felt that obstructions in the form of wooden blocks, stones are placed in the channels to get the water stagnated and obstruct the free flow of water and to use water for their lands. The study reveals that a sizeable section of the farmers in the study area is experiencing the hardships due to the large scale violation of accepted practices of irrigation. The gross violation of rules and regulations of turn system and erosion of moral values accentuated the problem of water use in the study area. If the farmers stick on to their rules of turn system and if they follow healthy practices of irrigating their land and also allow others to irrigate their land, the problem of water shortages can be managed efficiently and water use efficiency will also increase considerably.

Volume of Information received by the respondents The farmers seek information about the quantum of water and the timing of water supply from the canal. The following table gives particulars about opinion of farmers about the information received by them about canal water availability.

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Table - 4.69 Volume of Information Received by the Respondents

Agricultural Nature of Information Seasonal water operations and Water use Revenue payment Canal closer supply S. practices (use of practice dates dates information No. inputs)

Particulars H M T H M T H M T H M T H M T

1. Highly satisfied 12 2 2 13 0 2 8 0 2 10 0 2 11 1 2

2. Satisfied 33 27 26 29 27 26 32 27 26 33 27 26 33 26 26

3. Neutral ------

4. A little 25 14 8 25 15 8 27 13 8 25 13 8 25 13 8

Not at all 30 57 64 33 58 64 33 60 64 32 60 64 31 60 64

Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Compiled from primary data

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The table 4.69 shows the respondents’ opinions and reactions about the nature and extent of information received by them from the Public Works Department and official machinery incharge of the maintenance and operating of the Pullampadi canal. The information needed by the farmers is classified into 5 heads. a) Seasonal water supply information b) Agricultural operations and practices (use of inputs) c) Water use practice d) Revenue payment dates and e) Canal closer dates. The responses of the farmers are ranked in a five point scale. The above table shows clearly majority of the farmers are not satisfied with the information provided by the authorities. In case of information related to seasonal water supply information 55 per cent of the farmers in the head region. 71 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 72 per cent of the farmers tail-end region felt that the information are not up to their expected level and insufficient and unreliable. Similarly with regard to agricultural operation and practices 58 per cent of the farmers in the head region, 73 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 72 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region felt that the information about them are inadequate. The third significant information needed by the farmers is water use practice, here also 60 per cent of the farmers in the head region, 73 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 72 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region are not satisfied with the information supplied by the state agriculture department with regard to the payment of land revenue details supplied by the village administrative officer and Thazildars. It is inferred that 57 per cent of the respondents in the head region, 73 per cent of the respondents in the middle region and 72 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region are not satisfied with the information provided by them. The another significant aspect very much essential for the optimum use of water use is opening and closing dates of canal. But this information is not reaching a sizeable section of the farmers. This view is shared by 56 per cent of the head region farmers, 73 per cent of the middle region farmers and 72 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region. They felt that there is lot of ambiguity in the opening and closing dates of the Pullambadi canal. They want a more transparent method by which the information should be communicated to farming community. The lack of information about the opening and closing dates of Pullambadi canal adversely affect the cropping plans and optimum cropping plan could not be thought of by the farmers.

Irrigation Efficiency The following table depicts the irrigation efficiency through the cost of irrigation borne by the farmers in the study area. The various items of irrigation cost are vividly given in the following table.

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Table – 4.70 Irrigation Efficiency Regions S. Head Middle Tail-end Total Particulars No. No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount Reps. (in ```) Reps. (in ```) Reps. (in ```) Reps. (in ```) 1 Monthly normal expenditure (as running cost) 11 1950.00 9 2644.44 14 1421.43 34 6015.87 2 Annul maintenance cost 19 2289.47 24 3895.83 34 3079.41 77 9264.71 3 Monthly normal expenditure (as running cost) 3 1600.00 1 500.00 1 1000.00 5 3100 4 Annual maintenance cost 3 1833.33 3 1668.00 1 1500.00 7 5001.33 5 Field channel excavated cost 91 291.21 96 322.40 97 339.69 284 953.3 6 Water purchased 1 3,00 2 2.75 20 2.00 23 7.75 7 Investment on bore well/well 23 12982.61 34 20717.65 50 22690.00 107 56390.26 Investment on water lift devices 8 (motor/engine, pipes, installation and other 23 12369.57 34 15926.47 50 18600.00 107 46896.04 charges) Additional investment made (with description, 9 21 13833.33 33 60303.03 47 58148.94 101 132285.3 additional HP used, pipe installed) 10 Deposit paid for the power connection 1 40000.00 1 500.00 2 25000.00 4 65500 11 Investment on bore well/well 3 35000.00 2 31000.00 3 11666.67 8 77666.67 Investment on water lift devices 12 (motor/engine, pipes, installation and other 1 5000.00 2 15000.00 3 18333.33 6 38333.33 charges) Additional investment made (with description, 13 2 30000.00 - - 3 12666.67 5 42666.67 additional HP used, pipe installed) Source: Complied from primary data

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The table 4.70 shows that farmers spent a considerable sum of money on irrigation. In all three regions investment on bore well is the major component of the irrigation cost borne by the farmers. Water use Efficiency of the study area The water use efficiency estimates the farm productivity and income of the respondents. The water use efficiency is gauged only from economic interpretation of cost involved in acquiring water and resultant benefit accrued to the farmers in terms of yield. Table – 4.71 Water Use Efficiency of the Study Area Irrigation Type of Regions No. of Respondents Variation Efficiency Head 100 68.0775 2.44 Middle 100 70.4599 1.73 Tail-end 100 80.2844 4.23 Total 300 72.9406 Source: Compiled from primary data The table 4.71 shows the water use efficiency of the farmers in the study area. The water use efficiency index is a summary measure of farmers’ abilities to put the water into best possible use in order to optimize their farm income. It is a composite index which depends on variety of factors including farmers psychological factors like farmers drive awareness and enthusiasm to put this scarce input to optimum use. Better agronomic practices, viz., technology adoption, appropriate cropping pattern, existence of field and drainage channels, effective working of Water Users Association (WUA) and proactive government policies are some of the positive factors which will sustain and enhance water use efficiency of the farmers. The pull factors of the water use efficiency are wastages of water due to preaching of irrigation and field channels, inappropriate cropping pattern, poor maintenance of lakes and tanks, encroachment of the people on canals, wrong policies of the government in auctioning the tanks and ponds for fishing when water is the dire need of the farmers and the farmers lackadaisical adoption of latest irrigation technologies. The water use efficiency index differs widely among farmers and regions. On the basis of availability of canal water for irrigation, the study area is classified in to head, middle and tail-end regions based on the availability and accessibility of the canal water. The

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water use efficiency index is viewed from basis of economic interpretation attached to the use of water. It is the ratio of gross income of the respondents and the total irrigation cost incurred by the farmers for irrigation. Paddy and Sugar cane are the major crops cultivated in the study area. So water use efficiency is computed for them. The above table 4.71 also shows the water use efficiency of farmers in the three regions. The water use efficiency measured is in terms of return from water for an acre shows considerable differences among the three regions. The water starved tail-end region farmers accomplish a greater water use efficiency index compared to other regions. The water use efficiency index of tail-end farmers is 80.28 per cent and the middle region farmers have 70.45 per cent and head region farmers have 68.07. The water use efficiency index of the tail-end farmers is very high due to farmers anxiety and seriousness to put the limited amount of water available to maximize their yield and thereby their farm income. The farmers in the tail-end region plan and execute better and healthy practices of farming viz., selection of suitable crop, subject to water availability, better farm management and endure to reduce wastages of water. The farmers in the head region had the privilege of using more water and endowed with the availability of water for four months are having the water use efficiency of only 68.07 and this is very low compared to other two regions. The low water use efficiency is due to variety of factors. The farmers in this region cultivate long duration paddy crops and the absence of farmers drive to minimize the water use. This ultimately has resulted in more irrigation cost. The return from the Paddy crop is not incommensurate with the cost incurred for irrigation. This fact is reflected in the low level of water use efficiency in the head region. The farmers in the middle region have the water use efficiency index of 70.45. The higher water use efficiency index is attributed to the storage of water in lakes and tanks in the area. The middle region is marked by the presence of large number of lakes and tanks. These reservoirs of water provide cushion to farmers at the time of water stress and also prevent water runoff. The farmers in this region able to use water better due to the existence of tanks and lakes. This is evidenced by the fact that they are having higher WUE index to head region. The overall water use efficiency index is 72.94 per cent which is very high compared to the water use efficiency of farmers in India. The water use efficiency of

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farmers in India is only 60 per cent but in the study area the overall water use efficiency index is 72.94 per cent which is considerably higher than the national average. The second hypothesis which states that the water use efficiency differs widely among farmers in the study area. The Table 4.71 which shows the water use efficiency of farmers in the study area revealed that water use efficiency varies widely among the farmers of the different regions. The variation in the water use efficiency is measured through Standard deviation. The Standard deviation ranges from 1.73 to 4.23. The second hypothesis which states that the water use efficiency differs widely among farmers is proved correct due to marked variations in the water use efficiency observed in the study area .

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Regression Model for Water Use Efficiency Multiple regression analysis is used to find out the causal relationship between water use efficiency and the independent factors viz., mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides, seed cost and labour cost. Table – 4.72 Regression Model for Water Use Efficiency

Unstandardised Standardised coefficients coefficients Model t sign В Std. Error Beta

Constant 14509.580 1701.365 - 8.528 .000

Mechanisation 326.154 230.633 .104 1.414 .159

Fertilisers and .579 .289 .150 2.001 .047 Pesticides

Seed 4.929 1.558 .338 3.162 .002

Labour cost -1.611 .782 -.218 -2.061 .041

Regression Model Summary

Model R R2 Adjusted

1 0.92 0.84 0.80

The table 4.72 shows water use efficiency which is expressed in terms of economic interpretation of Returns and Cost incurred for water use depends of variety of factors. The regression analysis shows that the dependent variable water use efficiency is dependent on independent variables such as labour cost, fertilizers and pesticides used, extend of mechanization and the types of seed used. The results of the regression analysis show that all the variables have significantly related to water use efficiency of the farmers in the study area. To enhance water use efficiency, farmers must be judicious in using the labour, fertilizers and pesticides, technology and

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appropriate seeds. Labour cost is negatively related to water use efficiency. It shows the expenditure on labour significantly reduce the return from the farm since labour cost is the major component of cost of cultivation of farmers. The type of technology adopted by the farmers holds the key for improving the water use efficiency. If the farmers adopt better irrigation techniques, field channels, drainage channels and better maintenance of rivulets and sluices, it will considerably increase the water use efficiency by reducing wastages of water. Similarly, the selection of appropriate seed on the basis of water availability is also an important factor determining the water use efficiency. This calls forth short duration crops. The adjusted R 2 in 0.80, which shows higher level of goodness of fit of the regression estimates. It implies that 80 per cent of the variation in the Water Use Efficiency Index (WUI) is caused by the independent factors included in the regression model. The model clearly reveals the fact that mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides, seed and labour cost are decisively influencing the water use efficiency of farmers in the study area.

The Impact of Irrigation on Farm Investment The impact of irrigation on farm investment is given in the following table.

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Table – 4.73 The Impact of Irrigation on Farm Investment Marginal Small Medium Total Particulars No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount No. of Amount Farmers in ``` Farmers in ``` Farmers in ``` Farmers in ``` Plough (wooden) 2 625 4 1300 1 418 7 2343 Cart 1 22000 8 168000 3 64840 12 254840 Leveler - - 2 15075 1 8740 3 23815 Chara cutter 1 120 1 130 - - 2 250 Spade 105 12900 163 16300 16 11000 284 40200 Sprayer - - 3 6000 32 64000 36 70000 Tractor 1 75000 10 774000 3 240000 14 1089000 Trailer - - 12 680000 3 220000 15 900000 Tipper 2 91500 11 333240 8 244870 21 669610 Cultivator - - 1 40000 - - 1 40000 Cycle 100 16260 151 151248 13 6000 264 173508 Two wheeler 22 20591 95 988242 17 172114 134 1180947 Motor sprayer - - - - 2 2650 2 2650 Weeding tool - - 1 1500 - - 1 1500 Others 1 15000 1 5000 - - 2 20000 Source: Compiled from primary data

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The table 4.73 shows the impact of irrigation on farm investments. The farm investment includes traditional implements of plough, cart, spade, leveler, chara cutter, and sprayer. The farmers also invest in modern implements such as tractor, trailer, tipper, cultivator, power tiller, cycle, two wheeler, motor sprayer, weeding tool and others. In order to improve the transportation of produce from the land to the market they use farm income to invest in two wheelers, cycles and mini autos. These vehicles enable farmers not only to transport commodities but also manage their farm operations effectively. Besides they invest in small farm implements to improve their farming operations. They invest in motor sprayer, harrow, and thresher, marker tool for Intensive Rice Scheme and weeding tool. The major source of investment of farmers in the study area is ploughing back of their hard earned farm income to the farm itself and it augurs well for the farm sector. The public investment for the farm sector has been steeply fallen in the recent years as evidenced by the budget allocation. The fall in the public investment is compensated to some extent by farmers’ reinvesting behaviour.

Institutional Arrangement The most important institutional arrangement which brings all the farmers under the same is Water Users Association. The following table gives opinions of the respondents about the functioning of Water Users Associations in the study area. Table – 4.74 Institutional Arrangement S. Water Users Association No. of Respondents Percentage No. 1. Yes 202 67.3 2. No 98 32.7 Total 300 100.0 Source: Compiled from primary data The table 4.74 explains the opinions of the respondents about the institutional arrangement in vogue for effective use of canal water. The most important institutional arrangement is Water Users Association (WUA). It is endorsed by 67.3 per cent of the farmers in the study area and 32.7 per cent of the farmers felt that there is no effective WUA exist in the area. The inference is that majority of the farmers accept the role of WUA as an institutional arrangement to settle their disputes and share the water efficiently and amicably among them.

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Constitution of Water Users Association Water Users Associations were started in the study as early in 1983. There are 12 Water Users Associations functioning in the area. The following table gives origin and growth of Water Users Associations in the study area. Table – 4.75 Constitution of Water User Association

No. of Water Users Year Percentage Association

1983 1 8.3

1993 1 8.3

2000 3 25.0

2001 1 8.3

2002 4 33.3

2008 1 8.3

2010 1 8.3

Total 12 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.75 shows the origin and growth of WUA in the study area. The WUA is started in 1983 and the study area and right now 12 WUAs are functioning. In 2002 alone 4 WUAs were constituted. The irrigation potential of the area is sprawling and it is important to have WUA to coordinate the activities of the farmers.

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Participation of Irrigation Department Officials in the Water Users Association Meeting

Irrigation department officials are the important stakeholders in the management of Pullambadi canal water. The following table shows the extent of participation of irrigation department officials in the Water Users Association meetings. Table – 4.76 Participation of Irrigation Department Officials in the Water Users Association Meeting

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Yes 70 35.0

2. No 132 65.0

Total 202 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.76 shows the extent of participation of Irrigation Department officials in the WUA meetings. It is clear from the above table that 65.0 per cent of the farmers felt that the officials are not keen to attend meetings of WUA. This shows the apathy of government officials in solving the problems of farmers.

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Functioning of Water Users Association Water Users Associations in the study area play an important role in sharing and using the water in the study area. The following table depicts the opinions of the respondents about the efficacy of Water Users Association. Table – 4.77 Functioning of Water Users Association

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Yes 58 28.7

2. No 144 71.3

Total 202 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.77 furnishes the information about functioning of WUA. The functioning of WUA is recognized and appreciated only by 28.7 per cent of the respondents, rest of the 71.3 per cent of the farmers disillusioned with the working of WUA. In order to get public patronage WUA should work efficiently to settle the issues of farmers.

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Reasons for not forming of Water Users Association Water Users Associations cease to exist in many areas. The reasons for not forming the Water Users Association are given in the following table. Table – 4.78 Reasons for not forming of Water Users Association

S. No. of Particulars Percentage No. Respondents

No communication from the Agricultural 1. 31 31.6 department

2. Non cooperation among farmers 14 14.3

3. Lack of motivation among farmers 41 41.8

4. Others 12 12.3

Total 98 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.78 reveals that reasons for not forming WUA in the study area. The forming of WUA is not mandatory. The study revealed that 31.6 per cent of the farmers expressed the opinion that there is no word or direction from the officials to start WUA, 41.8 per cent for the farmers feel that there is no initiative and enthusiasm on the part of the farmers to start WUA. Lack of interest among farmers is the major constraint in forming WUA. These are the major reasons according to farmers for not starting WUA in the study area.

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Suggestions to form Water Users Association Farmers perceive Water Users Associations are important to foster a sense of co-operative spirit among the farming community. The following table gives the suggestions provided by the farmers to form Water Users Association. Table – 4.79 Suggestions to form Water Users Association

S. No. of Particulars Percentage No. Respondents

Government should create awareness 1. 86 87.7 programmes to the farmers

Renewable of Association due to lack of 2. 5 5.1 knowledge on Auditing

3. Need more good people 4 4.1

4. Involve NGO’s 3 3.1

Total 98 100

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.79 mentions the suggestions given by the farmers to form WUA in the study area. The respondents feel that the government’s luke warm interest in supporting the WUA should be removed and government must come forward to help to form WUA. Some of the members feel that the association should be renewed and strengthened and the members should be taught in accounting procedures. The third suggestion for starting WUA is that WUA enroll members with societary interests who want to settle their issues without hatred and selfishness.

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Training Programme for Water Users Association Members Training improves skill and quality of workforce. Effective Training should be given to the members of the water Users Association. The following table shows particulars related to the training programmes conducted in the study area. Table – 4.80 Training Programme for Water Users Association Members

S. Training Programmes No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1 Yes 16 7.9

2 No 186 92.1

Total 202 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.80 presents the opinion of the farmers about the conduct of training programmes in the study area. It is clear from the above table that 92.1 per cent of the farmers feel training progarmmes are not conducted properly and only 7.9 per cent of the farmers feel that the training programmes are conducted regularly and periodically for the members of WUA.

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Meeting took place under Water Users Association Meetings of the Water Users Associations are conducted periodically to share information and to plan cropping pattern. The following table shows the periodicity of meetings conducted by the Water Users Associations. Table – 4.81 Meeting took place under Water Users Association

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Once in a year 16 42.2

2. Twice in a year 6 15.8

3. Three times in a year 8 21.0

4. More than three times in a year 8 21.0

Total 38 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.81 shows the frequency of conducting WUA meetings by the farmers. The meeting was conducted only once in a year according to 42.2 per cent of the members of the WUA and 21.0 per cent of the members felt it is conducted three times in a year and the same percentage of respondents expressed the view of the meeting of WUA meetings is conducted more than 3 times in a year. Only 15.8 per cent of the respondents felt that it is conducted only twice in a year. If members meet frequently under common platform their problems will be redressed better.

Role of Water Users Association The opinion of the sample respondents about the role of Water Users Association are recorded with the help of 5 point scale. The following table furnishes the opinions of respondents about the role of Water Users Association in the study area.

226 Table – 4.82 Opinions of Respondents about the Role of Water Users Association Motivating the Plan and Maintain an Preparation involvement execute the inventory of To regulate and of operational and unity Maintenance distributary Water Resource irrigation distribute water Type of Farmers plans at the among the of records and drainage budgeting mobilization system such as within its beginning of villagers and system field channels, command area each season committee maintenance tanks and wells members I. Marginal Farmers 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1. Highly satisfied (0.0) (4.8) (4.8) (4.8) (9.5) (4.8) (4.8) (4.8) 47 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 2. Satisfied (69.1) (14.3) (14.3) (19.0) (19.0) (14.3) (14.3) (14.3)

3. Neither 5 4 4 5 4 5 3 3 satisfied nor dissatisfied (7.4) (19.0) (19.0) (23.8) (19.0) (23.8) (14.3) (14.3) 14 13 13 11 11 12 14 14 4. Dissatisfied (20.6) (61.9) (61.9) (52.4) (52.4) (57.1) (66.7) (66.7) 5. Totally 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 dissatisfied (2.9) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) II. Small Farmers 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. Highly satisfied (0.0) (2.7) (2.7) (2.7) (2.7) (2.8) (2.7) (2.6) 0 9 10 10 12 8 8 8 2. Satisfied (0.0) (24.3) (27.0) (27.0) (32.4) (22.2) (21.6) (21.6) (Contd...)

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Motivating the Plan and Maintain an Preparation involvement execute the inventory of To regulate and of operational and unity Maintenance distributary Water Resource irrigation distribute water Type of Farmers plans at the among the of records and drainage budgeting mobilization system such as within its beginning of villagers and system field channels, command area each season committee maintenance tanks and wells members 3. Neither 0 0 1 4 3 6 3 2 satisfied nor (0.0) (0.0) (2.7) (10.8) (8.1) (16.7) (8.1) (5.3) dissatisfied 0 27 25 22 21 21 25 27 4. Dissatisfied (0.0) (73.0) (67.6) (59.5) (56.8) (58.3) (67.6) (71.1) 5. Totally 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 dissatisfied (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) (0) III. Medium Farmers 1. Highly 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 satisfied (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 0 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2. Satisfied (0.0) (10.0) (10.0) (10.0) (30.0) (20.0) (10.0) (10.0) 3. Neither 0 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 satisfied nor (0.0) (10.0) (10.5) (20.0) (20.0) (20.0) (10.0) (10.0) dissatisfied 0 8 7 7 5 6 8 8 4. Dissatisfied (0.0) (80.0) (70.0) (70.0) (50.0) (60.0) (80.0) (80.0) 5. Totally 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 dissatisfied (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

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The working of the water users association is viewed from the following factors 1. Preparation of operational plans at the beginning of each season,

2. Maintenance of records , 3. Plan and execute the distributary and drainage system maintenance , 4. Water budgeting, 5. Resource mobilization , 6. Maintain an inventory of irrigation system such as field channels, tanks and wells, 7. To regulate and distribute water within its command area, 8. Motivating the involvement and unity among the villagers and committee members.

Farmers in the study area formed Water Users Association to manage and share the scarce water available. Farmers inspite of their differences in their landholdings size, area came forward to form an organization to serve their interests better. The opinions of the respondents about the functioning of Water Users Association are elicited and they are recorded in five point scale viz., highly satisfied, satisfied, undecided, dissatisfied, and highly dissatisfied. The table 4.82 explains that all the farmers viz., marginal, medium and large expressed the view that they are not dissatisfied with the functioning of water users association. It is also observed that 66.7 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.1 per cent of small farmers and 80 per cent of medium farmers expressed their displeasure in the working of Water Users Association. Only a small section of marginal farmers (14.3 per cent), 21.6 per cent of small farmers and 10 per cent of the medium farmers felt that the WUA’s work is satisfactory. From this analysis it is clear that the WUA in the study area is not measuring up to the expectation of farmers in sharing the water at the time of distress.

With regard to preparation of operational plan at the beginning of each season 67.1 per cent of the farmers are satisfied with the role of WUA. Baring this aspect in all other aspects the role of WUA is not accepted by the farmers about the maintenance of records. It is observed that 61.9 per cent of the marginal farmers and 80 per cent of the medium farmers are dissatisfied with WUA. Similarly with maintenance of distributary and drainage facility 61.0 per cent of marginal farmers, 67.6 per cent of small farmers and 70.0 per cent of medium farmers are not satisfied. In preparing the water budget 52.4 per cent of marginal farmers, 59.4 per cent of small farmers and 70.0 per cent of medium farmers are unhappy with the WUA. In the resource mobilization also 52.4 per cent of marginal farmers, 56.8 per cent of

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small farmers and 50.0 per cent medium farmers are dissatisfied. With regard to maintenance of irrigation inventory 57.1 per cent marginal farmers, 58.3 per cent of small farmers and 60 per cent of medium farmers are not satisfied. Farmers are not satisfied in the regulation and distribution of water with in the command area. Marginal farmers (66.7 per cent), small farmers (67.6 per cent) and 80 per cent of medium farmers are not happy with the regulation and distribution of water.

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Financial Aspects Contribution of farmers towards the formation and working of WUA The success of the Water Users Association to improve water use efficiency depends on the contribution and involvement of farming community. The following table explains the contribution of farmers towards Water Users Association. Table – 4.83 Contribution of Farmers towards the formation and working of WUA

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Yes 46 22.1

2. No 162 77.9

Total 208 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.83 shows the financial contribution and labour made by the farmers towards the formation and working of WUA. It is clear that the majority of the farmers, 77.9 per cent had not contributed any thing to WUA and only a small section of the farmers (22.1 per cent) contributed financially and non-financially in the form of contributing their labour towards the formation and working of WUA. This is obvious from the analysis that the farmers are not inclined to contribute towards the formation and working of WUA in the study area. The lack of enthusiasm among the farmers towards WUA is preventing the farmers from using the water prudently.

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Farmers Contribution towards WUA Farmers’ involvement in the activities of the Water Users Association is viewed from two ways. One way is the contribution of members by money to sponsor the activities of Water Users Association and another way is in the form of labour spent on the activities of Water Users Association. Table – 4.84 Farmers Contribution towards WUA

S. Particulars No. of Respondents Percentage No.

1. Money 14 30.4

2. Labour 32 69.6

Total 46 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data.

The table 4.84 shows that the types of contribution made by the farmers towards the working of WUA. They contribute either in the form of money or labour towards building a viable and vibrant WUA. The table shows that 30.4 per cent of the farmers had contributed money and 69.6 per cent of the farmers had contributed labour. The contribution of farmers in the form of labour includes arranging meetings, enrolling members, making representations to the higher-ups and authorities about the water related issues. It also includes voluntary work done by farmers in renovating and repairing the rivulets and field channels. The table shows that the contribution of farmers in terms of labour is more pronounced than the contribution in the form of finance.

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Factors Lead to the Success of WUA Friedman Test Friedman test is non-parametric test to test whether there is significant difference in ranking of various causes for the success of WUA. The results are given below. Table – 4.85 Factors lead to the success of WUA

S. Assigned Particulars Rank No. Mean 1. Quality of local leadership 2.91 1 Frequent contact between officials and farmers for 2. 3.13 2 better guidance Any other (specify) less cooperation between leaders 3. 3.41 3 and farmers, separate WUA to the village Personal interest of local officials in terms of 4. sympathetic to the farmers’ problems, listen to their 3.78 4 complaints, be responsible to their needs. 5. High subsidy provided by the govt. 4.19 5 6. Easy unanimity among the farmers 4.81 6

7. Keeping watch over anarchic practices of cultivators 6.50 7

8. Countervailing voice against bribing 7.28 8 Source: Compiled from primary data The table 4.85 explains the factors responsible for the success of WUA in the study area. The Friedman test is used to rank the critical factors responsible for the successful working of the WUA. The table shows that there are 8 vital factors ranked on the basis of non-parametric Friedman test. The assigned mean values for the 8 factors are computed and they are shown in the table 4.85. The quality of local leadership is assigned the first rank for the successful working of WUA. Its assigned mean is 2.91. The second most important factor is the frequency of contacts and meeting between farmer representatives and officials for better guidance and redressal of their conflicts and it has a mean value of 3.13. The third crucial determinant is co-operation and coordination among factors to share the water at the time of scarcity and its mean value is 3.41. The other identified important factors with their means are:

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a) Personal interest of local authorities in terms of sympathetic approach to farmers’ problems, listen to their complaints and be responsible to their needs. (3.78) b) High subsidy provided by government (4.19) c) Easy unanimity among the farmers (4.81) d) High watch over anarchic practices of cultivators (6.50) and e) Countervailing voice against bribery (7.28). The Chi-square test shows that there is a significant difference between the 8 identified factors. The Chi- square corroborates the findings of Friedman test.

Table – 4.86 Chi-square Test for Prioritising the Factors Responsible for the Success of WUA

N 16

Chi-square 48.705

df 7

Asymp. Sig. .000

From the table 4.86, the significance value is ‘0’ which is less than 0.05; there is significant difference in prioritizing the ranks for the success of WUA.

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Factors lead to failure of the functioning of WUA Table – 4.87 Factors lead to failure of the functioning of WUA

S. Assigned Failure of WUA Rank No. Mean

Any other (specify) lack of cooperation among 1. 1.90 1 farmers in collection of money to start WUA

2. Ignorance about the sprit of WUA 2.20 2

Non-frequent interaction between officials and 3. 2.60 3 farmers

Lack of time for public works by the leaders 4. 3.30 4 due to their personal work

5. Lack of committed local leadership 5.00 5

Non-cooperation on the part of government or 6. 6.60 6 semi-government organizations

7. Hasty and unforeseen step by public agency 6.80 7

8. Frequent transfer of officials 7.60 8

Source: Compiled from primary data

The Non-parametric Friedman test is used to rank the factors according to their importance towards the failure of the functioning of WUA. The researcher identified 8 vital factors which account for the poor performance of the WUA in the study area. The Friedman test shows in the table 4.87 that lack of co-operation among farmers to pool their resources to form an effective WUA is the major bottleneck and it has led to the failure of WUA in the study area and it has a mean value of 1.90. The second factor is the lack of awareness among farmers about the benefits of having WUA and it has a mean value of 2.20. The third stumbling block is the absence of frequent interactions between farmers’ representatives and authorities and it has mean value of 2.60. The other major reasons attributed to the failure of WUA in the study area are a) Lack of time for public works by the leaders due to their personal work

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(mean value: 3.30) b) Lack of committed local leadership (mean value: 5.00) c) No coordination on the part of government or semi government organizations (mean value: 6.60) d) Hasty and unforeseen step by public agency (mean value: 6.80) and lastly e) The frequent transfer of officials (with mean value: 7.60). These 8 factors contributed to the failure of WUA in the study area. The WUA is not effectively functioning in the study area even though there are certain congenial factors working towards the successful working of WUA. The Chi-square test shows there is a significant difference among the factors responsible for the failure of WUA in the study area. The computed value is less than .05 so it is inferred that the factors are separate entities and the method of prioritizing is quite valid. This is shown in the table 4.88.

Table – 4.88 Chi-square Test for Prioritising the factors responsible for the Failure of Water Users Association

N 5

Chi-square 30.993

df 7

Asymp. Sig. .000

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Facilitating the Evolution of Water Users Association Water Users Associations are started in certain areas with the patronage of some agencies. The following table shows the agencies helping the formation of Water Users Association. Table – 4.89 Facilitating the Evolution of Water Users Association

S. No. of Particulars Percentage No. Respondents

1 Government 179 59.7

2 NABARD - -

3 Accelerated Irrigation Benefit programme - -

4 Funded project - -

5 No opinion 121 40.3

Total 300 100.0

Source: Compiled from primary data

There are no institutional agencies in Tamil Nadu which are responsible for the origin and development of WUA. The table 4.89 listed the factors accounting for the origin of WUA in the study area. It is observed that 59.7 per cent of the farmers in the study are holding the view that Government is extending its helping hand to form WUA and 40.3 per cent of the respondents have not expressed any opinion about factors facilitating evolution of WUA. But the other agencies and programme like NABARD, Accelerated Irrigated Development Programme and Projects undertaken by the private and public sector have bearing on the evolution of WUA. It is obvious that only government is facilitating the WUA.

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Working of Water Users Association (WUA) The opinions of the respondents about the working of Water Users Association are given in the following table. Table – 4.90 Working of Water Users Association (WUA)

Working of Water Users S. Association Region No. Highly Total Satisfied Unsatisfied Satisfied 2 46 52 100 1. Head (20.0) (46.0) (52.0) (100.0)

0 20 37 57 2. Middle (0.0) (35.1) (64.9) (100.0)

3 7 41 51 3. Tail-end (5.9) (13.7) (80.4) (100.0)

5 73 130 208 Total (2.4) (35.1) (62.5) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.90 shows the Region wise response of the farmers about the working of WUA in the study area. The responses of the farmers are condensed in the form of three responses viz., a) Highly satisfactory b) Satisfactory and c) Unsatisfactory. The inference is that the WUA is not satisfactory working in head, middle and tail-end regions. But there is a subtle difference among farmers about the working of WUA in the study area. Farmers in the head region in sizeable number appreciate the working of WUA. But farmers in the middle and tail-end regions overwhelmingly expressed displeasure and disappointment about the working of WUA. The unambiguous conclusion is that the opinions of the farmers of the three regions significantly differ about the working of WUA in the study area. The Chi- square test confirms the fact given in the previous table 4.90.

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Table – 4.91 Chi-square Test for Regions and Opinions of the Respondents of the Different Regions about the Working of Water Users Association

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided) Pearson Chi-square 30.070 4 .000 Likelihood Ratio 32.306 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 10.187 1 .001 N of valid cases 208

From the Chi-square tests table 4.91, the significance value is .000 which is less than 0.05; there is significant variation between different regions and the opinions of the respondents about the working of Water Users Association. The second hypothesis states that there is a significant variation among the farmers with regard to the functioning of Water Users Association. From the table 4.77 it can be inferred that 71.6 per cent of the respondents are satisfied with the functioning of Water Users Association and 28.4 per cent of the respondents dissatisfied with the functioning of Water Users Association. There is a wide variation among the farmers about the working of Water Users Association. The working of the Water Users Association on the basis of some will define criteria is given in the table 4.90. The analysis of the table shows that farmers differ widely on the different yardsticks of evaluating the functioning of Water Users Association. The Friedman test applied for prioritizing the causes for the success and failure of Water Users Association given in table 4.84 and table 4.85 shows that there is a marked variation among the farmers about the caused for the success or failure of Water Users Association. Finally the Chi-square test Table 4.91 applied to find out the relation between the farmers of different regions and the opinions of the farmers about the working of Water Users Association has shown that there is a significant variation between different regions and the opinions of the respondents about the working of Water Users Association. Hence the third hypothesis which states that there is a significant variation among farmers with regard to the functioning of Water Users Association is proved correct .

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Management of Uncertain Canal water Ranking Test Friedman Test When there is uncertain canal water farmers resort to certain strategies to mitigate the problem. The following table lists the strategies on the basis of their frequency of adoption are given in the following table. Table – 4.92 Management of Uncertain Canal water

S. Assigned Particulars Rank No. Mean

1 It should be delta region 1.46 1

2 Deepening, widening and desilting of tank 3.50 2

Distributary should be divided into two parts. One 3 part for upper situated lands another for lower lying 3.62 3 lands

4 Construction of new wells / pump sets using electricity 3.65 4

5 Go for less water-intensive crops 4.23 5

6 Purchase of water from seller 5.23 6

7 Leave the land of fallow in the absence of canal water 6.31 7

Source: Compiled from primary data

From the table 4.92, the first method of management of uncertain canal water in the Pullambadi canal region is the conversion of entire Pullambadi irrigation basin as delta region. The deepening, widening and desilting of tank in the Pullambadi canal region occupy the second rank. Farmers follow strategies like division of distributaries, construction of new wells, opting for less water intensive crops, purchasing of water from sellers and leaving of land as fallow to tide over uncertain canal water.

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Table – 4.93 Chi-square Test for Prioritizing the Methods to mitigate the Water Shortages

N 13

Chisquare 39.079

df 6

Asymp. Sig. .000

The table 4.93 shows that the significance value is ‘0’. Which is less than 0.05; there is significant difference in prioritising the ranks for the management of uncertain canal water. The table also explains the methods and ways followed by the farmers in managing the uncertain supply of Pullampadi canal water in the study area. There are seven important ways and means followed by farmers to mitigate the problems of water shortage arising due to erratic water supply. The Friedman test reveals the shortage can be managed better if the land is located in the delta region. The farmers in the delta region have the advantage of using water first so it is easy for them to manage the pitfalls in water supply better. The second important method of managing uncertain water availability is by deepening, widening and desilting of tanks. The third way of managing water is using the water to the lands located in the higher and upper areas first enable the farmers to use water judicious for upper and lower areas. The other important ways followed by farmers to optimize the water are a) construction of new well / pump sets using electricity / diesel b) adoption of cropping pattern using less water and c) purchase of water from the neighbours by paying irrigation fee and d) leaving the land as fallow and uncultivated land. The last method is the most undesirable method from the individual farmers as well as the national point of view. The fourth hypothesis states that the methods pursed by the farmers in the three regions in mitigating water shortages are quite distinct. The Chi-square test is used to find out association between the farmers of the three regions with their methods of mitigating water shortages. The Chi-square test

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given in the table 4.91 conclusively proved that farmers are quite distinct and different from each other in pursuing their methods in containing water shortages. The cropping pattern pursued by the farmers facing water shortages is proved that the cropping pattern followed by the farmers in the three regions are quite different. The results of the Friedman test (Table 4.92) corroborate the hypothesis. Hence it can be concluded that the fourth hypothesis is proved correct. The methods pursued by the farmers in the three regions in mitigating water shortages are quite distinct . The Chi-square test establishes the fact that the methods pursued by the farmers quite distinct. There is a significant difference among the farmers in prioritizing the methods at their disposal. Alternative crop(s) cultivated by farmers in future, if the water problem persists and aggravated in the entire region are given in the following table. Friedman test is used to rank the preferences of farmers in the selection of various alternative crops.

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Ranking Test Friedman Test Table – 4.94 Alternative Cropping Pattern

S. Particulars Assigned Mean Rank No.

1. Cumbu and Ragi 2.12 1

2. Sunflower 3.42 2

3. Gingelly 3.63 3

4. Maize 3.68 4

5. Cotton 4.68 5

6. Kotthamalli 5.34 6

7. Groundnut 6.97 7

8. Blackgram 7.41 8

9. Onion 7.74 9

Source: Compiled from primary data

From the table 4.94, it is inferred that there is significant difference in adoption of alternative crop(s) in future, if the water problem is aggravated in the entire region. The most important crop alternative crops cultivated by the farmers in the study area are Cumbu and Ragi. The other crops cultivated are Sunflower, Gingelly, Maize, Cotton, Kotthamalli, Groundnut, Blackgram and Onion.

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Table – 4.95 Chi-square Test for Alternative Cropping Pattern

N 38

Chisquare 162.550

Df 8

Asymp. Sig. .000

The table 4.95 gives the cropping pattern adopted by the farmers at the time of water distress. The change to alternative cropping pattern involving lesser use of water is one of the popular strategies followed by the farmers. The table shows that farmers cultivate crops like Cumbu and Ragi to tide over the water crisis. This helps them to earn income as well as to have alternative food items for their household consumption. The second popular crop cultivated is Sunflower, followed by Gingelly. The other crops cultivated in the study area with the lesser areas are Maize, Cotton, Kothamalli, Groundnut, Blackgram and Onion. From the table 4.95 the significance value is ‘0’ which is less than 0.05, which implies that there is significant difference among farmers in prioritising alternative crops(s) to be cultivated in future, if the water problem is aggravated in the entire region.

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Ranking Test Friedman Test Table – 4.96 Better Management of on going water problem in the entire region

S. Particulars Assigned Mean Rank No

1 Regular supply of electricity 1.33 1

2 Desilting of canal and lakes 3.00 2

3 Repair and maintenance of sluice 4.00 3

4 Integrated irrigation system 4.17 4

5 Any other 4.33 5

6 Modern techniques of irrigation 4.83 6

7 Check dam 6.33 7

Friedman test is used to rank the methods which are pursued by the farmers to reduce the ongoing water problem. The methods pursued by the farmers are listed on the basis of their frequency of adoption. From the table 4.96, the first important method is regular supply of electricity and the second being desilting of canal and lakes and the last one is construction of check dam.

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Table – 4.97 Chi-square Test for the Methods Suggested by the Respondents

N 3

Chisquare 9.418

Df 6

Asymp. Sig. .151

The table 4.97 points out the methods of solving the impasse of water in the study area. Friedman test shows that the current problem can be addressed efficiently by supplying uninterrupted power supply to the farmers. The farmers avail free electricity supply from the Tamil Nadu government. But the supply is beset with frequent power cuts. This mars the effective supply of water. So the farmers want uninterrupted power supply for their farming operations. The other methods suggested by farmers to settle the on going problems are a) Desilting of canals and tanks b) Repair and maintenance of sluice c) Integrated irrigation system d) Modern techniques of irrigation like drip and sprinkler and e) Construction of check dams. The table 4.97 also depicts that the significant value is .151 which is more than 0.05, there is no significant difference among the farmers in the methods to manage the ongoing water problem in the entire region.

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Financial Problem Farmers in addition to their own funds seek financial assistance from other sources. The following table lists the particulars about the sources of finance available to the farmers to meet out the cost of cultivation. Table – 4.98 Sources of Finance to meet out the cost of production

Loans Loans from Co-operative S. Personal from Regions friends Banks Society / No. Savings money and Banks lenders relatives 27 0 1 22 53 1 Head (38.6) (0.0) (11.1) (21.8) (41.1) 12 1 6 44 44 2 Middle (17.1) (100.0) (66.7) (43.6) (34.1) 31 0 2 35 32 3 Tail-end (44.3) (0.0) (22.2) (34.6) (24.8) 70 1 9 101 129 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.98 shows the sources through which the farmers met out their cost of cultivation. The major source of finance and credit for them is co-operative credit societies, particularly from the Primary Agricultural Credit Societies which are functioning in the rural areas. They provide the cheapest and the adequate credit. The next source of finance comes from own savings. The co-operative credit and owned funds of farmers constitute more than 55 per cent of their funds. The nationalized banks also provide a significant amount of credit to farmers in all the three regions. Money lenders who charge exorbitant rate of interest provide a sizeable amount of credit to the farmers. This clearly shows that still indigenous bankers and money lenders are a force to reckon with in the rural areas. It is clear from the above table that co-operatives, commercial banks and non banking financial institutions are very active in the rural areas in financing agriculture. It is clear that institutional agencies are not in a position to displace the money lenders from the rural financial market.

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Payment of Loans (Including Interest) Farmers are possessing the delinquent credit. The loans borrowed and the interests accrued to them are not repaid fully by the farmers. The farmers list the reasons for non-repayment of borrowings of farmers in the study area. Table – 4.99 Reasons for Non-Payment of Loans

Poor Low Expenditure administration of S. production Low Regions Subsidy on Kothari sugars, No. due to price education Diseases, earlier pests cooperative loan 7 3 2 5 1 1. Head (38.6) (23.0) (11.1) (21.8) (41.1) 5 6 11 6 0 2. Middle (17.1) (46.2) (66.7) (43.6) (34.1) 9 4 1 2 0 3. Tail-end (44.3) (30.8) (22.2) (34.6) (24.8) 21 13 14 14 1 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.99 states that the farmers in the study area have borrowed from co-operatives, commercial banks and non banking financial institutions. But the repayment performance of the farmers is quite satisfactory and majority of the farmers are very prompt in repaying the credit. The Non Performance Assets (NPA) of the commercial banks as reported by annual reports of the commercial banks is less than 5 per cent. The study reveals that there are no willful defaulters. The non repayment of credit obtained is found in all the regions. Out of 300 farmers surveyed 62 farmers have delinquent credit. The major reason for non repayment is low productivity due to pests and weeds. Another significant factor contributor to default is the expectation of farmers about waiving of loans and the concession they are anticipating from the government on the eve of state election. In some cases (14) non repayment is due to expansion of educational, low price of reduce and poor Kothari Sugar Factory administration, diseases and delayed loans. The last reason for not obtaining is loan is political intervention in the credit supply. Farmers having political clout and recommendation are able to get lion’s share in agricultural credit.

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Difficulties in Obtaining Loans The major problems faced by the farmers in obtaining the credit are: a) Procedural difficulties: The lending institutions follow cumbersome procedures which put the farmers in precarious condition. b) Untimely credit: The credit is not disbursed at right time, untimely credit delivery prevent the farmers from effective use of credit and c) Inefficient and ineffective agricultural credit society administration: Agricultural credit societies are well knitted in the rural areas. The partisan attitudes of the co-operative management prevent the deserving the farmers to avoid credit from the co-operatives.

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Income Spent The following table divulges information about the composition of income spent by the respondents in the study area. Table – 4.100 Income Spent

Partly on partly on S. Entirely on consumption consumption Regions No. consumption and partly on and partly on savings investment 10 15 74 1 Head (14.4) (37.5) (36.0) 33 8 68 2 Middle (48.0) (20.0) (33.0) 26 17 64 3 Tail-end (37.6) (42.5) (31.0) 69 40 206 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.100 shows the expenditure pattern of the respondents in the study area. This study reveals that some farmers in the study area spent a entire amount on consumption. The farmers in the head region spent 14.4 per cent, middle region 48 per cent and farmers in the tail-end region spent 37.6 per cent. A significant section of the farmers are able to save some portion of their income, 37.5 per cent of the farmers in the head region, 20 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 42.5 per cent of the farmers in tail-end region spent both on consumption and savings. But majority of the farmers in the study area are able to consume and invest on agriculture. The table reveals that 206 (68.7 per cent) farmers are in a position to plough back their income on agriculture. This augurs well for the agrarian economy and the investment made by farmers in agriculture bolster the employment and income of the farmers. This will culminate into agrarian prosperity which is the need of the hour.

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Savings Farmers in the study area save only meagre amount. The common method of savings is buying and repairing the agricultural implements. The following table shows the various types of savings undertaken by the farmers in the study area. Table – 4.101 Savings

With Investment Investment In real S. friends in Regions In Banks in other estate and No. and agriculture sectors jewellery relatives sector 10 0 51 33 3 1. Head (55.6) (0.0) (34.2) (34.0) (33.3) 0 0 37 35 6 2. Middle (0.0) (0.0) (24.8) (36.0) (66.7) 8 1 61 29 0 3. Tail-end (44.4) (100) (41.0) (30.0) (0.0) 18 1 149 97 9 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.101 shows the sources of savings available to the farmers. It is clear from the above table that 149 farmers invest their savings in agriculture. They invest in farm equipments, land reclamation and irrigation. The next important source of investment is investment made in other sectors like insurance, real estate and buying additional lands. This is practiced by 97 farmers and only 9 farmers invest their saving in buying jewellery. The farmers are quite hesitant to lend their money on friends and relatives. This analysis shows that the productive investment is very high in the study area and productive investment is made by large chunk of the farmers in the study area.

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Operation of Irrigation System under Canal In order to know if there is significant association between different regions (head, middle and tail-end) and the opinion about operation of irrigation system under canal, Chi-square analysis is used and the results are given below. The opinion of the respondents about the operation of irrigation system under Pullambadi canal is given in the following table. Table – 4.102 Operation of Irrigation System under Canal

S. Highly Regions Efficient Average Inefficient Total No. efficient 0 89 10 1 100 1 Head (0.0) (89.0) (10.0) (1.0) (100.0) 0 24 75 1 100 2 Middle (0.0) (24.0) (75.0) (1.0) (100.0) 0 18 80 2 100 3 Tail-end (0.0) (18.0) (80.0) (2.0) (100.0) 0 131 165 4 300 Total (0.0) (43.7) (55.0) (1.3) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.102 reveals that the opinion of farmers about the operation of irrigation system of Pullambadi canal. The table shows that 55 per cent of the farmers feel that the irrigation system is satisfactory but need vast improvement. The system is efficient to 43.7 per cent of the farmers and 1.3 per cent of the farmers felt that the system is totally inefficient. Even though the farmers expressed their opinion about the functioning of the system is satisfactory. They feel that there are certain issues to be addressed immediately. They are clearing encroachment, removing landslides, opening and closing of canal and auctioning lakes for fishing purposes.

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Chi–Square Test for Finding the Association between Regions and the Opinions of the Respondents about the Operation of Irrigation System

Chi-square test is used to find out the association between the respondents belonging to different regions and their opinions about the operation of the irrigation system of the Pullambadi canal. The results of the Chi-square test are given as under.

Table – 4.103 Chi–Square Test for Finding the Association between Regions and the Opinions of the Respondents about the Operation of Irrigation System

Asymp. Sig. Value df (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-square 126.962 4 .000

Likelihood Ratio 138.962 4 .000

Linear-by-Linear Association 95.401 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 300

The above given chi-square test table 4.103 shows that the significant value is ‘.0’ which is less than 0.05; it implies that there is significant association between different regions and the opinions of the respondents about operation of Pullambadi irrigation system.

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Wastage of Water below the Outlet The following table gives the opinion of the respondents about the wastages of canal water if any. Table – 4.104 Wastage of water below the outlet

Wastages of water below the outlet Regions Yes No Total 0 100 100 Head (0.0) (100.0) (100.0) 25 75 100 Middle (28.0) (75.0) (100.0) 7 93 100 Tail-end (7.0) (93.0) (100.0) 32 268 300 Total (10.7) (89.3) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.104 shows the opinion of the respondents about the wastage of water below the outlet. In the head region farmers feel that there is no wastage of water at all. But in the middle region 28.0 per cent of the farmers feel there is wastage of water due to poor maintenance of outlets. In the tail-end region also 7 per cent of the farmers feel there is some wastage of water below the outlet. The conveyance losses are expressed by 10.7 per cent of the farmers but 89.3 per cent of the farmers feel that there is no conveyance loss. It is heartening to infer that the conveyance losses are minimum in the study area. The farmers are quite aware of the fact that assured irrigation facilities are better for farming practices.

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Ranking of Farmers Initiatives: Friedman Test Friedman Rank test is used to rank the initiatives of the farmers. The results of the test are given in the following table. This test is conducted to find out there is significant difference in ranking of various farmers’ initiative in the development of land. The results are given below. Table – 4.105 Ranking of Farmers Initiatives: Friedman Test

S. Particulars Assigned Mean Rank No.

1 Better irrigation 2.41 1

2 Soil testing 3.10 2

3 Organic farming 3.25 3

4 Leveling 3.61 4

5 Training 4.06 5

6 Drainage 5.42 6

7 Flood control 6.15 7

Source: Compiled from primary data

From the table 4.105 the first farmers’ initiative in the development of land is better irrigation and the second being soil testing, the third factor is organic farming. The other initiatives of the farmers to develop their land are leveling of land to avoid water logging, acquire training about various farming practices, digging drainage canal to siphon off the excess water and flood control outlets to drain the excess water during rainy season. The next major factor influencing the supply of water in the canal is the quantum of water losses in the channel. But the size of the farm and social influence has no much bearing on the supply of water.

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Table – 4.106 Chi-square Test for Ranking the Initiatives of Farmers to Develop Land N 300 Chi-square 692.364 df 6 Asymp.Sig. .000

The table 4.106 shows that the significance value is ‘0’, which is less than 0.05; it implies that there is significant difference in the farmers’ initiatives in the development of land.

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Factors Affecting Canal Irrigation The respondents in the study had identified the following factors which are adversely affecting canal irrigation. Table – 4.107 Factors Affecting Canal Irrigation

Problems of canal irrigation Long Inadequate Absence of Regions High water interval of Drainage Only wet water field charge water problem crop grown supply channel availability 97 0 1 14 0 0 Head (32.1) (0.0) (2.8) (34.1) (0.0) (0.0) 99 0 1 20 0 0 Middle (31.3) (0.0) (2.8) (48.8) (0.0) (0.0) 99 0 34 7 0 0 Tail-end (36.6) (0.0) (94.4) (17.1) (0.0) (0.0) 295 0 36 41 0 0 Total (100.0) (0.0) (100.0) (100.0) (0.0) (0.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The researcher identified there are 6 major problems affecting the canal irrigation. They are a) inadequate water supply b) high water charge c) long interval of water availability d) drainage problem c) growing wet crops alone and f) absence of field channel. The farmers feel that the major hitch of canal irrigation is the inadequate water supply. This shortage in water supply is due to the existing government order that only if the Mettur reservoir crossed 94 feet the Pullambadi canal can be opened for irrigation. This makes the position of the farmers vulnerable. Farmers relying purely on canal are at a precarious condition due to this issue. From the table 4.107, it is inferred that an overwhelming number of farmers, 295 out of 300 feel that inadequate water supply is the major constraint in the canal system. Long interval of water availability is another constraint experienced by 36 farmers. The absence of drainage facilities affects the canal irrigation according to 41 farmers. High water charge is felt by the farmers as a burden. Similarly reluctance of the farmers to accept their practice of cultivating wet crops is also inferred from the analysis. Similarly absence of field channel is not at all a problem to the farmers.

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Reasons for delay of Cultivation in this Area There are delays in starting the cultivation work by the respondents. The reasons are explained in the following table. Table – 4.108 Reasons for delay of Cultivation in this area Reasons for delay of cultivation Easy in Lack of co- To get make use of Restriction Region operation more machinery in spoiling Others among the yield for of pests farmers harvesting 8 62 2 50 27 Head (80) (73.8) (100.0) (51.0) (47.4) 1 22 0 47 29 Middle (10) (26.2) (0) (48.0) (50.9) 1 0 0 1 1 Tail-end (10) (0) (0) (1.0) (1.7) 10 84 2 98 57 Total (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) Source: Compiled from primary data

The table 4.108 focuses on the reasons for the delay in the cultivation of crops. The delay in cultivation generally affects crop prospects and income of the farmers. The major reason for delay in cultivation according to farmers is the lack of co-operation among farmers, and this view is expressed by 51.0 per cent of farmers in the head region, 48.0 per cent of the farmers in the middle region and 1.0 per cent of the farmers in the tail-end region. This problem exists despite the existence of WUA. The second problem is the availability of modern agricultural appliances like harvesters, winnowing machine, weeding and transporting machines. This makes the farmers complacent and starts their agricultural belatedly. The farmers expressed the opinion that the water availability for cultivation is quite scanty and this pushes them to develop interest in rearing cattle and this finally results in late cultivation. Some of the respondents expressed the opinion that the late cultivation enables them to get higher price because the prices began to soar after the harvest is over.

Chapter ––– VVV

Findings, Suggestions and Conclusion 258

CHAPTER - V

FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY The study sheds light on the major issues of water use practices of farmers in the study area. The following are some of the significant findings of the study. Agriculture is the primary occupation of the respondents and 85.60 per cent of the respondents except agriculture there is no secondary occupations. The age of the composition of the farmers revealed that 79.7 per cent of the farmers are belonging to the age of group of 15-59 years. The study revealed that young people are hesitant to take up agriculture as a source of livelihood. The study area is predominantly inhabited by small farmers with 57.7 per cent with the average holding of 4.7 acres. Change of cropping pattern is frequently done by 46.3 per cent of the farmers. The cultivation of vegetable is very low in all the three regions of the study. The information about water availability, storage and monsoon has bearing on the choice of crops for different seasons. Water is the crucial determinant of cropping pattern for 86.5 per cent of the farmers. The major crops cultivated in the study area are K.43, Andhra Ponni, IR20 and Black gram and Sugar cane. The study revealed the water related problems are more critical in determining the cropping pattern than non water related problems. The water related issues such as acute water scarcity, insufficient quantity of water, field channel encroachment by other farmers, unfair practices of water seller and delay in water release from the canal have major bearing on the planning and changing cropping pattern of farmers in the study area. Low rain fall is the primary reason for reduction of water supply for 21.4 per cent of the farmers and 28.6 per cent of farmers feel natural silt is the cause for reduction in water supply. The major obstruction in the flow of canal water is found to be natural silt.

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Majority of the farmers (73.6 per cent) feel that reduction in water supply has led to changes in cropping pattern. If canal water is not adequate, bore wells are the major alternative source of irrigation for the farmers. Farmers feel during critical period they receive water less than the requirement and this view is held by 69.8 per cent of the farmers. The methods pursued by the farmers in the three regions in mitigating water shortages are quit distinct. Farmers feel field channels and maintenance work is not done properly and this view is shared by 63 per cent of the farmers. Water Users Associations’ performance is really appalling according to 71.3 per cent of the farmers and 77.3 per cent of the farmers are dissatisfied with the existing settlement mechanism of Water Users Associations. It is felt by 92.1 per cent of the farmers that training programmes for the members of the Water Users Association are not conducted properly. Flooding is the only method of irrigation and other method of irrigation like drip method and sprinkler are conspicuously absent. There is no significant difference between the region with regard to irrigation practices. Majority of the farmers (96.6 per cent) feel that field channel is the most popular and effective method of irrigation. The present irrigation system is satisfactory according to 55 per cent of the farmers. But they also opined that the irrigation system needs vast improvement. It is found that Conveyance losses of water is minimum in the study area. The study has revealed that an over whelming number of respondents, 295 out of 300 (98.33 per cent) feel that inadequate water supply is the major constraint in the canal system. Farmers in all the three regions adopt the inefficient method of field to field drainage method. A vast majority of the farmers (92.6 per cent) used their own funds for maintaining and enhancing their irrigation potential. But the amount spent is very small.

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Farmers are not having access to vital information about Pullambadi canal water. The information about storage of water, opening and closing dates of canal and quantum of water flow are not available to the farmers. 66.6 per cent of the farmers practice night irrigation even though it wrought with dangers. The study revealed that co-operatives are contributing 55 per cent of the funds required by the farmers to meet the cost of cultivation. Indigenous bankers and local money lenders are providing substantial farm credit in the study area. It is found that 149 (50 per cent) farmers are investing their hard earned savings on their farm improvement. There is a significant association between different regions and the efficiency of irrigation system under canal. The primary task of farmers to improve their land lies on better irrigation techniques. This opinion is shared by all the farmers. A sizeable section of the farmers resort to extra legal practices of taking water. They are: 1) Taking water on anothers turn 2) Breaking or cutting the field channel 3) Breaking the bunds 4) Consuming water in excess of their requirement 5) Damaging the channels by cattles 6) Damaging the channels by men and 7) Obstruction placed in the minor to raise water level. The major form of investment under taken by the farmers is ploughing back their income on agriculture itself which constitutes 68.7 per cent. The level of mechanization in the study area, the type and the amount of fertilizers and pesticides used, the seeds (cropping pattern) and the labour cost are the most important farm related variables influencing the water use efficiency of the farmers. The labour cost which is always on the increase reduces the water use efficiency of the farmers by escalating the cost of cultivation The water use efficiency index is overall high in the study area with a percentage of 72.94. The water use efficiency is very high in the tail-end area with 80.28 per cent and relatively low in the head region with 68.07 percentage. The middle

261

region has a water use efficiency of 70.45 per cent. The water use efficiency indices differ considerably among the regions. Lack of motivation is the primary reason for not forming the Water User Association in the study area. This view is held by 41.8 per cent of the respondents and 87.7 per cent of the farmers feel that government must play a proactive role in the formation of Water User Association. The members of Water Users Association have not contributed either financially or non financially for the conduct of Water Users Association and this view is expressed by 83.5 per cent of the respondents. The dearth of quality leadership is the primary cause identified by the farmers as the primary reason for not forming the Water Users Association. The success of Water Users Association is viewed by the farmers in different ways among the regions. The study reveals that farmers differ widely on the different yardsticks of evaluating the functioning of WUA. There is a significant difference among the farmers in prioritizing the methods of meeting out the water shortages. The preferred crop when there is a water stress is millets for majority of the farmers. To tide over the distress of water, farmers in general demand regular supply of electricity and want frequent interruptions in power supply should be stopped. The technology adoption in the study area is very low. The cropping pattern is severely loaded in favour of paddy and this mono cropping is not favourable to land and to farmers in the study area. But there is wide differences in the cultivation of other crops. The most important difficulty of canal irrigation is the location of farm holding at far off places and the difficulty of water to reach out those areas. The delay in cultivation is due to lack of co operation among farmers in sharing the canal water. This view is shared by 51 per cent of the farmers in the study area.

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SUGGESTIONS This analytical study on the water use efficiency of farmers of Pullambadi canal in Tiruchirappalli and Ariyaur districts has led to some vital suggestions and recommendations to all the stake holders using canal water for irrigation. These suggestions are made to enhance the water use efficiency of Pullambadi farmers and also to enhance their farm income. 1. In order to improve water use efficiency the farmers have to plan their cropping pattern well in advance on the basis of water availability. This necessitates selection of appropriate variety of crops especially in Paddy. Farmers can go for short duration and High Yielding Varieties in the tail-end regions to optimally use the water available to them. 2. The farm mechanization and type of irrigation must be modernized. Instead of flooding which is a popular methods of irrigation farmers can switch on to sprinkler irrigation for Paddy and drip irrigation for Sugar cane, Vegetables and Pulses. 3. The cropping pattern presents a mono cropping of paddy in all the regions. Instead of Paddy if the farmers opt for Groundnut, Pulses, Vegetables it will improve their income and employment.

Suggestions to Farmers • The farmers must plan well in advance about the cropping pattern for the agricultural year based on the monsoon and storage position of water in Mettur reservoir. • The farmers especially in the middle and tail-end region should opt for short duration and High Yielding Varieties like IR 50 and IR 20 instead of long duration crops like Ponni. • The drought resistance crops recommended by the agricultural scientists should be cultivated by the farmers in the middle and tail-end regions. • The encroachment made in the canals, field channels and in the banks of canals should be removed. These encroachments prevent the smooth flow of water and make the farmers in the tail-end region water starved.

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• The encroachments can be removed by the farmers by their own efforts and farmers should not seek government intervention in removing encroachments.

• The water bodies in the study area are in awful condition. They should be renovated and banks of the lakes and ponds should be strengthened. Desilting operations in the water bodies will considerably enhance water shortage position and reduce water wastages due to seepages and breaches.

• The technology adoption is very important to improve water use efficiency. The modern irrigation techniques like sprinkler and drip irrigation can be used by the farmers. The government subsidies in purchasing these irrigation implements will help the farmers to buy them at affordable prices and institutional finance is also available to purchase these implements.

• The cropping intensity of the farmers can be increased by suitable cropping mix.

• The water used for irrigation through gravity flow system and consequently flooding should be ceased. This method of irrigation prevents the farmers opting for non-paddy crops.

• Farmers now have passion towards pump sets driven by electricity and they show scant respect in maintaining the canal system. This ultimate result in dwindling water table and sustainable agricultural will be at stake as it happened in some parts of this study area.

• The practice of night irrigation should be improved especially in the head region.

• One must not forget the fact that the traditional tank structures followed by our ancestors helped a lot in recharging of ground water. These tanks have been neglected over time which led to drought situation. Since study area has the locational advantage of number of lakes and bonds and restoration of water bodies can help efficient storage of rain or flood waters diversification of crops and exploring the possibility of raising double crops every year.

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Suggestions to Water Users Association

• The Water Users Association is present only in small parts of the study area. Farmers in the study area must recognize the benefits of Water Users Association and make efforts to start them. This will help the use of water optimally with out any conflicts.

• The farmers should earmark some amount of money for the successful functioning of the Water Users Association. The expenses involved for conducting Water Users Association is very productive and useful. The Water Users Association represents the problems of farmers to the district Collector and the Public Works Department Authorities efficiently than the individual farmers.

• The Water Users Association lacks efficient leadership to motivate the farmers to redress their problems. The farmers should come forward to identify and nurture farmer leaders to lead the Water Users Association.

• The performance of Water Users Association had received severe flake from the farmers. So the leaders of the Water Users Association should be proactive and accountable to the farming community.

• In fact village of Palinganatham farmers demand the split of Water Users Association in order to serve their interests. This raises the question of viability of the size of Water Users Associations.

• The main reason for the ineffectiveness of the Water Users Associations is that lack of co-operation and interest among the farmers. However, lack of interest among farmers in the Water Users Association activities need not be taken as an indication of failure of Water Users Associations. Attempts should be made to understand the reasons behind such apathy. This study indicates that the farmers are not against the concept of Water Users Association. On the other hand, their awareness about the Water Users Association is rather low. Therefore, efforts should be made to increase the awareness of the farmers about the benefits of Water Users Association.

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Suggestions to the Government The government is an active partner in upholding the supply of irrigation water to the farmers of the different regions of the study area. • The Government Order MS. No. 2865, P.W.D. dated 13 th October 1965, which insists on the storage of level of 94 feet for the release of water to Pullambadi canal is a severe set back for the farmers of Pullambadi canal. The government should relax the condition of Mettur water storage and release water to the farmers on the basis of their need and requirement of water. • The farmers in the study area felt that auctioning of lakes and bonds for fishing for some money by the government authorities prevent them from using the water from these water bodies when a vast chunk of agricultural lands are starving without water. The inland fishing is practiced in the study area should be regulated. Hence the government should avoid auctioning of lacks and bonds for fishing. • The government should strengthen the banks of the tanks and lakes. These reservoirs are posing flood havoc to the farmers especially in the rainy season. Farmers are living near canal are facing the impounding threat of breaching of canals and tanks. So the government should invest more in strengthening of the banks of the reservoir and deepen them by removing land slides and vegetation.

CONCLUSION The research work has resulted in some significant findings which are very relevant to the farmers as well as to the policy makers. From the farmers point of view they are not effecting changes in their cropping pattern to suit the exigencies of water non availability. They quite reluctant to go for modern irrigation methods to optimize the water use and derive maximum benefit out of it. The Water Users Associations of the farmers are defunct in majority of the areas and there is no cooperation and government machinery to facilitate the formation of Water Users Association in the study area. From the government point of view the G.O. related to the release of Pullambadi canal had proved to be a heart burn for the farming community.

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The opening and closure of Pullambadi canal put the farmers at the mercy of the government. The auctioning of lakes and tanks by the government put the farmers in quandary in planning their cropping pattern. The maintenance of lakes is much to be desired, often farmers fear about the breaching of lakes and consequent loss of crops and live stocks. The apathy of the government to support Water Users Association is a major hurdle to use of water prudently at the time of distress. The research has a very strong policy recommendation of farming Public Private Partnership to maintain, enhance and optimize the water use by the farmers in the study area.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS This analytical has paved the way for some significant policy implications. These policy implications are furnished below. • The government policy of auctioning of lakes and bonds for fishing when agricultural operations are in the high swing should be stopped. The government earns only a meagre amount by auctioning and this benefits only a handful to non agriculturists but lot of agriculturists are completely deprived of water for agricultural operations. • The removal encroachment drive is effectively done by the government but still encroachments are massive and government should engage in the removal of encroachments on war footing. • The Government Order pertaining to the release of water to the Pullambadi canal should be modified when the water availability in the Cauvery flow is satisfactory, the government must release water to the Pullambadi canal instead of waiting for the water level at Mettur to touch 94 feet mark. The policy recommendations have far reaching significance not only to the farming community but also to the whole society in the study area.

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Appendices

Questionnaire A 1

APPENDIX – I

An Economic Analysis of Water Use Efficiency of Farmers in Pullambadi Canal of Tiruchirappalli District, Tamil Nadu

Mr. G. Iruthayaraj Dr. G. Gnanasekaran Research Scholar in Economics Research Advisor & Head St. Joseph’s College, Trichy. Department of Economics St. Joseph’s College, Trichy.

OBJECTIVES i) To examine the cropping pattern of the farmers and the factors influencing the shift in the cropping pattern. ii) To study the factors responsible for the adequacy and inadequacy of water available to the farmers iii) To examine the various causes of water wastages and the measures needed to arrest the wastages. iv) To analyse factors determining the water use efficiency of the farmers v) To study the role of Water Users Association in augmenting the water use of the farmers and vi) To suggest appropriate policy measures to enhance the water use practices of farmers. QUESTIONNAIRE Sample No : Village Name : Taluka Name : 1.Lalgudi 2. Ariyalur District Name : 1. Trichy 2. Ariyalur

A. Personal and Family Information: 1. Sex : 1. Male 2. Female 2. Age : 1. 0-14 2. 15-29 3. 30-44 4. 45-59 5. 60-74 6. 75 & above 3. Educational Qualification : 1. Illiterate 2. 1-5 3. 6-10 4. +2 5. College 6. Professional A 2

4. Community : 1. F.C 2. B.C 3. M.B.C 4. S.C. 5. S.T. 6. Others 5. Religion : 1. Hindu 2. Christian R.C 3. Christian 4. Muslim 5. Others 6. Secondary Occupation : 1. Business 2. Private company 3. Govt 4. Others 7. Annual income of the respondent : Rs. (Other than Farming) 8. Family Size : a. Educational Level of the family members : 1. Illiterate [ ] 2. 1-5 [ ] 3. 6-10 [ ] 4. +2 [ ] 5. Diploma &ITI [ ] 6. College [ ] 7. Agri. education [ ] b. No. engaged in agriculture : 1. Men [ ] 2. Women [ ] c. Income from : 1. Agriculture: Rs. 2. Other Sources: Rs. 9. Experience in Farming : 1. < 5 years 2. 5-10 years 3. 10-15 years 4. 15-20 years 5. 20-25 years 6. 25> years

B. Land Holdings Details: 1. Land-holding particulars (Area in acres) Area (in Market Value (in Rs.) Items acres) 1 2 1 Land Owned Total land owned a. Cultivable land b. Land under orchard (Thoppu) c. Uncultivable land Period of Towhom* Tenanacy Reasons 2. Land Leased in lease (Rs.#) /Remarks@ and Leased Out (years) 1 3 4 5 2 d. Land leased in e. Land leased out Total area under operation (a+b+d-c-e)

A 3

d. Land leased in * 1. To neighbor (farmer) 2. Small holders 3. Water-buyers 4.Others (specify); # 1. Cash 2. In kind 3. Mortgage amount; @ 1.Increase in farm size 2. More water facilities 3. Increase the profitability 4. Increase in man power 5. Augmented machine power like tractor 6. Others (specify)

e. Land leased out * 1. To neighbor (farmer) 2. Land-lord 3. Water-seller 4. Others (specify); # 1. Cash 2. In kind 3. Mortgage amount; @ 1. Water shortage 2. No irrigation facilities 3. Need of money 4. Labour shortage 5. Not profitable 6. Others (specify)

2. Nature of Lands Owned: i. Are the lands 1. Ancestral 2. Purchased 3. Both (in the case of own land) ii. Are the lands of the household registered in names of 1. Single 2. Many members iii. In how many places your land holding is located? 1. One 2. Two 3. Three 4. More than three

C. Cropping Pattern Crop, production, yield and value of produce – 2009-10 Area Yield Per acre Value in Rs. cultivated Units of production (at 2009-10 Season Crops Grown (in acres) (Bags / Tones / Bunches / prices) Qtls. / Numbers) 1 2 3 Seasonal a. Paddy Crops: i.K43 A.Kuruvai ii. Andra ponni June/July to iii. Others Sep/Oct. b. Pulses (105days) c. Vegetables d. Others(specify) B.Thaladi a. Paddy Oct/Nov to i.K43 Jan/Feb ii. Andra ponni (135days) iii. Others b. Pulses c. Vegetables d. Others(specify) A 4

C.Samba a. Paddy Aug/Sep to i.K43 Dec/Jan ii. Andra ponni (165 days) iii. Others b. Pulses c. Vegetables d. Others(specify) D.Annual a. Sugarcane Crops: b. Banana c. Others: E.Perennial a. Mango Crops: b. Coconut c. Others

F. Changes in cropping pattern: 1. Did you change your cropping pattern in your farm? 1. Frequently 2. Occasionally 3. Rarely 4. No 5. Not at all 2. Changes in crop :

Change in crop Reason for

Period Old crop(s) AlternativeCrop(s) Change@ 1 2 3

1. Wet * 1. Wet a. 2006-2010 2. Dry# 2. Dry

1. Wet 1. Wet b. 2001-2005 2. Dry 2. Dry

1. Wet 1. Wet c. 1995-2000 2. Dry 2. Dry

* 1.Paddy 2. Sugarcane 3.Banana 4. Others (Specify) # 1. Cotton 2. Oilseeds 3. Pulses 4. Onion 5. Maize 6. Bajra 7. Fodder @ 1. Scarcity of water 2. Insufficient quantity of water 3. Field channel encroachment by other farmer 4. Forced by water seller 5. Delay in water release from canal 6. Others A 5

Non-water related reasons: 7. Labour problem 8. Low profitability 9.Neighbor 10. Lack of finance 11. Diseases 12. Any other

G. Present crop pattern is adopted based on: a. Expectations that water would come in sufficient quantity: 1. Yes 2. No i. if yes, whether water received was up to your expectations: 1. Yes 2. No ii. If no for item (i), did this affect your crop pattern? a. Yes. 1. Total 2. Slightly 3. No 4. Not at all

D. COST OF CULTIVATION: (per acre) A. Crop wise input used and cost incurred for 2009-10: a. Variable cost: (Kuruvai) K.43 Andra Sugar Pulses Kg/bag Cost S. (in Rs.) Ponni Cane (in Rs.) (in Rs.) Heads of expenditure No. (in Rs.) (in Rs.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Land leveling 1. a. Dry b. Wet 2 Owned seed 3 Purchased seed 4 Sowing 5 Transplantation 6 Weeding 7 Manure a. Own Imputed cost b. purchased 8 Fertilizer 9 Pesticides/Composed 10 Insecticides/Fungicides 11 Labour a. own (imputed cost)

b. Permanent c. Casual 12 Irrigation charges 13 Harvesting 14 Transportation 15 Interest on working capital 16 Land revenue (tax) 17 Crop insurance 18 Miscellaneous expenses A 6

D. COST OF CULTIVATION: (per acre) B. Crop wise input used and cost incurred for 2009-10: b. Variable cost: (Thaladi)

K.43 Andra Sugar Pulses Kg/bag Cost S. (in Rs.) Ponni Cane (in Rs.) (inRs.) Heads of expenditure No. (in Rs.) (in Rs.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 Land leveling 1. a. Dry b. Wet 2 Owned seed 3 Purchased seed 4 Sowing 5 Transplantation 6 Weeding 7 Manure a. Own Imputed cost b. purchased 8 Fertilizer 9 Pesticides/Composed 10 Insecticides/Fungicides 11 Labour a. own (imputed cost)

b. Permanent c. Casual 12 Irrigation charges

13 Harvesting

14 Transportation 15 Interest on working capital 16 Land revenue (tax) 17 Crop insurance 18 Miscellaneous expenses

A 7

D. COST OF CULTIVATION: (per acre) C. Crop wise input used and cost incurred for 2009-10: c. Variable cost: (Samba)

b. Permanent c. Casual 12 Irrigation charges

13 Harvesting

14 Transportation Interest on working 15 capital 16 Land revenue (tax) 17 Crop insurance 18 Miscellaneous expenses

A 8

E. IRRIGATION STATUS: 1. WATER USE EFFICIENCY: a. Change in Canal Water Supply Status and Shortage

Causes for Change in water supply reduction* S. status (% of decrease/ Period No. number of days)

1 2 1 2006-2010 2 2001-2005 3 1995-2000

* 1. Delay in opening of reservoir 2. Delay in opening of canal 3. Natural silt in canals 4. No maintenance in water canals and channels 5. Encroachment in water channels 6. Low rainfall 7. Expansion in area irrigated 8. Other (Specify)

2. Distribution Efficiency: b. For how many days water is required for your crop:

Kuruvai Thaladi Samba Water Crop Water required Water required required 2 3 1 1. Kovai 43 2. Andra Ponny 3. IR20 4. Sugarcane 5. Banana 6.Others(specify) c) For how many days water is delivered at the outlet during the last season: 1. Three month 2. Four months 3. Five months 4.Six months 5. one month from lake 6. Two month from lake (get information of minimum water required days) this question for the investigator. A 9

d) In your opinion, water delivered at the Distributaries/Minors in the last season was: 1) More than requirement 2) Equal to requirement 3) Less than requirement e) This type of thing happens 1. Never 2. Some times 3. All the times 4. Occasional f) Reasons for inadequacy: after pilot study 1. Illegal method of irrigation through pump set before water reaching for actual irrigation 2. Low level of water in Mettur dam 3. Encroachment of canal 4. Tail end area 5. Lack interest of officials 6. Poor maintenance of canals g) Reasons for adequate supply of water: 1. Land is situated nearer to distributory/Minor 2. Better maintenance of canal 3. Enough quantity for irrigation 4. Good monsoon 5. Getting water from another canal (not pullambadi canal) by pipeline to complement water shortage h) Is there any period which you consider as 'critical' for your crop from irrigation point of view: 1. Yes 2. No. i) If yes to above, what is the duration: (in days) 1. Before sowing 2. At the time of weeding 3. Before harvesting j) During this 'critical' period, whether the water delivery at the outlet was 1. Excess to requirement 2. Equal to requirement 3. Less than requirement 4. No water at all k) If 'no water at all' how did you manage: 1. By tanks 2. By bore-well 3. Well 4. By purchase of water

A 10

F. Present Irrigation Status of the Farm:

Year of Well depth Power used to lift Extend of (in feet) & area Establishment water Nature of Diameter 1. Electricity Irrigated (inches) (in acres)* irrigation 2. Diesel Engine with HP) 1 2 3 4 a. Canal

b. Both canal and tank

c. Bore wells 1. First 2 Second 3. Third

d. Both canal and bore wells

e. Both tank and bore wells

f. Water How many months/ years you have practiced? purchased 1. One to three months (selling) with near by wells 2. Six months to one year and bore wells 3. More than one year

*Compare with net area irrigated; G. Construction Cost of Irrigation /Modern irrigation techniques (Sprinkler/ Drip) a. Ground water – extraction method, cost of extraction, investment:

Bore well / Deposit Investment Investment on Any additional well (with paid for (borewell / water lift devices investment made yr. & the power S. No. well) (in Rs.) (motor / Engine, (with description, depth) pipes, installation additional HP used, connection

and other charges) pipe installed, etc) 2 1 3 4 5 1. First 2.Second 3. Third

A 11

b. Modern Irrigation Techniques

Techniques Amount Invested Subsidy S. No. (in Rs.) (in Rs.) 1 2 3 1. Sprinkler Irrigation 2. Drip Irrigation 3. Other (Specify)

c. History of Ground Water Extraction:

S. Bore well / Monthly normal Expr. Other annual Reason for No. well incurred (as running maintenance cost establishment * (with yr.) cost) (in Rs.) (in Rs.) 2 1 3 4 1. First 2. Second 3. Third

* 1. To meet out canal water scarcity 2. Tail end area 3. Ground water availability 4. Land cultivation through out the year 5. Water selling d. Sources of Credit for Ground Water Extraction:

Source of Outstanding Remarks Bore- Total cost Amount Rate of (Well & Investment amount, well Borrowed Interest Motor / (institutions) till date S. No. No. (in Rs.) Engine, Pipe) (in Rs) (inRs)

(in Rs.) 1 4 5 2 3 6 7 1. First 1.Bank 2. Second 2. Co-op. Soc. 3. Self 3. Third 4. Money lender 5. Friends & Relatives

e. What kind of difficulties do you face while requiring credit? (Specify) 1. 2. 3. 4. A 12

f. How much are you satisfied with regards to followings?

Neither Highly Totally Satisfied satisfied nor Dissatisfied Satisfied dissatisfied Item dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 1. Maintenance and cleaning the canal 2. Maintenance and cleaning – Field Channel System (FCS) 3. Water distribution along the canal 4. Water distribution along field channels 5. Discipline of farmers in distribution of water and maintenance of field channels 6. Settling of disputes 7.Increase in water supply in dry season 8.Reduce the water supply in wet season 9.Change the present turn system 10.Adequate water supply to tail end areas

H. Conveyance Efficiency: A. Field Level Channel: 1. How do you receive your share of water? Through 1. Field channel 2. Field to field 3. Others (specify) 2. Does water reaches every plot of your holding falling within the field channel? 1. Yes 2. No a. If no, why? 1. Weeding 2. Desilting 3. Encroachment 4. Others (Specify) A 13

3. Has any drainage channel been constructed to prevent water logging in your command area? 1. Yes 2. No a. If 2. No, how do you do drains out the water? 1. Pumping by motor 2.Field to field 3.Waterlogging 4.Others (Specify) 4. Location of holding: Meter away from Canal. (Specify) 1. Main [ ] 2. Distributory [ ] 3. Minor [ ] 4. Field channel [ ] 5. Field channel is there between outlet and your holding: 1. Yes 2. No 6. If 1.Yes, (a) When it was excavated: Years ago (Mention the year) 1. Every year one time 2. Every year two times 3. Every two years one time 4. Every two years two times (b) It was excavated at your 1. Own cost 2. Project cost 3.Both 4. Tail end farmers: 5. in Rs. 7. If 2. No, Why not field channel was excavated: 1.Lack of cooperation among farmers 2. Seeking govt. help 3. Other (Specify) 8. F.C. not excavated to 1. Your holding alone 2. Or to all the holding under outlet: 9. What action you have taken so far: 1. Informed to the WUAs 2. Village head men 3. Arranged meeting among farmers 4. Other (Specify) 10. What was the result of your action: 1. Highly Satisfied 2. Satisfied 3. Unsatisfied 4. Highly Unsatisfied 11. Whether water is supplied in...... 1. Days only 2. Nights only 3. Both days & nights 12. Do you practice “Night irrigation”? 1. Yes 2. No 13. If 1.Yes, Why? 1. Easy to tail end areas 2.Large areas of irrigation is possible with less disturbance of farmers 3. Less evaporation losses 4.Getting full of water of that channel 5. Good to the crops A 14

14. If 2. No, Why? 1. Sleepless night affects other day works 2. Unknown biting of pests, snakes, mosquitoes 3. Cold &, shivering 4. Threaten from unknown people 5. Seepages and breaches can not be monitored and checked

I. Usage Efficiency: A. Problems related to irrigation and redressal mechanism. i. Assessment: 1. Assessment is done by whom and how? Specify 2. Are the irrigation assessments for water charges correct? 1. Generally correct 2. Sometimes incorrect 3. Generally incorrect 3. Could you please give reasons if the assessment is? 1. Sometimes incorrect 2.Generally incorrect. a. Specify. 1. 2. 3. 4.

B. Problems in delivery and grievance mechanism or method to overcome. 4. What were some of your problems regarding delivery of water? (Specify) 1. Irrigation through drainage channel 2. 3. 4. 5. Whom did you approach for rectifying those problems and with what results? i. By Legal

Problems Agency/Person Outcome S. approached No. 1 2 3

1. 2. 3.

A 15

C. Extralegal Practices: How do farmers act with respect to the following ( √ mark) Never Rarely Sometime Usually Extralegal practices 1 2 3 4 1. Taking water on another’s turn without permission 2. Breaking or cutting the field channel while other farmer is using water 3. Illegal outlets in the minor or breaking banks 4. Farmers taking more water than their regular turn allows 5. Destruction or damage to field channels and/or the minor by cattles 6. Destruction or damage to field channels and/or the minor by farmers 7. Obstructions placed in the minor to raise the water level

D. Shortage of water and its social impact: 1. How often conflicts arise among farmers for the distribution of water? 1. Often 2. Some times 3. Rarely 4. Never

No. of times Problems Appropriate Frequency S. that problem Nature of response Faced Authority of contact No. faced 5 2 4 1 3 1 1. Good response 2. Average 3. Poor 2 1. Good response 2. Average 3. Poor 3 1. Good response 2. Average 3. Poor

A 16

E. Volume of information obtained from the officials/agencies: Much To some A little S. Not at all Nature of information extend No. 4 1 2 3 1. Seasonal water supply information 2. Agricultural operations and practices (use of inputs) 3. Water use practices 4. Revenue payments dates 5. Canal closer dates

J. The Impact of Irrigation on Farm Investment: 1. Agricultural Implements What implements you use for your agricultural operations and which of these you own? (Implements used and own √ mark for use and + which he owns) Purchased Present Number Items Year Value 1 2 3 A. Traditional implements a. Plough (Wooden) b. Cart c. Spade d. Leveller e. Chara cutter f. Sprayer B. Improved implements a. Tractor b. Trailer c. Tipper d. Cultivator e. Power tiller f. Transplanting g. Transport 1. Cycle 2. Two-wheeler 3. Mini auto h Motor Sprayer i. Harrow j. Thresher k. Marker tool for Intensive Rice Scheme l. Weeding tool m. Others A 17

K. THE ROLE OF WATER USER ASSOCIATIONS: A. Institutional Arrangement 1. Is there any Water User Association: 1. Yes 2. No 2. If 1.Yes, (a) when was it constituted: (Calender year) (b) Who is the head: whether 1. Elected 2. Nominated (c) How many members it has: (d) How often it meets: 1. Once in a year 2. Twice in a year 3. Three times in a year 4. More than there times (e)Any representative from Irrg. Dept. and participate in the meetings: 1.Yes 2. No (f) Are you satisfied with the functioning of the committee: 1.Yes 2. No 3. If 2. No to item 1, why it was not formed: 1. No communication from the Agri. dept. 2. Non cooperation among farmers 3. Lack of Motivation among the farmers 4. 4. Any suggestions you would like to make in this regard. 1. Govt. should create awareness programmes to the farmers 2. 3. 4. 5. Have you attended any training programme: 1.Yes 2. No 6. Mention the training programmes attended. Response Training Programmes Duration Area 4

2. Not 1 2 3 1. Benefited benefited 1.Training on Horticulture Thottiyam 2. Agricultural Engineering Dept. Trichy 3. Irrigation Mgt. Training Centre Thuvakudi 4. NABARD & Cirugamani sugar Trichy research Pullambadi 5. Rice Intensive Scheme Mysore 6. Kothari sugars 7. Other (Specify)

A 18

7. Role of Water User Association: Neither Highly satisfied Totally S. Satisfied Dissatisfied Particulars Satisfied nor Dissatisfied No. dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 1. Preparation of operational plans at the beginning of each season 2. Maintenance of records 3. Plan and execute the distributary and drainage system maintenance 4. Water budgeting 5. Resource mobilization 6. Maintain an inventory of irrigation system such as field channels, tanks, wells etc. 7. To regulate and distribute water within its command area 8. Motivating the involvement and unity among the villagers and among the committee members

B. Financial Aspects: 8. Any contribution from you (farmer) so far towards WUA: 1. Yes 2. No a. If 1.Yes 1. Money 2. Labour 3. Kind 4. Any other 9. How is WUAs received funds: 1. From the department on the basis of command area/ public money 2. According to the collection of irrigation charges 3. Repair works (rehabilitating) of all the distributaries systems 10. What are the determinant factors which can lead to the success of WUA? S. Success of WUAs Rank No. 1 High subsidy provided by the government 2 Quality of local leadership 3 Frequent contact between officials and farmers for better guidance 4 Personal interest of local officials in terms of sympathetic to the farmers’ problems, listen to their complains, be responsive to their needs. 5 Easy unanimity among the farmers 6 Keeping watch over anarchic practices of cultivators 7 Countervailing voice against bribing 8 Any other (Specify) A 19

11. What are the determinant factors which can lead WUAs to failure? S. Failure of WUAs Rank No. 1 Ignorance about the sprit of WUAs 2 Lack of committed local leadership - (personal gain) 3 Hasty and unforeseen step by public agency 4 Non-frequent interaction between officials and farmers 5 Non- co-ordination on the part of government or semi-government organizations 6 Frequent transfer of officials 7 Lack of time for public works by the leaders due to their personal work. 8 Any other (Specify)

12. Who is facilitating the evolution of WUAs? 1. Government 2. World Bank 3. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) 4. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme 5. Funded Project. 13. What is your opinion about the working of the Water Users Association (WUA)? 1. Highly satisfactory 2. Some-what satisfactory 3. Unsatisfactory 4. It is on paper only

L. General Questions: A. Difficulties in agricultural operations: 1. What are the important difficulties in running your agricultural operations in general? S. Important Difficulties Suggestions Rank No. 1 2 3 1 Labour problem Machinery 2 Exorbitant price of fertilisers Supply through cooperative society 3 Problem of water for irrigation Extend of duration and quantity of water 4 Built cement wall both the side of Farmers contribution canal 5 Transport problem Strengthen the bank of canal for transportation 6 Substance seed Supply through Agr.Dept. 7 Drainage Involvement of Govt and Water User Assoc. 8 No uniformity at the time of Compelled by the Govt. to stick on cultivation particular time of cultivation 9 Un remunerative price Govt. prescribed crop should be cultivated A 20

2. Do you think that there is lot of uncertainty about the canal water: 1. Yes 2. No 3. If 1.Yes, what would be the best way to manage uncertain canal water supply? S. Management of Uncertain Canal Water Rank No. 1 2 1 Deepening / Desilting of tank 2 Construction of new well/bore-well 3 Purchase of water from seller 4 Go for less water-intensive crops 5 Leave the land of fallow in the absence of canal water 6 It should be a delta region 7 Others (specify)

4. What will be the alternative crop(s) in future, if the water problem aggravated in the entire region (List in descending order): S. Alternative Crops in future Rank No. 1 Ground nut 2 Blackgram 3 Maize 4 Onion 5 Gingley 6 Cotton 7 Kotthamalli 8 Sunflower 9 Any Other (Specify)

5. Can you suggest way to better management of on going water problems in the entire region? S. Better Management Rank No. 1 Check dam 2 Repaire and maintenance of sluice 3 Integrated irrigation system 4 Regular supply of electricity 5 Desilting of canal and lakes 6 Modern techniques of irrigation 7 Any Other (Specify)

A 21

6. Do you have the water storage facilities: 1. Yes 2. No 7. Did you face any problem in marketing your produce in past: 1. Yes 2. No 8. If 1. Yes, what kind of problems? 1. Less remunerative price 2. No post harvesting facilities 3. Losses due to pest and rats 4. Loss of quality 5. Other (Specify)

C. Financial Problems: 1. How do you meet the cost of production? 1. From personal savings 2. Loans from friends and relatives 3. Loans from money lenders 4. Banks 5. Cooperative societies/Banks/ 6. Others. 2. From whom you would prefer to borrow: 1. Relatives & Friends 2. Commercial Banks 3. Cooperative Banks 4. Pvt. Agencies 5. Money lenders 3. What is the amount of loan you have borrowed for the current year/season. a. Rs ………...loan per acre. b. Rs……... ( 1. Total amount 2. Total area) 4. At that rate of interest: Rs. ………..per annum 5. Have you repaid all the loans (including interest) which you have borrowed earlier: 1. Yes 2. No 6. If 2. No, reasons for non-payment: 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. What difficulty in obtaining loans: 1. 2. 3. 4 8. How do you spend your income: 1. Entirely on consumption 2. Partly on consumption and partly in savings 3. Partly consumption and partly on investment 4. Others. 9. Where do you keep your savings: 1. In Bank 2. With friends & relatives 3. Investment in/agro sector 4. Investment in other sector 5. In real estate or jewellery

A 22

D. Opinions about Irrigation System: 1. Operation of irrigation system under canal 1. Highly Efficient 2. Efficient 3. Average 4. Inefficient 5. Highly inefficient 2. Is there any wastage of water below the outlet: 1. Yes 2. No a. If yes, why: 1. Poor maintenance of sluice shutter 2.Improper method of irrigation 3. Lack of storage facilities 4. 3. Who is responsible for wastage of water? 1. Project Engineer 2. Upper reach farmers 3. Near by farmer 4. Lascar 5. WUAs 4. To get the things done, did you ever seek the help of administrators: 1. Yes 2. No a. If 1. Yes, from whom: 1. Village president 2. MLA 3. Minister 4. MP 5. WUAs 6.Others 5. How many times you sought their help: 1. One time 2. Two times 3. Three times 4. Many times 6. Do you think canal irrigation has improved your economic position: 1. Yes 2. No 7. Due to modern technique of irrigation, agriculture has become more profitable industry now: 1. Yes 2. No 8. If 2. No, are you hopeful that the situation will improve in near future: 1. Yes 2. No 9. Farmers initiative in the development of land:

S. Farmers initiative Rank No. 1 Leveling 2 Flood Control 3 Drainage 4 Organic farming 5 Better Irrigation 6 Soil Testing 7 Training A 23

10. Murai Pasanam

Weekly Monthly Region 1 2 1. Head 2. Middle 3. Tail

11. Farmers perception on problems of canal irrigation: (Tick the appropriate No.) i. Factor s affecting water supply at farm level 1. Location of the farm 2. Size of farm 3. Social influence 4. Water losses in the channel ii. Problems of canal irrigation 1. Inadequate water supply 2. Highwater charge 3. Long interval of water availability 4. Drainage problem 5. Only wet Crop can be grown 6. Absence of field channel 12. What is the reason for delay of cultivation in your area: 1. To get more yield 2. Easy in make use of machinery for harvesting 3. Restriction in spoiling of pests 4. Less cooperation among farmers in time cultivation.

Government Order A 24

APPENDIX - II

PULLAMBADI CANAL (Authority,-G.O.Ms.No.2865, P.W.D., dated 13 th October 1965)

1. Introduction: The Pullambadi Canal completed during the year 1959 has got an ayacut of 22,114 acres of which 13,283 acres under ‘indirect ayacut’ fed by 23 tanks and the balance 8,831 acres under direct irrigation in Tiruchirappalli district. The canal is about 52 miles long taking off from the Ayyar at Upper Anicut just before its fall into the Cauvery. To derive the maximum benefit from the rains in the ayacut area the crop-season both for direct and indirect irrigation is fixed from 1st August to 15 th December. During this period, the surplus flows from Cauvery will also be available for diversion to supplement the rainfall on the fields. 2. The supply for direct irrigation will be given only in good normal years when the storage in Mettur Reservoir is favourable and supplies to the Cauvery delta will be generally satisfactory. The feasibility of allowing supplies to this direct ayacut will be notified every year after taking the monsoon conditions and conditions of Mettur Storage in the last week of July. 3. The supply to indirect ayacut will be given whenever more than adequate supply is available at the Grand Anicut which may otherwise go to waste provided that the normal and full irrigation requirements under the Cauvery in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappali districts are met. For this purpose certain gauge levels at kattalai Bed Regulator are fixed for each month (vide rule II-5 below) and above which the supply will be diverted to fill up the tanks to its full capacity of 1,086 cusecs. The supply after meeting the requirements of direct ayacut will fill up all the tanks once in 9 days and it is seen that 4.65 fillings will be necessary for the successful irrigation of the indirect ayacut.

II. Rules 1. The regulation of water for this canal will be under the control of the Executive Engineer, Upper River Conservancy Division, Tiruchirappalli. A 25

2. The canal will be opened for direct irrigation on 1st August every year when the level and storage in Mettur Reservoir are 94.0 and 57,341 Mcft. Respectively. The canal will be closed for irrigation on 15 th December. 3. Due to seasonal condition, if the level and storage in the Mettur Reservoir falls below those prescribed in Rule 2, the supply to the direct ayacut may be postponed by the Executive Engineer in consultation with the Collector, Tiruchirappalli by giving due intimation to the ryots in advance. Or else a reach of the canal may be opened for irrigation as specified in Rule 10. 4. The supply to the direct ayacut shall be at the following rates for each period mentioned hereunder:-

Period Limit Assumption

(1) (2) (3)

August I half -- 120 The total requirement have been assumed as 60”And the useful us rainfall during the period as 15” Transmission loss assume is 15%

II half -- 120

September I half -- 200

II half -- 220

October I half -- 220

II half -- 120

November I half -- 120

II half -- 90

December I half -- 90

If quantities more than above are found necessary, the Executive Engineer may draw them subject to the approval of the Superintending Engineer, Thanjavur Circle. The Superintending Engineer should intimate the same to chief Engineer (Irrigation). A 26

5. Whenever more than adequate supply is available at the Grand Anicut which may otherwise go to waste (provided that the normal and full irrigation requirements under the Cauvery in Thanjavur and Tiruchirappalli districts are met with) such supply can be diverted for filling up the tanks for the indirect ayacut under the canal. For this purpose, the following rear gauge readings at Kattalai Bed Regulator for each month are fixed and the quantity of water above this limit can be deemed to be in surplus over the old ayacut requirements. Month Reading August -- 11.3 September -- 10.5 October -- 10.5 November -- 10.0 December -- 10.0

6. Whenever the surplus over the limits fixed above is less than 2,150 cusees the available surplus (after deducting the requirements of direct ayacut) under the 2 Canals should be divided in the ration of indirect ayacut under this canal and New Kattalai High Level Canal. The ration thus fixed is 1 : 1. 7. The order of priority of filling up the tanks should be from the tail end and hence supply in the canal is to be maintained till all the tanks under the canal gets filled up subject to the availability of surplus water as specified in rules 5 and 6 above. On these occasions the inlet and outlet regulations of Manodai, Andi Odai and Vettakudi and the drop-cum-regulator at M. 51/4 should be kept opened clear and closed as soon as the lower down tanks get filled up, except for allowing the discharge required for the direct ayacut situated lower down. 8. The water level obtaining in each tank wherein canal water is let in and taken through outlets should be ensured at the time of closing of inlet vents with a view to maintain the status quo’ as per conditions prior to letting in of canal water. 9. Whenever there is inflow into the major tanks Manodai, Andi Odai, Vettakudi and Sukkiran Eri, due to rain in their catchment are the water should be stored nearer to the F.T.L. of the tank and then the surpluses, as well as the supply from the main canal, if any, should be allowed to the lower down tanks before allowing the tanks to be surplused. A 27

10. If at any time of the Executive Engineer considers that the storage in Mettur Reservoir would not cover the entire area, then the main canal should be divided into four zones and supplies allowed zones shall be as follows:- I Zone – Distributary 1 and 3 .. .. 2,161 II Zone – Distributary 2 and Direct sluices at Mile 27.3.357 and 28-7-40 .. .. 2,243 III Zone – Distriburary 4 and 5 and Direct sluices At Miles 30.2.230, and 33-6-615 2,374 IV Zone – Distributary 6 to 9, 11, 16. to 19 and 21 to 23 ...... 2,053 (N.B. – The extent under each zone is as per the localization made.)

The Executive Engineer shall decide the zone to which supply will be made first and shall thereafter follow the rotational order referred to above. But any zone not supplied in the previous year shall have the propriety of supply at the commencement of next year. While allowing such releases the Executive Engineer should satisfy himself that there is enough water in the reservoir to meet the needs of the particular zone to be supplied. Before allowing such supplies the area to which supply is proposed should be notified to ryots in advance. 11. Whenever there is scarcity of supply in respect of indirect ayacut the available surplus should be utilized by regulating the tank supply sluices by turn system. The mode of regulation and the turn to be adopted shall be decided by the Executive Engineer in consultation with the Collector. The con concerned Section Officer shall be in direct charge of the regulation.

III. General 1. The outlet regulators provided at Upper crossing should be operated only in times of emergency when there is danger of canal banks getting breached. 2. Whenever vented outlets are provided the shutters on the down stream side may be operated to let out the vari run off. A 28

3. Whenever there is rainfall over the irrigated area, the Executive Engineer may reduce the supplies below those prescribed in rule II or order even a complete shut down of supplies as circumstances may warrant. 4. Whenever there is demand for the ayacut under the canal even after the closure, for crops which might otherwise die and if such supply could be spared without affecting other legitimate interests the Collector shall send a report in consultation with the Executive Engineer, three weeks in advance to the Chief Engineer (Irrigation) and the Board of Revenue for getting the orders of Government to allow such supplies. 5. During the irrigation season, whenever there is rain in the catchment area of the Ayyar basin and consequent inflows at Upper Anicut the available surplus at Upper Anicut may be allowed into the Pullambadi Canal. 6. Pumping from the canal is strictly prohibited. 7. The regulation shall normally be done twice a day at 6.A.M. and 6. P.M. During floods or other occasions, when necessary, the Executive Engineer can regulate the supplies even at intermediate hours. 8. Whenever it is anticipated that there will be surplus at Upper Anicut even after meeting the requirements of the delta ayacut at Grand Anicut, such surplus can be diverted through Pullambadi canal for filling up the tanks subject to the safe carrying capacity of the canal. 9. Details of regulation both normal and flood regulation shall be promptly recorded and reported in the water report forms already prescribed. 10. Notwithstanding the above rules Chief Engineer (Irrigation) may order any regulations consider necessary.

Paper Published

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APPENDIX – III

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ISSN 0973 - 404 X

DISTURBING TRENDS IN THE IRRIGATIONAL STATUS OF TAMILNADU

* Dr.G.Gnanasekaran ** Mr.G.Iruthayaraj Irrigation is the most crucial input not only one very big dam, Mettur which has the storage for agricultural development but for human capacity of 97 TMC of water. existence. This important resource is pressurized Other dams are very small and the storage by supply as well as by demand constraints. On capacity of those dams is also low. So, this paper the one hand the population of Tamil Nadu is attempts to highlight the dwindling irrigation increasing rapidly over the years and on the other potential of Tamil Nadu over the years and its hand the irrigation potential of Tamil Nadu consequences on the livelihood of peasants. remains stagnant. Water is the serious limiting The pattern of rainfall in Tamil Nadu is factor as a state has harnessed the available surface depicted in the following table-1. water potential. In order to augment the irrigation Table - 1 potential, our forefathers constructed umpteen PATTERN OF RAINFALL IN TAMIL numbers of tanks and ponds. Now there are big NADU BY SEASONS dams constructed to regulate the water use. As (In Millimeters) per the Hand Book on Water Management in Hot SW NE Winter Year Weather Total Irrigated Area, (2008-09) Published by Monsoon Monsoon period Department of Agriculture Engineering Training period Normal 307.3 449.7 50.9 137.8 945.7 Centre, Tiruchirappalli, in Tamil Nadu, there are Average of 50s 283.65 379.45 31.25 59.05 850.40 75 water reservoirs and 39000 lakes catering to Average of 60s 320.15 457 31.20 118.05 924.4 the irrigation needs of the farmers. The State is Average of 70s 329.35 475.0 13.4 115.61 924.34 receiving 830 TMC of water annually from Average of 80s 319.87 371.3 47.44 117.24 855.88 monsoon. In addition, the State receives 430 TMC Average of 90s 304.11 519.7 23.72 103.84 954.87 2000-01 314.5 335.5 16.8 118.4 785.3 of water from other States. Totally the state is 2001-02 260.0 379.4 70.0 85.8 795.2 endowed with 1260 TMC of water. Of these, 230 2002-03 185.4 407.1 8.7 129.8 731.0 TMC of water is saved in big reservoirs and 390 2003-04 336.5 403.1 11.6 283.4 1034.6 TMC of water is stored in 39000 lakes. Comparing 2004-05 360.7 472.1 14.3 231.7 1078.8 with other states the irrigation potential of Tamil 2005-06 308.4 830.2 15.6 150.9 1305.1 Nadu is very low. 2006-07 275.2 522.4 11.4 100.0 909.0

In India, Rajasthan is the only state which Source: http:// www.tn.gov.in has lesser irrigation potential than Tamil Nadu. The North-East monsoon with the normal Another disquieting fact is that Tamil Nadu has rainfall of 449.7mm is a major contributor of only 30 lakh hectares of assured irrigation rainfall, followed closely by South-West monsoon facilities out of 60 lakh hectares of gross cropped with the normal rainfall of 307.3 mm. During area. Even though there are 39000 lakes, out of 2001-2007, there were three severe deficient years which 25600 lakes depend upon monsoon. So, of rainfall. During 2002-03, the rainfall was just Tamil Nadu agriculture hinges largely upon 185.4 mm. The rainfall was 360.7 mm which was monsoon. The vagaries of monsoon are a severe highest rainfall recorded in Tamil Nadu during bottleneck in enhancing the production and 2004-05. So the South-West monsoon is highly productivity of food grains. Tamil Nadu has only erratic and not dependable. The same is the case

* Associate professor & Head of the Department of Economics, St.Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli-2. ** Assistant Professor & Ph.D. Research Scholar in Economics, St.Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli-2.

RETELL 50 ISSN 0973 - 404 X of North-East monsoon which has average rainfall to shortages of water and growing urbanization. of 449.7 mm. But in 2000-01, Tamil Nadu had The net area sown has been declining from 43.4 received only 335.5 mm of water. And the average per cent in 1998-99 to 38.85 per cent in 2007-08. rainfall from North-East monsoon has been The decline in the net sown area is not auguring showing the increasing trend. The table-1 also well for Tamil Nadu and will result in decline in shows that rainfall is highly erratic and makes agricultural production. Further it will seriously cultivation uncertain and risky. erode the livelihood of millions of poor peasants. The table-2 shows the land utilisation The area under fallow lands in Tamil Nadu has pattern of Tamil Nadu. The land put in to non- increased from 8.5 per cent in 1998-99 to 11.5 agricultural use has been increasing from 15.1 per per cent in 2007-08. This shows that more and cent in 1998-99 to 16.65 per cent in 2007-08 due more lands are lying idle and sterile.

Table – 2 LAND UTILISATION IN TAMIL NADU (‘000’ Hectares)

S. Classification of 1998- 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- No. Area 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 i. Land Utilisation 2140 2134 2134 2132 2132 2122 2122 2110 2106 Forests (16.5) (16.4) (16.4) (16.4) (16.4) (16.3) (16.3) (16.2) (16.2) ii. Barren and 478 476 476 477 478 509 509 503 502 Unculturable Land (3.7) (3.7) (3.7) (3.7) (3.7) (3.9) (3.9) (3.9) (3.9) iii. Land put to Non- 1968 1978 1986 1998 2012 2113 2124 2138 2159 Agricultural Use (15.1) (15.2) (15.3) (15.4) (15.5) (16.2) (16.3) (16.4) (16.6) iv. Culturable waste 348 349 352 387 389 379 374 368 354 (2.7) (2.7) (2.7) (3.0) (3.0) (2.9) (2.9) (2.8) (2.7) v. Permanent Pastures 123 123 123 118 118 113 113 110 110 and Other Grazing (0.9) (0.8) Lands (0.9) (0.9) (1.0) (1.0) (0.9) (0.9) (0.8) vi. Land under Miscellaneous Tree 240 243 255 271 278 283 290 274 268 Crops and Groves not (2.2) (2.1) included in the Net (1.8) (1.9) (2.0) (2.1) (2.1) (2.2) (2.05) Area Sown vii. Current Fallows 956 1085 1134 1026 1503 954 691 758 906 (7.4) (8.3) (8.3) (7.9) (11.6) (7.3) (5.3) (5.8) (7) viii. Other Fallow Lands 1111 1140 1228 1409 1491 1863 1704 1518 1493 (8.5) (8.8) (9.4) (10.8) (11.5) (14.3) (13.1) (11.7) (11.5) ix. Net Area Sown 5635 5464 5303 5172 4590 4689 5097 5243 5126 (43.4) (42.1) (40.8) (39.8) (35.3) (36.0) (39.1) (40.3) (39.4)

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chennai.

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Table – 3 canals, tanks, tube wells and gross area irrigated PATTERN OF IRRIGATION IN TAMILNADU have been falling since 2006-2008. The area under (‘000’Hectares) private canals, open wells has been increasing. The S. Classification of 1998- 1999- 2000- 2001- 2002- 2003- overall picture of irrigation in Tamil Nadu is that No. Area 99 2000 01 02 03 04 Area Sown I 993 1055 1035 1054 601 627 there is a vast reduction in the irrigation potentials. more than once II Gross Cropped Area 6627 6519 6338 6226 5191 5316 Since irrigation is a critical ingredient of Area under Food i. 4663 4658 4535 4493 3700 3718 Crops agriculture, this resource should be augmented and Area under Non-food ii. 1964 1861 1803 1733 1491 1598 Crops sustained. Cropping Intensity III 117.6 119.3 119.5 121.2 113.0 113.3 The following table-5 shows the various (%) Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chennai. irrigation ratios attained in Tamil Nadu agriculture. During the period 1970-71 to 2002- The table-3 shows the structure and pattern 03, the irrigation intensity had fallen considerably of irrigation in Tamil Nadu. All the vital from 131.56 per cent in 1970-71 to 115.40 per cent parameters of land use are showing negative in 2003-04. The same trend is witnessed in trends. The area sown more than once has declined cropping intensity also. The cropping intensity had steeply from 993 thousand hectares in 1998-99 to fallen from 119.70 in 1970-71 to 113.40 per cent 627 thousand hectares in 2003-04. The gross in 2003-04. In case of net area irrigated as cropped area had also nosedived from 6627 percentage to net area sown has been hovering thousand hectares in 1998-99to 5316 thousand around 42.02 to 45.81 during 1970-71 to 2003- hectares in 2003-04. The area under food crops 04. There is no marked improvement in the net had fallen sharply from 4663 thousand hectares area irrigated. The gross area irrigated as a in 1998-99 to 3718 thousand hectares in 2003-04. percentage to gross cropped area had been The area under non-food crops had fallen from remaining stagnant at a level of 46 per cent during 1964 thousand hectares in 1998-99 to 1598 1970-71 to 2003-04. So, all these four indices thousand hectares in 2003-04. All these indices unambiguously reveal that the status of irrigation of land use declined sharply due to shrinking water in Tamil Nadu is disquieting and disturbing. There potentials of Tamil Nadu. If the same trend is no marked improvement in irrigation which is continues, it is going to pose a severe problem to a vital input of agriculture. the food front. The summary figure of irrigation Table – 5 efficiency namely the cropping intensity has been IRRIGATION RATIOS OF TAMIL NADU falling steadily from 117.6 per cent in 1998-99 to Irrigation Cropping NAI as % to GAI as % to Year 113.3 per cent in 2003-04. Intensity (%) Intensity (%) NAS GCA The following table-4 shows the mixed trend in 1970-71 131.56 119.70 42.02 46.18 the growth of irrigation potential of Tamil Nadu. 1980-81 128.17 120.69 47.95 50.92 Table - 4 1990-91 121.96 118.90 42.54 43.64 2000-01 120.89 119.52 54.44 55.06 IRRIGATION IN TAMIL NADU 2001-02 121.81 120.38 54.15 54.80 (in Hectares) 2002-03 113.51 113.10 50.30 50.50 2006-07 2007-08 2003-04 115.40 113.40 45.81 46.63 Net Area Irrigated 2888880 2863823

Government Canals 781433 751990 Source: Season and Crop Report – Various Issues – Directorate Private Canals 560 664 of Economics and Statistics, Chennai. Tanks 531376 506070 Tube Wells 393449 389279 Irrigation is the single most important factor Open Wells 1172758 1204402 influencing agricultural yield and thereby Other Sources 9304 11418 Gross Area Irrigated 3309283 3251680 determining the food security of the entire nation. The steep fall in irrigation potential poses a Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chinnai. greatest challenge and endangers the food security The area under irrigation, government of entire Tamil Nadu. This problem can be RETELL 52 ISSN 0973 - 404 X addressed by government administrators, farmers and all stakeholders. It calls forth a multi prolonged strategy of augmenting the water potential by more public investment like accelerated irrigation development programmes, efficient use of water by farmers by adopting efficient technologies and effective maintenance and use of water bodies by water users association.

References 1. Statistical Hand Book (2008), Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Tamil Nadu, Chennai. 2. A Hand Book on Water Management in Irrigated Area, (2008-09) Published by Department of Agriculture Engineering Training Centre, Tiruchirappalli- 20. 3. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chennai (2006 – 2007). 4. Season and Crop Report – Various Issues – Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Chennai (2005– 2006). 5. Sivanappan R.K., (2005) Ensuring Water for All, the Hindu Survey of Indian Agriculture. 6. http://www.tn.gov.in .

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