Navigating Athlete Citizenship: the Negotiation of Rights, Roles and Responsibilities by Canadian Olympians

Navigating Athlete Citizenship: The Negotiation of Rights, Roles and Responsibilities by Canadian Olympians by Rosannagh MacLennan A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Department of Exercise Sciences University of Toronto © Copyright by Rosannagh MacLennan 2018 Navigating Athlete Citizenship: The Negotiation of Rights, Roles and Responsibilities by Canadian Olympians Rosannagh MacLennan Master of Science Department of Exercise Sciences University of Toronto 2018 Abstract Forms of citizenship expand beyond those based on nation-state to involve populations at both sub-national and transnational levels (Roche, 2002; Yuval-Davis, 2006; Sindic, 2011). This research examines the athlete citizenry including (1) institutionalized meanings related to rights, roles, and responsibilities of high-performance athletes; and (2) the range of meanings of athlete citizenship negotiated by athletes. Document analysis and interviews with athletes and key informants have been deployed to synthesize an athlete citizenship framework. Findings from this research are: (1) athletes express a sense of belonging to a transnational community of high- performance and Olympic athletes; thus, it is possible to derive a definition of athlete citizenry by examining the athlete community through broader models of citizenship; (2) further work is needed to uphold and expand athletes’ rights; (3) athletes with recent high-performance success tend to engage in social initiatives to derive ‘deeper’ meaning from their sporting experiences. ii Acknowledgments I am incredibly grateful for my supervisory committee who have supported my academic journey, inspiring, guiding, challenging and educating me. Each has pushed me to explore the sporting world in which I live through a scholarly lens. First, I would like to acknowledge and sincerely thank my supervisor, Dr. Margaret MacNeill, for your endless support to research a topic about which I am truly passionate. Every meeting we have had through my academic career I left motivated, excited and slightly overwhelmed (in a good way). Thank you for your insight, knowledge and endless support of my endeavours both within academia and in other areas of my life. I would not have been able to accomplish what I have in both the academic and athletic world without your understanding and encouragement. To Dr. Bruce Kidd, your mentorship, guidance and excitement for this topic has been inspiring and energizing. Dr. Kidd is an incredible example of an athlete and scholar who has used his passion for sport to fuel meaningful work. Thank you for challenging me to think of the Olympic Movement in a new light, for pushing me outside of my comfort zone, and for providing the opportunity to study at the International Olympic Academy. Thank you to Dr. Michael Atkinson who pushed me to explore this work through a new lens. Your recommendations altered the direction of my research for the better. Without this thoughtful advice, my dissertation would not be what it is today. A grateful thank you to all the participants for sharing their stories, experiences and insights. Without their generosity of time and openness, this research would not have been possible. To my coach, Dave Ross, thank you for challenging me to be the best athlete and person I can be and for always supporting my goals in sport and in school. You have always known the value of iii pursuing goals in all aspects of life. Thank you for leading the way in a balanced approach to training, for igniting my passion for sport, for expanding what I believed to be possible and for helping to make my Olympic dreams come true. To my family, thank you for your ongoing love and encouragement as I pursue both athletics and academics. You have always pushed me to follow my passion while instilling a thirst for knowledge. You have always been there to support me when I am overwhelmed and to remind me to focus on one step at a time. You have instilled courage, confidence, and determination to to pursue extraordinary goals. To my partner, Nick Snow, thank you for all that you have done to support me. You have encouraged me when I was struggling, talked through ideas when I could not find the right words, fed me while I worked and reminded me to get more sleep. You have constantly challenged me to be better and encouraged me to pursue my dreams. I know the last four years have been chaotic, but through it all, you have been there for me. I cannot imagine a better partner in life. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents v Lists of Tables viii List of Figures ix List of Acronyms x Participant Profiles xi 1. Introduction 1 2. Review of Literature 5 2.1 Olympism 5 2.1.1 Olympism in the Canadian Context 15 2.2 Citizenship 23 2.2.1. Models of Citizenship 24 2.3 Citizenship, Athletes and the Olympic Games 33 2.3.1 Athletes and Nation-States: The ‘Olympic Citizen’, Équipe Unifée, and 34 The Refugee Olympic Team (ROT) 2.3.2 Athletes as a Bio-Citizen 37 3. Methodological Framework, Theoretical Lens and Methods 40 3.1 Research Outline 40 3.2 Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) 41 3.3 Bourdieu’s Framework of Capital 44 3.4 Methods: Document Analysis and Semi-Structured Interviews 45 3.5 Reflexivity and Positionality 51 v 4. Defining the Athlete Citizenry 54 4.1 Governance 55 4.2 Boundary Work 61 4.3 Rights 63 4.4 Responsibilities 71 4.4.1 Legal Responsibilities 72 4.4.2 Performance Responsibilities 73 4.4.3 Ethical and Moral Responsibilities 79 4.4.4 Athletic Pursuit and the Responsibility to Olympism 84 5. Exploring Athlete Responsibilities: Opportunities and Social 89 Engagement 5.1 Forms of Engagement 90 5.1.1 Corporate 91 5.1.2 Non-Profit and Social Enterprises 91 5.1.3 Athlete Advocacy and Activism 92 5.2 Relational Dynamics 94 6. Athletes Representations of Core Engagement Values 98 6.1 Authenticity and Credibility 98 6.2 Identifying Opportunity 106 7. Towards an Understanding of Action 115 7.1 Organizational Perspectives 115 7.1.1 Defining Capital: Bourdieu and Sport 116 7.1.1.1 Cultural Capital 117 (i) The Embodied State: Higher, Faster, Stronger 119 (ii) The Objectified State: Money for Medals 121 vi (iii) The Institutionalized State: Olympian Status 122 7.1.1.2 Social Capital 124 7.1.1.3 Economic Capital 126 7.2 Athlete Perspectives 127 7.2.1 Advocacy and Activism 127 7.2.2 Non-Profit and Corporate 137 8. Conclusions 151 9. References 164 vii List of Tables Table 1: Participant demographics 47 Table 2: Athlete citizenship 55 Table 3: International, national and provincial/ regional sport governing bodies for 56 Olympic sport in Canada Table 4: Athletes’ rights and responsibilities 69 Table 5: Forms of sport social initiatives 90 viii List of Figures Figure 1: Navigating opportunities for athletes and sport social initiatives 107 Figure 2: A proposed model of athlete citizenship 154 ix List of Acronyms CAS Court of Arbitration for Sport CBC Canadian Broadcast Corporation COC Canadian Olympic Committee COC-AC Canadian Olympic Committee Athlete Commission COT Canadian Olympic Team GCG Gymnastics Canada Gymnastique IOC International Olympic Committee IF International Federation NOC National Olympic Committee NSO National Sport Organization NSF National Sport Federation NT National Team OCOG Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games OTP Own The Podium PASA Physical Activity and Sport Act ROT Refugee Olympic Team SC-AAP Sport Canada Athlete Assistance Program SDRCC Sport Dispute Resolution Centre of Canada UNDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights WADA World Anti-Doping Agency WADC World Anti-Doping Code x Participant Profiles Pseudonym Profile Athlete A: A female team winter sport athlete. A member of national and international sport governing bodies. Ambassador for corporate and non-profit initiatives. Athlete B: A female individual winter sport athlete and a member of international sport governing body. Ambassador for non-profit initiatives. Athlete C: A female individual event athlete who has participated in both Winter and Summer sports. Ambassador for corporate and non-profit initiatives. Athlete D: A male individual summer sport athlete. Ambassador for corporate and non-profit initiatives. Athlete E: A male individual summer sport and former member of national sport governing body. Athlete F: A female individual winter sport athlete and employee of Canadian non-profit organization. Athlete G: A female team winter sport athlete. Ambassador for non-profit organization and former member of national sport governing body. Athlete H: A female individual winter sport athlete, ambassador for non-profit organization. Athlete I: A male individual summer sport athlete, former member of international sport governing body, member of national sport governing body. Ambassador for non-profit organizations. Key Informant A: A male employee of a national sport governing body Key Informant B: A female, former employee member of an international non-profit organization with experience in Canadian non-profit sector and national sport governing bodies. Key Informant C: A male member of an international sport governing body Key Informant D: A male employee of an International non-profit organization and former Olympic athlete. Key Informant E: A female employee of a Canadian corporation. Key Informant F: A female employee of a Canadian non-profit organization Key Informant G: A male, former employee of an international non-profit organization. A former Olympic Athlete. xi 1 Chapter 1 Introduction The first Olympic Games I remember watching were the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona. I was four. Watching the Opening Ceremonies, I was captivated. Something about the celebration seemed so magical. I remember the moment that Team Canada walked into the stadium behind the Canadian Flag and thinking, “I want to do that!” The Olympic Games were fascinating to me; my parents indulged this new-found interest through sharing stories from the news about Canadian athletes.

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