A Qualitative Exploration of Adversarial Growth in Elite Swimmers

View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Loughborough University Institutional Repository A Qualitative Exploration of Adversarial Growth in Elite Swimmers by Karen Lesley Howells A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University August 2015 © Karen Lesley Howells 2015 ii Abstract The past few decades have heralded a paradigm shift in the psychology, oncology, and trauma literature. This shift has involved a re–focusing of the empirical lens from the distress and pathology of traumatic experiences to a focus on growth and thriving in response to adversity or traumatic events. Multiple studies have identified that individuals recognise positive changes following their experiences of adversity to the extent that many individuals report development beyond their pre–trauma functioning. These positive changes have been broadly conceptualised as growth, a multidimensional concept, which typically involves an increased appreciation for life, more meaningful relationships, an increased sense of personal strength, a change in priorities, and a richer existential and spiritual awareness. Growth following adversity, or adversarial growth, is still relatively new in sport, and specifically elite sport, and accordingly the purpose of this doctoral research was to explore adversarial growth in elite athletes with a particular emphasis on the experiences of elite level swimmers. The research was grounded in a constructivist paradigm which assumes changing and sometimes conflicting social realities, and seeks to understand people’s constructions of their lived experiences. A qualitative methodology incorporating a range of methods and analyses was utilised. The research involved a narrative approach utilising holistic–form and holistic– content analysis of Olympic Swimming Champions’ autobiographies; an interpretative phenomenological analysis of Olympic swimmers’ semi–structured interviews and timelines; a qualitative content analysis of elite coaches’ interpretations of elite swimmers’ experiences of adversarial growth; and a meta–synthesis of the qualitative growth literature in elite sport. The findings from the three empirical studies and the meta–synthesis are presented. The first study involved an exploration of the adversity– and growth–related experiences of swimmers at the highest competitive level, described how Olympic swimmers perceived their adversity–related experiences to be traumatic, and explored how they used transitional processes to positively transform their experiences. The second study involved an exploration of Olympic swimmers’ experiences of constructive and illusory growth following adversity, and provided a critical stance on the veridicality of growth. The third empirical study involved a content analysis of elite coaches’ semi-structured interviews and identified that they are in a position to corroborate the growth experiences of elite level swimmers, and that this growth is identifiable as having functional, illusory, and action aspects. Finally, a meta–synthesis of qualitative research ascertained what the literature contributes to our understanding of the conceptualisation of adversity–related growth in elite level athletes, and how that understanding has evolved over time. iii Publications Arising from this Thesis Peer–reviewed journal articles: Howells, K., & Fletcher, D. (2015). Sink or swim: Adversity– and growth–related experiences in Olympic swimming champions. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16, 37–48. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.08.004 Journal article under review: Howells, K., & Fletcher, D. (2015). Adversarial growth in Olympic swimmers: constructive reality or illusory self–deception? Manuscript submitted for publication. Conference proceedings: Howells, K., & Fletcher, D. (2013, December). Sink or swim: Adversity and growth in Olympic champion swimmers. Paper presented at The Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology Conference, The Midland Hotel, Manchester, 16–17 December 2013. Howells, K., & Fletcher, D. (2014, February). Sink or Swim: Adversity and Growth in Olympic Swimming Champions. Poster session presented at the SSEHS Postgraduate Research Student Conference, Loughborough University, 4 June 2014. Howells, K., & Fletcher, D. (2015, August). Recent developments growth research in performance sport. In D. Fletcher (Chair), Recent developments in resilience, growth, and thriving research in performance sport. Symposium conducted at the American Psychological Association Convention, Toronto, ON. Howells, K., & Fletcher, D. (2015, December). Adversarial Growth in Olympic Swimmers: Constructive Reality or Illusory Self–Deception? Paper accepted by The Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology Conference, The Queen’s Hotel, Leeds, 14–15 December 2015. Trade Publications: Howells, K. & Fletcher, D. (2014, January). Sink or swim. Swimming Times, 44-47. iv Acknowledgements This research is the culmination of three challenging, but exciting, years at Loughborough University. This thesis would not have been possible without the support of a number of people who have all contributed to the research process in a variety of ways. Accordingly, I would like to offer my thanks to those individuals who have made this endeavour possible: To the research participants who gave up their time to talk to me about their sometimes painful experiences. I hope that I have fairly represented their stories. To Dr. David Fletcher for affording me the opportunity to study for a PhD at Loughborough University, for his continued guidance, and his challenging writing sessions. To those who were there in the journey with me in the early days in the Matthew Arnold building, and more recently in our new abode. Their quiet but pervasive support has ensured that what could have been a lonely process never felt like that – Sam, Cara, and Mustafa. To my lunchtime (and more distant) swimming friends who have made the difficult days bearable, listened to my fears, my doubts, and then made me swim, and then made me swim some more. To my parents who instilled in me the love of reading, academic study, and sport. And finally, I owe a debt of gratitude to my family, Ian, Jessica, and Ashleigh who were prepared to sacrifice their comfortable lives in Scotland to allow me to follow my dream of studying for a PhD at Loughborough University. I thank them for weathering all of the highs and lows that my journey entailed. v Table of Contents Abstract ii Publications Arising from the Thesis iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables vii List of Figures vii List of Appendices vii Part I – Introduction and Literature Review 1 Chapter I – Introduction 2 Research Questions 4 Structure of the Thesis 5 Chapter II – Review of the Literature – Adversity and Growth 6 Introduction 6 Historical Background 6 Adversity 7 Terminology – Growth 9 Models of Growth 11 Identification of Growth 19 Adversity and Growth in the Sport Performance Literature 21 A Critical Conceptualisation of Growth in Elite Sport 27 Summary 28 Part II – Empirical Studies 30 Chapter III – Sink or Swim: Adversity – and Growth – Related Experiences 31 in Olympic Swimming Champions Introduction 31 Method 34 Results and Discussion 40 General Discussion 51 Chapter IV – Adversarial Growth in Olympic Swimmers: Constructive 56 Reality or Illusory Self–Deception? Introduction 56 Method 58 vi Results 64 Discussion 75 Chapter V – Coaches’ Corroboration of Elite Swimmers’ Perceptions of 79 Adversarial Growth Introduction 79 Method 83 Results 88 Discussion 101 Chapter VI – A Meta–Synthesis of Adversarial Growth in Elite Athletes 106 Introduction 106 Method 109 Results 115 Discussion 130 Part III – Discussion 134 Chapter VII – Discussion 135 The Aim of the Doctorate 137 Theoretical Implications 137 Methodological Implications 145 Applied Implications 150 Future Directions 150 Concluding Remarks 154 References 155 Appendices 177 vii List of Tables Table 1: Swimmer and Autobiography Details 35 Table 2: Participant and Adversity Details 58 Table 3: Extract from Tim’s Transcript 60 Table 4: Olympic Swimmers’ Experiences of Adversarial Growth 63 Table 5: Coach Demographic Details 83 Table 6: Extract from Codebook – the Restitution Narrative as a Child Node 85 Table 7: Responses to Adversity 89 Table 8: Positive Outcomes 94 Table 9: Examples of Studies based on the Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria 110 Table 10: Details of Studies Included in the Review 111 Table 11: Criteria for Evaluation of the Reviewed Studies 114 Table 12: Impact and Nature of the Adversity – Concepts and Themes and the 117 Papers in which they were found Table 13: Positive Coping – Concepts and Themes and the Papers in which they 121 were found Table 14: Personally Transformative Changes – Concepts and Themes and the 125 Papers in which they were found List of Figures Figure 1: A model of posttraumatic growth 12 Figure 2: Posttraumatic affective-cognitive processing model 15 Figure 3: Search Strategy 110 List of Appendices Appendix 1: Participant Consent Form – Study 2 175 Appendix 2: Interview Schedule – Study 2 177 Appendix 3: Interview Schedule and Consent Form – Study 3 182 Appendix 4: Sink or Swim – Swimming Times Article 189 Part I Introduction and Literature Review 2 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The way in which a man accepts his fate and all the suffering it entails, the way in which he takes up his cross, gives him ample opportunity — even in the most difficult circumstances

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