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The Role of Cystatins in Cells of the Immune System

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The Role of Cystatins in Cells of the Immune System FEBS Letters 580 (2006) 6295–6301 Minireview The role of cystatins in cells of the immune system Natasˇa Kopitar-Jerala* Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jozˇef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Received 16 August 2006; revised 22 October 2006; accepted 24 October 2006 Available online 3 November 2006 Edited by Masayuki Miyasaka The cystatins constitute a large group of evolutionary Abstract The cystatins constitute a large group of evolutionary related proteins with diverse biological activities. Initially, they related proteins acting as protease inhibitors of papain-like were characterized as inhibitors of lysosomal cysteine proteases cysteine proteases belonging to enzyme family C1 (see the – cathepsins. Cathepsins are involved in processing and presenta- MEROPS database at http://merops.sanger.ac.uk), such as tion of antigens, as well as several pathological conditions such cathepsins B, H, L, and S and legumain-related proteases of as inflammation and cancer. Recently, alternative functions of the family C13 [10]. Type 1 cystatins, stefins (A and B), are cystatins have been proposed: they also induce tumour necrosis polypeptides of 98 amino acid residues which possess neither factor and interleukin 10 synthesis and stimulate nitric oxide disulfide bonds nor carbohydrate side chains and are located production. The aim of the present review was the analysis of mainly intracellularly. Type 2 cystatins C, D, E/M, F, S, SN, data on cystatins from NCBI GEO database and the literature, and SA are characterized by two conserved disulfide bridges, and obtained in microarray and serial analysis of gene expres- a larger size (120 residues) and the presence of a signal sion (SAGE) experiments. The expression of cystatins A, B, C, and F in macrophages, dendritic cells and natural killer cells peptide for extracellular targeting [11]. Type 3 cystatins, the of the immune system, during differentiation and activation is kininogens, are large (60–120 kDa) multifunctional plasma discussed. proteins, containing three type 2 cystatin-like domains con- Ó 2006 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published taining a total of eight disulfide bridges. Although types 1 by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. and 2 cystatins display considerable differences in amino acid sequence, their tertiary structures are conserved and exhibit a Keywords: Cystatin; Cathepsin; Macrophages; Dendritic cells; ‘cystatin fold’ that is formed by five stranded anti-parallel b- Natural killer cells pleated sheet wrapped around a five-turn a-helix [12,13]. The structure of human cystatin C in its dimeric form also shows that each one of the two domains in the dimer adopt the typ- ical monomeric ‘cystatin fold’ [14]. Some type 2 cystatins (C, E/M, and F) are also able to inhibit mammalian legumain, 1. Introduction an asparaginyl endopeptidase (AEP), using a binding site dis- tinct from the family C1 interaction site [15]. AEP has been Cysteine cathepsins are long known to be responsible for shown to be involved in class II major histocompatibility com- protein degradation in lysosomes. Recent studies show that plex (MHC) restricted antigen presentation [16]. they are also involved in a number of other important cellular The present review focuses mostly on the expression of two processes such as antigen presentation [1], apoptosis, protein type 1 cystatins: stefins (cystatins) A and B and two type 2 cyst- processing [2], as well as several pathologies such as cancer atins, cystatins C and F, in cells of the immune system upon progression [3], inflammation [4] and neurodegeneration [5]. differentiation and activation. Two recently developed technol- The role of lysosomal cathepsins in antigen presentation has ogies, oligonucleotide or cDNA microarrays and serial analy- been reviewed recently [6]. Proteinase activity in these pro- sis of gene expression (SAGE), allow the determination of the cesses is highly regulated at the level of protease expression, expression patterns of thousands of genes simultaneously by regulation of zymogen activation and by expression of [17,18]. The gene expression omnibus (GEO) at the National endogenous inhibitors. Natural inhibitors that inhibit cysteine Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is a large com- cathepsins include cystatins, thyrophins and also some of the pendium of gene expression data, addressing a wide range of serpins [7–9]. biological issues across many organisms [19]. The aim of the present review is the identification of some of the most interest- ing questions regarding cystatins in cells of the immune system on the basis of recent data collected in the NCBI GEO and the *Fax: +386 1 477 39 84. literature. E-mail address: [email protected] Abbreviations: BCR, B cell receptor; DC, dendritic cells; FDC, follic- ular dendritic cells; GC, germinal centres; SAGE, serial analysis of 2. Stefin A (cystatin A) in follicular dendritic cells (FDC) gene expression; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; PKC, protein kinase C; TNF-a, tumour necrosis factor alpha; IL-4, inter- leukin-4; IL-10, interleukin-10; IFN-c, interferon-gamma; NK, natural Stefin A (cystatin A) has been isolated from epidermis, poly- killer cells morphonuclear granulocytes, liver, and spleen [20–23]. SAGE 0014-5793/$32.00 Ó 2006 Federation of European Biochemical Societies. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2006.10.055 6296 N. Kopitar-Jerala / FEBS Letters 580 (2006) 6295–6301 studies showed that LPS stimulation decreased its synthesis in activity on neural stem cells [47]. Cystatin C N-glycosylation monocytes [24]. Stefin A was also found in the follicular den- was necessary to induce neural stem cell proliferation. The pro- dritic cells (FDC) in germinal centres (GC) of human tonsils tease inhibitory domain of cystatin C was not directly involved [25]. In contrast to antigen-presenting cells that present anti- in the process [47]. The unexpected consequences of cystatin gens to T cells, FDC do not internalize, process and present C deficiency on the spread of metastasis and atherosclerosis antigens in the context of major histocompatibility complex could also be a consequence of alternative functions of cystatin class II (MHC II), but present intact antigen on their cell C, possibly as growth factor cofactor. surface [26,27]. GC form in lymphoid follicles of secondary Dendritic cells (DC) are the professional antigen presenting lymphoid organs and provide an essential microenvironment cells of the immune system. They are defined functionally by for T cell-dependent humoral immune responses [28,29]. their ability to take up antigens such as microorganisms, pro- Within GC, antigen-specific B cells efficiently undergo clonal cess them into short antigenic peptides, load the peptides onto expansion, isotype switching, somatic mutation, and affinity major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules and then maturation leading to the generation of plasma and memory present the resulting complexes at the cell surface. Immature cells [30–32]. Only B-cells with the highest affinity B cell recep- DC are located in the periphery of the body and they take tor (BCR) bind to intact antigens on the surface of FDC and up and process antigens. Activated DC lose their capacity to receive survival signals from the FDC whereas low affinity capture and process antigens. Instead they migrate to the sec- BCR B cells and self-reactive B cell clones are eliminated by ondary lymphoid organs and present antigen to T cells [48]. apoptosis [31]. Apoptosis in GC B-cells is mainly induced via Self peptides derived from secretory membrane proteins that the death receptor pathway, by the rapid activation of cas- are synthesized by the antigen-presenting cells themselves bind pase-8 at the level of CD95 death-inducing signalling complex to MHC class II molecules tightly, but normally do not acti- (DISC) [33–35]. GC B cell apoptosis is dependent not only on vate T cells. Cystatin C peptide (amino acids 40–55) has been caspases but also endonucleases [36] and cathepsins [37]. Re- found as one of such self peptides bound to MHC class II mol- cently, van Nierop et al. showed that apoptosis in human ecules, indicating that it is endocytosed and cleaved with the GC B-cells involved lysosomal destabilization, which was con- antigenic material and then bind to MHC class II molecules trolled by caspase-8 activity. CD40 ligation provided resistance [49]. Hashimoto et al. [50] observed that upon DC maturation to lysosomal destabilization, as well as binding of high-affinity cystatin C transcripts were significantly downregulated (http:// B cells to FDC prevented lysosomal leakage and apoptosis in bloodsage.gi.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp/). The SAGE results of Hashim- GC B-cells [38]. Van Nierop et al. speculated that besides cas- oto et al. were confirmed at the protein level by Zavasnik-Ber- pase-8 inhibition there was an additional mechanism to pre- gant et al. who observed a large increase in intracellular vent lysosomal instability in adhering GC B-lymphocytes: cystatin C during the differentiation of monocytes to immature stefin A, which is expressed at high levels in FDC may play DC [51], Upon DC maturation, intracellular cystatin C levels a role in the prevention of apoptosis, as previously proposed decreased and following prolonged incubation of mature DC by van Eijk et al. [37,39]. in the presence of TNF-a, cystatin C was secreted from DC. It has been proposed that cystatin C plays a pivotal role in the control of cleavage and removal of the MHC class II 3. Cystatins B and C in dendritic cells and macrophages invariant chain (Ii) by regulating the activity of cathepsin S, and hence in the formation of MHC class II-peptide complexes Cystatin C is the most potent inhibitor of cysteine proteases [52]. The work of El Sukkari et al. on DC isolated from cyst- such as cathepsins B, H, L, and S, with apparent inhibition atin C-deficient mice showed that cystatin C is neither neces- constants even below the nanomolar range [40].
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