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Theoretical Aspects of Gitksan Phonology by Jason Camy Brown B.A., California State University, Fresno, 2000 M.A., California St

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Theoretical Aspects of Gitksan Phonology by Jason Camy Brown B.A., California State University, Fresno, 2000 M.A., California St Theoretical Aspects of Gitksan Phonology by Jason Camy Brown B.A., California State University, Fresno, 2000 M.A., California State University, Fresno, 2002 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in The Faculty of Graduate Studies (Linguistics) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) December 2008 © Jason Camy Brown, 2008 Abstract This thesis deals with the phonology of Gitksan, a Tsimshianic language spoken in northern British Columbia, Canada. The claim of this thesis is that Gitksan exhibits several gradient phonological restrictions on consonantal cooccurrence that hold over the lexicon. There is a gradient restriction on homorganic consonants, and within homorganic pairs, there is a gradient restriction on major class and manner features. It is claimed that these restrictions are due to a generalized OCP effect in the grammar, and that this effect can be relativized to subsidiary features, such as place, manner, etc. It is argued that these types of effects are best analyzed with the system of weighted constraints employed in Harmonic Grammar (Legendre et al. 1990, Smolensky & Legendre 2006). It is also claimed that Gitksan exhibits a gradient assimilatory effect among specific consonants. This type of effect is rare, and is unexpected given the general conditions of dissimilation. One such effect is the frequency of both pulmonic pairs of consonants and ejective pairs of consonants, which occur at rates higher than expected by chance. Another is the occurrence of uvular-uvular and velar-velar pairs of consonants, which also occur at rates higher than chance. This pattern is somewhat surprising, as there is a gradient prohibition on cooccurring pairs of dorsal consonants. These assimilatory patterns are analyzed using the Agreement by Correspondence approach (Hansson 2001, Rose & Walker 2004), which mandates that output correspondents agree for some phonological feature. The general discussion of assimilation and dissimilation is continued in morphological contexts, such as reduplication. It is claimed there are differences in the gradient and categorical patterns of assimilation and dissimilation in Coast Tsimshian and Gitksan reduplicative contexts. A summary of the attested reduplicative patterns in the languages, as well as results from a nonce-probe task, supports this claim. This difference between Coast Tsimshian and Gitksan is indicative of a larger difference in the reduplicative patterns of the languages of the Tsimshianic family: each member of the family exhibits slightly different patterns of deglottalization. A typological study of these patterns suggests that glottalized sonorants and obstruents are fundamentally different segment types. 11 .Table of Contents Abstract i Abstract ii Table of Contents iii Acknowledgments v Dedication viii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Overview of Gitksan 4 1.2.1. Language Area 4 1.2.2. The Tsimshianic Language Family 5 1.2.3. Interior Tsimshianic 7 1.2.4. History and Documentation 8 1.2.5 The Gitksan Database 9 1.2.6. Orthography 10 1.3. Theoretical Overview 11 1.3.1. Documenation and Theory 11 1.3.2. Constraint-Based Theories and Gradient Phenomena 12 1.4. Structure of the Thesis 13 Chapter 2: Patterns Across the Lexicon 15 2.1. Introduction 15 2.2. Consonantal Patterns Over the Gitksan Lexicon 16 2.2.1. Overview and Method 16 2.2.2. Results 29 2.2.2.1. Gradient OCP Effects 29 2.2.2.2. Gradient Assimilatory Effects 39 2.3. Summary and Discussion 48 Chapter 3: Constraints on Gradient Lexical Phonotactics 50 3.1. Introduction 50 3.2. Background on Theoretical Approaches 50 3.2.1. Problems for Optimality Theory 52 3.2.2. Lexical Indexation 54 3.2.3. Weighted Constraints 57 3.3. Harmonic Grammar 58 3.3.1. Overview 58 3.3.2. Constraints 63 3.3.3. Learning the Grammar 66 3.4. Distance in OCP Effects 76 3.5. Conclusion 78 Chapter 4: Laryngeal Features 79 4.1. Introduction 79 4.2. Glottalization Agreement 82 4.2.1. Analysis 87 4.3. Paradigmatic Restrictions on Laryngeal Features 102 111 voicing. 103 4.3.1 Obstruent 4.3.2. Blocking allophonic voicing 109 4.3.2.1. Ejectives 109 4.3.2.2. Aspirated Stops 110 4.3.2.3. Fricatives 112 4.3.2.4. Summary of Blocking 113 4.4. Conclusion 114 Chapter 5: Dorsal and Guttural Patterns 115 5.1. Introduction 115 5.2. Lexical Patterns 116 5.3. Arguments for Dorsal vs. Pharyngeal Place 119 5.3.1. Guttural Lowering 124 5.3.1. Constraints on Guttural Lowering 134 5.4. Analysis of Lexical Patterns 138 5.5. Conclusion 145 Chapter 6: Reduplicative Patterns 146 6.1. Introduction 146 6.2. Reduplication Basics 146 6.3. Gradient Reduplicative Patterns 149 6.3.1. Frequencies of Plural Morphology in Tsimshianic 151 6.3.2. Reduplicative Allomorphy in Coast Tsimshian 154 6.3.3. Reduplicative Allomorphy in Gitksan 156 6.3.4 Testing Reduplicative Frequencies 162 6.3.4.1 Stimuli 162 6.3.4.2. Subjects 163 6.3.4.3. Procedure 163 6.3.4.4. Results 164 6.3.5. Discussion 167 6.4. Patterns of Deglottalization 168 6.4.1. Coda Deglottalization 170 6.4.2. Onset Deglottalization 172 6.4.2.1. Coast Tsimshian 173 6.4.2.2. Nisgha 174 6.4.2.3. Gitksan 176 6.4.3. Discussion 178 6.5. Conclusion 180 Chapter 7: Conclusion 181 7.1. Summary of Findings 181 7.2. Future Research 182 7.2.1. Data Collection and Analysis 182 7.2.2. Comparative Research 183 7.2.3. Experimentation 184 7.2.4. Modeling and Learning Algorithms 185 References 187 Appendix A: Gitksan Orthography 202 Appendix B: Gitksan Roots 204 iv Acknowledgments First and foremost, I wish to acknowledge and thank the Gitksan community and the many individuals who contributed enormously to this thesis. This includes Margaret Heit, Lonnie Hindle, Laurel Mould, Delia O’Brien, Gwen Simms, Clyde and Marlain Skulsh, Fanny Smith, Jane Smith, Alvin Weget, Holly Weget, Fern Weget, Sheila Weget, and Leiwa Weget. I thank most of all my teachers, friends, and mentors in the language, Doreen Jensen and Barbara Sennott. The Weget and Harris families also were extremely generous with their hospitality. This community has graciously shared its language with me, and I hope this thesis can be used in helping to keep the language taught. I owe my committee members a world of gratitude. My supervisors Douglas Pulleyblank and Gunnar Hansson were a constant encouragement; they were always available for meetings, they read my work over and over, and they allowed me to work in new directions. Henry Davis was always behind me, throughout the process. Henry was always a great to bounce new ideas around with, and pointed out all of the ramifications my work had in other areas of linguistics. To my committee: I thank you. I’m very lucky to have had Pat Moore and Joe Stemberger as University examiners; they had many helpful comments and were very encouraging. Likewise, my external examiner Sharon Hargus provided many thoughtful comments on the thesis and asked questions about things I hadn’t previously thought about. The faculty members at Cal State Fresno who got me started in linguistics and who provided constant encouragement throughout my career deserve thanks, and include: Brian Agbayani, Ritva Laury, Yukiko Morimoto, Shigeko Okamoto, Ray Weitzman; in anthropology: Walter Dodd, Charles Ettner, Roger LaJeunesse, and John Pryor; and in philosophy: Jack Weinstein. Classmates that stuck with me even after parting ways include Carlos Fierro, James Hoang, Stefan Isaksson, and Jon Petty. The one person most responsible for my development as a linguist is my friend and mentor Chris Goiston. He and Brian Agbayani are also to thank for my personal development during my formative years. v Over the years I have had countless wonderful interactions with the UBC linguistics faculty, past and present, some of whom I would like to acknowledge here: Martina Wiltschko, Strang Burton, Rose-Marie Déchaine, Bryan Gick, Päivi Koskinen, Felicia Lee, Lisa Matthewson, Hotze Rullman, Kimary Shahin, Joe Stemberger, and Eric Vatikiotis Bateson. Through every step of the way Edna Dharmaratne looked out for me administratively, and provided unconditional friendship; I will never thank her enough. Anne-Marie Comte has always been encouraging and hospitable, and deserves a special thanks here! Auntie Svea Thompson also deserves thanks for putting up with me, feeding me, and entertaining me while I did fieldwork. Thanks Auntie! The graduate students and postdocs at UBC were great to be around. Thanks to Leora Bar-El, Seth Cable, Mario Chávez-Peón, Carrie Gillon, Peter Jacobs, Susie Jones, Michelle Kalmar, Calisto Mudzingwa, Beth Rogers, Sonja Thoma, and Ian Wilson. A special thanks go to Karsten Koch, James Thompson, and Tyler Peterson, who have been like brothers to me, and who will continue to be in my family after 1 leave Vancouver. There are several linguists at other universities who I’ve had meaningful conversations with, who have read drafts or commented on this work, taught incredible classes I’ve been lucky to take, or who have generally inspired me: Eric Bakoviá, Juliette B levins, Derek Chan, Donna Gerdts, Larry Hyman, Joe Pater, Sharon Rose, Donca Steriade, and Cohn Wilson. There are also many scholars in the Tsimshianic world who have helped me at one point or another. Tonya Stebbins and Fumiko Sasama have been more than generous in supplying me with published works on Coast Tsimshian. Lonnie Hindle graciously gave me a copy of the Gitksan dictionary. Bruce Rigsby has been a constant source of support and inspiration, and he has also been an incredible resource for testing ideas, digging up old papers, field slip notes, etc.
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