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Traffi cking in Persons to for sexual exploitation Chapter extracted from “The of Crime — A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment” Report.

This report has not been formally edited.

The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory organiza- tions and neither do they imply any endorsement.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries.

Cover poto: A. Scotti for UN.GIFT/UNODC To Europe1 for sexual exploitation

Route Source: World (main origin: the and former ) Vector to destination: Mainly by land, also and air Destination: West and Dimensions Annual flow of new victims: About 70,000 victims (based on two-year turnover) Volume of market (stock): About 140,000 victims Value of market (stock): US$3 billion per year Traffickers Groups involved: Western European, Balkan, Eastern European, North African, Turkish, Nigerian and Chinese groups Residence of traffickers: Origin and destination countries Threat Estimated trend: Stable Potential effects: Human rights violations Likelihood of effects being realized: Very high

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What is the nature of the market? , , the , , Aus- tria and .2 Almost all of this trafficking A greater variety of nationalities has been found is for the purpose of sexual exploitation and it among human trafficking victims in West and Cen- includes transgender victims.3 Among South Amer- tral Europe than in any other part of the world, and icans, Brazilian victims have been increasingly most of these victims (84%) were trafficked for the detected in Europe. Trafficking originating in this purpose of sexual exploitation. Both the detection country mainly affects the poor communities of the rate and the type of exploitation detected are north (such as Amazonas, Pará, Roraima and affected by enforcement patterns, however. In 2006, Amapá), rather than the richer of the south. the entire Western Hemisphere only recorded some 150 convictions for human trafficking, which is Trafficking from affects mainly West African about the same number as Germany alone. It is dif- communities, in particular Nigerian women and ficult to say to what extent this is indicative of a girls.4 Trafficking originating from greater problem or whether it is simply a matter of ( and Tunisia) is still very limited, but may greater vigilance. be increasing. Trafficking from Africa (Uganda In recent years, the majority of human trafficking and Kenya) is found mainly in the United King- 5 victims detected in Europe have come from the dom. Balkans and the former Soviet Union, in particular Trafficking from East has traditionally involved , , , the Russian Federa- mainly Thai women. More recently, Chinese tion and the Republic of . Victims from at nationals are also affected, as are women from Viet least some of these five countries have also been Nam and Cambodia. These women are normally located in all parts of Europe. But the dominance of exploited in indoor , such as massage these groups appears to be changing as new source parlours, saunas or beauty centres. countries emerge on the European scene. How is the trafficking conducted? Although trafficking from occurs in a smaller number of countries, it is often severe in Every trafficking group has its own modus operandi the places where it does occur. The main destina- for the recruitment, transportation and exploitation tions for South American victims are , , of victims. The most common recruiting method

3.2.Fig. Women 1: W traffickedomen traf toficked Europe to E forurope sexual for sexual exploitation exploitation(citizenship (citizenship o fof victims victims detected), detected), 2005-2007 2005-2007 BM 06.01.10

Number Russian Federation Russian Poland Federation Czech Republic 2,348 1,000 200 50 10 1 to 5

Romania Ukraine Republic of Moldova Morocco Rep. of Moldova China Ukraine Romania Bulgaria Bulgaria Nigeria

Morocco China

Brazil

Paraguay Nigeria Unspecified citizenship

Brazil O Paraguay Unspecified citizenship Source: UNODC/UN.GIFT Number 2 348 1 000 200 50 10 1 to 5 SCIE NCES P / UNOD C

Source: UNODC/UN.GIFT

2 used by Balkan-based groups consists of promises of Fig. 2: Number of convictions for the offence employment.6 In Ukraine, traffickers entice 70% of of trafficking in persons in selected West their victims through promises of work, participa- and Central European countries and in tion in beauty contests, modelling opportunities, other regions, 2006 affordable vacations, study abroad programmes or marriage services.7 200 187 Trafficking originating from the Balkans, the former 180 Soviet Union and Central Europe is characterized 160 152 150 by recruitment conducted by victims’ acquaint- 140 ances. According to studies conducted in the Czech 120 110 8 9 10 Republic, Poland and Romania, the majority of 100 victims are recruited through acquaintances, friends 80 71 70 or relatives. Similar patterns have been reported in 60 the South .11 Studies from Ukraine indi- 40 cate that 11% of victims were trafficked with the 20 active cooperation of their husbands.12 0 While some of these victims are recruited know- Romania Aggregated Germany Aggregated Bulgaria The ingly into prostitution, they may nonetheless end Africa Netherlands up in exploitative situations through deception, coercion or violence.13 According to one Ukrainian Source: Elaboration of UNODC/UN.GIFT data study, nearly 20% of the victims are promised work as exotic dancers, masseuses and the like. While bers.19 Traffickers in America may also make most of these women understand that they will use of entertainment networks, fashion agencies, have to render sexual services, they are unaware of employment agencies, marriage and tourism agen- the conditions under which they will work.14 cies and newspaper advertisements to recruit vic- tims.20 Because of the long distances involved, Latin Violence is frequently used to control victims. Traf- American women trafficked to Europe are normally ficking by Balkan-based groups is described as very transported by air to major European airports. Reg- 15 violent. Similarly, Russian organized criminal ular three-month tourist visas may be used to gangs engaged in human trafficking are reported to the borders.21 Trafficking victims travelling from adopt particularly harsh methods of control. Often, Brazil to Europe may pass through European- before being presented to clients, women are raped administrated territories in the or South by the traffickers themselves, in order to initiate the America to reduce the risks of being intercepted in cycle of abuse and degradation. Some women are drugged to prevent them from escaping.16 Studies conducted in Romania, the Czech Republic and Fig. 3: Nationalities of trafficking victims Poland show that violence towards the victims nor- detected in West and Central Europe, (%) 2005-2006 mally occurs at the destination site.17

Because of the short distances, most women traf- Former Soviet ficked from Central Europe and the Balkans are Union 19% African 18 transported by bus or car. Victims originating 5% Central from the former Soviet Union are trafficked by Europe making use of counterfeit passports, false visas and/ 7% South American or false marriages. In some cases, trafficking victims 13% are highly visible and engage in street-level prostitu- tion, but in many cases, sex trafficking takes place in underground venues, such as private homes or East Asian 3% brothels. Often, public and legal locations such as massage parlours, spas and strip clubs act as fronts Balkans for illegal prostitution and trafficking. 32% 32% Others In the context of the Latin American human traf- 21% ficking flow, cases were registered where victims were forced to ‘recruit’ friends and/or family mem- Source: Elaboration of UNODC/UN.GIFT data

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Fig. 4: Most frequently detected nationalities of victims in selected countries (count)

500 450 400 350 300 250 200 number of victims 150 100 50 0 Thai Czech Slovaks Germans Nigerians Russians Nigerians Russians Bulagians Albanians Ukrainians Romanians Romanians Lithuanians Germany (2005-2007) (2005-2007)

60

50

40

30

number of victims 20

10

0 Serbians Russians Bosnians Croatians Ukrainians Ukrainians Bulgarians Moldovans Romanians Vietnamese Bos nia and Herzegovina (2005-2006) Czech Rep. (2005-2006)

Source: Official National Statistics

Europe. Suriname is also a transit country to sea across the Mediterranean. The vast majority of Europe.22 Once in Europe, women and transgender West African women and girls are exploited in street individuals may be exploited in the streets or prostitution. indoors, depending on the destination. Traditionally, Chinese brothels in Europe were Studies of Nigerian victims report that acquaint- accessible just to the Chinese communities, but this ances, close friends or family members play a major is changing and these new forms of Chinese prosti- role in the recruitment of victims. Recruitment tution seem to be more amenable to trafficking in frequently occurs in the victim’s own home.23 Nige- persons. Chinese trafficking occurs on the basis of a rian trafficking is characterized by a debt bondage scheme. Victims trafficked into Europe (Italy, the debt bondage scheme and in the context of assisted Netherlands, , Spain and others) are forced irregular migration. Most of the victims come from to pay back inflated smuggling fees.24 Victims the impoverished north-eastern regions, and typi- mainly travel to Europe by plane from Lagos or cally move to the country’s south-east. From there, other international airports from .25 they are trafficked across the former Soviet Union Victims may also have been transported by land and and Eastern Bloc countries before reaching Europe.27

4 Fig. 5: Means of coercion26 used in the Netherlands on sampled victims (N:155), 1998-2002

Threat of violence

Watch/lock victim up

Violence

Debt

Confiscation of passport

Feigned love

Threat of violence against family

Threat of disclosing prostitution work

Voodoo

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%

Source: Dutch National Rapporteur

Who are the traffickers? ficked women became recruiters, as this is one of the few employment options available to previously Most convicted traffickers are male, as are convicts trafficked women.30 of virtually every other crime. Female offending rates are higher for human trafficking than for other A study by the United Interregional Crime crimes, however. This may be due in part to the and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) on Roma- importance of trust between the victim and the nian trafficking to Germany reports that women are perpetrator. Additionally, in some markets, victims used not only as recruiters of other women but also may become exploiters over time, as this may be the as guardians in the destination country.31 In 2007, only way to escape further exploitation.28 of the 121 people arrested for human trafficking in Greece, 38 were women. Of these, more than 40% In the countries that formerly comprised the Soviet were Russian, Ukrainian and Kazakh, whereas the Union in particular, the majority of recruiters are same nationalities accounted for only 7% of the women, often persons previously engaged in prosti- males arrested. tution.29 A study by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) on trafficking in the former The prevalence of female traffickers is also charac- Soviet Union reports cases where repatriated traf- teristic of Nigerian trafficking,32 and women may

Fig. 6: Share of females among convicts for trafficking offences and for all offences, 2003-2006

60% TIP-average 53% 2003-2006 All crimes -average 50% 2003-2006 40% 30% 28% 30% 26% 23% 23% 21% 22% 18% 20% 18% 13% 13% 14% 13% 9% 8% 9% 9% 10%

0% Latvia Czech Republic Romania Portugal Germany Netherlands

Source: UNODC/UN.GIFT

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Fig. 7: Most frequently detected nationalities of traffickers in selected countries

60

50

40

30

20 number of offenders 10

0 Turks Dutch Russians Albanians Ukrainians Bulgarians Romanians Romanians Moroccans Greece 2007 Netherlands 2006

350

300

250

200

150

100 number of offenders 50

0 Turks Thais Polish Italians Kyrgyz Uzbeks Chinese Nigerians Russians Albanians Ukrainians Georgians Moldovans Romanians Azerbaijanis Italy 2003-2007 Turkey 2006

Source: Official National Statistics

“evolve” over time from victim to exploiter.33 The contrast to some other regions. Often, their - Nigerian networks have loose structures and oper- ality corresponds to that of the victim. For example, ate mainly in and from Nigeria, although they have only 39% of the traffickers prosecuted in Greece in bases in Europe through which the women are 2007 were Greek. More than half came from Bul- transported before arriving at their final destina- garia, Romania, the Russian Federation and tion. The exploitation in Europe is handled by resi- Ukraine, the largest source countries for trafficking dent Nigerian women, referred to as ‘madams’.34 A victims. A similar situation is found in Italy. This large part of the West African trafficking into suggests that diaspora communities are a vector for Europe originates from, or passes through, the trafficking, but there are exceptions. In Germany, Nigerian state of Edo and its capital Benin City. It Turks are the most commonly encountered foreign is mainly conducted by Edo traffickers, known as traffickers, but few Turkish victims have been “Binis.”35 detected. The same is true with Moroccans in the Netherlands. In Europe, the perpetrators are frequently not nationals of the country where they operate, in As a rule, groups engaging in trafficking for sexual

6 exploitation are small.36 The Russian Federation provides a case in point, where many of the groups How big is the commercial sex market in Europe? comprise two or three people.37 But again, there are Notwithstanding the existence of different markets for sex, including , exceptions. Azerbaijani authorities detained over 40 transgender prostitution and , commercial sexual services in Europe members of a trafficking group with cells in five are consumed almost entirely by men and performed in great part by women. countries. The network covered a huge area extend- National survey data suggest the percentage of men who have purchased sexual serv- ing from to Turkey and was engaged in ices in their lifetimes varies considerably between countries and over time. According human trafficking and the issuance of fake docu- to the Kinsey surveys in the 1940s, 70% of adult males reported having paid for sex at 47 ments, which they used to import the victims.38 least once in their lives, but this was at a time when non-compensated extramarital sex was far less common than today. More recent surveys suggest the figure today is In Romania, based on a sample of 30 cases, UNICRI closer to 19%.48 Recent surveys in other countries suggest a similar figure in found 23 involved groups of three or more people, (13%),49 the Netherlands (14%),50 (15%)51 and Switzerland (19%).52 Spain 53 54 while seven cases were conducted by individuals (39%) is an outlier in Europe, as is Puerto Rico (61%) in . The 55 operating alone. Most of the groups sampled in this comparable figure is even higher in Thailand (73%). study were very small, however; usually made up of Self-reported annual prevalence for buying sex has been estimated at 13-15% of the a recruiter, a transporter and an exploiter. Within adult male population in the Central African , 10-11% in Eastern and Southern the larger networks there was usually a structured Africa, and 5–7% in Asia and . The median for all regions was about 9–10%.56 division of labor and often additional accomplices who performed support tasks on an irregular basis.39 A British study found that 4% of the men polled reported having paid for sex in the previous five years.57 Another British study found that 10% had paid for sex in their European groups may be involved in recruiting in lifetimes, of which two thirds (7%) had paid for it in the last year and 27% (3%) were source countries in Latin America. This is the case regular clients of prostitutes. Over half of these men reported having paid for sex while for the Brazilian flow, which appears to be in the abroad, and less than 2% had paid for sex both domestically and abroad, suggesting 58 hands of European and Asian organizations. The that about half of these men were not clients for British sex workers. A Spanish study found that 25% of men had paid for heterosexual sex at some time in their lives, involvement of Asian organized crime groups in 13.3% in the last 5 years and 5.7% in the last 12 months.59 Brazil has been documented.40 About one third of the recruiters in one research sample (52 of 161) How many women are required to meet this demand? An estimate of the number of women engaging in transactional sex in 25 European countries (comprising 74% of the were European or Asian.41 Other studies report that total European population) suggests a population of some 700,000 women, trafficking of Brazilian women to Spain and Portu- or 0.63% of adult women (15-49) of these countries.60 Extrapolating to the entire gal is conducted through cooperation among differ- European population, this would indicate a total of about one million sex workers. ent groups, in which Russian groups are said to play 42 If 0.6% of the women are selling sex and 6% of the men are buying it (the prevalence a dominant role. in the Spanish study cited above), this suggests a ratio of about one sex worker per Chinese organized crime groups run the gamut 10 annual clients, too few clients to be the sole source of income, even if they were all regular customers. Doubling or even tripling the share of men visiting sex workers from mafia-like secret societies to street gangs and would only double or triple this client load. Despite the estimates, either less than informal networks. Triads are traditionally hierar- 0.6% of European women sell sex professionally, or more than 6% of men purchase chical, but not all human trafficking is triad-linked. sex on annual basis, or both. More research is required on the nature, structure, eco- In Europe, these groups are increasingly involved in nomics and scale of this industry. the business of sexual exploitation. In 2008, the Italian authorities indicated that this business became the most prominent illegal activity of these groups in Italy.43 victim. A high figure, but not beyond the realm of possibility.61 Research on the period of exploitation How big is the flow? suggests a turnover period of two years on average.62 The ILO estimates that the minimum number of This means some 70,000 women would need to be victims trafficked for all purposes in Europe and trafficked anually to replace those leaving the North America is 279,000 in 2005.44 Based on data market. gathered by UNODC, the total number of victims If there were indeed 140,000 trafficking victims in detected in West and Central Europe was 7,300 in Europe, they could produce perhaps 50 million 2006.45 If about one victim in 20 were detected, the sexual services annually.63 At €50 per client,64 this number of trafficking victims in Europe would be would constitute a market worth €2.5 billion around 140,000.46 (equivalent to some US$ 3 billion) annually. More To reconcile this with the estimate of the number of research is required, however, on both the client sex workers in Europe generally (see Box), about load and the rate for services for both trafficked one sex worker in seven would be a trafficking women and other sex workers.

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Fig. 8: Share of countries authorities in Europe increased about 20% between reporting trends in 2005 and 2006.66 Some countries (for example, recorded convictions Germany and Romania) have registered a recent in West and Central decrease in the number of criminal proceedings and Europe, 2003-200765 a reduction in the absolute numbers of victims detected. At the same time, other countries in West and Central Europe registered an increase in detected cases. S table or no clear trends , Some trends can be seen in the profile of the vic- 48% tims, however. Today, it appears that about 60% of

Decreas ing the victims detected originate from the Balkans, trends , 26% Central Europe and the former Soviet Union. Per- haps 13% come from Latin America, about 5% Increas ing from Africa and about 3% from . A large trends , 26% share of the victims (about 20%) are either of unspecified origins or are local victims. This is a different profile than in the past.

Source: UNODC/UN.GIFT In the late 1990s, for example, was a ‘hot spot’ for human trafficking. In 1996, about 40% of For this to be possible, there must be commensurate the victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation in demand. Assuming 5% of the adult (15-49) male Italy were Albanians. This dropped to 20% in 2000- population of Europe sees a sex worker on a monthly 2003 and 10% after 2003. A similar trend was basis (see Box), there would be demand for 600 recorded for Ukrainian and Moldovan victims. million sex services annually, meaning trafficking The trafficking originating from the Russian Fed- victims would meet about 8% of demand. eration and Ukraine, although still prominent, Detecting trends in the number of trafficking vic- appears to have decreased in the last ten years in all tims is difficult, because awareness of the problem West and Central European countries. This decline and legislation to deal with it is evolving. As a result, coincided with an increase in detected victims from it is difficult to distinguish trends in enforcement the Balkans, particularly Romania and Bulgaria, but from trends in prevalence. The number of victims this trafficking flow also appears to have decreased of trafficking for sexual exploitation detected by the after 2005.67

Fig. 9: share of Selected nationalities of victims detected in Italy, 1996-2007

45% 1996-1999 1996-1999 40%

35%

30%

25% 2000-2003

20% 2000-2003 2000-2003 % of victims detected 15% 2003-2007

10% 1996-1999 5% 2003-2007 2003-2007 0% Albanians Ukrainians Moldovans

Source: Anti-Mafia Bureau and Project WEST

8 Fig. 10: share of Selected nationalities of detected victims in Spain and Turkey

50% 40% 45% 35% 40% 35% 30% 30% 25% 25% 20% 20% 15% 15% 10%

% of victims detected 10% % of victims detected 5% 5% 0% 0% 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Uzbek and Turkmen in Turkey Colombian in Spain Rus s ian, Ukrainian in Turkey Brazilian and Paraguayan in Spain

Source: UNODC/UN.GIFT

New nationalities have appeared on the European Fig. 11: Most detected nationalities scene in the last few years. While generally small, of foreign victims of human the share of Chinese, Paraguayan, Sierra Leonean, trafficking in the Netherlands Uzbek and Turkmen victims has been increasing (count), 2006-2008 over time. This shows a diversification of the 2006 120 2006 120 sources of women trafficked for sexual exploita- 2007 2007 tion. In addition, an increase of domestic traffick- 100 100 2008 2008 ing has been recorded in all of West and Central Europe. 80 80

Chinese victims have been increasingly detected in 60 60 many European countries. In 2008, Chinese were the largest foreign group involved in sexual exploi- 40 40 tation in Italy. In the Netherlands, Chinese massage 20 centres were for the first time described as an 20 ‘emerging form of prostitution’ in 2005, and today, 0 0 Chinese are the most prominent foreign group of Chines e Nigerians S ierra Bulgarians Romanians Chines e Nigerians Hungarians S ierra Bulgarians Romanians 68 victims in that country. Leonean Leonean

In Turkey, Uzbek and Turkmen women seem to be Source: Dutch National Rapporteur replacing the Russians and Ukrainians. Similarly, in Spain the increase of Paraguayan and Brazilian traf- ficking victims appears to have compensated for the decrease in trafficking from . This suggests that human trafficking rings may react to changes in traditional origin countries, such as increased awareness among potential victims, stringent law enforcement action or improved livelihoods.

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Endnotes Women, Children and Adolescents for Commercial Sexual Exploi- tation; PASTRAF, 2003. 21 F.Carchedi, I.Orfano, La Tratta di Persone in Italia; Evoluzione 1 TheWest and Central European countries considered in this del Fenomeno ed Ambiti di Sfruttamento, Osservatoriotratta, chapter as destination of trafficking are the following: Albania, FrancoAngeli, Milano, 2007. Austria, Belgium, , Bulgaria, Croatia, 22 International Human Rights Law Institute, In Modern Bond- Cyprus, Czech Republic, , Estonia, , France, age; Sex Trafficking in the Americas; , The Carib- Germany, Greece, Hungary, , Ireland, Italy, Latvia, bean, and Brazil; , 2005. Lithuania, , , Montenegro, The Nether- lands, , Poland, Portugal, Romania, , Kosovo 23 UNICRI, Trafficking of Nigerian Girls to Italy; Report of Field (Serbia), Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Survey in Edo State, Nigeria. Turin 2004. Former Yugoslav Republic of , Turkey, the United 24 F.Carchedi, A Piccioli, G. Mottura, G. Campani, I Colori della Kingdom. Notte. Migrazioni, Sfruttamento Sessuale, Esperienze d’Intervento 2 TAMPEP, TAMPEP 8, 1st General Meeting, Vienna 2008; In- Sociale, FrancoAngeli, Milan, 2000; C. Magnabosco, ternational Human Rights Law Institute, In Modern Bondage; M.Visentin, A.Giaconia, G.Martano, G.Parodi, G.Celestini, Sex Trafficking in the Americas; Central America, The Caribbean, A.Delcanale, Da uomo a uomo…da cliente a cliente; Storie and Brazil; Chicago, 2005. italiane si clienti anonimi e clienti anomali, Progetto La Ragazza di Benin City, associazione WHO, Aosta. 3 Dutch National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings; Trafficking in Human Beings; First Report of the Dutch National 25 Carling, J. Migration, Human Smuggling ad Trafficking from Rapporteur, The Hague 2002; TAMPEP, TAMPEP 8, 1st Nigeria to Europe, IOM, 2005; Carchedi-Orfano La tratta di General Meeting, Vienna 2008. persone in Italia, Osservatorio tratta, 2007; UNICRI Traffick- ing of Nigerian Girls to Italy, 2005. 4 UNODC, Transnational Trafficking and the Rule of Law in West Africa: A Threat Assessment, Vienna, 2009. 26 More than one mean of coercion can be used for the same victim. 5 Ibid. 27 Carchedi, F. and Tola, V., All’ aperto e al chiuso; Prostituzione e 6 Rebecca Surtees, ‘Traffickers and trafficking in southern and Tratta: I nuovi dati del fenomeno, I sevizi sociali, le normative di ,’ European Journal of Criminology, Volume 5/ riferimento, Materiali Eddiesse, Roma, 2008. Number 1/January 2008. 28 According to IOM, “The so-called second wave refers to 7 Tatiana A. Denisova, Trafficking in Women and Children for women who were trafficked and who have been offered, or Purposes of Sexual Exploitation, Zaporizhie State University, somehow taken, the option of recruitment rather than contin- 2004. ued sexual exploitation”. Also other studies confirm this pat- 8 Ivana Trávníčková, Trafficking in Women: The Czech Republic tern. In Ukraine “these criminal groups are both big and small, Perspective, Institute for Criminology and Social Prevention organized and unorganized, and nationally and internationally and UNICRI, Prague, 2005. based. Within these organizations, 60% of the leaders are 9 Z.Izdebski, J.Dec Criminal Justice Responses to Trafficking in women, usually 30 to 35 years old; many of them are former Human Beings in Poland, Institute of Social Pedagogy Coun- prostitutes.” See Tatiana A. Denisova, Trafficking in Women selling and Sexual Education Unit University of Zielona Góra and Children for Purposes of Sexual Exploitation, Zaporizhie and UNICRI. State University, 2004. 10 UNICRI, Trafficking in Women from Romania into Germany 29 IOM, Deceived Migrants from Tajikistan: A Study of Trafficking Comprehensive Report, March 2005. in Women and Children, Dushanbe, 2001; Tatiana A. Den- 11 According to a country profile of compiled by The isova, Trafficking in Women and Children for Purposes of Sexual Protection Project, most Azeri women and girls are trafficked Exploitation, Zaporizhie State University, 2004; UNODC, An by friends, acquaintances, neighbours, or relatives. See IOM, Assessment of Referral Practices to Assist and Protect the Rights of Shattered Dreams: A Report on Trafficking in Persons in Azerbai- Trafficked Persons in Moldova, Chisinau, Moldova, 2007. jan, Geneva, 2002. 30 L.Kelly, Fertile Fields: Trafficking in Persons in Central Asia, 12 Tatiana A. Denisova, Trafficking in Women and Children for IOM Vienna, 2005. Purposes of Sexual Exploitation, Zaporizhie State University, 31 UNICRI, Trafficking in Women from Romania into Germany 2004. Comprehensive Report, March 2005. 13 Ivana Trávníčková, Trafficking in Women: The Czech Republic 32 Carling, J., Migration, Human Smuggling and Trafficking from Perspective, Institute for Criminology and Social Prevention Nigeria to Europe, IOM, 2005; Carchedi-Orfano La tratta di and UNICRI, Prague, 2005. persone in Italia, Osservatorio tratta, 2007; UNICRI Traffick- 14 Z.Izdebski, J.Dec Criminal Justice Responses to Trafficking in ing of Nigerian Girls to Italy, 2005. Human Beings in Poland- Institute of Social Pedagogy Coun- 33 Ibid. selling and Sexual Education Unit University of Zielona Góra 34 Ibid. and UNICRI. 35 Ibid. 15 E.Ciconte; The Trafficking flows and routes of Eastern Europe, WEST-Women East Smuggling Trafficking, Ravenna, 2005; 36 G. Vermeulen, T.van der Beken, Belgium,’ A study for monitor- F. Carchedi, V. Tola, All’ aperto e al chiuso; Prostituzione e ing the trafficking of human beings for the purpose of sexual Tratta: I nuovi dati del fenomeno, I sevizi sociali, le normative di exploitation in the EU member states, Unpublished, HEUNI, riferimento , Materiali Eddiesse, Roma, 2008. Helsinki, 2004. 16 Tatiana A. Denisova, Trafficking in Women and Children for 37 E. Turiakova, “Human Trafficking in the Russian Federa- Purposes of Sexual Exploitation, Zaporizhie State University, tion: Inventory and Analysis of the Current Situation and 2004, Responses”, Institute for Urban Economics for the UN/IOM Working Group on Trafficking in Human Beings, Moscow, 17 Izdebski, J.Dec Criminal Justice Responses to Trafficking in Hu- 2006. man Beings in Poland- Institute of Social Pedagogy Counsel- ling and Sexual Education Unit University of Zielona Góra 38 Azad Azarbaycan TV, Baku, 9 February 2006. and UNICRI; Ivana Trávníčková, Trafficking in Women: The 39 UNICRI, Trafficking in Women from Romania into Germany Czech Republic Perspective, Institute for Criminology and Comprehensive Report, March 2005. Social Prevention and UNICRI, Prague, 2005; UNICRI Traf- 40 International Human Rights Law Institute, In Modern Bond- ficking in Women from Romania into Germany Comprehensive age; Sex Trafficking in the Americas; Central America, The Carib- Report March 2005. bean, and Brazil, Chicago, 2005. 18 Ibid. 41 CECRIA, Save the Children Sweden Study on Trafficking in 19 International Human Rights Law Institute, In Modern Bond- Women, Children and Adolescents for Commercial Sexual Exploi- age; Sex Trafficking in the Americas; Central America, The Carib- tation, PASTRAF, 2003.

bean, and Brazil, Chicago, 2005. 42 International Human Rights Law Institute, In Modern Bond- 20 CECRIA, Save the Children Sweden Study on Trafficking in age; Sex Trafficking in the Americas; Central America, The Carib-

10 bean, and Brazil, Chicago, 2005. Infections, Vol 82, 2006, pp 364-367. 43 Carchedi, F. and Tola, V., All’ aperto e al chiuso; Prostituzione 59 Belza, M., L. de la Fuente, M. Suárez, F. Vallejo,, M. García, e Tratta: I nuovi dati del fenomeno, I sevizi sociali, le normative M. López, G. Barrio, Á. Bolea. ‘Men who pay for sex in Spain di riferimento, Materiali Eddiesse, Roma, 2008; Direzione and condom use: prevalence and correlates in a representative Investigativa Antimafia, Report to the Italian Parliament, Rome, sample of the general population’, Sexually Transmitted Infec- 2008. tions, Vol 84, 2008, pp. 207-211. 44 ILO, A Global Alliance Against Forced Labour, Geneva, 2005. 60 Vandepitte1, J, R. Lyerla, G. Dallabetta, F. Crabbé, M. Alary, ILO’s methodology is based on reported cases of trafficking, A. Buvé, ‘Estimates of the number of female sex workers in not on cases detected. different regions of the world’, Sexually Transmitted Infections, 45 The eary 2006 was used in this case because more countries Vol 82, (Supplement 3 ), 2006, pp. iii18-iii25. reported data in 2006 than in the other years covered in the UN.GIFT research. 61 If one out of seven sex workers is a trafficking victim, then the 46 Transcrime suggests a multiplier of 20 for every victim detection ratio suggested above (one in 20) seems on the low detected. See A Pilot Study on Three Key Im- side. migration Points for Monitoring the Trafficking of Human Beings 62 ILO, Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour in the World, for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation across the European Union. Geneva: International Labour Organization, 2005. 47 A.C.Kinsey, W.Pomeroy, C.Martins Sexual Behaviour in the 63 One US study found a client load of 694 male partners in the Human Male, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, last 12 months per sex worker. This estimate was adjusted to USA, 1948. account for higher client rates among drug addicted sex work- 48 E.O. Laumann, G. Kolata J.H Gagnon, R.T, Michael, Sex in ers. Brewer, D., J. Potterat, S. Garrett, S. Muth, J. Roberts, D. America: A Definitive Survey, Warner Books Edition, New York Kasprzyk, D. Montano, and W. Darrowi, ‘Prostitution and 1994. the sex discrepancy in reported number of sexual partners’. 49 B. Lewin, Sex in Sweden. On the Swedish Sexual Life, The Proceedings of the National Academy of , Vol 97, No 22, National Institute of Public Health, Stockholm, 1998 2000, pp. 12385–12388. 50 Leridon, Zesson and Hubert, The Europeans and their sexual Trafficking victims are likely to have higher client loads, per- partners, UCL, , 1998 haps comparable to drug addicts, but more research is needed 51 Rissel, Richter, Grulich, et al, ‘Sex in Australia: Experiences of on client loads for sex workers and trafficking victims. commercial sex in a representative sample of adults’, Australia 64 See Carchedi, F. and Tola, V, All’aperto e al chiuso, prostituzione and journal of public health, vol. 27, no. 2, (pp. e tratta: i nuovi dati del fenomeno, i servizi sociali, le normative 191-197), Canberra, 2003. di riferimento, Eddiesse: Rome, 2008. More research is also 52 Leridon, Zesson and Hubert, The Europeans and their sexual required on prices for services. partners, London, UCL, 1998. 65 When trends in convictions were not available, trends con- 53 Ibid. cerning prosecutions or investigations were considered. 54 M.C Santos Ortiz., J.L. Lao-Melendez, Torres-Sanchez, Sex workers and the elderly male clients, Prometeus Books, 1998. 66 Elaboration from UN.GIFT-UNODC data. 55 B. Anderson, J O’Connell Davidson, Is trafficking in human 67 In Spain, the share of Romanian victims increased during the beings demand driven? A multi-country pilot study, IOM, 2003. entire period considered. 56 M. Carael, E. Slaymaker, R. Lyerla, S. Sarkar, ‘Clients of sex 68 UNODC/UN.GIFT, Global Report on Trafficking in Persons, workers in different regions of the world: hard to count’, Sexu- Vienna, 2009; Carchedi, F., and Tola, V., All’ aperto e al ally Transmitted Infections, Vol 82: 2006, pp. iii26-iii33. chiuso; Prostituzione e Tratta: I nuovi dati del fenomeno, I sevizi 57 Ward, H., C. Mercer, K. Wellings, K. Fenton, B.Erens, A. sociali, le normative di riferimento, Materiali Eddiesse, Roma, Copas, A. Johnson, ‘Who pays for sex? An analysis of the in- 2008; Direzione Investigativa Antimafia, Report to the Italian creasing prevalence of female commercial sex contacts among Parliament, Rome, 2008; Dutch National Rapporteur on Traf- men in Britain’, Sexually Transmitted Infections, Vol 81, 2005, ficking in Human Beings, Trafficking in Human Beings; Fourth pp. 467-471. Report of the Dutch National Rapporteur, The Hague, 2007; 58 Groom, T. and R. Nandwani, ‘Characteristics of men who pay Comensha, JAARVERSLAG 2008 Augustus 2009 (see: http:// for sex: a UK sexual health clinic survey,’ Sexually Transmitted www.mensenhandel.nl/cms/docs/jaarverslag2008.pdf).

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Chapter extracted from “The Globalization of Crime — A Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment” Report.

This report has not been formally edited.

The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory organiza- tions and neither do they imply any endorsement.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC concerning the legal status of any country, territory or city or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers and boundaries.

Cover poto: A. Scotti for UN.GIFT/UNODC Vienna International Centre, PO Box 500, 1400 Vienna, Austria Tel.: (+43-1) 26060-0, Fax: (+43-1) 26060-5866, www.unodc.org

Traffi cking in Persons to Europe for sexual exploitation