Message from Secretary-General
As the Secretary-General of the eighth session of AUSMUN, I would like to first and foremost express my gratitude for being part of an incredible experience working with a talented executive board and organizing committee. The sheer amount of students and faculty members involved in the process of preparing these background guides is something I am personally proud of. I cannot thank them enough for their time and dedication. In preparing this document, we kept one thing in mind: To make it as comprehensive—yet as intuitive—as possible. I hope that you will benefit from reading your committee's guide as much as my team and I have benefitted from writing it. Being an AUSMUN delegate requires you to write a position paper that explicates your assigned country’s position. A delegate also needs to be well-versed in the art of diplomacy and MUN procedures. The following pages contain detailed instructions on how to write and submit a position paper, along with a description of AUSMUN guidelines and rules of procedure. I look forward to meeting you all at the conference this March.
Best Regards, Omar Al Mutawa Omar Al Mutawa Secretary-General AUSMUN 2015
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Research Guidelines
Where to begin? 1. Know the United Nations 2. General research on assigned topic 3. Research country’s policies with regard to assigned topic (your countries’ views, allies/opposition, positions of allies/opposition). 4. General research on country’s background and culture (statistical data on topic and country).
To learn about your country, start by answering the following: . What sort of government/ ideologies does your country have? . Which domestic issues might influence your country’s foreign policy? . What are some major events in your country’s history? . Which ethnicities, religions, languages can be found in your country? . How does your country’s geography affect its political relationships? Borders? . Which countries are considered allies/ enemies of your country? . What are the characteristics of your country’s economy? GDP? Compare. . When did your country become a UN member? . Does your country belong to any organizations outside the UN system: . Intergovernmental organizations (NATO, OPEC) . Regional organizations (EU, AU, OAS) . Trade organizations or agreements (NAFTA, OECD)
Where to find information about your country: . CIA World Factbook: general overview on your country, facts, statistics . Permanent mission: of your country to the UN, at http://www.un.int/wcm/content/site/portal/lang/en/home/websites . UN Bibliographic Information System: voting records, speeches, resolutions passed, at http://unbisnet.un.org . News and media: recent developments in your country, press releases from UN and SG, at http://www.un.org/news . US State Department report on your country
Keep in mind: Always respect your country’s policy! Remember it is not your opinion you are expounding but the country you are representing.
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Position Paper Guidelines
General
Length: A maximum of two pages. Format: Times New Roman, 12-point font, single-spaced, and normal margins. Note: Your name, country assigned, committee name and topics must be clearly labeled. Deadline: 4th March 2015
Please note that excellent papers will be considered for the Position Paper Award.
Topics
The position paper for your committee must cover both of the topics that are mentioned in this background guide. Please make headers that distinguish the first topic from the second.
The word document should be saved in the following format: Committee_Country_Institution_Delegate’s Name as required on certificate.
Example: ECOSOC_Afghanistan_AUS_Omar Al Mutawa
Policies
Do not use personal pronouns, such as “we” or “us”. Stick to “the delegate of country X asserts” or “country X believes...”
In order to write a successful position paper, you should research sufficiently the policies of your country towards the topic at hand and accurately represent them in your writing.
Make sure that you are consistent in the views of your country that you represent. Think about what your country would say in response to such a situation and link that with their foreign and domestic policies as well as any relevant institutions or laws that the country may have that pertain to the topic.
The position paper must comprise of entirely original writing.
The faculty member or head delegate in charge must collect all position papers and send them as one email to [email protected].
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Sample Position Paper
The following position paper is an example of the quality of position papers submitted to collegiate level international Model United Nations such as NMUN. The sample is meant to explain the stylistic requirements of a position paper. It is also a good sample that explains how sources, like UN resolutions and documents, are cited and depicts the quality of the content we expect in a position paper.
Delegation from Represented by Republic of Georgia American University of Sharjah
Position Paper for the General Assembly First Committee
The topics before the General Assembly First Committee are: Measures to Prevent Terrorists From Acquiring Weapons of Mass Destruction, Relationship between Disarmament and Development, and Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space. Linking continents and cultures, the Republic of Georgia is fully committed to the United Nations principles of international cooperation and the maintenance of peace and security, as reflected by the continues diplomatic efforts of UN special envoy Antti Turunen and success of the recent democratic elections. As a member of the Council of Europe, the CoE Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism, and the GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development, the Republic of Georgia plays a key role in multilateral cooperation and significantly contributes to the promotion of disarmament, suppression of terrorism, and social and economic development. Georgia attaches utmost importance to the topics with the aim of maintaining peace and security in the international community.
I. Measures to Prevent Terrorists From Acquiring Weapons of Mass Destruction
The Republic of Georgia strongly supports the United Nations efforts to prevent terrorists from acquiring weapons of mass destruction. Recognizing the potential that such weapons hold in fulfilling terrorist aspirations, the republic affirms that terrorist acquisition of weapons of mass destruction poses a continuous threat to global peace and security. The Republic believes that this a key issue some of the member states’ national governments face today. Ever since the Rose Revolution of the Georgian government, the republic has constantly intensified its efforts in fighting terrorism in all means and adopted coherent, coordinated, and wide-ranging strategies for the fight against terrorism through the Law of Georgia on Combating Terrorism, Law of Georgia on Organized Crime and Racketeering, and the recently implemented Criminal Procedural Code. The Republic of Georgia consents to the essential significance of international cooperation against terrorist acquisition of weapons of mass destruction to promote international security, and protect civilians and the environment. Accordingly, Georgia became a party to all thirteen (13) United Nations antiterrorism conventions. Georgia highlights the importance of installing advanced equipment on countries’ borders to enhance the capacities of agencies to detect trafficking of radioactive, chemical, and biological material that might be used for terrorist aims, as expressed in A/68/164. Georgia welcomes the efforts of the United Nations General Assembly First Committee in A/RES/2373, stressing that both nuclear weapon and non-nuclear weapon states carry the responsibility of acting in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter and the need to install stricter effective measures for the cessation of nuclear disarmament. In this regard, Georgia highlights The Chemical Weapons Convention, which reiterates the requirement for gradual nuclear disarmament, thus, both reducing possibilities of
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Sample Position Paper
nuclear attacks and terrorists acquiring weapons of mass destruction. Bearing this in mind, Georgia approves of The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty and the Biological Weapons Convention, which aim to monitor and reduce possession of weapons of mass destruction by states. Georgia, emphasizing on the destructive consequences of terrorist acquisition of weapons of mass destruction on international peace and security, suggests establishing the International Prevention Pact (IPP) in order to prevent terrorists from acquiring weapons of mass destruction. The program will offer an international monitoring system that will eliminate global weapons of mass destruction illegal markets and terrorist training camps spreading weapons of mass destruction related teachings and training and begin developing advanced detection technologies to be installed on countries’ borders. IPP will considerably improve international cooperation towards this issue by implementing stricter legislations. Georgia stresses that a coherent coordination of Member States efforts is required to confront this issue and make the entire world a safer place.
II. Relationship between Disarmament and Development
With one of the exponentially growing GDP’s, The Republic of Georgia is fully dedicated to achieve sustainability and development, not just domestically, but globally. Georgia recalls Article 26 of the Charter of the United Nations (1946), which notes that armaments drain resources that can otherwise be used for human and economic concerns. Georgia strongly celebrates the United Nation’s humanitarian and economic achievements over the years, yet with the current worsening economic and humanitarian standing of several Member States, Georgia aims to drive the United Nation’s success even further and improve the lives of the people who fall below the poverty line. Georgia enunciates the importance of this issue as disarmament and development are directly linked and act as reinforcing processes. By limiting military expenses - which not only drain governments spending, but also create competition and hostility between nations - Georgia believes that Member States can create conditions favorable for development. Having adopted the 1994 Human Development Report by the United Nation’s Development Program, Georgia strongly deems that human security equates economic, health, and food security. Thus, in order to achieve such factors, Georgia refers to the 1999 Hague Agenda for Peace and Justice in the 21st Century, which outlines the necessity to direct resources from weapons to human security. Georgia thereby agrees with the European Union’s Economic Community suggestion in 2011 that the world cannot be considered secure while much of the people live in poverty. Concerned at the globally increasing military expenditures, which could be otherwise directed towards extensive development programs, Georgia vigorously welcomes A/RES/66/30, which calls for devoted international efforts for stricter arms limitation agreements and absolute eradication of poverty.
Georgia recalls the importance of a profound international disarmament mechanism, proposing to implement the Disarmament for Development Alliance (DDA). DDA will reduce armament expenditures by at least 6%, forming a specialist international United Nations team to monitor Member States’ military spending. Reducing military expenditures will open greater development opportunities. By adopting DDA, Member States will aid in building a world free from want and celebrate development and Human Rights.
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Sample Position Paper
III. Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space
Georgia fears that with the increased capabilities to launch satellites and rockets into outer spouse, such technological advancements might lead to militaristic purposes. Indeed, such presence is real and of great danger. Georgia highlights that legislative policies and laws regarding outer space activities are outdated and broad. Georgia adopts PAROS and calls for specific policies in accordance with international law and the United Nations Charter. In that respect, Georgia consents to the essential significance of prohibiting the transportation of nuclear and toxic material into outer space, as expressed by the Outer Space Treaty (1966). Georgia’s motives for international peace and security coincide with the Moon Agreement (1984), which outlaws any hostile or threatening actions in outer space. Georgia accordingly embraces resolutions 67/30 and 36/99 to advocate disarmament and thereby prevent a possible arms race in outer space. Moreover, Georgia vigorously supports resolution 64/49, which calls for transparency in outer space activities, thus, avoiding any misunderstandings or hostility between Member States. Supporting the European Space Agency (ESA), Georgia believes in collective scientific research and exploration of space with the intention of extending knowledge about the universe and positively impacting mankind.
Georgia considers the issue of a possible arms race in outer space to be quite real and dangerous, and thus, proposes to install the International Dialogue on Outer Space Disarmament (IDOSP). IDOSP will create updated policies and laws regarding outer space usage. Such legislative policies will be outlined in specific language with definitive goals. By abiding to transparency and striving to create an outer space free of nuclear and toxic weapons, the IDOSP is set to not only prevent an arms race in outer space, but, also aims to promote positive usage of the shared universe, free of mistrust, suspicion, and hostility.
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Debate
For most of AUSMUN, you will be debating with other countries. However, MUN debates run differently than the debates you might have experienced at high school. For the debate to run efficiently, the committee’s delegates must follow an agreed-upon procedure. In debate, there are three types of consideration:
. A caucus involves important discussions and negotiations in both large and small informal groups. While the moderated caucus involves deliberation on a single, important and specified issue, the un-moderated caucus allows nations to actively lobby each other for ideas and support. The delegate making the motion must specify the time limit for the caucus. Although hard to monitor, a good conference will evaluate the performance of delegates during the caucus.
. A moderated caucus is held under the supervision of the moderator and the director. The delegate moving for the moderated caucus must provide the time limit for the moderated caucus, the speaking time and the topic that will be discussed or debated during the moderated caucus.
. In an unmoderated caucus, wherein the issue under consideration appears relevant, the moderator or a delegate may propose that the committee move into a session of informal consideration. The purpose shall be to clarify points of confusion through informal discussion. The un-moderated caucus is also a good opportunity for delegates to discuss a resolution or an amendment, and to try to arrive at a compromise. This action shall be taken upon by a simple majority vote. The chair may subsequently entertain a point-of-order to return to the speaker’s list. In full-day conferences, an informal “caucus” may take place anywhere including lunch or at night on the phone. In this fashion, delegates follow the actual practice employed by real diplomats.
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Rules of Procedure
General Rules
. Powers of the Chair – The chair enjoys absolute power and reserves the right to take measures deemed necessary in order to ensure decorum. The president and officers make all decisions regarding motions, amendments, questions, etc.
. Staff – Pages may be on hand for the service of delegates through the chair.
. Delegations – Each delegation will have a predetermined number of students, which will vary with the committee.
. Courtesy – It is imperative that along with respect for the authority of the chair, delegates must be courteous to staff and other delegates.
. Agenda – If the chair deems it appropriate, this will be the first order of business for the committee. The only motion entertained is one to place a certain resolution on the floor for debate. This motion requires a second. After hearing both sides of the issue (For & Against speakers, which is established through the Speaker’s List), the assembly votes, a simple majority required for a motion to pass.
Speaking
. Speaker’s List – The speaker’s list is open at all times for countries wishing to speak on issues unless it is has been formally closed. To be placed on the speaker’s list, a nation must submit a written request or raise their placard at the appropriate time.
. Time Limit on Speeches – Normally, there is no time limit. The chair reserves the right to limit time if necessary. The Speaker’s List usually allows delegates a maximum of two minutes speaking time, while the time limit for moderated and un- moderated caucus is subject to the approval from the chair.
. Yields – Any delegate speaking on a substantive issue may yield all or the remaining of his or her time in any of the following ways:
o Yield to another delegate – The speaker yields remaining time to another delegate; only one such yield is permitted.
o Yield to the chair – If the delegate does not wish to answer questions or yield time to another delegate, he/she may yield the remaining time to the chair.
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Rules of Procedure
o Yield to questions – Questioners are selected by the moderator, allowed to ask only one question and limited to thirty seconds. Follow up questions will not be in order and only the speaker’s answer will be deducted from his or her remaining time.
o No yields are made – If the speaker does not yield to the chair, to another delegate, or to questions, comments will be in order, given that the speaker has not taken up the time allowed to him or her. The moderator will entertain a maximum of two comments.
. Points of Information – They can be directed to the speaker after he/she is finished speaking, and must be formulated in the form of a question. For example, “is the delegate aware that, etc.” Follow-up questions will not be in order. . Right of Reply – A delegate whose personal or national integrity has been slandered or misconstrued may request a Right of Reply. Granting of this right is at the discretion of the chair.
Points
1. Point of Personal Privilege – If a delegate experiences personal discomfort that constitutes a hindrance to following the proceedings, he/she may request a point of personal privilege. (This might include noise, distractions, etc.)
2. Point of Parliamentary Inquiry – This is designed to allow a delegate to clear an query regarding parliamentary procedure. This is merely a clarification point and should be used as such.
3. Recess or Adjournment – If the floor is open, a delegate may move to recess or adjourn. The delegates should use their own judgment when asking for a recess or an adjournment.
4. Caucusing – A delegate may move to caucus at any time prior to closure of debate. The chair will set a time limit for the caucus and explain its purpose. The chair may also rule a motion to caucus out of order if it is not deemed required.
5. Postponement and Resumption of Debate – In order to debate a particular amendment or to discuss other matters, a delegate may move to postpone debate. This is at the discretion of the chair. Similarly, during a postponement, a delegate can move for resumption of debate.
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Rules of Procedure
6. Division of the Question – After closure of debate on a resolution or amendment, a delegate may move to have the operative clauses of the resolution or amendment voted upon separately. The chair will then accept proposals for division. A vote shall be called to decide the way in which to divide the question, after which the operative clauses will be voted on.
Voting
1. Voting – Each member state shall have one vote. A nation may either vote for, against, or abstain from a resolution or amendment.
In the Security Council, a majority vote is 9 affirmative votes with regards to procedural decisions. Voting on substantive decisions requires 9 affirmative votes, plus the affirmative votes or abstention of the five permanent members.
2. Roll Call Votes – A delegate must make a motion for a roll call vote. If it passes, the moderator calls upon each member nation and allows that nation to either vote for, against, abstain, or pass. Any nation that passes is asked again after the first round of voting. Particularly when their foreign policy is suspect, a country may request the right to explain their vote.
3. Reconsideration – Only votes on resolutions and amendments may be reconsidered. A reconsideration motion must be made by a nation that voted on the majority side of the issue.
4. Explanation of Vote – This is a very serious maneuver that requires careful thought. However, if a nation feels that another nation is seriously misrepresenting its foreign policy, it may ask the chair for an explanation of vote. This is formally begun in the following manner: Immediately after the vote, there must be a verbal communication with the chair (through a point-of-order) announcing the intent, followed directly by a note to the chair. Should the chair deem the request reasonable, the chair may ask the particular nation if it wishes to reconsider or change its vote. If negative, the nation will then be given one minute to publicly explain their vote.
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Background Guides
Security Council………………………………………………..13
General Assembly First Committee…………………………….38
General Assembly Third Committee……..…………………….56
Economic and Social Council…………………………………..78
Commission on the Status of Women…………………………110
United Nations Development Program………………………..134
United Nations Human Rights Council……………………….169
League of Arab States…………………………………………194
Please note that the page numbers correspond to the number of pages in this document.
Written By
Deema Al Shamsi, Ahmed Paracha, Ayesha Burney, Aakriti Raina, Farah Nadeem Mouallem, Nabaa Khan, Nesma Hegazy & Tamara Atasi
Faculty Advisor Dr. James Sater
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
United Nations today leads what seems at times like a double life. Pundits criticize it for not solving all the world’s ills, yet people around the world are asking it to do more, in more places, than ever before. -Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
Welcome to the 8th annual AUSMUN conference! And the Security Council, if you are reading this right now, you are very lucky to be chosen as a part of the Security Council, we hope you enjoy and make the best out of your experience.
Right after the Second World War, the world was in need of a higher power to maintain peace and security, which was when the United Nations was born and still lives on today to carry out its mission of keeping the world safe as much as possible.
The United Nations Security Council in specific is responsible of scanning threats that affect the international community and dealing with the aftermath of actions that may threaten the wellbeing of the world.
The UNSC reflects all the decisions that the UN carries out day by day, whether they dealt with international or domestic affairs at the end of the day it all goes back to the approval of the Security Council therefore making it the most important unit of the United Nations.
Your role here is to make sure that you know your arguments and work as hard as possible to come up with the most do-able resolutions. Hopefully the following background guide helps in introducing you to the topics that you will be discussing however you should not only rely on the notes provided, you are highly encouraged to research on your own and come more prepared. Included you can find the annotated bibliography which can further deepen you knowledge on your preferred topics.
Best of luck and we look forward to seeing you on the days of the conference!
Deema Al Shamsi Deputy Secretary-General
Security Council
Table of Content
History of the Security Council ...... 2 Role and function ...... 2 Membership Details ...... 4 Reference ...... 4 Topic I: Nuclear Proliferation ...... 6 Introduction ...... 6 Reference ...... 6 Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons ...... 6 References ...... 8 Role of the UN ...... 8 Possible Solutions ...... 9 References ...... 11 The Iraqi Program ...... 12 References ...... 13 Topic 2: The Situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina ...... 14 Introduction ...... 14 History of the Topic ...... 15 Reference ...... 17 International and Regional Framework ...... 17 References ...... 19 Possible Solutions ...... 19 References ...... 21 Bosnian Genocide ...... 22 References ...... 23
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History of the Security Council
“To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace” (Article 1).1
Role and function Articles 24 • 26 of the
rom the ashes of the First World War in 1919, the League of Nations Charter of the United F rose to the task of preventing the outbreak of war and settling international disputes1. Contrary to its genuine aspirations, the League of Nations discuss the Nations repeatedly failed in its missions such as in the case of the “Japanese main responsibilities invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the rearmament of Nazi Germany, and the outbreak of WWII.”2 As a result, by the end of the Second World War, the of the Security international community was in disarray, and a solidified body to preserve Council to maintain peace was needed more than ever. “international peace The United Nations was established in 1945 with a vision similar to that of and security” (Article the League of Nations: to settle conflicts, eradicate poverty, and promote peace. However, unlike the League of Nations, which failed to integrate the 24) and establish “a leading world powers of the time, the United Nations brought together the system for the
regulation of decision making power of victors of the Second World War into a armaments” (Article
1 Smallman, Shawn & Kimberley Brown, Introduction to International and Global Studies 26).1 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011) Ch. 4.
2 Smallman, Shawn & Kimberley Brown, Introduction to International and Global Studies (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2011) Ch.4. 2
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permanent body on the Security Council. Articles 24 • 26 of the Charter of the United Nations discuss the main responsibilities of the Security Council to maintain “international peace and security” (Article 24) and establish “a system for the regulation of armaments” (Article 26).3
Since 1945, the Security Council has discussed, analyzed, and dealt with a broad range of conflicts such as civil wars, decolonization, global epidemics, and other issues. However, since 1945, technology and transportation have significantly advanced, altogether reducing the friction of distance and speeding up globalization.4 The most current issues that have emerged as a byproduct of globalization are terrorism, the Ebola epidemic, and the Arab Spring. As a result, globalization has launched an entirely new class of threats to security and peace.
Furthermore, the Security Council possesses the authority to settle disputes by recommending peaceful incentives of settlement to the concerned parties, or it could “resort to imposing sanctions or even authorize the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security.”5 Sanctions have been inflicted in the past for purposes regarding ballistic programs or nuclear proliferation. These sanctions have ranged from economic or trade sanctions, “arms embargoes, travel bans, financial or diplomatic restrictions.”6 However, the Council still remains skeptical of the employment of these sanctions, because often times these sanctions have negatively impacted the population of the targeted nation rather than its leaders. This has further led to heated debates on whether or not deploying military intervention is the best option.7 Nonetheless, peace has always been the main intent, and keeping peace in mind, strategies must be administered to combatting terrorism and proliferation of nuclear armaments.
As Norman Cousins once said “If the United Nations is to survive, those who represent it must bolster it; those who advocate it must submit to it; and those who believe in it must fight for it.”9
3 United Nations General Assembly, Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Art. 24•26
4 5 Nagle, Garrett & Briony Cooke, Geography (Oxford University Press, 2012)
5 United Nations Security Council. The Security Council (n.d)
6 United Nations, Security Council Sanctions Committee: An Overview (n.d)
7 United Nations, Security Council Sanctions Committee: An Overview 3
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Membership Details
nder Article 25 of the UN Charter, all UN members must accept and U carry out the decisions of the Security Council. The Security Council decides where the UN peace keeping operations are deployed. Furthermore, the Council also monitors the UN peacekeeping operations throughout the world and evaluates their operations through regular reports.
The Security Council consists of 15 members out of which 5 are permanent members. The permanent members are the victors of World War II. They have the world’s most powerful military forces and wield the controversial "power of veto", over decisions, which enables them to cast a "negative vote" on a "substantive" draft.
The permanent members are: 1. The People’s Republic of China 2. France 3. Russia 4. United Kingdom 5. United States of America
Besides the permanent members, the UN Security Council is composed of 10 non- permanent members which are elected for two year terms every year. A state must secure two thirds majority vote of the General Assembly to become a nonpermanent member for a two year term. The non-permanent members do not possess the power of the veto.
Reference
Nagle, Garrett & Briony Cooke, Geography (Oxford University Press, 2012)
Ch. 11
Smallman, Shawn & Kimberley Brown, Introduction to International and
Global Studies (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina
Press, 2011)
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United Nations General Assembly, Charter of the United Nations
http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/chapter1.shtml
United Nations General Assembly, Charter of the United Nations
http://www.un.org/en/sc/repertoire/functions_and_powers.shtml
United Nations Security Council, http://www.un.org/en/sc/
United Nations, Security Council Sanctions Committee: An
Overview (n.d) http://www.un.org/sc/committees/
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Topic I: Nuclear Proliferation
Introduction
N uclear weapons are by far the most threatening and lethal weapons found on earth. One can completely demolish an entire city in a split second killing millions of people in the process. Despite the fact that they have been used only twice till this very day, once in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, there are still evident remains that were left behind, about 22,000 which bear the same level of danger. Moreover, the proliferation and rapid spread of such weapons across nations serves as one of the major concerns of the United Nations. Nuclear disarmament is the ultimate solution, which means completely eliminating all nuclear weapons, and maintaining a safe environment. In attempt to achieve the disarmament of nuclear weapons several multilateral treaties have been established. These include the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), approved in 1996 but yet to be enforced. It bans nuclear weapon test from occurring on earth, outer space and underwater. It is also known as the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT). Such treaties aim to enhance the abolition of nuclear weapons project, preventing any further proliferation from taking place.
Reference
Nuclear weapons. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/
Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
he Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), initiated T by the United Nations was open to signatories on July 1st 1968. By March 5th 1970, the Treaty was put into force. 190 State Parties joined the 6
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Treaty (93 were signatory States), in which, all five Nuclear-Weapon States Three pillars (NWS) were included.8 constitute the Treaty: Three pillars constitute the Treaty: prevention of the spread of nuclear weapons, nuclear and complete disarmament and cooperation in the prevention of the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. spread of nuclear The operation of the Treaty is to be reviewed every five years to review past weapons, nuclear and implementations and strengthen future plans. In 1995 the Treaty was complete extended indefinitely. The latest review conference was held in 2010; 172 of the Parties participated. In addition to the original plans of the Treaty, an disarmament and agreement was reached to implement the UN Resolutions of 1995 to the Middle East. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is cooperation in the responsible for the safeguard of this Treaty. The safeguard is an assurance peaceful uses of of the relations of the states with each other as well as ensuring the non- proliferation of nuclear energy. nuclear energy.
The Treaty has an overall of 11 articles and they are briefly as follows: In the article I and II, Nuclear-Weapon States (NWS) agreed to not help Non-Nuclear-Weapon States (NNWS) acquire nuclear weapons, and NNWS swore to never acquire such weapons. To ensure that nuclear energy is being used for peaceful reasons, the IAEA is tasked with the inspection of the nuclear facilities of NNWS Parties and the safeguard is introduced.
Article IV gives NNWS the rights to research, develop and use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. It also allows the transfer of such information between NWS and NNWS. Article V allows NNWS to enter and observe nuclear experiments for peaceful purposes conducted by NWS; however, this clause is irrelevant as Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty has been mandated on all Parties including NWS.
Article VI commits NWS to negotiate matters relating terminating nuclear arms and disarmament at the earliest date. Article VII allows the establishment regional nuclear-weapon-free-zones.
Article VIII proposes amendments to the Treaty, which will be brought up in a conference and considered if one-third or majority of Parties agree upon
8 Under the NPT, the five NWS are United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, and China. Other states that have nuclear weapons are Pakistan and India. India and Pakistan are not party to the NPT. Furthermore, it is believed that North Korea and Israel also own nuclear weapons. 7
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it. States may withdraw from the Treaty with a three month’s advance notice based on established agreements of Article X.
The remainder of the Treaty focuses on its administration, review conferences every five years and a decision after 25 years on whether the Treaty should be extended or not.
References
Brief description of the Treaty and its articles (August 2012). Retrieved
from: http://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/nptfact
An overlook on nuclear weapons from United Nations Office for
Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved from:
http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/
The full text of the Treaty from United Nations Office for Disarmament.
Retrieved from:
http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/NPTtext.shtml
A brief overview of the Treaty from the United Nations Office for
Disarmament. Retrieved from:
http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/NPT.shtml
Role of the UN
s mentioned previously, nuclear weapons have been detonated for A military purposes only twice in history, both during the Second World War, in the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, these weapons have the ability to kill millions and jeopardize the natural environment in the long run. As a transnational organization, the UN can play a vital role in eliminating such weapons and countervail the potential harm to human life and ensure a safe environment for posterity.
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In 1946, the first resolution which was adopted by the UN General
Assembly, created a Commission that deals with problems related to the discovery of atomic energy among others. In addition, several multilateral treaties have also been signed since then. The Treaty on the Non- Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), for example, sought to prevent the spread of the nuclear weapons as well as promoting cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Moreover, the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) emphasized the prohibition of all kinds of test detonations of nuclear weapons excluding the underground tests. Furthermore, the Comprehensive Nuclear-test Ban treaty was signed in 1996; however, this treaty has not yet entered into force.
The UN tried to eliminate the usage of these nuclear weapons through various ways including bilateral and plurilateral treaties that aim at reducing the proliferation of such weapons. One of the initiatives that were made is Thus, the UN strives the Nuclear Suppliers Group, which is a group that includes the nuclear supplier countries seeking to contribute in the nuclear non-proliferation to establish through implementing two sets of guidelines for nuclear exports and commissions and nuclear-related exports. In addition, The Missile Technology Control Regime was established in 1987 as a voluntary association of countries that treaties in an attempt sought to limit the proliferation of the unmanned delivery systems which are to curb down nuclear capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction. The association which started with seven countries is actually increasing, and has a total of thirty activity at first, and to four countries. The Hague Code of Conduct Against Ballistic Missile Proliferation is another example of the efforts made to prevent ballistic slowly eliminate the missiles which can potentially deliver weapons of mass destruction. Over use of nuclear the last years, HCOC has been the only multilateral code in the area of disarmament that has been adopted. Finally, and one of the most important weaponry and examples is the Wassenaar Arrangement. The Wassenaaar Arrangement materials through aims at contributing to regional and international security and stability through enhancing transparency and greater responsibility when transferring complete conventional arms. disarmament.
Possible Solutions
he first resolution that was adopted by the UN General Assembly in T 1946 was the establishment of a commission that would deal with the issues regarding the discovery of Atomic Energy. The commission was to submit their reports to the Security Council. Having received these reports, they were to be made known to the world, unless the Security Council deemed this threatening to the establishment of global peace and harmony.
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Furthermore, it was stated that in “appropriate cases”, the Security Council was to pass on these reports to the General Assembly and the Members of the United Nations, the Economic and Social and Council and also to the other organs of the United Nations framework. The commission was to receive directions pertaining to security directly from the Security Council, as this is the Security Council’s primary responsibility. In such cases, the commission was to be accountable to the Security Council.
The resolution listed four specific proposals the Commission was to make. Firstly, it was to make the proposal of the exchange of “basic scientific knowledge” in the nuclear field amongst all the member countries, in view of peace. This would eliminate secrecy of Atomic knowledge between countries, thereby limiting the chances of a Nuclear Attack from one country on the other. Secondly, it was to propose a strong control over Atomic Energy by the UN to the extent where it was ensured that its use would only be for peaceful purposes. Thirdly, the commission was to make the proposal of the complete elimination of atomic weapons, as well as other weapons of mass destruction, from National armaments. This would ensure that no country was in possession of armaments that were deeply destructive and threatening to the rest of the world. Finally, the commission was to propose safeguarding techniques by way of inspection in order to protect member parties from any violations of this effort. (“Resolutions Adopted on the Reports of the First Committee”, 1964)
Since the establishment of this commission, several treaties have been passed through the UN on the topic of Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. The first of these, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), came into force in 1970. It was initially a treaty amongst five nuclear states, and any other state that was interested in nuclear technology, which negotiated for cooperation amongst the states with regards to trade in nuclear technology. Today, 189 states plus Taiwan are a part of this treaty. The treaty’s main objectives are four: firstly, to stop the further spread and creation of Nuclear weapons; secondly, to provide security for the non-nuclear weapon states who have opted out of being a nuclear weapon state; thirdly, to stimulate and encourage international cooperation in making peaceful and productive use of nuclear energy; and fourthly, to pursue negotiations amongst the UN states for Nuclear disarmament, which will eventually lead to the elimination of all nuclear weapons.
Another treaty that has been put into force since the establishment of this commission is the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT). This treaty prohibits the explosion of nuclear materials on land, under the sea, or in space, whether for destructive or peaceful purposes. The text of the treaty 10
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comprises of a preamble, 17 articles, two annexes and a protocol with two annexes. The preamble simply defines the treaty as a measure taken to stop nuclear proliferation and to encourage disarmament. The 17 articles deal with various different issues pertaining to the treaty. In summary, the treaty prohibits member parties from any kind of nuclear explosion, anywhere. It also covers the measures taken to monitor these explosions, which are located in Vienna. The constant monitoring of the atmosphere, water and space will mean all countries will be accountable to the UN if this treaty is violated or the laws infringed. The treaty also states that is will be in effect for an unlimited amount of time.
Thus, the UN strives to establish commissions and treaties in an attempt to curb down nuclear activity at first, and to slowly eliminate the use of nuclear weaponry and materials through complete disarmament. Though the process may be slow, the rate at which atomic proliferation was expected to increase has definitely curbed down.
References
http://www.un.org/disarmament/WMD/Nuclear/ - a brief overview of the measures the UN has taken in the way of nuclear non proliferation. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/1(I) - the resolutions adopted as a result of the first committee in 1946. Includes the resolution to establish a commission responsible for non proliferation. http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Safety-and-Security/Non- Proliferation/Safeguards-to-Prevent-Nuclear-Proliferation/ - a detailed article on the ‘Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons’ http://ctbto.org/ - the homepage of the ‘Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty’ http://ctbto.org/fileadmin/content/treaty/treaty_text.pdf - the full text of the ‘Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty’ http://ctbto.org/fileadmin/user_upload/public_information/2009/prepcom_re solution.pdf - the resolution establishing the preparatory commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty
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The Iraqi Program
hrough history, Iraq was one of the U.S.S.R’s close ally and client. T Saddam Hussein used to import most of weapons and arms from the Soviet Union. Consequently, Iraq created a 5 mega-watt reactor provided by the Soviets. In 1975, Iraq aimed to upgrade its nuclear ambitions and ordered a 40 mega-watt, high flux reactor from France. France agreed to sell Iraq a reactor that was different from the one they sold and installed in Israel. The reactor they sold Iraq, used ordinary water as a moderator along with few neutrons to spare, to prevent the production of plutonium.
Plutonium is an element that is required for the production of a nuclear bomb. The reactor was also visible from above to make it easy for inspections. This reactor was open for international inspections along with the presence of French technicians for fifteen years. It was impossible to create a nuclear bomb from this reactor as any attempt for producing plutonium would be detected easily. This reactor came to be known as the Osirak Reactor. However, in July 1979 reactors parts that were worth $23 million destined for Iraq were destroyed in the French factory. Moreover, in June 1980 the chief engineer of the Iraqi reactor was murdered in his hotel room. Later on in July 1980, the French government published information about the nuclear relationship between France and Iraq. The building up of the Osirak reactor continued without any opposition from non-proliferation treaty signatories. On June 1981, Israeli Air forces attacked the Osirak reactor and completely destroyed the “Containment vessel, the control panel, and auxiliary equipment”9. However, the guts of the reactor were undamaged as it was placed under water and therefore, no leaks occurred. It is important to note that the signatories of the NPT created a procedure to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons and Iraq followed these procedures literally. Although Iraq purchased a “hot cell from Italy to process fuel, which was considered a breach to the agreement, but Israel a country that did not sign the NPT took its own action without any reference to the international agreements. This raises a question of why would state sign international treaties and accept international inspections if any country can attack and bomb your facilities anyway? Therefore, the “UN Security Council Unanimously adopted resolution 487 of June 1981 which states that:
Strongly condemned Israel's attack as a violation of the UN Charter.
Called upon Israel not to repeat its conduct.
9 Wilson, Richard. (1991). Nuclear Proliferation and the Case of Iraq. Journal of Palestine Studies, 20(3). Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.aus.edu/stable/2537541?seq=4 12
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Held that the attack was a threat to the IAEA-NPT regimes. Recognized the right of all nations to pursue peaceful nuclear development.
Called upon Israel to submit its facilities to IAEA safeguards.
Held that Iraq was entitled to redress.” (Wilson, 1991)
Technicians and diplomats responded strongly to the attack, some of them considered it an attack on the NPT and some stated that it had no technical justification as the Osirak reactor cannot be used to produce and make weapons. Before the attack Iraq was not an open about the reactor and few people were allowed to check the reactor. However, after the attack Iraq was more open about it after the claims made by MR that stated that there was a secret room located under the Osirak reactor used to produce Plutonium. However, this was proven wrong by scientists and inspectors who visited the reactor’s site
References
Guzman, Timothy. (2013). Iran Nuclear Talks: Remembering the Israeli Attack on Iraq’s Peaceful Nuclear Reactor Osirak. Will History In addition to those Repeat Itself?. Global Research. Retrieved from http://www.globalresearch.ca/iran-nuclear-talks-remembering-the- who lost their lives, israeli-attack-on-iraqs-peaceful-nuclear-reactor-osirak-will-history- countless more were repeat-itself/5358415 traumatized in a
program of torture,
mass rape, forced
labor and
confinement in concentration camps
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Topic 2: The Situation in Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Introduction
he 1992-95 Bosnian war was one of many bitter ethnic conflicts T fought amongst the constituent republics of the former Yugoslavia. The Bosnian war was one of the bloodiest ethnic conflict and resulted in the formal breakup of Yugoslavia. The war claimed “350,000 recorded casualties including 97,207 deaths, 40% of whom were civilians.”10 In addition to those who lost their lives, countless more were traumatized in a program of torture, mass rape, forced labor and confinement in concentration camps. The war also resulted in the displacement of half of the Bosnian population, and had a devastating impact on the economy and infrastructure of the newly formed Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In 1995, The Dayton peace agreement put an end to the bloodshed of the 1992-95 war but the ethnic divisions in the country persisted. To help Bosnia and Herzegovina resolve its ethnic divisions EU foreign ministers gave permission in 2005 for talks on a Stabilization & Association
Agreement with the country.
The Stabilization & Association Agreement was signed in 2008, but it has The demographic and not been implemented so far because Bosnia failed to make constitutional ethnic makeup of the changes, where the European Court of Human Rights asked for the members of other ethnic minorities to run for senior posts which were Bosnian territory reserved for Bosnians, Croats and Serbs under the system inherited from the presented a major Dayton accords. This demand from ECHR has been ignored challenge to the The EU also increased pressure to capture two key Bosnian Serb war crime suspects, Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic. In May 1993, the U.N. secession of the new Security Council created the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former states
10 http://www.cja.org/article.php?id=247 14
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Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague, Netherlands. It was the first international tribunal since the Nuremberg Trials in 1945-46 and the first to prosecute genocide, among other war crimes.11
History of the Topic
he Socialist Federal republic of T Yugoslavia was a federation of the following six republics: 1. Croatia 2. Serbia 3. Slovenia 4. Macedonia 5. Montenegro
6. Bosnia and Herzegovina
Each of the 6 republics had ethnic minorities from the other republics. Following the end of the Cold War and the rising momentum of nationalistic movements, the Republics took the opportunity to secede from the Serb dominated Federation and as a result, large-scale violence between the seceded republics and the Yugoslavian army (JNA) erupted. Starting from 1991, republics started seceding gradually beginning with Slovenia in 1991 and ending with Bosnia’s attempt to secede in 1992.
11 http://www.history.com/topics/bosnian-genocide 15
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However, the demographic and ethnic makeup of the Bosnian territory presented a major challenge to the secession of the new states. Bosnia was inhabited by three major ethnic groups including the Serbs, Bosnian Muslims (who were ethnic Muslims) and Croats. Since it lacked a single dominant ethnic group, the different ethnic groups fought for control of the territory assisted by the newly formed states of Croatia and Serbia.
Several UN resolutions were passed since the beginning of the Bosnian problem.
The first resolution, resolution 713, was passed soon after the fighting broke out between Croatians and the JNA. The Resolution emphasized and called for the establishment of peace and stability as well as the implementation of an embargo on weapons and military equipment to Yugoslavia. In addition, the UN secretary General established a small peace-keeping force to help implement a cease-fire between Croatia and the Yugoslav-Federation.
Furthermore, Resolution 743 called for the creation of the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR). However, it was in Resolution 758 that UNPROFOR mandate expanded to include Bosnia. Moreover, UNHCR helped in several incidents to deliver food, medical and housing assistance.
Apart from humanitarian support, the UN tried also to negotiate a political solution to the crisis through working with other international organizations such as EU, OSCE and OIC. Yet, finding a solution was not that easy. Unfortunately, the UN strategies failed because neither of the solutions offered by the UN were deemed acceptable by the parties.
In May 1992, Bosnian Muslims retook the city militarily and drove the Serbs out. The spiraling violence raised the concerns of UN. Yet no certain consensus was achieved. Although the creation of a safe area was not approved by all the parties, it was discussed in Resolution 787 and was later on adopted by the Security Council. In Resolution 819, UN officially declared Srebrenica as a safe area and demanded an immediate end to hostilities. Both Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Serbs signed the demilitarization agreement on April 1993. In addition, Resolution 836 weakly authorized UNROFOR to militarily protect the safe haven when “acting in self-defense” as well as authorizing member states to use air power to support the UNPROFOR.
In March 1994, NATO responded to the Bosnian-Serbs offensive attack against Gora with air strikes on Serb artillery positions. The situation was getting more complicated and many agreements to cease fire were signed. One of the cease-fire agreement allowed for the release of one of the UN 16
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personnel, demilitarization of Gora and the free movement of UNPROFOR and humanitarian organizations.
Reference
N.N (2015), Bosnian Genocide – Facts & Summary – HISTORY.COM [online] Available at: http://www.history.com/topics/bosnian- genocide accessed 9 Jan. 2015
International and Regional Framework
he Dayton Talks (November 1995) were initiated by Bosnia and T Herzegovina, Republic of Croatia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) to reach a general agreement for peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Contact Group representatives – the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Russia- and representatives of the European Union witnessed the Agreement. Based on the General Framework of the Agreement Bosnia and Herzegovina, an agreement was reached which Republic of Croatia and the FRY were to respect one another’s sovereignty rights as well as to settle disputes peacefully amongst one another. Bosnia and Herzegovina and FRY agreed on a mutual recognition and further discussions on the matter. All parties alleged to respect the articles of the Agreement and to fully cooperate with all entities and the United Nation Security Council in ensuring peace.
The Agreement contains 11 articles, which are briefly as follows:
The first article focused on military aspects. A cease-fire was put in action, and all foreign combatants were to be withdrawn within 30 days of the Agreement. NATO, under the authority of the UN, invited into Bosnia and Herzegovina a multinational military, Implementation Force (IFOR). The
IFOR ensured that the military aspects of the Agreement were being respected by all parties, and if necessary, to use force to ensure it. A Joint Military Commission was established in support of the Agreement. The first article was the basis of regional stabilization among all the parties.
By the second article an Inter-Entity Boundary Line was agreed upon between the Federation and the Bosnian Serb Republic. Sarajevo was to be reunified with the Federation and Gorazde, although it remained secured, it was connected to the Federation by land corridor. 17
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The third article brought about elections. In six to nine months from the Agreement, an internationally supervised election was to be held for
Presidency and House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina, for the House of Representatives of the Federation and the National Assembly and presidency of the Bosnian Serb Republic. Refugees, misplaced civilians, and all Bosnians 18 years of age or older (based on the 1991 census) were to have the right to vote, even by absentee ballots if they chose to do so in their new place of residency.
Based on article four, a new constitution was to be adopted for signature in Paris, called “Bosnia and Herzegovina.” Bosnia and Herzegovina would have sovereignty within its internationally accepted border, and would constitute of two entities: the Federation and the Bosnian Serb Republic. The Constitution, ensured one central government with two chambers, a central bank, and military coordination. The Constitution was also to protect human rights, to encourage and support free movement of people, capitals and services.
The fifth article committed and engaged the Federation and Bosnian Serb Republic into an arbitration. Article six guaranteed internationally recognized human rights and fundamental freedom for all within Bosnia and Herzegovina. The parties were to accept occasional human rights monitoring by the UN and other organizations.
The seventh articles allowed all refugees and misplaced persons to return back home and based on certain laws, either get back all their properties or get a just compensation. All were to move freely within Bosnia and Herzegovina without discrimination. There was also an agreement made to find all missing persons.
The establishment of the Commission to Preserve National Monuments was the eighth article of this Agreements. The entities were to refrain from any deliberate action which would endanger any [historical, cultural, ethnic, religious, and national] monuments. Article nine announced the establishment of Bosnia and Herzegovina Transportation Corporation which was to organize and facilitate transportation means (such as roads and railways).
In article ten, the parties requested for a High Representative to work closely with the UN Security Council in order to be updated with relevant resolutions as to ensure humanitarian rights to civilians. By the eleventh and last article of the Agreement, the UN requested for an International Police Task Force (IPTF) which would be in charge of training, advising, 18
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monitoring laws and law enforcements; as well as reporting back to the Human Rights Commission any violations of human rights.
References This mandate followed by the Brief description of the Agreement and its articles (November 1995). Retrieved from: UNMIBH (1995 - http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/icty/dayton/daytonsum.html 2002), provides
solutions that can be Possible Solutions reused today.
““The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina still merits close watch if we are to ensure that the gains made after the war in terms of stability, rebuilding the country and reconciling its peoples are not lost” (Valentin Inzko)1
early twenty years after the genocidal war that took place between N 1992 and 1995, Bosnia seems to have made minimal progress towards recuperating its political and economic systems. Namely, the ruling authorities who have risen to power seem to lack a will towards reform and change. In a recent UN conference, high representative of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Valentin Inzko, states that “while the other countries in the region move forward, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s leaders seem “less interested in delivering long-term change in the interests of the people, and more interested in the zero-sum politics they believe will ensure them personal political and financial advantage.”12 This indicates that to this day, Bosnia’s political and economic systems are struggling to move forwards towards democracy and stability.
As citizens of Bosnia begin to observe the disintegrating state of their governments, protests have once again broken out, and many fear the recurrence of another war against authorities. 13With so many obstacles, what will become the future of the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina?
12 http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46477#.VI2wu1bRq bB 13https://www.opendemocracy.net/can-europe-make-it/kemal- pervanic/bosniaherzegovina-protests-problems-and-solutions 19
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The United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) that was initiated in 1995 and terminated in 2002 had aimed for the following:14 monitoring, observing and inspecting law enforcement activities and facilities, including associated judicial organizations, structures and proceedings; advising law enforcement personnel and forces; training law enforcement personnel; facilitating, within the IPTF mission of assistance, the parties' law enforcement activities; assessing threats to public order and advising on the capability of law enforcement agencies to deal with such threats;
advising government authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina on the organization of effective civilian law enforcement agencies; assisting by accompanying the parties' law enforcement personnel as they carry out their responsibilities, as the Task Force deems appropriate.
This mandate followed by the UNMIBH (1995 - 2002), provides solutions that can be reused today. If situations in Bosnia and Herzegovina intensify, perhaps a reincarnation of the UNMIBH would be a viable solution.15 The international community must look more closely at ways to establish a democratic political system which can then be the stepping stones for further development.
Members of the UN have proposed several solutions for the situation in Bosnia over the past few years. The European Union (EU) continues to propose that Bosnia join the EU. During the EU statement on 15th May, 2014, the representative of the EU stated that “The European Union remains ready to provide the necessary assistance to boost the progress towards Bosnia and Herzegovina's European integration.” He claimed that this would aid Bosnia and Herzegovina in making reforms that would lead to more stability and development in the country. This viewpoint was further enforced in the EU statement to the Security Council on 11th November, 2014. The EU spokesperson stated that the issue stems from “internal divisions” in the political leadership of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which prevents it from making progress on a path that will increase its stability.
14 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmibh/mandate.ht ml 15 http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmibh/mandate.ht ml 20
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On the 5th of Novemeber, 2014, a UK-German solution was proposed. The speaker maintained that the accession to the EU is important for Bosnia, but a few more issues need to be tackled before this happens. Priorities lie in institutional reforms all over the state. Emphasis on education will lead to the creation of jobs. Following the subsequent drop in unemployment rates, the economy will be better stabilized. The UK-German initiative believes these factors are necessary before the state can join the EU.
One of the major root causes of the problem, however, remains to be ethnic tensions between the Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks. The UN maintains that transparency in the political leadership coupled with global efforts to reduce ethnic tensions is the first step forward in stabilizing the Bosnian economy.
References
Baskin, Mark. "Interim Notions of Statehood in Bosnia-Herzegovina: A Permanent Transition?" Accessed December 14, 2014. http://www.cid.suny.edu/publications1/baskin%20- %20interim%20regime%20in%2 0bih.pdf.
Önsoy, Murat. "Coping with Bosnia-Herzegovina's Critical Problems: Reconsidering the
International Community's Role." Coping with Bosnia-Herzegovina's Critical Problems: Reconsidering the International Community's Role. Accessed December 14, 2014. http://www.academia.edu/716980/Coping_with_Bosnia- Herzegovina_s_Critical_Problems_Reconsidering_the_International _Communitys_Role.
Pervanic, Kemal. "Bosnia-Herzegovina: Protests, Problems and Solutions." OpenDemocracy. April 1, 2014. Accessed December 14, 2014. https://www.opendemocracy.net/can-europe-make-it/kemal- pervanic/bosniaherzegovina-protests-problems-and-solutions.
"Resolution 2183." United Nations: Security Council. November 11, 2014. Accessed December 14, 2014. http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/{65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C- 8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9}/s_res_2183.pdf.
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"Situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina Merits 'close Watch,' Security Council Told." UN News Center. November 12, 2013. Accessed December 14, 2014. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=46477#.VI2wu1bRqbB.
"The History Place - Genocide in the 20th Century: Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992-95." The History Place - Genocide in the 20th Century: Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992-95. Accessed December 14, 2014. http://www.historyplace.com/worldhistory/genocide/bosnia.htm.
"UNMIBH: United Nations Mission in Bosnia Herzegovina - Mandate." UN News Center. Accessed December 14, 2014. http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmibh/mandate.html. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/bosnia-herzegovina-a-new- strategic-approach : the UK-German approach. Transcript of speech. http://eu-un.europa.eu/articles/en/article_15027_en.htm: statement on behalf of the EU on 15th May 2014
http://eu-un.europa.eu/articles/en/article_15731_en.htm: statement on behalf of the EU on 11th November 2014
Bosnian Genocide
ccording The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia consisted of A six republics, Serbia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Macedonia and Montenegro. These republics were based on nationalities, and each republic had a minority from the other republic. In 1991, republics started to secede from the Serbian dominated federation. Slovenia seceded first, followed by Croatia and Macedonia. In 1992, Bosnia wanted to follow the newly independent republics, however, Bosnia was different. Bosnia did not have majority of a particular majority, but Islam was the dominant religion. About 44% of the population were Muslims, 31% were Serbs while 17% were Croats. Although, fighting occurred between the Yogoslav Federal Army (JNA) and the breakaway republics, but it did not last as long as that of Bosnia. The fighting in Bosnia lasted for three continuous Years of bloodshed and terror and caused more destruction than that had occurred in Croatia. During the Conflict Serbia and Croatia sent in their troops to protect their nationals in Bosnia. Consequently, they worked closely with
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their ethnic nationals to control the adjacent territory which was owned by Bosnia but largely populated by Serbs and Croats.
Srebrenica was a town located in eastern Bosnia near Serbian borders with 75% Muslims and 25% Arabs. By March 1992, Serbs seized Srebrenica, resulting in a widespread of violence and ethnic cleansing, when both Bosnian Serbs and Croats expelled more than a million non-Serbs and Muslims from areas they claimed for themselves. In May 1992, the Bosnian Muslims were successfully able to retake Srebrenica and expelled the Serbs out. This created a kind of Muslim enclave surrounded by Bosnian Serbians. In 1993, Serbia paramilitaries threatened to launch a violence attack against Srebrenica if the Muslims did not surrender the city. The UN became increasingly concerned with the increased violence; therefore they announced Srebrenica as a safe area. In April, 1993 this allowed the Bosnian Muslims and Serbs to sign a demilitarization agreement, in addition the UNPROFOR moved into Srebrenica and disarmed the Muslims there. In 1994, the fighting reignited by an attack from Bosnian Serbs against Gora. This attack resulted in a reaction from the NATO forces against Serbians. In April of 1995, a state of warfare existed through Bosnia and this was the beginning of the Fall of Srebrenica. Srebrenica officially fell on July 11, 1995. By this time the Serbs had executed about 7,000 Muslims men, raped women and deported the rest. The international community chose to limit itself to humanitarian actions and sanctions, although it was well informed about the violations of Human rights that were going on in Bosnia.
References
Markusen, E., & Hennecke, M. (n.d.). Genocide in Bosnia Herzegovina. 5(4). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.aus.edu/docview/821671360?pq- origsite=summon
AMERASINGHE, C. (2008). The Bosnia Genocide Case. Leiden Journal of International Law, 21(2).
23
Written By Fatema Alsayed, Swati Ganeshani, Kholoud Kotait, Nada Eldegwy & Merna Almedany
Faculty Advisor Dr. Richard Gassan
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
We are pleased to welcome you to the 8th Annual American University of Sharjah Model United Nations Conference (AUSMUN’15), and to the General Assembly First Committee. We hope that this conference is a rewarding, educational and enjoyable experience for you.
The topics under discussion are: I. The Situation in the Nile Basin Region: Addressing the conflict over the water supplies of the Nile Rive II. Combatting Religious Extremism
The First Committee deals with disarmament global challenges and threats to peace that affect the international community and seeks out solutions to the challenges in the international security regime.
It considers all disarmament and international security matters within the scope of the Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any other organ of the United Nations; the general principles of cooperation in the maintenance of international peace and security, as well as principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments; promotion of cooperative arrangements and measures aimed at strengthening stability through lower levels of armaments.
The Committee works in close cooperation with the United Nations Disarmament Commission and the Geneva-based Conference on Disarmament. It is the only Main Committee of the General Assembly entitled to verbatim records coverage.
The First Committee sessions are structured into three distinctive stages: -General debate -Thematic discussions -Action on drafts
This Background Guide serves as an introduction to the topics for this committee, along with all other information you will require through the next two days. The Guide does not replace further research, and we encourage you to carryout extensive study on the topics and explore your countries’ policies in-depth. For this purpose we have provided useful websites at the end of each topic. To truly gain from the conference you will need to research beyond this guide.
If you have any queries concerning you preparation for the Conference do not hesitate to get in touch with us at [email protected] .
All the Best!
Fatema Alsayed Director of General Assembly First Committee
General Assembly First Committee
Table of Content
History of the General Assembly First Committee ...... 2 References ...... 3 Topic I: The Situation in the Nile Basin Region- Addressing the conflict over the water supplies of the Nile River ...... 4 Introduction ...... 4 References ...... 5 Topic History ...... 5 References ...... 7 International conventions ...... 7 References ...... 8 Initiative created to tackle the Nile Basin conflict ...... 8 References ...... 8 The role of the UN ...... 9 Timeline ...... 10 References ...... 10 Topic 2: Combatting Religious Extremism...... 11 Introduction ...... 11 History ...... 12 References ...... 13 Role of the UN ...... 13 References ...... 14 Civil Society, Markets and Democracy Initiative...... 14 References ...... 15 International and Regional Framework ...... 16 References ...... 17
General Assembly First Committee
History of the General Assembly First Committee
he The General Assembly First Committee is one of the most essential
T committees in the United Nations and it is one of the six primary parts of the United Nations charter of the United Nations established in 1946. There are six important Committees in the General Assembly First Committee and the purpose of each committee differs. These Six Committees report their resolutions, work and motions to the General Assembly Plenary, and in return the General Assembly Plenary plays the role of the main committee by not reporting back to any of the other committees. The main subjects that the General Assembly First Committee discusses are issues related to disarmament and security. The General Assembly First Committee has a universal membership, where each nation-state member of the United Nations has a representative seat in the committee. Therefore, the type of debate within this committee usually tends to focus on normative debates that include peace keeping and security discussions. Moreover, the General Assembly First Committee became also known as a center of discussing new ideas, practices and global interaction between all nation-states members.
Furthermore, it is important to touch upon the historical background of the General Assembly First Committee in order to enhance one’s knowledge of the role of this committee through out history. The General Assembly First Committee was established along with the United Nations in 1946 after the Second World War. The first resolution that the General Assembly First Committee carried on was on the issue of Atomic Energy. Moreover, the first resolution that was co-sponsored by all the GA1 members in 1959 was about the General and Complete Disarmament, which was one of the most important global issues during that time. Moreover, another important achievement of the GA1 was in 1968 when they approved the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, which is an essential turning point in the history of nuclear disarmament. In contrast, the GA1 committee failed to create an ad hoc committee that studies nuclear dissemination due to the failure of the resolution to pass through the GA Plenary.
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General Assembly First Committee
The GA1 consist of 193 UN Member states, some observer seats are given to the intergovernmental organization, and states without full UN participation, for example the African Union for the former and Palestine for the latter. Moreover, since 1989 the GA1 is considered to be in session for throughout the year. However, the general debate which usually takes place from mid-September until the end of December.
The President of the General Assembly along with the 21 Vice-Presidents of the GA and the Chairpersons of the Six GA Committees are elected on non- renewable basis. The most essential responsibility of the General Committee is to make recommendations and arrange the agenda with the GA Plenary and the other Committees.
In conclusion, one of the most important topics of discussions for the United Nations and the General Assembly First Committee is disarmament. One of the major reasons why this topic remains to be valid today is due to the risks that nuclear terrorism places on the United Nations and the member states. The efforts made by the GA1 in eliminating the use of nuclear weapons and promoting a peaceful world where nuclear weapons are not in use. By initiating new resolutions, norms and ideas that supports the General Assembly First Committee attempts of promoting disarmament and non- proliferation. However, the General Assembly First Committee was not always successful in achieving its goals in in promoting international peace and security.
References
United Nations, main body, main organs, General Assembly. (2004, June 23). Retrieved January 2, 2015, from http://www.un.org/en/ga/first/.
UN General Assembly First Committee. (2007, July 16). Retrieved January 2, 2015, from http://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/disarmament- fora/unga.
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Topic I: The Situation in the Nile Basin Region- Addressing the conflict over the water supplies of the Nile River
Introduction
he Nile River is the longest rivers in the world, flowing 6,700
T kilometers all the way through ten countries in northeastern Africa; Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan and Egypt. Historically, Egypt and Sudan have had the most control over the water sources which have led to tension in the region. This tension has threatened the political stability of the whole area as countries in the Basin rely heavily on the Nile as it is the only main renewable source of water therefore, it is extremely important to these countries' water security and sources of food. This specific distribution has been agreed on by the signing of various agreements during the colonial times; the two most important agreements were signed between Egypt and Britain (1929) and Egypt and Sudan (1959). These agreements increased co-operation between upstream countries that has resulted in the necessary Entebbe Agreement, which is restructuring control over the Nile’s resources. The geo-political shift in the area has directed to a proliferation of upstream developments, as well as dams and irrigation networks. However, Egypt has constantly met these developments with threats as it is extremely protective over its declining share of the Nile’s water. Nonetheless, along the years, international NGOs such as Famine Early Warning Systems Network, Global Water Partnership, International Union for Conservation of Nature and many national NGOs too, have managed to help both sides and promote dialogue. Also, there is the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) which is a partnership among the Nile riparian states that "seeks to develop the river in a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security". It was formally launched in February 1999 by the water ministers of the nine countries that share the river: Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo 4
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(DRC), as well as Eritrea as an viewer. This initiative proved cooperation and willingness to resolve any conflicts, however, threats are still made and political tension still exists.
References
Future Directions International. (2013). Conflict on the Nile: The future of transboundary water disputes over the world’s longest river. Retrieved from Future Directions International website: http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publications/food-and-water- crises/1452-conflict-on-the-nile-the-future-of-transboundary- water-disputes-over-the-world-s-longest- river.html#sthash.jDE6eZGD.dpuf
United Nations Environment Program. (n.d.). Review of Adaptation Best Practice in the Nile River Basin Region. Retrieved from UNEP website: http://www.unep.org/climatechange/adaptation/Portals/133/do cuments/NileRiverBassin/Adaptationbestpractice_NileRiverBasin.doc.
Topic History
he Nile River has had a real effect on the interstate legislative issues T of the area as the years progressed, as it is the main dependable hotspot for renewable water supplies in the range. The Entebbe Agreement has moved control over the Nile far from Egypt and Sudan, who formerly had a restraining infrastructure over the stream's assets as an issue of pilgrim understandings. The nourishment and water security circumstance in Egypt is greatly powerless, because of populace development and ecological variables that have raised profound concerns among the country's political pioneers, effectively worried about the geo-political move in the Nile bowl locale. Numerous Elements, including its falling apart monetary position, leave Egypt minimal decision yet to participate in tranquil co- operation with other Nile countries to forestall future extreme water shortage.
The effects of the Nile on the governmental issues of the North African area have been significant to the point that they debilitate to start an interstate clash, which could possibly destabilize the entire zone. The nations in the Bowl depend intensely on the Nile, which is the main major renewable 5
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wellspring of water in the zone; thus, it is crucial to their nourishment and water security. The Egyptian and Sudanese imposing business model over the water assets in earlier years had served to worsen local pressures. The consenting to of different arrangements amid provincial times considered this dispersion; the two most noticeable assertions were marked in the middle of Egypt and England (1929) and Egypt and Sudan (1959). Expanded co-operation between upstream countries has brought about the coupling Entebbe Assentation, which is rebuilding assignments and control over the Nile's assets. The geo-political move in the locale has prompted an expansion of upstream advancements, including dams and watering system systems. These improvements are frequently met with dangers from Egypt, which is greatly defensive over its diminishing offer of the Nile's water. Egypt, then again, must participate in quiet interstate co-operation to secure its water supplies. The Nile faces an indeterminate future in the midst of formative and ecological weights. Option water sources, as desalinization, aquifers and other such arrangements, essentially must be found to diminish the locale's reliance on the waterway.
In the midst of the North African area's blasting populace, the Nile Stream Bowl goes about as the range's major solid hotspot for renewable water supplies. The effect that the stream has had on the worldwide governmental issues of the locale is clear. It was the English choice to give Egypt and Sudan total rights over the full utilization of the Waterway's water supplies that sowed the seeds of the potential clash. Legitimate systems that advanced participation, for example, the 1999 Nile Bowl Activity, have taken after, yet have at last brought about the other riparian countries wresting control over improvements over their individual areas of the Nile. The Nile Stream Agreeable System classified this change in the local political parity. In spite of the fact that universal clash still exhibits a hazard, a few Components, including previous household agitation in the district, leave the nations with little choice other than co-operation and subsequently decrease its probability. The globally perceived Entebbe Assentation leaves Egypt and Sudan dwarfed, while other geo-key cooperation’s extremely utmost Egypt's military alternatives. It is in light of a legitimate concern for all the riparian countries to safeguarding territorial strength. As officially said, even without worldwide pressures over its circulation, the waterway's water assets would in any case be exhausting; hence, the resulting circumstance will request different plan B, which could balance out North Africa's water and sustenance security. Global participation is in this way the main reasonable and tranquil answer for this developing issue.
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References “In fact the 1997 United Nations Conflict on the Nile: The future of transboundary water disputes over the Convention on the world's longest river. (n.d.). Retrieved December 1, 2014, from http://www.futuredirections.org.au/publications/food-and-water- Law of the Non- crises/1452-conflict-on-the-nile-the-future-of-transboundary-water- Navigational Uses of disputes-over-the-world-s-longest-river.html International Watercourses is the treaty governing Water Scarcity and Regional Security in the Nile Basin. (n.d.). Retrieved December 12, 2014, from shared fresh water https://www.academia.edu/7538332/Water_Scarcity_and_Regional_Sec resources provides a urity_in_the_Nile_Basin framework of principles and rules that may be applied International conventions and adjusted to suit the characteristics of here are four internationals conventions, aimed towards shared waters, particular T in general: international 1. Helsinki Rules (1996) watercourses, and This rule is based on, prevention of pollution, and fair use, of this creates a system transboundary waters and lakes (United Nations ESWA, 2009). of cooperation and 2. The UN watercourses conventions collaboration This was created to reduce and somewhat prevent conflicts over between countries in shared waters. This was adopted by the UN general assembly in the region”. ( Nile 1997, but is currently not in action (United Nations ESWA, 2009). Basin Intiative, 2014) Burundi voted against this convention and Egypt abstained (United Nations ESWA, 2009). 3. The Law of transboundary aquifers This was adopted by the UN general assembly in December 2008, and is aimed to provide States with an agreement to cooperate within shared water territories (United Nations ESWA, 2009). 4. ESCWA Ministerial Resolutions a. Resolution 233 (XXI) This resolution was passed in 2001, and insist on ESCWA (economic, social countries in west asia) to cooperate within shared waters (United Nations ESWA, 2009). b. Resolution 244 (XXII) This resolution was passed in 2003, and was created to heighten approval of memorandums associated with the shared water regions (United Nations ESWA, 2009).
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References
United Nations ESCWA. (2009). Shared Waters – Shared Opportunities, 2009. Retrieved from United Nations ESCWA website: http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sdpd- 09-tm1-e.pdf
Initiative created to tackle the Nile Basin conflict
he water affairs ministers in charge in the following countries, T Burundi, Egypt, DR Congo, Kenya, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, created the Nile Basin Initiative in February 1999; the aim of this initiative was to promote regional peace within the Nile Basin and the countries associated with it (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014). The proposed objectives of this initiative are said to be: “To develop the Nile Basin water resources in a sustainable and equitable way to ensure prosperity, security, and peace for all its peoples (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014).” “To ensure efficient water management and the optimal use of the resources (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014).” “To ensure cooperation and joint action between the riparian countries, seeking win-win gains (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014).” “To target poverty eradication and promote economic integration (Nile Basin Initiative 2014).” “To ensure that the program results in a move from planning to action (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014).”
The development partners of this initiative are: The French and Canadian international development agencies, department of international development, the German cooperation, and the ministry of foreign affairs for Denmark, Sweden and Norway (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014). The partner organizations of this initiative are: UNEP, International Atomic Energy Agency, China Science and Technology Exchange Centre, TIGER- NET, (Nile Basin Initiative, 2014).
References
Nile Basin Initiative (2014), Retrieved 28 November 2014, from Nile Basin Initiative website: http://www.nilebasin.org/
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The role of the UN
he Situation in the Nile Basin Region, in terms of conflicts over water T supply of the Nile River, is not a new problem that the United Nations has not encountered before. In fact The 1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses is the treaty governing shared fresh water resources provides a framework of principles and rules that may be applied and adjusted to suit the characteristics of particular international watercourses, and this creates a system of cooperation and collaboration between countries in the region. Consequently, this shall generate peace and lessen the tensions between the nation-states. In March 2005, the United Nations and Food Agriculture Organization (FAO) announced a new project that will allow the 10 countries around the Nile River basin to benefit from the availability of information that will help them use the Nile resources effectively and equally. In February 2011, the UN General Assembly decided to proclaim 2013 International Year of Water Cooperation to encourage and celebrate the cooperation of the countries. Then, a resolution was passed by the 63rd session of the UN General Assembly in December 11th, 2011-Resolution A/RES/63/124- on the Law of Transboundary Aquifers. The resolution encourages states to properly manage their transboundary aquifers and to consider the provisions that include cooperation among states to prevent, reduce and control pollution of shared aquifers. The Law of Transboundary Aquifers is a concrete step forward towards the peaceful sharing of groundwater resources. In October 2011, the United Nations calls through its report for “new methods to boost agricultural productivity and warns that governments must take actions to keep population growth and resource degradation from intensifying poverty”. These new methods seek to use Nile’s resources to eradicate poverty and hunger which are according to the United Nations’ secretaries the cause of the conflicts. Boutros Boutros- Ghali, past former secretary general, believes that ““[t]he next war in the Middle East will be fought over water, not politics”. His fellow successor, Ban Ki Moon, also admits that “[t]he consequences for humanity are grave.
Water scarcity threatens economic and social gains and is a potent fuel for wars and conflict”. Finally, the UN-Water Thematic Priority Area (TPA) on Transboundary Waters helps coordinate and cohere activities by UN-Water Members and Partners in the area of transboundary waters. According to the UN water, it facilitates a steady exchange of information, experiences and lessons learned and by promoting joint efforts. The official website of the UN Water states that “the TPA aims to act as a clearing-house for good practices for transboundary water cooperation and to provide a single entry point to the initiatives of UN-Water Members.”
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Timeline
References
Scarcity, Decade, Water for Life, 2015, UN-Water, United Nations, MDG, water, sanitation, financing, gender, IWRM, Human right, transboundary, cities, quality, food security. (2014, July 11). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/transboundary_waters.shtml
Nile River basin countries to benefit from UN-aided water management plan. (2005, March 2). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=13506#.VHg4B9K Uc9U
UN project seeks to make use of Nile's resources to fend off poverty and hunger. (2011, October 27). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=40217#.VHg4DtKU c9U Thematic Priority Area: Transboundary Waters. (n.d.). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.unwater.org/activities/thematic-priority- areas/transboundary-waters/en/
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Topic 2: Combatting Religious Extremism
Introduction
n the year 2013, 17,891 people have died, all alone due to terrorist I activity (“Number of fatalities due to terrorist attacks”, 2014) Terrorism is a traumatizing activity throughout the world that may be increasing as we speak. But what is the basis of terrorism? Although it may only be a claim and part of the answer, some cases of terrorist activity might arise from influence of religious extremism.
Religious extremism is an ongoing problem throughout the world, and extremist views exist in almost every religion. So what is religious extremism? “Religious extremism can be defined as a person or group that takes the position that if others do not follow their ways, they will be damned” (“What is religious extremism?, 2011). Thus, religious extremism is a group of people, or person, who adapts views and enforces their opinions onto others.
Religious extremism and Religious freedom are interconnected; where there is religious extremism, there is lack of religious freedom since people are not free to practice the religion of their desire and are forced to follow views and beliefs created by religious extremists. According to the international religious freedom report of 2013, “the world witnessed the largest displacement of religious communities” in the year 2013 (“International religious freedom report 2013”, n.d.). Moreover, several countries were said to be involved in some sort of religious inequality, such as, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, China, Cuba, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Burma, Russia, Bahrain, Pakistan, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Nigeria, and several others ((“International religious freedom report 2013”, n.d.).
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Religious extremism is problematic in the sense that it is extensively being linked to terrorism; it may in fact be the basis of terrorism. According to a recent article published in the Guardian, combined with resources from Global Terrorism Index, most terrorist activity has flared due to religious problems and influence.
History
trategy discusses about how to battle religious radicalism, terrorism, S and savagery have normally hollowed supporters of military and police power against promoters of economic and social advancement. Is the concealment of religious opportunity connected to religiously spurred viciousness or terrorism? Do confinements on religious freedom undermine conservatives or reformers who may generally restrict radicalism? Can the progression of religious flexibility catalyze the sorts of political philosophies that backing just administration and counter religious radicalism and terrorism? The inquiry of what governments and social orders ought to do to test and decrease the claim of political fanaticism has arrived at the fore lately. Numerous expect that radicalized gatherings and people try to adventure open social orders and popularity based foundations in the West and in Muslim-larger part nations to increase ubiquity and force.
The potential accomplishment of these gatherings postures significant social, political, and security concerns as far and wide as possible. The Common Society, markets, and majority rule government activity is analyzing a mixture of related points, incorporating courses in which recruitment into fanaticism can be intruded on, the viability of DE radicalization projects, and the part of instruction and common society in controlling radicalism and offering appealing, option stories to youngsters. Etymologically Islam is gotten from the Arabic root word that implies peace. Tragically as political pundit Fareed Zakaria notes, Islam today is as a general rule Associated with brutality and militancy. Referring to insights by the US State Office, he attests that seven out of the main 10 gatherings that executed terrorist assaults in 2013 were Muslim. Much of the time, these assaults occurred in Muslim-greater part nations.
In reality, what is by and large seen in the advanced as terrorism normally conveys an Islamic meaning. At the point when one considers terrorist associations, the names al-Qaeda, the Islamic State (of Iraq and Syria), the Taliban and, closer to home, Jemaah Islamiyah ring a bell. On top of that, it is typically in Muslim nations and social orders that we become aware of honor killings, stoning of "double-crossing ladies", passing for renunciation
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and other human rights misuses did for the sake of God. In this connection, it is not outlandish to propose that the Muslim world is confronted with the grave test of religious fanaticism. Indeed, some have even proposed that Islam is naturally vicious or, as Samuel Huntington puts it, essentially contradictory to Western thoughts of popularity based civilization.
On the other hand, this primordial perspective is excessively oversimplified and overlooks the heterogeneity of Islamic conventions, and in addition the way that for the majority of world history, Christendom has been significantly more fierce and primitive particularly concerning the treatment of minorities (think about the Campaigns, the Spanish Probe and witch- chasing). Significantly all the more critically, such a point of view likewise shines over the way that the development of religion, as with whatever other sociological belief system, is to a great extent determined and formed more by political hobbies than it is by heavenly convention.
References
Combating Extremism through Civil Society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from http://www.cfr.org/thinktank/csmd/publications_cecs.html Combating religious extremism through democratisation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from https://my.news.yahoo.com/combating- religious-extremism-through-democratisation-224009722.html Religious Freedom and the Struggle against Extremism. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/projects/religious-freedom-and- the-struggle-against-extremism
Role of the UN
he UN has constantly been playing a role in somewhat preventing T forms of religious extremism by issuing and adopting resolutions. Resolutions were adopted by the General Assembly in: 1981, this resolution included topics such as, “religious intolerance, freedom of religion and discrimination on the basis of religion or belief”; 1993 and 1996, the basis of these was “Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance” (“United Nations’ declarations on religious intolerance”, 2006) (“Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance”, 2000). Furthermore, a more recent activity conducted by the UN in relation to religious extremism was on September 6, 2008, where they adopted the Nations Global Counter•Terrorism Strategy; 192 member states were working on “Radicalization and Extremism that Lead to Terrorism” (“CounterTerrorism Implementation Task Force”, n.d.). Further details of the adaptation of this 13
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strategy were issued in a report published on the UN website. Moreover, due to the recent trauma in Syria and Iraq, in 2014 the UN Security Council adopted resolution 2170 – “Condemning Gross, Widespread Abuse of Human Rights by Extremist Groups in Iraq, Syria” (“Security Council Adopts Resolution 2170”, 2014). This particular resolution requested all UN member states to suppress any form of support, financially or flow of foreign fighters, weapons, to extremist groups present in Iraq and Syria, due to the immense violence and turmoil present in those countries.
References
Counter terrorism implementation task force (n.d.) Retrieved December 14, 2014, from United Nations website, http://www.un.org/en/terrorism/pdfs/radicalization.pdf
Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (January 15, 2000) Retrieved December 14, 2014, from United Nations website, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/50/ares50-183.htm
Security Council Adopts Resolution 2170 (2014) Condemning Gross, Widespread Abuse of Human Rights by Extremist Groups in Iraq, Syria (August 15, 2014) Retrieved December 14, 2014, from United Nations website, http://www.un.org/press/en/2014/sc11520.doc.htm
Civil Society, Markets and Democracy Initiative
overnments and societies should carry out actions that would defy and G shrink the presence of political extremism. The Civil Society, Markets, and Democracy initiative is investigating a mixture of related topics, involving ways in which interruption of recruitment into extremism can be implemented, the efficiency of deradicalization programs, and the role of education and civil society in limiting extremism and presenting attractive, substitute narratives to youth. In Saudi Arabia the fight against extremism succeeded. This success can be clarified by the efficiency of its security measures and the softer approach in dealing with radical ideologies. After September 11, 2001, Saudi Arabia started a very strong, insistent counterterrorism movement that included capturing thousands of people, questioning suspects, dismantling al-Qaeda cells by killing or capturing their leaders and starting joint task forces with partners such as the United States. However, the Saudi government realized that current security measures were not enough and insufficient after The Riyadh compound bombing in May 2003. Thus, they noticed the vital role
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of radical ideology in encouraging terrorists and justifying terror. Therefore, as a leader in the Muslim world, Saudi Arabia is devoted to showing serious willpower and responsible leadership in eradicating the approach of extremism and violence that misrepresents the Islamic religion.
Moreover, Syria was among the first states in the world, which sought clarification of real definition of terrorism and differentiating it from the resistance of occupation, which has been assured by the UN Charter and international law. Recently, Damascus hosted an international conference on fighting terrorism and religious extremism. In order to make terrorism- combating efforts a triumph, a worldwide plan permitted by the international community is needed. Similarly, Flanagan, Ireland Minister for Foreign Affairs advised the UN to unite to combat religious extremism, a returning theme at the UN assembly this year as world leaders have expressed concern about the radical Muslim group, known as Isis.
Also, important Arab allies of the United States agreed to fight the Islamic State of Iraq and Al-Sham (ISIS), assuring to take action to end the flow of fighters and financial support to the insurgents, rejecting ISIS’s ideology and providing humanitarian aid. Moreover, the meeting between John Kerry and representatives of Saudi Arabia, other Gulf states, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan and Lebanon ended by pledging in a cooperative declaration to stand against terrorism.
At the other side of the world, The Chair of the meeting, Atiqullah Atifmal, Deputy Foreign Minister of Afghanistan, highlighted that Afghanistan and Central Asia were related by common challenges and chances and they are needed to unite forces in order to fight religious extremism, terrorism and organized crime. This is done by, local cooperation, by providing a strong movement to economic development deals with the root causes of these evils.
References
Ansary, F. A. (2008). Combating extremism: A brief overview of Saudi Arabia’s approach. Middle East Policy, 15(2).
Arab allies agree to join in fight to ‘destroy’ ISIS extremists in Iraq and Syria (2014, September 11), National Post.
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Arnett G. (November 18, 2014) Religious extremism main cause of terrorism, according to report. The Guardian, Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/nov/18/religious- extremism-main-cause-of-terrorism-according-to-report
Carswell, S. Flanagan urges UN to unite to combat religious extremism (2014, September 30). The Irish Times. Retrieved from
Combating extremism through civil society. (n.d.). Retrieved September, 2014, from Council on Foreign Relations website:
Combating religious extremism through democratisation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from https://my.news.yahoo.com/combating- religious-extremism-through-democratisation-224009722.html
Improving Connectivity between Afghanistan and Central Asia. (December, 2014). Retrieved (n.d.), from UNECE website: http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=37610
International and Regional Framework
The UN Global Counter Terrorism Strategy” that provide a multifaceted strategy to counterattack terrorism. According to the UN, this includes: “Measures to address conditions that are conducive to the spread of terrorism, to prevent and combat terrorism; and to ensure respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental basis of the fight against terrorism”.
In 2001, UN Security Council resolution 1373 imposes a legally binding obligation on all states to establish appropriate legislative, regulatory and institutional frameworks, including, to: “•Refrain from providing any form of support, active or passive, to Entities or individuals involved in terrorist acts; • Prevent and suppress the financing of terrorism; •Suppress the recruitment of members of terrorist groups; •Eliminate the supply of weapons to terrorists; • Prevent the movement of terrorists or terrorist groups, and other binding rules that states should follow when faced with terrorist attacks” (p. 31).
UN Security Council resolution 1456 (2003) and subsequent resolutions that oblige states to take measure taken to combat terrorist, and these measures
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must meet the terms of international law,” in particular international human rights law, refugee law and humanitarian law” (p. 31).
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe presents, in its paper “Preventing Terrorism and Countering Violent Extremism and Radicalization that Lead to Terrorism: A Community-Policing Approach,” a system that engage the community and the police in this “war” against all form of radicalization and terrorism in the sense that they suggest the participation of all members of the community as women in the prevention; they also encourage the intervention of the police within sets of rules that would guarantee the rights of civilians and stop the terrorists. Another “Prevent Strategy” was presented by the Parliament by the Secretary of State for the Home Department by the command of Her Majesty the queen of United Kingdom in 2011 to explain their strategy of stopping all forms of terrorism including the religious radicalization. The parliament introduces a new program called Channel a programme that is “about stopping people becoming terrorists or supporting terrorism.... [And that] needs to deal with all types of terrorism”
The parliament (2011) declares, “We believe that Channel is an important component of Prevent. But, like other Prevent programmes, it is important to absorb the lessons that have been learned over the past few years” (p.60). The parliament assures that police and local authorities already implement this programme, yet they think that it should be widespread among places of “higher risk” of being attacked by the terrorists.
References
Combating Extremism through Civil Society. (n.d.). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.cfr.org/thinktank/csmd/publications_cecs.html
Preventing Terrorism and Countering Violent Extremism and Radicalization that Lead to Terrorism: A Community-Policing Approach. (2014, February 1). Retrieved January 1, 2015, from http://www.osce.org/atu/111438?download=true
United Nations’ declaration on religious intolerance (September 7, 2006) Retrieved December 14, 2014, from Religious Tolerance website, http://www.religioustolerance.org/un_dec.htm
What is Religious Extremism? (March, 2011), Retrieved December 14, 2014 from http://religiousextremism.wordpress.com/2011/03/11/what-is- religious-extremism/
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General Assembly Third Committee Background Guide 2015
Written By Nawaf NoureEddine, Jasion Torion, Sara Zoubi, Seham Naser, Sneha Sasi, Hanan Hazeem, Wajih Khalil & Tamara Khamis Al-Gunaid
Faculty Advisor Dr. Yuting Wang
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegates,
We are pleased to welcome you to the 8th annual American University of Sharjah Model United Nations (AUSMUN) conference, and to the Third General Assembly Committee (GA3). We hope that this conference will be a rewarding and enjoyable educational experience for you.
The topics under discussion are: I. Eliminating all Forms of Racial Discrimination II. The Right to Digital Privacy
SOCHUM, most commonly known as the Third General Assembly (GA3), is one of six General Assembly’s that constitutes the largest policymaking organs of the United Nations. Its agenda relates to a wide range of social, humanitarian and cultural affairs as well issues relating to human rights. It further addresses issues relating to the advancement of women, protection of children and the rights of marginalized groups and individuals. The Third General Assembly is currently at its 68th session having considered over 70 resolutions. It functions on a two-thirds majority, where each country has one vote.
This Background Guide serves as an introduction to the topics for this committee, along with all other information you will require to be an active member of the committee. The guide does not replace further research, and we encourage you to carry out extensive study on the topics and explore your countries’ policies in-depth. For this purpose, we have provided useful websites at the end of each topic. To truly gain from the conference, you will need to research beyond this guide.
If you have any queries concerning your preparation for the conference, do not hesitate to get in touch with me or the GA3 Deputy Director, Nawaf Noureddine at [email protected].
All the best,
Tamara Khamis Al-Gunaid Director of Logistics
General Assembly Third Committee
Table of Content
History of the Third General Assembly ...... 2 Membership Details ...... 2 Historic Moments and Resolution ...... 3 Reference ...... 4 Topic I: Eliminating All Forms of Racial Discrimination ...... 5 Introduction and Brief History ...... 5 Role of the UN ...... 6 CERD...... 7 International and Regional Framework ...... 7 Possible Solutions ...... 8 References ...... 9 Qatar ...... 10 References ...... 12 Topic 2: The Right to Digital Privacy...... 13 Introduction and Brief History ...... 13 References ...... 14 Role of the UN ...... 14 Reference ...... 15 International and Regional Framework ...... 15 REFERENCES ...... 16 Possible Solutions ...... 16 References ...... 17 Turkey ...... 18 References ...... 19
General Assembly Third Committee
History of the Third General Assembly
Membership Details World War II was the pinnacle of international unrest and aggression, with millions dead and cities in ruins, the world was in need of a governing body that would prevent such atrocities from ever happening again. Thus the concept of the United Nations was created.
he United Nations serves as a forum for world leaders and T government representatives to discuss important issues that are Articles 9-• 22 of the affecting the world. Several assemblies were created to handle different Charter of the United issues such as the Security Council, Economic and Social Council, and the International Court of Justice, to name a few. However, spearheading the Nations discuss the United Nations cause is the General Assembly. main responsibilities of the General Assembly to discuss “any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security”
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The General Assembly, the largest organ of the United Nations, was established under the United Nations Charter. It currently consists of 193 member states. The first General Assembly was held on the 10th of January 1946, with 51 states represented (United Nations, n.d.). The main function of the General Assembly remains to be the primary representative organ of the United Nations and its main policymaker. The General Assembly discusses a wide range of issues that are specifically important at the GA Meetings. The topics range from political tensions to humanitarian activities and even economic issues. As you can see the range of topics discussed in the General Assembly is limitless requiring the involvement of all nations. Unlike the Security Council, none of the members of the General Assembly has veto power. Each member of the General Assembly has one vote, and a simple majority is needed to pass a resolution. Yet, specific issues such as "recommendation on peace and security, the election of Security Council and Economic and Social Council members, and budgetary questions" require a two thirds majority (United Nations, n.d.).
Historic Moments and Resolution
A few of the important resolutions the General Assembly has passed are:
. 1948- Criminalizing Genocide under International Law under Resolution 260 . 1949- Giving Israel membership in the United Nations under Resolution 273 . 1963- Increasing members of Security Council to 15 members in Resolution 1991 . 2012- Giving Palestine an Observer State membership in the UN under Resolution 67/19
The General Assembly has also passed countless condemnation resolutions and has always called for action between rival states to settle the disputes peacefully. The GA has also passed a resolution that created the Millennium Summit 2000, in which all world leaders pledged to reach the goals placed by the program by the year 2015. Some of these goals included "eradicating
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hunger and poverty, promoting gender equality, and reducing child mortality (3)" among other global goals (United Nations, n.d.). As we can see, the General Assembly has the ability to pass resolutions on almost any topic. But there is something that we must keep in mind; the resolutions of the General Assembly are not legally binding. The General Assembly cannot take aggressive action against a country that acts blatantly against a resolution. But in the end, the General Assembly still remains very important because it voices the will of all nations on a topic and shows the will of the nations in the assembly, which makes it hard for countries to act against the will of those nations. Over the years, AUSMUN has brought a variety of important topics to the table that needed immediate attention and offered solutions. In this year's AUSMUN conference, the Third General Assembly will be focusing on human rights topics. The topics are as follows:
Eliminating All Forms of Racial Discrimination The Right to Digital Privacy
These two topics are of great importance in today's societies, and solutions are needed urgently to fix the problems that arise from the presented topics.
Reference
United Nations (n.d.). History of the United Nations. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml. [Last Accessed December 3rd, 2014].
United Nations (n.d.). General Assembly of the United Nations. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml. [Last Accessed December 3rd, 2014].
United Nations (n.d.). Millenium Development Goals And Beyond 2015. Available at: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/. [Last Accessed December 3rd, 2014].
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Topic I: Eliminating All Forms of Racial Discrimination
Introduction and Brief History
he issue of racial discrimination is perhaps the Goliath of the human T race that simply refuses to die. Perhaps the difficulty in eradicating this problem lies in its extremely pervasive nature. While we are quick to acknowledge and condemn the faults and follies of the political and judicial systems, we are not so quick to pick up on the discriminatory undertones that are so prevalent around us. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination defines racial discrimination as “any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life”. If we follow this definition, then we can move beyond the judicial or political setting and begin to recognize active discrimination in other public sectors such as the workplace, the classrooms, the playground, availability of certain career paths, and the media.
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Though racial discrimination is not completely eradicated, the world has nevertheless come a long way since the American Emancipation Movement and the Holocaust. Learning from the brutality of the past, explicit expressions of racial discrimination have become taboo in today’s developed society. However, thousands of years of social conditioning is not so quick to dissolve, resulting in the transference of discrimination from overt acts to subconscious psychological processes like stereotyping, self- fulfilling prophecies, in-group biases, and stereotype threats. As a result, discrimination becomes a cycle involving both the discriminators and the victims, thus making the problem a much stickier mess.
To further complicate an already complicated matter, the definition of discrimination requires revision. While discrimination is most associated with a negative connotation, there is the need to analyze the opposite end of the spectrum, the positive one, where a preference for a certain ethnicity gives it unfair advantages. Examples of the positive effects of discrimination include Asian-Americans in the US, or certain nationalities in many GCC settings.
While the world rarely sees explicit discrimination as it did during the Medieval, Feudal, or Colonial eras, it is still obvious in many under- developed societies. As society evolved, so did the practice of discrimination - from an observable action to an implicit mind-set, resulting in detrimental psychological consequences among the victims. To combat and eliminate this prevailing behavior, we must re-examine what discrimination is in a modern context.
Role of the UN
he issue of racial discrimination has been a topic of concern for the T United Nations for over five decades. A committee was created by the United Nations Conventions to hear, report, and investigate any instances of racial discrimination in order to assist in eliminating racism. Luvuyo Ndimeni, Minister-Plenipotentiary and Deputy Permanent Representative of South Africa to the United Nations, focused on racism and sports, saying that South Africa saw the role of sports in unifying people (especially during the recent World Cup). The Government of South Africa had a plan outlined in order to prevent the outburst of violence and called on groups (such as the civil society and political parties) to work together. In order to make sure that violence was commendably addressed, security agencies were also alerted. Luvuyo Ndimeni defined numerous
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constituents of the Government’s security plan, the first of which was societal dialogue that had taken place with groups like the police, churches and non-governmental organizations. Secondly, to respond to attacks and criminality, there had been an extension of the policing and justice approach which asserted that authorities must act decisively against anyone inciting violence. Thirdly, education within civil society was reinforced and officers were taught to defend the weak and enforce acting upon the constitution. Fourthly, the Government established a communications strategy in order to affirm and explain that threats were taken seriously and that individual as well as group attacks would not be tolerated. Also, in July 2012, the African Development Bank facilitated a policy dialogue on youth employment for the Southern African region, chaired by its Vice President, Professor Mthuli Ncube.
CERD
he CERD (Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination) is T a body of independent professionals that monitors and oversees the implementation of International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD). “ICERD protects against discrimination in the area of economic and social rights, including the right to decent work, the right to an adequate education, and the right to an adequate standard of living.”( http://www.ushrnetwork.org/). Furthermore, the ICERD prohibits any government policies and practices that discriminate or negatively impact people based on color or indigeneity.
International and Regional Framework
he reservations and declarations on the topic of racial discrimination T vary depending on the international and political relations between nation states. It should be duly noted that racial discrimination is not part of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Racism is an issue that must be tackled on a global scale, at all possible levels. The UN Declaration of Human Rights states, “Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind,
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such as race.” The United Nations has contributed a significant amount of
resources in fighting the causes of racism globally. The UN recognizes the parts of a nation state’s constitution that encourage racial discrimination. For example, in the 395th Resolution, the UN declared that South Africa had national policies regarding racial segregation that were considered policies of racial discrimination. Consequentially, in 1973, the UN officially declared apartheid a crime by adopting and introducing the International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. Furthermore, in Resolution 3379, the UN declared Zionism a form of racial discrimination and many states withdrew support in 1975. While international institutions such as UNESCO have significantly increased efforts to bring coalitions against racist practices and have continued to educate the world on racial discrimination, major world powers have remained idle, taking no action with regards to the issue.
Possible Solutions
aving to achieve a utopian world free of all forms of racial H discrimination has been a prolonged and difficult challenge not only for the United Nations, but also for the international community. However, as racial discrimination and ethnic violence grow in complexity, they become more of a challenge for the international community. As a result, new tools to deal with racism are called for.
Although several meetings, including the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Decimation (ICEAFD), have been arranged and carried out to address the issue, racial discrimination prevails and is manifest in both developing and developed nation states (UN Treaty Collection, n.d.). Nevertheless, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon advises for furthering the reduction of discrimination by stating that “Education is one of the most useful methods to overcome intolerance” (XXX)
The efforts of the international community and the United Nations to eliminate all forms of racial discrimination can be seen and are reflected in their adoption and production of numerous resolutions, conventions and declarations. For example, in 2011, the First World Summit of People of African Descent urged the General Assembly to develop a 9th MDG for purposes of discrimination reduction (Kishore Singh, 2011). SOCHUM (The Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Affairs Committee) is given credit for adding the Intolerance against Racial Discrimination to the post-2015 MDGs. The effect and influence of the media on racial discrimination are 8
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also considerable and so the UN could also restrict what is delivered to viewers through television channels or websites Further efforts made by the international community include the following:
1. Convention of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide – Article 2 (1948) 2. Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1963) 3. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) 4. International Year for Action to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1968) 5. First Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1973- 1982) 6. First World Conference to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1978) 7. Second World Conference to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1983) 8. Second Decade for Action to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1983-1992) 9. Third Decade for Action to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2002) 10. World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance (2001) 11. World Conference against racism/Durban review conference (2009) 12. International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (Observed on 21st March, annually)
Although there are various issues that possibly fall under the broad topic of eliminating all forms of Racial Discrimination, it is not compulsory that you limit your research to the aforementioned issues in this background guide.
References
Implementation of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of RacialDiscrimination by the Russian Federation. Anti- discrimination Center. (February, 2013) Retrieved from http://www2.ohchr.org/English/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos/SOVA_ADC M-IPHR_FIDH_RussianFederation_CERD82.pdf
U.S. Department of State, Diplomacy in Action website. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/j/drl/reports/treaties/index.htm
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International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. UN Treaty Collection website. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=I V-2&chapter=4&lang=en#1 http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CERD.aspx
Kishore Singh, 2011. First World Summit for the People of Afro Decent. Retrieved from http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Education/ceibastatement_ 18-20Aug2011.pdf
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Adopted by Resolution 260 (III) A of the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948. Retrieved from http://www.hrweb.org/legal/genocide.html
United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination http://www.un-documents.net/a18r1904.htm
Qatar
n 2010 Qatar, one of the countries with the highest gross domestic I product per capita (GDP), won the bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup as the first Arab country. Manpower building this thriving nation is mostly migrant workers from the Indian Subcontinent and South Asia. Migrant workers consist of 94 percent of Qatar’s workforce, approximately 1.2 million of its 1.7 million residents; the highest percentage of migrants to citizens in the world. Unfortunately, discrimination is drastically high for the dominant migrants. Thousands of workers migrate to Qatar to work as low-wage laborers on construction projects in hope to support families, gain stable employment and higher wages, and in some cases escape violence or instability at home. Moreover, those migrant workers are victims of a visa sponsorship system called Kafala; they are ‘tied to’ one employer and cannot leave the country or look for other jobs without that employer’s permission. Also, to receive their visas, the workers pay more than $3500. One instance of this
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oppression has been recorded by the Human Rights Watch when it interviewed a group of seven Nepali workers. These workers had not received their salaries for three and a half months and so, they wanted to return to Nepal. Their sponsors, in return, demanded money to allow them to leave and to return their passports back to them. Even though Qatar’s Sponsorship Law prohibits employers from confiscating their workers’ passports, Labor Ministry Officials are not interested in following up with these employers because they believe workers do not need their passports for any procedures. Migrant workers’ wages range from $8 to $11 for between nine and eleven hours of daily outdoor work, further dropping down to a mere $6.75 per day. This amount is usually less than what recruitment agents had promised workers. Those wages do not even cover their food costs and recruitment loan fees. Additionally, the workers, who do not receive their wages for months on end, not only suffer from low wages but they also live in extremely poor conditions. The construction sites are hazardous and unhealthy, lacking the provision of basic safety gear and protection. Labor camps are home for thousands of workers found in the Industrial Area of the country, far away from Doha, the capital. The poorly-facilitated camps are comprised of, filthy bathrooms, rooms accommodating over 14 workers per, and two insect-infested kitchens used by 600 men. Unfortunately, rates of
deaths are also increasing due to the extremely hot climate, lack of sanitation, and health issues. According to the Ministry of Labor in Qatar only six workers died from falls in the past 3 years, while, according to the Nepalese embassy in 2010, 19 workers died from work site accidents and 103 died after suffering cardiac arrest at a young age.
Ultimately, what can be done to resolve this issue and other similar ones faced by migrant workers worldwide? Solutions have been recommended 11
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but not yet implemented. Forced labor is a modern form of slavery that is not humane on any scale. Migrant workers are always treated harshly and disrespectfully. They are not given any importance or priority. Regardless of nationality, race, and legal or other status, people are entitled to fundamental human rights and basic labor protections. Relative to sponsorship law, systems must be eliminated where workers are not allowed to change jobs if they are not fully satisfied with their current ones. They must be paid deserved wages in relative to their working hours. They must be provided with and ensured basic human needs such as decent homes, proper facilities, food, clean water, and safety gear for construction sites.
References
Human Rights Watch. (2012). Building a Better World Cup. Retrieved from: http://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/qatar0612webwcover_ 0.pdf
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Topic 2: The Right to Digital Privacy
Introduction and Brief History
round 40% of the earth’s population has access to the internet. It has Article 12 of the A become a vast repository for information that is growing rapidly Universal Declaration second by second. More than 300 million tweets are being sent right now as of Human Rights you read this. Advances in digital communication tools have shown (UDHR) (1948) states development over the past decade in facilitating global debate, freedom of that everyone has expression, and nurturing democratic involvement, by radically refining the right to the real-time cross-cultural communication and access to readily-available protection of the law information. (“Internet live stats,” 2014) against attacks Despite the advantages of having global corporations and governments run regardless of the on information systems, digital tools can be threatening to the security of its context or medium. users. Individuals are becoming more information-system reliable in their daily operations, which makes it easier for hackers and data sniffers to access all the core information from a single place. Therefore, there is an immense need for international laws and regulations to oversee the use of technology. Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) states that everyone has the right to the protection of the law against attacks regardless of the context or medium. Furthermore, enforcing a consistent international standard has become essential seeing that the recent invasion of privacy and mass data breaches have increased drastically. This has urged
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State Members to present the issue for discussion. (“UN passes internet privacy resolution,” 2013) On the 26th of November, 2013, The Third Committee of the General Assembly of the United Nations passed a resolution, sponsored by Brazil and Germany and later signed by a total of 55 countries worldwide, the main aim of which is to protect the privacy of internet users around the world and to raise awareness that privacy is needed and should be maintained both online and offline. The resolution was titled “The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age.” (Runnergar, 2014) The Third Committee primarily deals with social, cultural, and humanitarian issues. It is important to examine the effectiveness of international and national frameworks currently in place and the procedures that must be implemented to ensure a balance between government data collection for the purposes of security versus unlawful surveillance. (“AUSMUN background guides,” 2013)
References
Runnegar, C. (2014, December 5). UN Members Strengthen Their Position on Surveillance. Retrieved December 15, 2014, from http://www.internetsociety.org/blog/public-policy/2014/12/un- members-strengthen-their-position-surveillance
Role of the UN
he United Nations has been playing a large role in making T government's aware about people's right to digital privacy. It believes that it is a person's "human right" to have his/her information remain secure in the digital age and not have that information abused by governments. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights had stated that "surveillance threatens individual rights – including to privacy and to freedom of expression and association – and inhibits the free functioning of a vibrant civil society"(2014). The General Assembly has passed several resolutions alerting nations to this problem. The most recent of which is “Resolution 68/167” (General Assembly, 2014), which expresses the concerns of the United Nations towards the surveillance that some nations place on their people. It also calls
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for these nations to review their policies towards surveillance and data collection to better fit the mold of international human rights laws.
Reference
The Right to Privacy in the Digital Age. (2014). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/DigitalAge/Pages/DigitalAgeIndex.as px
68/167. The right to privacy in the digital age. (2014, January 21). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/68/167
International and Regional Framework
igital privacy rights have been inferred and assumed from long- D standing human rights documents such as the United Declaration of Human Rights which have existed since 1948. General Assembly Resolution 68/167 reinforces the idea that individuals have a legal right to defend themselves against digital interference or attacks. The General Assembly adopted the “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights” in 1966 and this was legally put into place in 1976. It was signed by 167 states and ensured that international human rights were being maintained at a digital privacy level which related to communications surveillance. This covenant is controversial as it speaks about individual member states being responsible for their own digital privacy, rather than international involvement. Several articles adopted by the UN view privacy rights as a form of human rights, although not many of them focus on digital privacy rights in specific. The “Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms”, “Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities” and “Convention on the Rights of the Child” all highlight the basic human right to privacy. The European Court of Human Rights uses the guidelines from the “Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms” to make court decisions when dealing with cases of privacy breaks (ECHR, 2014). Only until recently did the African Union put any sort of privacy laws in place, previously having no legislation against this matter. The “African Union Convention on Cyber Security and Personal Data Protection” was voted and approved by members of the African Union in August 2014 (Team, 2014). National laws were put into place by member states such as 15
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Sweden and France in terms of specific digital protection; as a result, the “Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Processing of Personal Data” was created (Europe, 1981). The above conventions and international organizations have led to a more specific concentration on “digital” and “online” privacy as well as legislation on the matter.
REFERENCES
ECHR. (2014). International Principles on the Application of Human Rights Law to Communications Surveilance. European Convention on Human Rights. Electronic Fronteir Foundation.
Europe, C. o. (1981). Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data. Council of Europe. Strasbourg.
Team, A. P. (2014, August 22). Retrieved from accessnow.org.
Possible Solutions
ecause of the uncontrolled growth and nature of evolving technology, B it is becoming exceptionally difficult to ensure any definite “private” information existing electronically. Data protection, and Monitoring and Surveillance of Communications seem to be the most plausible solutions available for tackling the problem at hand.
Enforcing privacy across the national borders as well as internationally through the use of “international legal norms such as Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights” (Rotenberg) would be one of the building blocks of how to solve this contemporary problem most people are facing than ever before.
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Data Protection could be taken on in the form of online data protection, specifically on the internet. Internet Protocol addresses are used to trace computers which send out certain pieces of information, to some this may be considered a digital privacy breach. One concept is that of “anonymisation”; this is the process of removing electronic footprints which leads to a persons’ identity being revealed. This technique has been used throughout travel, commerce, and communication to name a few (Research, 2013) (Rotenberg). Related to anonymity, implementing transparency regarding technologies being used, open peer review by security engineering experts… would raise standards.” (Research, 2013). The implementation of Fair Information Practices that have been initiated by the USA could be a possible solution. FIP’s are international practices that provide underlying policies for many US laws that are concerned with data protection matters (Gellman, 2014). If FIP’s were adapted and subsequently implemented on an international level in accordance with the UN member states, this could possibly be an excellent starting point for states to base their future policies and laws on. The FIP’s are centered on transparency, simplified choice for businesses and consumers, and privacy levels at every stage of product development which results in high privacy levels (Gellman, 2014). Because there is a consensus that information running through digital systems and the internet can in no way be monitored completely, one of the more prevalent suggestions has been to ensure that information that is being sent via online consumer transactions is one hundred percent secure by embedding it into computer technology. (Team, 2014). Social networking platforms, and privacy impact assessments for example, should be not only developed but also designed around being data private so that privacy breach and invasions are avoided right from the beginning (Team, 2014).
References
Assembly, G. (n.d.). ohchr.org.
ECHR. (2014). International Principles on the Application of Human Rights Law to Communications Surveilance. European Convention on Human Rights. Electronic Fronteir Foundation.
Europe, C. o. (1981). Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data. Council of Europe. Strasbourg.
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Gellman, R. (2014, August 3). Fair Information Practices: A basic history. Retrieved from bobgellman.com: bobgellman.com/rg-docs/rg- FIPShistory.pdf
Rotenberg, M. (n.d.). Preserving Privacy in the Information Society. Retrieved from unesco.org: unesco.org/webworld/infoethics_2/eng/papers/paper_10.htm
Team, A. P. (2014, August 22). Retrieved from accessnow.org.
Turkey
n an era of advanced technology and information, the Internet has I provided a platform that grants billions of people powerful global access to ideas and information. Additionally, governments and private corporations greatly use technology to monitor citizens, disregarding the right of privacy. Turkey is a relevant example that restricts Internet speech due to its keenness to protect their people and eliminate any insults towards Turkey. In March 2007, a Turkish judge ordered Turkey’s telecommunications providers to block access to all of YouTube due to a video that insulted the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, which is considered to be a crime in Turkey. The video was a parody news broadcast posted by Greek soccer fans to insult their Turkish rivals. The video headlined “Today’s news: Kemal Ataturk was gay!” YouTube was blocked entirely without consulting Google/YouTube officials to block this one offending video. Eventually, the people who posted the video removed it, yet Turkish prosecutors found many other YouTube videos that insulted Ataturk or “Turkishness”. This supported the resumed blocking of YouTube entirely. When YouTube was blocked in the country, Google officials tried to develop a solution that would please Turkish prosecutors. Executives presented to look for any videos that violated the Turkish Law of insulting Ataturk or “Turkishness”, and subsequently blocked these videos in Turkey; however, Turkish prosecutors were not completely satisfied. In June 2007, a Turkish prosecutor demanded that Google not only blocks access to the offending videos in Turkey but also throughout the world in order to protect the rights and feelings of Turks living outside the country. Google refused to implement peripheral by the Internet. In June 2009, another digital privacy incident occurred in Turkey. Ahmet Yildirim, a Turkish national and doctoral student, posted content on Google
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Sites that supposedly insulted Ataturk, which as mentioned above is considered a crime in Turkey. Therefore, following the law regarding internet publications, the Denizli Criminal Court of the First Instance ordered the blocking of the website as a measure due to the criminal proceedings of the site’s owner. The order was then sent to the Telecommunications and Information Technology Directorate (TIB) for scrutiny. The TIB criticized that the Court should not only block the offending site but also block all access to Google Sites wholly. The order was implemented where access to all Google Sites content was unavailable in the country. Yildirim used Google Sites to publish his academic work such as academic articles and commentaries. After the blocking implantation he was unable to access any of his works. Subsequently, he sued the Republic of Turkey for violating his free speech rights under
Article 10 and his fair trail rights under Article 6 of the European convention. He requested for the Court to block the offending site’s URL instead of Google Sites wholly. The Court refused explaining that in order to block the site TIB had to block access to all of Google Sites. After three years, Google Sites and Yildirim Google Sites website remain blocked even after the criminal case against the owner of the site was blocked.
The Internet is a massive platform that is open for any individuals around the world to view. Solutions for the right of the protection of digital privacy are available yet not always implemented. Therefore, one must be cautious of what is posted online, specifically pertaining to any political, religious, or controversial topics.
References
Nunziato, D. (2014). With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility: Proposed Principles of Digital Due Process for ICT Companies. In L. Floridi (Ed.), Protection of Information and the Right to Privacy - a New Equilibrium? (pp. 80-88). Oxford, United Kingdom: Springer.
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Written By Pooja Baburaj, Ghalya Abdullah, Huda Aslam, Mariam Amer, Mohamed Maged Rowaizak, Safa Modak & Sonali Oshin Chopra
Faculty Advisor Dr. Robert Bateman
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
We are pleased to welcome you to the 8th Annual American University of Sharjah Model United Nations Conference (AUSMUN’15), and to the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). We hope that this conference will be both an educational and enjoyable experience for you.
The topics under discussion are: I. Empowering Youth with Economic Opportunity to Reduce Unemployment II. Promoting Sustainable Economic Growth Through Alternative Energy Sources
The Economic and Social Council holds a unique role as an organ of the United Nations. Its primary aim is to discuss global issues concerning development, policy review and coordination of policy dialogue. It is also responsible for giving recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues. ECOSOC’s mandate gives it the opportunity and responsibility to address problems in a manner that other UN organizations cannot. From its many duties ECOSOC also oversees specialized agencies, functional commissions and regional commissions. It hence provides a platform for global discussion on sustainable development.
The topics chosen are not only current issues but also particularly relevant to us. Unemployment plagues many countries and hampers the development of human capital. It is ultimately realized in low socio-economic growth rates. As it is interlinked with other issues, unemployment poses as an obstacle to a country’s progress. With traditional energy resources being many countries’ only energy source, the excessive exhaustion of limited energy resources is a concern for future global development. To ensure sustained economic growth it is now important to prioritize the improvement of alternative energy sources. Hence, both topics are large in scope, and I hope that as a delegate you not only learn about these issues, but also how to negotiate a successful resolution, that aims at resolving these problems which affect our highly inter-connected and inter- dependent world.
This guide serves as an introduction to the topics that will be extensively discussed during the conference. It plays a complementary role and does not replace further research. We strongly encourage you to conduct an extensive study on the topics and explore your countries’ policies in- depth as they will guide your conduct during the conference. To aid your preparation useful websites are provided at the end of each topic. To truly gain from the conference it is vital that you research beyond this guide.
If you have any queries concerning your preparation for the conference do not hesitate to get in touch with me or the ECOSOC Deputy Director Pooja Baburaj at [email protected].
Best of luck and I hope you have an extremely rewarding experience!
Sonali Oshin Chopra Director of Research and Information
Economic and Social Council
Table of Content
History of the Economic and Social Council ...... 2
Structure & Membership Details ...... 2
General Functioning ...... 3 Subsidiary Bodies ...... 3 References ...... 4
Topic I: Empowering Youth with Opportunity to Reduce Unemployment ...... 6 Defining Unemployment ...... 6
Youth ...... 7 Youth Unemployment ...... 7
Reducing Unemployment ...... 7 References ...... 9
Role of the UN ...... 10 International Framework ...... 11 References ...... 12
Possible Solutions ...... 12
Previous UN actions ...... 13 Future Possible Solutions: ...... 13 References ...... 15
Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS)...... 16 References ...... 17
Africa ...... 17 References ...... 18 Topic 2: Promoting Sustainable Economic Growth Through Alternative Energy Sources ...... 20
Introduction ...... 20 References ...... 21 Role of the UN ...... 22
International Framework ...... 23 UNFCCC ...... 24 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) ...... 24 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) ...... 24 References ...... 25
Possible Solutions ...... 25
International Renewable Energy Agency ...... 27 References ...... 28 South Korea ...... 28 References ...... 30
Economic and Social Council
History of the Economic and
Social Council
he United Nations Economic and Social Council, commonly T abbreviated as the ECOSOC, is one of the six chief specialized agencies of the United Nations. It serves as the fundamental dais for innovative deliberation, creative problem-solving and crucial decision- making on international economic, social and environmental concerns. The ECOSOC is constituted by 54 member nations and Austrian ambassador Martin Sajdik serves as its president since 2014. It is the United Nation’s largest and most intrinsic subsidiary organization.
By virtue of the concept of global partnership for development introduced in the Monterrey Consensus and further advanced by the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and the Millennium Declaration, the ECOSOC seeks to improve the practical implementation of internationally agreed development goals and promote dialogue to determine effective ways to ECOSOC has supplement it (UN: ECOSOC mandate, 2014). witnessed a
substantial increase in Structure & Membership Details the number of its
he ECOSOC was introduced and established by the UN Charter in members, beginning 1945 which has undergone amendments in the years 1965 and 1974. It T with a modest total of has witnessed a substantial increase in the number of its members, beginning with a modest total of 18 member nations to a broad 54. 18 member nations to Membership in the ECOSOC Plenary has been organized on the a broad 54. conventions of geographic representation: 14 seats are allocated to Africa, 11 designated to Asia, 6 allotted to eastern Europe, 10 appropriated to Latin America and the Caribbean, and 13 apportioned to western Europe and other areas (Charter of United Nations, 1945). Members are chosen by the UN General Assembly through elections to serve three terms at the ECOSOC. Most of the permanent members in the UN Security Council have been constantly re-elected in the ECOSOC as they are the primary sources of funding for most of ECOSOC’s total budget, which is the biggest budget of any UN subsidiary body. In the ECOSOC, major decisions and
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policies are passed by simple majority vote. Moreover, the presidency of ECOSOC is altered every year (UN: ECOSOC members, 2014).
General Functioning
COSOC annually conducts a four-week session with its members in E July and an annual meeting in April that sees the participation of different finance ministers involved with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The annual session is constituted by five segments: the High-level segment, Coordination segment, Operational Activities segment, Humanitarian Affairs segment and the General segment. Therefore, ECOSOC is the principal organ for policy revision, discussion and reformations on global economic, social and environmental issues. Furthermore, ECOSOC acts as a key instrument in regulating the activities of the United Nations system and its specialized agencies and supervises other related bodies in economic, social and environmental fields such as non-governmental organizations (NGOs). ECOSOC also coordinates with a wide plethora of market stakeholders including policy makers, parliamentarians, academics, major groups, foundations, business sector representatives and more than 3,200 registered non-governmental organizations. All engage in a productive discussion concentrating on the concept of sustainable development through a systematic cycle of meetings. Moreover, the workings of the council is appropriated by an issue-based approach. There is an annual theme that is associated with each of these programmatic cycles, ensuring a sustained and focused communication among these multiple stakeholders (UN, 2014).
Subsidiary Bodies
he ECOSOC is comprised by 9 functional commissions. One of them T is the Statistical Commission, which was established in 1947 and serves as the prime governing entity of the global statistical system. It includes chief statisticians from member states and is the highest decision making authority for international statistical activities such as deciding statistical standards, developing concepts and paradigms and their application at national and international levels. Another major commission is the Commission for Social Development, in-charge of conducting progress checks and furthering the Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action. The Commission on Sustainable Development monitors follow-up events of United Nations Conference on Environment 3
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and Development (Earth Summit), and the United Nations Forum on Forests functions with the main objective of promoting the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests and to amass long-term commitment towards this cause. Besides such functional commissions that base their activities on the functions assigned to the committee, the ECOSOC also encompasses 5 regional commissions. The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) is an example of ECOSOC regional commissions and it aims to promote international cooperation for development in Africa (UN - ECOSOC Commissions, 2014).
Other regional commissions are: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA)
Apart from these the ECOSOC has subsidiary bodies which includes Standing Committees, Ad hoc bodies, committees composed of governmental experts such as the Intergovernmental Working Group of Experts in International Standards of Accounting and Reporting, and committees that involve members serving in their personal capacity such as the Committee for Development Policy and Committee of Experts on Public Administration.
References
Charter of the United Nations. (1945, 26 June). Retrieved 28 June 2013
from:http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/intro.shtml 4
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ECOSOC and its subsidiary bodies. Retrieved from: http://csonet.org/?menu=123
United Nations. (n.d.). About ECOSOC. Economic and Social Council. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/about/
United Nations. (n.d.). Members. Economic and Social Council [Website]. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/about/members.shtml
United Nations. (n.d.). President. Economic and Social Council [Website]. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/president/
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Topic I:
Empowering Youth with
Opportunity to Reduce
Unemployment
Definitions are Defining Unemployment important to thoroughly nemployment is measured as a rate within a given workforce understand a U population (Isar Model United Nations, 2014). Unemployed concept. Look for individuals are defined as those of legal working age who are both willing other explanations and able to work, are actively searching for paid work, but have not yet that define these found suitable paid work. Individuals without paid work but are not actively concepts. searching for it (discouraged workers), are not considered part of the labor force, and therefore, not part of unemployment rates. Unemployment can be of three types: frictional, structural, and cyclical unemployment. Cyclical (or Keynesian) Unemployment occurs when unemployment exceeds its natural rate (around which the actual unemployment rate fluctuates), and is related to business cycles. It can also be due to an incompatibility between the type of job vacancies in the labor market and job applicants’ field of expertise (Isar Model United Nations, 2014, p. 13). When aggregate demand falls, fewer workers are needed for production, leading to fewer job vacancies and fewer employment opportunities. This is similar to Structural Unemployment as it is due to fewer job opportunities than job applicants. However, it differs as it has long-term causes and consequences, and related to the labor market more than to demand-side economics. In Structural Unemployment, the disparity between the supply of labor at a given wage level and employers’ demand for labor at that level leads to unemployment. Frictional Unemployment, on the other hand, is short-term as it only occurs between the time workers spend searching for well-suited jobs and actually finding them – hence it also being called Search Unemployment (Pettinger, 2012) These definitions are all based on the Keynesian school of economics, complementary to which is the Neoclassical school of economics which
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postulates the importance of complete dependence on the market forces of supply and demand to maximize utility, and that without interference of neoliberal political policies such as unionization and minimum wage laws, unemployment would eventually solve itself as both employers and job applicants accommodate the labor market to wage rate equilibrium fluctuations (Isar Model United Nations, 2014, p. 13).
Youth
hose in the age group of 15 to 24 are defined as ‘youth’ by the United T Nations.
Youth Unemployment
ence, youth unemployment is expressed as the rate at which the H number of youth, aged 15-24, who are willing and able to work, are actively searching for paid work, but have not yet found suitable paid work, is divided by the total number of youth labor force within a country (not as part of the total workforce in a country), then multiplied by 100 (Isar Model United Nations, 2014).
Reducing Unemployment
outh are the promise of tomorrow; they are a generation in the making Y and the leaders of the future societies and economies. They are affected by the state of affairs just as much as adults and this may compromise their human resource potential waiting to be actualized into human capital. As important as it is to include youth in the decision-making and running of their country, it is equally crucial to provide them with as much training and education as possible (Milinauskyte et al., 2013). However, the issue of youth unemployment has been of great concern for decades, especially in industrialized modern societies, where success is often measured in terms of GDP. In today’s competitive global market
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economy, the greater a country’s GDP (Gross Domestic Product), the greater its currency appreciates, and therefore, the higher the exchange rate with other currencies (Pettinger, 2011). A higher exchange rate encourages foreign currency investment in the country, which in turn, increases the opportunity for trade, tourism, and development.
Development is measured in a number of ways, foremost of which is an economy’s GDP which directly reflects its aggregate level of productivity. Productivity is the measurement of an economy’s efficiency in production – the number of output units per input units. In order to maximize productivity, most countries aim to expand their labor force. This undertaking involves providing adequate training and education to their population to equip them with the necessary requirements for their occupational field. Labor is usually defined in terms of high-skilled labor and low-skilled labor. High-skilled labor requires education as these workers usually acquire jobs in the secondary and tertiary sectors of economic activity, while low-skilled labor require less education, but more training as these workers usually acquire jobs in the primary and secondary sectors – usually of technical nature and involve some level of manual activity (Isar Model United Nations, 2014, p. 15). Therefore, in order to “recruit” more individuals into its labor force, a country must first invest in their training and education. However, for this process to be efficient people receiving education and training must then be willing and able to work for an economy’s productivity to be maximized, otherwise, they would be placing an economic burden on the government. Given that, there may be factors other than lack of education and training preventing an economy’s working age population from entering the labor force. First, the market for a certain occupational field may be saturated, and regardless of the amount of qualified workers, there simply are not enough job vacancies to accommodate them all (Pettinger, 2012). Secondly, political unrest may lead to an economic crisis where employers would attempt to cut their production costs by laying off a portion of their workforce, resulting in many qualified, productive workers losing their jobs (Pettinger, 2012). Thirdly, many countries impose a compulsory military service on its male population of adult age and physical ability. Albeit these individuals may not count as part of an economy’s youth unemployment rate as they are not actively seeking paid employment while serving in the military, it does, however, deduct their years of economic productivity even if they do have stable paid jobs (Keller et al., 2006).
Moreover, when some of the adult, physically able male population is conscripted, they may be in service from 2 months to 2 years (depending on 8
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country’s law) and this may cause their loss of job by the time they are laid off duty. It may even interfere with their process of receiving an education or training for their occupational field, and thus, hinder their entry into the labor force – however, some countries allow postponing, or exemption from, service on certain grounds (Keller et al., 2006). Education and Finally, adequate education and training may not be offered by the training are the government to begin with due to economic deficiencies – the very same foundation for reason it should be willing to invest in development projects including reducing empowering its youth. However, in today’s global market economy, the unemployment and international labor market requires more than basic formal education to building human assure job opportunities for youth (Milinauskyte et al., 2013). That does not capital in a sustained negate the necessity of completion of primary education for all as figures manner. show a large gap between unemployment rates of those who received primary schooling and those who have not. This is because the level of schooling, rather than the type of schooling, proves to be more accurate a predictor of unemployment rates, thus proving vocational schooling and apprenticeship schemes no different in preventing unemployment than completion of general secondary education. This ties into the labor market requirements for unskilled-labor as much as those for skilled-labor as employers are more willing to provide informal, on-the-job training for workers who attained higher levels of schooling (regardless of type) than to those with fewer formal education degrees. Hence even unskilled-labor cannot compensate their lack of education with informal training (Isar Model United Nations, 2014, p. 15).
References
Isar Model United Nations. (2014). Study Guide Isar Model United Nations 2014. Retrieved from ISARMUN website: http://www.isarmun.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Study- Guide_ECOSOC.pdf
This study guide provided a preliminary structure for defining terms in the introduction through deconstruction, especially regarding the economic definition of youth and unemployment. It also provided an in-depth exploration of the correlation between education and training to employment trends in labor markets.
Keller, Poutvaara, & Wagener. (2006). Military Draft and Economic Growth in OECD Countries. Retrieved from Institute for the Study of Labor website: http://ftp.iza.org/dp2022.pdf
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This document explicates the negative effects of military conscription on the economy, especially pertaining to employment, the labor market, and its effect on a country’s GDP.
Milinauskyte, Villagomez, Shively, & Rudolph. (2013). Economic Commission for Africa Background Guide 2013. Retrieved from National Model United Nations website: http://www.nmun.org/ny_archives/ny13_downloads/BGG13ECA.pd f
This NMUN background guide provides a basic framework for understanding the role of youth in the economic development of a society and the importance of education.
Pettinger, T. (2011). Understanding Exchange Rates. Retrieved from Economics Help website: http://www.economicshelp.org/blog/749/economics/understanding- exchange-rate/
This article illustrates the relationship between aggregate production and the appreciation or depreciation of exchange rates, in relation to other factors.
Pettinger, T. (2012). Reasons for Youth Unemployment. Retrieved from Economics Help website: http://www.economicshelp.org/blog/517/economics/reasons-for- youth-unemployment/
Some of the reasons outlined in this web document have been particularly helpful in producing an understanding of the factors contributing to the issue of youth unemployment.
Role of the UN
1. The International Labour Organization (ILO)
The ILO has created a programme on youth employment called The ILO Youth Employment Programme (YEP) which operates globally. Its headquarter is in Geneva and there are more than 60 offices around the world. This programme helps countries in establishing well-coordinated interventions in youth employment. 10
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2. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) The main goal of this organisation is to develop strong legislature for the social and financial welfare of the people around the world. In the meeting held on the 29-30th of May 2013, the OECD ministers decided to take measures as set out in the OCED Action Plan for Youth. The two main objectives of their measures are:
I. To overcome the prevailing youth unemployment II. To plan for the long run by equipping the youth with skills and eradicating the obstacles to their employment.
3. European Union (EU)
In June 2010, the EU adopted the Europe 2020 strategy for smart and sustainable growth which included initiatives to support the youth to find jobs and help them during this crisis. Education and training, good labour market integration and mobility are the main key points to meet the objectives of the Europe 2020. The EU Youth Guarantee makes sure that the states of EU give good opportunities within four months of graduating or getting unemployed.
4. ECOSOC
According to the ECOSOC resolution of 2006, the main goals of the UN to overcome youth unemployment are
I. Development and implementation of strategies that give the youth around the world decent employment opportunities as contained in the 2005 World Summit Outcome.
II. To make the goal of employment opportunities for all, policies relevant to issues closely related to unemployment like poverty reduction strategies have been taken into account to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.
International Framework
he youth alliance which has been established by the United Nations is T dedicated to cater to their communities using volunteerism in the Asia-Pacific region. According to UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, unemployment in this region has been estimated to be more than 80 million. 300 participants from over 40 nations met for a forum held by the United Nations in Bangkok, Thailand to come up with new
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strategies for youth participation in the post-2015 development agenda and to establish cross-cultural youth service networks. Furthermore, participants established the Asia-Pacific Peace Service Alliance, a group of partnerships which consists of youth from different parts of the world. These groups strive to serve their societies through volunteerism.
In addition. the UNDP Youth Economic Empowerment Project is providing more than 1,200 Yemeni youth with two to four months of employment by creating jobs by trying to improve the water in rural areas by digging wells, constructing markets etc. In this manner they are improving infrastructure and providing the youth of Yemen with economic opportunities.
References
Helping Young Yemenis fight unemployment. (n.d). Retrieved December 1, 2014, from United Nations Development Programme website: http://arabstates.undp.org/content/rbas/en/home/ourwork/povertyred uction/successstories/helping-young-yemenis-fight-unemployment/
This source helps us identify the efforts of the UN to reduce youth unemployment in Yemen.
United Nations, ECOSOC Resolution. (2006). Promoting youth employment. Retrieved from United Nations website: http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/docs/2006/resolution%202006- 15.pdf
UN Asia-Pacific forum helps foster youth volunteerism to counter unemployment. (n.d). Retrieved December 1, 2014, from UN news center website: http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=49202#.VHbuYfm Syok
This source highlights the effort of the UN in dealing with youth unemployment by the establishment of the youth alliances which are dedicated to cater to their communities using volunteerism in the The list of possible Asia-Pacific region. solutions is detailed but not exhaustive.
Solutions are often Possible Solutions judged on the basis of
oung adults are part of society’s sprouting economy. Yet, due to their regional viability and Y age and other factors their capacity and ability to handle certain jobs is economic feasibility. 12
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often questioned. Several reasons support the doubt that society holds with regards to teens struggling to earn a living. Receiving an opportunity of great standards, can be a struggle in developed, developing, and least developed countries. Gender inequality is also another motif that disregards the capabilities of young adults, especially that of young women. Recent studies have proven that there could be an upcoming slight improvement in the employment outlook of young adults globally.
Previous UN actions
The UN hears out young voices who seek help in the situation of unemployment. To create a firm economic future for some countries, the adjustment and approval of diverse opportunities are expected to diminish the struggles faced by the young in in earning a living. Poor job qualities and low standard of salary intake are factors that depend on the economic stability generated or lacking in a country. For this reason the UN sets several objectives regarding this issue that are acquired to alleviate this crisis and to achieve a beneficial outcome, for both young people and the standards of the living in certain regions of the world. Here are some of the functions attempted in the “International Year of Youth” of August 2010 attempted by the UN:
I. Create Awareness: Increase commitment and investment in youth. II. Mobilize and engage: Increase youth participation and partnerships. III. Connect and Build Bridges: Increase intercultural and understanding among youth.
Future Possible Solutions: a) Developed countries: Such as the United States, Hong Kong and South Korea
1. Improve the basis of educational systems and resources.
2. Provide opportunities for internship and skill training in certain fields. 3. Build more collaborative and active partnerships for entrepreneurs. 4. Prepare students to live, interact, and work on a global level. 5. Adjust an oversupply in human resources in required areas.
In the United States of America, full employment is by minimum 4% of workers out of idle or underemployed. In addition, full employment is spouses working or whoever withholds most control of the household has to struggle with juggling two or three jobs to provide for their families.
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Moreover, if teens are part of the household they most likely will want to search for a job by the age 15, in order to provide for themselves. However, for young adults, jobs that require heavy effort are out of the spread out options. In this case, even developed countries such as the United States would most likely suffer such crisis in an ordinary household of regular standards. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division for Social Policy and Development “Perhaps fair pay or living wage judged by items in the market basket e.g. sending children to school, purchase of meat or some other protein on a regular basis, ability to pay rent or build a shelter. Decent work is a nice concept but how is that defined. White collar jobs are full of stress even while one's clothing and hands stay clean. Again, perhaps the adequate definition is can the employed person take care of personal and family or household needs on the wages paid” (UNDEASADSPD, 2014).
b) Developing Countries: Such as Algeria, Bahrain, Lebanon, Malaysia, China and Turkey
1. Improve secondary and higher education, maximizing use of new technology. 2. Increase professional and life skill training. 3. Facilitate the transition from school to work. 4. Train youth workers as well as skilled guidance and vocational counselors. 5. Promote human rights of education and gender equality among migrant and indigenous youth.
For instance, “In China, youth unemployment is rooted in the dominance of the manufacturing sector, which provides far more job opportunities for high-school graduates than university-educated workers.” (Project Syndicate, 2014) (Explore this issue at: http://economia.icaew.com/opinion/june-2014/income-inequality-and- youth-unemployment#sthash.oE37aYDu.dpuf)
c) Least Developing countries: Such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia and Ethiopia
1. Improve frail health care:
- Promote good hygiene and sanitary practice.
- Reduce preventable health care and illness.
- Reduce hunger and malnutrition. 14
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2. Aid in the crisis of extreme poverty: These references - Empower young people as key contributors in poverty reduction inspect the difficulties strategies. that youth groups - Promote decent work with social protection schemes. experience in their - Further development to include youth in strengthening food| security and sustainable agriculture. endeavors to take part in employment 3. Employment procedures, and - Youth-run voluntary service projects. proposes an - Skill development in context to globalization. analytical description - Suitable job tasks for multiple standards of living. of the impact of - Contributions by neighboring regions. unemployment on In the case of Afghanistan its current security and economic conditions suggest that “the country will not recover very soon the youth. from the status of a failed state, and will continue to fail to establish security, law and order needed for economic development and political progress. The state needs to provide basic public services, support day-to-day economic activities, and institute urgently needed programs, which can provide tangible economic and social results. The Government needs to realize the political and economic realities of Afghanistan and transform the economic, social, and political structure to bring industrial progress to Afghanistan. The government also needs to build human, economic, and infrastructural capacities to build the industries and political infrastructure” (Mohmand, 2012).
References
Economia.icaew.com, (2014). Income inequality and youth unemployment | Economia. Retrieved 4 January 2015, from http://economia.icaew.com/opinion/june-2014/income-inequality- and-youth-unemployment
MUIMUN (2014) (1st ed.). Retrieved from 1. http://www.muimun.org/wp- content/uploads/2012/02/CSocD_topicA.pdf
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Prospects of Economic Development, Asia Foundation (2014) Retrieved from http://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/ProspectsofEconomicDevel opmentinAfghanistanOccasionalPaperfinal.pdf
UN (2014) Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/cdp/ldc/ldc_list.pdf
UN (2014) Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/publications/FullSurveyEmpowermen t.pdf
Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS)
T he Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS) is an innovative network and grass root organization operating all over India. It was founded in the 20th century as an autonomous organization under the Government of India. NYKS is now amongst the largest grassroots level organization of its kind. Through networking of youth clubs, they attract young people between 13 – 35 years and have been set up in many villages and rural communities across India.
NYKS provides a unique opportunity for rural youth to be part of the process of nation building at local state level, and to be connected to larger issues of national unity in India. An important feature is that the programme and activities of the youth clubs respond to needs of the local community. People of young age in these village-based Youth Clubs embark on projects that will benefit the community and reflect principles of volunteerism, self- help and community involvement. They obtain valuable training and skills that prepare them for employment, including self-employment. They benefit from opportunities for the development of their skills and personality, and are involved in a vast network of support through NYKS’s link to local and state level government sources and the private sectors. The following are the four distinct initiatives of NYKS. They aim to mobilise youth for social and economic participation for individual and community development. 16
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The initiatives are: 1. Supporting the Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management Plan for Agro Ecological Zones, Kerala.
2. The Girivikas Development Project for Students from Tribal Populations.
3. Sewak Project for Self-Employed Workers Association Kendra. 4. National Service Scheme (NSS) - Involves encouraging youth participation in cultural heritage preservation.
References
Conducting evaluation of nehru yuva kendra sangathan(NYKS) and national youth corps (NYC). (2013). MENA Report Minister of state (independent charge) for youth affairs & sports jitendra
singh replies to a query on 'nehru yuva kendra sangathan' on march 18, 2013. (2013, Mar 18). Indian Parliament Q&A
Africa
ccording to the Population Research Bureau, Africa has the fastest
A growing and most youthful population in the world. Due to Africa’s high fertility rate, over forty percent of its population is under 15 years of age. As a result, the supply of jobs available in the market does not meet the Over forty percent of demand of Africa’s ever increasing population. Several regional and Africa’s population is continental government have acknowledged the issue of youth under 15 years of age. This provides the African countries with not only a challenge but also an opportunity. unemployment and discussed methods to reduce unemployment at various meets to. They have resolved to advance youth development and ensure increased investments in youth development programs at national levels. In July 2012, the African Development Bank facilitated a policy dialogue on
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youth employment for the Southern African region, chaired by its Vice President Prof. Mthuli Ncube. National Youth policy and Youth Enterprise fund was introduced in Zambia to increase job opportunities and fight poverty. The Nigerian government also introduced the skill acquisition and enterprise development programs into the National Youth service corporation, and a business plan competition for young people tagged ‘YOUWIN’ program. Such efforts however have not shown any significant decrease in youth unemployment.
Plans to attract more youth into the agricultural sector by packaging it as a more viable option were initiated as the sector provides a sustainable source of investment for young individual. The importance of a swift transition from subsistence to commercialized farming was also noted. Nation-states also intended to create a model that would reduce rural-urban migration by boosting rural opportunities and increasing investment in rural education. They also plan on incorporating skills and enterprise development in the education curriculum. Arbache says ‘the demographic transition is an opportunity for Africa to compete internationally. The main challenge is to employ the appropriate policies for the region to benefit from this unique opportunity. It is my belief that individuals, organizations and government will make appropriate decisions to maximize this opportunity.’ Incentives are also being provided so that students get internships. The government is working closely with the private sector to create job opportunities for the youth. Social Entrepreneurship is considered a viable tool that can create many new job opportunities.
The African government plans on introducing 5 million new jobs to reduce youth unemployment by fifteen percent. The new growth path is introduced to address the issue of unemployment. It aims to alleviate poverty through targeted wage subsidy which is intended to facilitate school to work transition. It is seen that there is unemployment mostly among people who are less-skilled. Increase in the number of highly skilled workers increases the number of unemployed less-skilled workers. Therefore, Africa is adopting a policy of “brain gain” by encouraging free and open immigration of high skilled workers.
References
Actsa.org,. (2015). South Africa government plan for 5 million new jobs; to cut unemployment to 15% | ACTSA Newsroom. Retrieved 4 January 2015, from http://www.actsa.org/newsroom/2010/10/south- africa-government-plan-for-5-million-new-jobs-to-cut- unemployment-to-
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Africa, M. (2012). Youth Unemployment in Africa: Causes, effects and Solutions. MDGs in Africa. Retrieved 4 January 2015, from http://mdginafrica.wordpress.com/2012/10/15/youth-unemployment in-africa-causes-effects-and-solutions/
Yale. (2014). Retrieved from http://levinsohn.commons.yale.edu/files/2010/10/Policies_SA.pdf
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Novel and renewable sources of energy have evolved to become the center of Topic 2: global efforts, leading to the creation of Promoting Sustainable policies relating to green economies, Economic Growth Through poverty eradication and sustainable Alternative Energy Sources development.
Introduction
n the current era of limited resources and excessive exhaustion of the I same, a revolutionizing change has almost become a necessity. The most effective solution that can be derived to combat this issue is a global energy system that is structured to make sustainable energy provisionary to all. This mechanism - besides providing clean energy - also aims to satisfy the ever-growing demand for energy, with special emphasis on developing countries. Another target of the eco-friendly energy system is the substantial reduction in factors contributing to climate change. Novel and renewable sources of energy have evolved to become the center of global efforts, leading to the creation of policies relating to green economies, poverty eradication and sustainable development. Some countries are even investing record amounts for advancing innovation, development and commercialization of renewable technologies. However, a lot more cooperation and action is required to considerably increase the role of these technologies to the proposed global energy system. A harmonized global energy strategy made in conjunction with consistent and stable national A harmonised global policies, is capable of reducing the costs of renewable energy technologies energy strategy is and thus can be used even by the poorest segments of the population living in lesser developed areas. Adequate and affordable energy services are highly required. quintessential to reduce poverty, improve human welfare, raise living standards, thereby contributing to sustainable development. As global
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development persists to pose a challenge to all countries, it has been widely accepted that energy services can impact health, education, transport, telecommunications, and water and sanitation. Therefore, energy is a detrimental force for achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
By securing sustainable energy for all includes the development of energy systems that produced energy resources in an optimal manner which is equitable and minimizes environmental impacts. National and regional establishments that are instrumental for energy supply, and efficient transmission and distribution systems shed light on energy efficiency as a prerequisite for sustainable energy systems. Universal energy access paves the pathway to modern energy fuels that can effectively substitute traditional biomass consumption for cooking, heating and lighting, which usually represents the only available or affordable fuel to the poor in many developing regions.
References
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2010 (Paris, OECD/IEA, 2010). 4 UNDP/WHO, The energy access situation in developing countries, New York, 2009.
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Political Declaration and Plan of Implementation, paragraph 20 (e), United Nations, 2003. The issue of Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 26 August-4 September 2002 sustainable economic (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.03.II.A.1 and development through corrigendum), chap. I, resolution 2, annex. the use of alternate United Nations Advanced Un-edited Copy, 2011., Retrieved Dec. 8th, energy sources is a 2014.http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/resources/res_pdfs/ga- 66/SG%20report_Promotion_new_renewable_energy.pdf global issue and not
constrained by Role of the UN national borders.
Hence it requires a conomic modeling brings advantageous collaborations of countries to E showing that environmental policies are not necessarily bound by coordinated physical borderlines, but include the shared benefits and challenges of human input. Energy saving, population growth and technology response. development are all factors that build up a framework to promote sustainable growth through alternative energy sources.
The United Nations arranges a preparatory meeting in 2013, The Annual Ministerial Review of the Economic and Social Council. In the regional meeting the United Nations reports an establishment of several consecutive key policy messages to perform in the coming years. The meeting was accommodated by the Royal Government of Thailand, co-organized by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia, and assisted by United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The meeting is adjourned by resolutions that impact sustainable energy growth in regions of Pacific Asia, and can be assured to promote sustainability in other regions in the future as well. The following are the main issues and requirements that have been acknowledged by various such meetings.
1. Renewable energy sources for energy security and sustainability: a. Providing clean, affordable, and accessible energy to alleviate poverty and sustain development. b. Financial incentives to substitute conventional energy sources with renewable energy sources. c. Promoting Renewable Energy Networks at both the national and regional levels.
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2. Using technology, science, and innovation policies and systems to promote circulation of renewable energy: a. Addressing inter-linkages between energy, water and food security, in order to ensure a balanced approach to the three dimensions of sustainable development.
b. Financial, fiscal and regulatory incentives together with innovative financial mechanisms and an adequate regime for intellectual property rights are critical to foster the development, innovation, and commercialization of Renewable Energy Technology.
3. Improving the role of partnership that collaborate with all relevant stakeholders: a. Provide sustainable energy for all regions with insufficient funds, in a socially supportive manner while minimizing environmental impacts. b. Using modern or commercial biomass and ensuring that it is produced in a sustainable way and that it can be used for electricity generation, heat production and transportation. (Traditional biomass is solid biomass used in an unsustainable manner) c. Enhancing the management of clean water resources, concentrating on the fact that it is a very important issue in sustainable development.
International Framework
rganizations of the United Nations have shown immense support to O expand the use of new and renewable sources of energy in developing countries. 2009 and 2010 have been important years in light of the development and awareness brought on the need of use of renewable sources of energy.
Firstly, The United Nations Secretary General’s Advisory Group on Energy and Climate Change (AGECC) which was founded in 2009, called on the United Nations system and its Member States to emphasize on ensuring universal access to modern energy services and to bring a 40% reduction in the energy intensity by 2030.
Secondly, UN-Energy, the inter-agency mechanism of the United Nations system, continues to promote system-wide collaboration in the area of energy with a coherent and consistent approach. UN-Energy has put
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forward three major goals to ensure sustainable energy for all by 2030. The goals include: universal access to modern energy services, a 40 per cent reduction in overall global energy intensity and an increase in the share of renewable energy in primary energy to 30 per cent. UN-Energy is also supporting the General Assembly’s resolution that declared 2012 as the “International Year of Sustainable Energy for All.”
UNFCCC
The Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), through the Expert Group on Technology Transfer, have been closely researching to finance climate change technologies. As a result of this extensive research, a number of mechanisms to tackle climate change have been found that promote financing for new and renewable energy.
In 2010, the sixteenth session of the Conference of Parties (COP16) decided to establish a centre designed to support the transfer of relevant technologies including renewable energy technologies.
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol of the UNFCCC focuses on promoting clean energy technology transfer to developing countries. By 2012, 61% of the CDM projects will be on renewable energy projects. During COP16, the Parties decided to strengthen the CDM to create an environmentally sound and sustainable emission projects in the developing world.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA)
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) was established in 2009, and it promotes renewable energy and its sustainable use. Abu Dhabi is the interim headquarters for IRENA.
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References
Dincer, I. (2000). Renewable Energy and Sustainable Development: A Crucial Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4, 157-175.
Ferroukhi, R., Lucas, H., Renner, M., Lehr, U., Breitschopf, B., Lallement, D., & Petrick, K. (2013). Renewable Energy and Jobs. Retrieved December 14, 2014, from IRENA website:http://www.irena.org/menu/index.aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMe nuID=36&CatID=141&SubcatID=377
Findlay, J., & Watson, T. (2009). Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia Background Guide 2009. Retrieved from NMUN website:http://www.nmun.org/ny_archives/09%20Guides/ESCWA- 09.pdf
Pezzy, J., 2014. How climate change will limit growth. Retrieved Dec. 8th 2014. https://forumblog.org/2014/10/climate-change-will- limitgrowth/?utm_content=buffer2b6d9&utm_medium=social&utm _source=facebook.com&utm_campaign=buffer
Report of the Asia and the Pacific Regional Preparatory Meeting on “Science, Technology, and Innovation for Promoting Renewable Energy, 2013. Retrieved Dec. 8th, 2014.http://www.un.org/en/ecosoc/newfunct/pdf13amr_thailand_su mmary.pdf
Possible Solutions
he market for alternative energy sources is growing to engulf most T countries around the world. The race for sustainable growth, both in developing and developed countries’ schemes, is predicted to create an estimate of 4.5 million jobs in the electricity sector alone. This can be achieved through effective renewable energy education and training policies, and training programs providing renewable energy technology- specific skills. Jobs can be created in a long supply-chain of off-grid renewable energy policies (Ferroukhi et al., 2013, pp. 14-15), especially for women in rural areas as it would “simultaneously address the expected skill shortages in the industry while maximizing socio-economic benefits” (p. 16) such as increasing energy access, household consumption, and micro- enterprises. The sustainable growth possible from renewable energy
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deployment, especially in terms of job creation, would be more effective if deployment policies were coordinated with education, trade, regional development, and industrial and labor policies. By raising awareness about job opportunities in the renewable energy sector, many young people would be encouraged to enter the market (pp. 16-17).
These policies are of three types: first, fiscal incentives which includes tax reduction, renewable portfolio standards (RPS), renewable heat obligation/mandate; second, regulatory policies and targets which include biofuel obligation/mandate, feed-in tariffs, and net metering; and third, public financing in the form of auctions or tenders (p. 57).
Another solution may follow in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) that offers loan programs for renewable energy projects incorporating solar generation, solar manufacturing, wind generation, geothermal power, and biofuels (pp. 60-61).
The IRENA Renewable Energy Learning Partnership (IRELP) launched in April 2012, was set up as an initiative to “increase awareness of, and access to, renewable energy education opportunities and resources”; “create awareness about skill gap and labor shortages in the renewable energy sector”; “raise the profile of renewable energy as an attractive career option”; “and assist in the adaptation of education and training structures to support the global transition to renewable energy” (p. 85).
By giving women equal opportunities to enter the renewable energy deployment market, not only would all potential human resources in this field be harnessed, addressing the issue of the anticipated labor shortages, but it would also increase the overall social and economic benefits generated from their job opportunities (pp. 104-105). This can be achieved through government policies, legislation, and regulation; gender-specific support services and incentives; improved education and training accessibility; and financing opportunities for women to start their own businesses in the renewable energy deployment market (pp. 115-119).
Eco-tourism is another sector which promises both economic growth and sustainable development. By adopting a “green” company image, many hotels, resorts, and other tourist attractions have revolutionized their facilities by introducing “energy efficient steam generators, efficient lighting systems, and ‘passive building designs’” (Findlay and Watson, 2009, p. 19). These sustainable technologies can be utilized in “swimming pools, whirlpools and spas [that] can be made to operate efficiently simply by installing heating timers . . ., keeping the temperature between 80-82
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degrees, and sheltering outdoor pools from windy weather...” (Findlay and Watson, 2009, pp. 19-20).
Some of the “technical, institutional, and economical challenges” that implementing renewable energy technologies can pose, especially on developing economies and governments, can be mediated through “improving the collection and conversion efficiencies”, “lowering the initial and maintenance costs”; “increasing the reliability and applicability”; and “understanding the phenomena of renewable energy systems” (Dincer, 2000, p. 167). Government energy institutions can realize the full potential of renewable energy technologies by conducting research and development; assessing these technologies; developing technical and safety standards for their production and use; and the transferability of these technologies overseas, especially to developing economies (p. 170). These strategies would prove most effective if coupled with the raising of public awareness; development of education and training programs incorporating the study of renewable energy deployment; providing necessary information on renewable energy utilization and their environmental impacts; the continuous innovation of new energy strategies; formulation of short- and long-term multi-sector programs for the utilization of renewable energy resources in all stages of production and in all industries; monitoring each step of the energy production process for a better development of technical and safety standards; and finally, providing government expenditure for the development and running of these programmes on a large-scale (pp. 172- 173).
International Renewable Energy Agency
he International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) advances the T quickened selection and sustainable utilization of all types of renewable energy. IRENA's establishing members were roused by the open doors offered by renewable energy to empower sustainable development while tending to issues of energy access, security and unpredictability. Established in 2009, the intergovernmental
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association gives a worldwide systems administration center point, consultative asset and brought together voice for renewable energy.
Africa is experiencing a sustained time of economic development and change. Its population is developing quickly, and its economies are creating and broadening. So as to be supported, this development will need to be fuelled by a massive investment in energy. Africa has the potential and the capacity to use its renewable assets to fuel the greater part of its future development with renewable energy. Doing so would be economically focused were different solutions would open economies of scale, and would offer generous profits regarding impartial improvement, neighborhood esteem creation, energy security, and ecological maintainable quality. Such an extraordinary change won't happen independently. It must be attempted by approach creators to create empowering structures to goad speculation and encourage market improvement through sound strategies and territorial collaboration. Africa's Renewable Future showcases cases where this exertion is as of now event and can be duplicated – and in addition how IRENA is particularly situated to help that work.
References
Elliott, D. (2014, December 6). Tag Archives: Solar. Retrieved December 10, 2014, from http://blog.environmentalresearchweb.org/tag/solar/
Go 100% Renewable Energy: News Article. (2013, January 23). Retrieved December 13, 2014, from http://www.go100percent.org/cms/index.php?id=45&tx_ttnews[tt_n ews]=262&cHash=d286c9fac7a3b5a14aa536e47e24ec7a
IRENA: Africa's Renewable Future - The Path to Sustainable Growth. (2013, January 23). Retrieved December 12, 2014, from http://www.gvepinternational.org/en/resources/irena-africas- renewable-future-path-sustainable-growth
South Korea
he economic and social development of South Korea has been T astounding, wherein the nation transformed from being an economically poor agrarian country to one of the most industrialised nations in the world, within a commendable span of 60 years. This phenomenon, commonly addressed to as the “Miracle on the Han River”, captures the game-changing processes of rapid industrialisation, technological 28
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advancement and raise in living standards. South Korea is currently ranked The National Green 15th in the World in terms of GDP. Growth Strategy was An almost inevitable consequence of the massive industrialization was introduced to reduce South Korea’s carbon emissions, which doubled between 1990 and 2005. In order to combat this environmental issue which is globally prevalent, the carbon emission that Green Growth policy was initiated. It is an instrumental approach to achieve economic growth by adhering to a sustainability paradigm. Through the had doubled in South Green Growth policy, South Korea aims to attain a leadership status in Korea. It is a sustainability development and innovation on a worldwide consensus. multifaceted policy that aims to bring about infrastructural and lifestyle changes that are conducive to sustained economic growth.
The objectives of the National Green Growth Strategy include ● Improve energy independence and climate change mitigation. ● Create new drivers for economic growth such as the development of green technologies and the promotion of the industry’s green structure ● Introduce a green lifestyle, and green transport infrastructure, as well as sustainable land and water use
The South Korean government, thus, proposed the application of the ten strategic-energy technologies. These technologies are constituted by high- efficiency photovoltaic (PV) cells, fuel cells, advanced nuclear power, green cars, smart grid, advanced carbon capture and storage (CCS), water treatment, rechargeable batteries, Light Emitting Diodes (LED), Green IT. Thereby, along with producing and changing use to eco-friendly products on a national scale, South Korea also plans to become a leading producer for the emerging "green" global market for eco-friendly goods and services.
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References
Green Growth Korea: Retrieved from: www.greengrowth.go.kr/?page_id=42478 on March 27, 2012
OECD and Green Growth. Retrieved from: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/28/44273385.pdf on May 8, 2012.
United Nations General Assembly (2005). 2005 World Summit Outcome, Resolution A/60/1, adopted by the General Assembly on 15 September 2005
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Written By Omar Al Mutawa, Hanan Arab, Asma Alabed, Alia Al Hazami, Hend Mitkis & Aljawhara Al Juwaied
Faculty Advisor Dr. Nawar Golley
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
Welcome to the 8th Annual American University of Sharjah Model United Nations (AUSMUN 2015), and to the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW). We hope that this conference will be a fruitful and thrilling experience for you.
The topics under discussion this year are: I. Addressing the Feminization of Poverty II. Countering Violence Against Women
I was keen about introducing the CSW to the conference due to the fact that gender inequality persists despite the relentless efforts of countries and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs). It is up to these actors, in addition to international governmental organizations (IGOs) like the United Nations, to inspire a change. Although we are lucky to live in a nation that prioritizes women’s empowerment across many levels, this is not the situation worldwide. Many injustices are being committed everyday against women, and more needs to be achieved to stop them. By simulating multilateralism in an instrumental entity like the CSW, we can realize how countries deal with such an issue, despite maintaining different—and often conflicting—points of view on the matter.
This background guide serves as an introduction to the topics for this committee along with other information you will require through the duration of the conference. It must be noted that, while the guide is detailed, it does not replace further research. Thus, we strongly encourage you to further explore the topics by referring to additional sources. Furthermore, please make sure you are well acquainted with your country’s policies as that will reflect in your conduct at the debate sessions. For this purpose we have provided useful websites at the end of each topic’s section. To truly benefit from the AUSMUN experience, you will need to participate in sessions as much as possible, and that cannot be achieved without preparation.
If you have any inquiries concerning your preparation for the conference, do not hesitate to get in touch with us at [email protected]. If you have any questions about this committee, feel free to email our CSW Deputy Director, Hanan Arab, at [email protected].
Regards,
Omar A. Al Mutawa Director of CSW | Secretary-General Commission on the Status of Women
Table of Content
History of the Commission on the Status of Women ...... 2 Topic I: The Feminization of Poverty ...... 5 Introduction ...... 5 History ...... 6 International and Regional Framework ...... 8 The Role of the United Nations ...... 9 Possible Solutions ...... 11 Topic 2: Tackling Violence Against Women ...... 13 Introduction ...... 13 History ...... 14 International and Regional Framework ...... 15 Role of the UN ...... 17 Possible Solutions ...... 18 Case Studies ...... 19 Annotated Bibliography ...... 21
Commission on the Status of Women
History of the Commission on the Status of Women
n 1945, in San Francisco, the United Nations (UN) Charter received 160 I signatories, thus leading to the creation of the UN we know today. Four of the 160 signatories were quite significant; they were women. Minerva Bernardino of the Dominican Republic, Virginia Gildersleeve of the United States, Bertha Lutz of Brazil and Wu Yi-Fang of China were the four women who were also successful in granting women’s rights in the mother document of the UN. On February 1946, Eleanor Roosevelt read a letter at the UN General Assembly addressed to “the women of the world,” which resulted in the creation of a commission under the Commission of Human Rights, which was dedicated to the status of women. Officiated on June of 1946, the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) became a formal UN Commission with the goal of “ensuring women’s equality and promoting women’s rights.”1 The Commission had many close relationships with NGOs since the beginning.
The Commission members also built close working relationships with the international human rights treaty bodies, the Commission on Human Rights, Social Commission and the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, and specialized agencies such as UNESCO and UNICEF.2
The founding members of CSW were Australia, Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, People’s Republic of China, Costa Rica, Denmark, France, Guatemala, India, Mexico, Syria, Turkey, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Kingdom, United States, and Venezuela; represented by Jessie Mary Grey Street, Evdokia Uralova, Way Sung New, Graciela Morales F. de Echeverria, Bodil Begtrup, Marie Helene Ledfaucheux, Sara Basterrechea Ramirez, Shareefah Hamid Ali, Amalia C de Castillo Ledo, Alice Kandalft Cosma, Mihri Pektas, Elizavieta Alekseevna Popova, Mary Sutherland, Dorothy Kenyon, and Isabel de Urdaneta, respectively.3 One of the first guiding principles of the CSW was:
1 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.2 2 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.3 3 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.3 2
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To raise the status of women, irrespective of nationality, race, language or religion, to equality with men in all fields of human enterprise, and to eliminate all discrimination against women in the provisions of statutory law, in legal maxims or rules, or in interpretation of customary law.4
During the CSW’s first meeting, it emphasized the importance of the presence of the Commission in the drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.5 Within the timeframe beginning from 1946 until 1962, the CSW focused on “promoting women’s rights and equality by setting standards and formulating international conventions aiming at changing discriminatory legislation and fostering global awareness of women’s issues.”6 In the 1950s, the CSW switched its focus to the issue of discrimination and inequality in marriage. This problem was tackled by the CSW in the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women, the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages, and the Recommendations on Consent to Marriage adopted on January 1957, November 1962, and November 1965, respectively.7 The CSW also focused on issues such as traditional practices that were harmful and risked the security and health of women in the 1950s.8 The Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women was drafted in 1963 after a request from the General Assembly to the CSW to establish standards on women’s rights that have been in discussion since 1945.9 Through the years, the Commission grew more influential, as described:
By 1980, the Commission was no longer the only entity working on women’s issues in the UN. The reporting and implementation mechanisms established for the Decade had been diffused throughout the UN regional commissions, specialized agencies and funds. New organizations dedicated to women had been established, such as the United Nations Fund for Women (UNIFEM) and the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women. (INSTRAW).10
4 E/281/Rev.1, as cited in Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.3 5 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.4 6 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.4 7 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.5 8 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.3 9 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.7 10 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.11 3
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Prior to 1987, the Commission used to meet biannually; however, the CSW was set to meet annually after 1987. The UN “General
Assembly mandated it to monitor the global implementation of the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women,” thus taking the lead in endorsing the UN system’s work on the economic and social empowerment of women. This led to a shift wherein CSW was now promoting women’s rights in multiple fields such as economic development, social policy, culture, and much more.11 In 1995, the CSW adapted the strategy of gender mainstreaming to promote equality between men and women. The ECOSOC has defined gender mainstreaming as:
The process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies and [programs], in all areas and at all levels, and as a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and [programs] in all political, economic and social spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.12
The Commission has had fifty-seven sessions so far, and each is accessible via their website.13
11 Commission on the Status of Women (History of the Commission) p.13 12 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/critical.htm#gender 13 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/critical.htm#gender 4
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Topic I: The Feminization of Poverty
Introduction
eople often have different definitions for different phenomena, and P poverty is one of them. Poverty does not necessarily have to be correlated with financial issues, but it can often be directly linked to the deprivation of basic human rights.
Poverty is an unfortunate situation that affects millions of people. In several countries, mostly developing countries, the numbers of poor women far exceed those of poor men. Nevertheless, it has been proven that this is not a universal phenomenon, as some countries have a roughly even distribution of resources between men and women.
However, a new form of poverty has been on the rise where more women are affected by poverty than men; this is called the feminization of poverty.14 This global sensation has been growing immensely in the past few years; clearly, something has to be wrong to cause this unequal percentage where a study in 2011 showed that the poverty rate for adult women, which was 14.6%, was 3.7 percentage points higher than it was for men (10.9%).15
The feminization of poverty can be divided into two kinds: Income poverty and human poverty. The first kind covers the matter of men being paid relatively higher salaries for doing the same job as women. This unjust distribution of income between genders is a major cause of having more poor women. In addition, women aren’t allowed many high ranks in societies, endorsing the idea that men are the dominant gender. The second kind covers areas such as education, where there are low rates of education for women. This is the main reason there is a significant number of unemployed women. Besides, some cultural practices with stratified gender expectations and roles stigmatize women in the labor force. Some women
14 http://www.poverties.org/women-in-poverty.html 15 http://www.nwlc.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/nwlc_2012_povertyreport.pdf 5
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have even started looking at their sex as a burden they were born with that stops them from living a proper life.16
This is an important issue to discuss because it deprives women of their basic rights and fundamental needs; their dependence on men increase their basic survival necessities. Moreover, it deters the psychological growth of children and gives them ideals that women are inferior to men. Also, it promotes the ridiculing of women and robbing them of their opinions. Women deserve respect as much as men do. They also deserve the right to equal pay, the chance to defend themselves, the opportunities to be self- dependent and to not be subordinated by others. Their sex should not be viewed as an obstacle, because life is about having potentials and opportunities, and nothing should be based on biological sex.
History
he phrase “feminization of poverty” was coined in the 1970’s by T Diana Pearce, the director of the Center for Women’s Welfare at the University of Michigan.17 The feminization of poverty represents a global social framework that has existed for centuries, resulting in the lack of education, training, and healthcare for women to achieve financial stability.18 Although ‘feminization of poverty’ and research on the matter is a fairly recent area of study, historically women across the world have suffered under patriarchal societies that have led to the increase of the world’s poor being female. For example, until the Married Women's Property Act in 1882 Britain, everything a woman possessed was under law, the property of her husband.19 Similar instances exemplified worldwide have stripped women of their economic independence and have resulted in their financial holdings becoming worthless. Furthermore, a report conducted in 1992 by the UN showed that the number of rural women living in poverty in developing countries has increased by 50 percent since 1972.20 Social constructions have even resulted in greater poverty amongst women themselves - certain ethnicities and classes of women suffer the effects of poverty more than others.
16 http://www.cpahq.org/cpahq/cpadocs/Feminization_of_Poverty.pdf 17 Pearce, Diana. 1978. "The feminization of poverty: Women, work, and welfare". Urban and Social Change Review 11:28–36. 18 Moghadam, Valentine M. "The "Feminization of Poverty" and Women's Human Rights." Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. Web. 22 Nov. 2014. 19 Bridget Hill, Women, Work and Sexual Politics in Eighteenth-century England, (London: Blackwell, 1989), 196. 20 Power, J. (1993). The report on rural women living in poverty. Rome: International Fund for Agricultural Development. 6
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Gender, like race and ethnicity, defines and differentiates the obligations of women and are manipulated in order to sustain social norms that determine women's social, political, and economic power. Presently, in the 21st century, men are still favored over women and are given more access to opportunities that allow them to succeed in all three spheres, while women are denied of these privileges.21 According to the UN Action Platform Committee, women have historically been allocated the responsibility of raising children. The time and energy dedicated to raising healthy children makes up a huge percentage of unpaid labor by women around the world, reducing their ability to participate in the paid workforce.22 The unequal distribution of power affects their ability to control their own lives. Furthermore, educational participation between boys and girls exemplifies major differences. Except for Latin America, the Caribbean, and developed countries, female participation in secondary and tertiary education is lesser than that of males.23 Without equal access to education, the likelihood of economic independence and self-determination is slim.
However, developed countries that provide equal training for women and men have increased the unemployment of women over the past decade.24 Those who are employed earn less income than men and gender discrimination in the workforce impends upon women's ability to achieve self-determination and self-sustainability.25 Also, the lack of access to sexual health services results in a third of illnesses/deaths for women.26 For those lucky enough to survive, in many developing countries the expenses to be treated are solely the responsibility of the woman and many cannot afford such treatment, thus either perishing or becoming dependent on either a male spouse or relative. Poverty has also led women into situations in which they may become involved in sexual exploitation. Although poverty is a complex, multidimensional conflict with various causes, the fact that in the past decade the number of women living in poverty has increased disproportionately as compared to men in the same circumstances cannot be ignored.
21 UN Millenium Development Project. 2004. Task Force 3 Interim Report on Gender Equality. New York, p. 30. 22 Cai, Stella. "Feminization of Poverty – A Global Issue « Humanities II – World History." Humanities II World History Feminization of Poverty A Global Issue Comments. Web. 22 Nov. 2014. 23 Proyecto del Milenio de las Naciones Unidas, Report of the UN Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality (2005) p.5. 24 "Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995." UN News Center. UN. Web. 22 Nov. 2014. 25 Sen, Amartya. "Poverty as Capability Deprivation." Development as Freedom. 1999. 87–110. Print. 26 Fondo de Población de las Naciones Unidas, Estado de la población Mundial 2004 (2004). 7
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International and Regional Framework
ue to the solemnity of the feminization of poverty as a global D concern, there have been many attempts by non-governmental organizations and different countries to solve the issue. One example of an international non-governmental organization is Gender Equality Grouping. Feminization of poverty was one of the major concerns of Gender Equality Grouping, making it one of the organization’s top two priorities for the years 2005 and 2006.27 In March 2006, before the Parliamentary Assembly Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, the organization’s president, Mrs. Karine Henrotte, had the opportunity to raise the Gender Equality Grouping’s concerns and proposed possible actions that could be taken to address the issue.28 The proposal was summarized as follows: “(1) The importance of reconciling work and family life; promoting access to day nurseries and other parents’ support services (2) Fighting discrimination against women at work and in the society.”29
Another NGO that was the first women’s organization to work in the international scene during the early 20th century is the International Council of Women (ICW).30 Nowadays, the ICW perpetuates a fine reputation of defending women’s rights and has earned a consultative status in the United Nations, which is a major success for a non-governmental organization.31 In September 2006, the ICW ran a workshop tackling the problem of world poverty.32 Along with peace, education, access to knowledge and access to micro-credit, training of girls and women so that they become independent was one of the participants’ main suggestions to put an end to world poverty and consequently, the feminization of poverty.33
In response to the different NGOs approaches and women’s rights movements against the feminization of poverty, there have been a number
27 Council of Europe,. (2007). The contribution of NGOs to the fight against poverty and social exclusion in Europe (p. 31). Grouping of the Conference of INGOs of the Council of Europe International Movement ATD Quart Monde. 28 ibid 29 ibid 30 Van Molle, L., & Gubin, E. International Council of Women , History. Icw- cif.com. Retrieved 23 November 2014, from http://www.icw-cif.com/about- us/history 31 ibid 32 GOLLE, J. (2007). The contribution of NGOs to the fight against poverty and social exclusion in Europe. Council of Europe. Retrieved 23 November 2014, fromhttp://www.coe.int/t/ngo/Source/Contribution_NGOs_fight_poverty_en.pd f 33 ibid 8
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of acts passed to guarantee women’s rights in the society and workplace.34 Policymakers in the United States decided to change some of the policies that discriminate women in the work place.35 In 1988, the Economic Equity Act was proposed to make changes to pension plans that would result in awarding credits to part time workers, most of who are women.36
Likewise, in South Africa in 2013, the Employment Equity Amendment Act was passed.37 The Employment Equity Act was made to prohibit any unfair discrimination against employees on the basis of gender.38 Those rules were made to regulate the relationship between employers and employees and to create a benchmark to assess any violations against women in the workplace.
The Role of the United Nations
he role of the United Nations (UN) can be best illustrated by the T resolutions it has passed to resolve this issue. The UN aimed to eliminate any discrimination against women, whether in the workplace or generally in the society. On 18 December 1979, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. This convention was implemented after ratification from twenty countries.39 It was the conclusion of extensive work by the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women since 1949.40 The convention consists of 30 articles, one of which states:
for the purposes of the present Convention, the term "discrimination against women" shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. (Article 1)
34 Stone, R. (1989). The Feminization of Poverty among the Elderly. Women's Studies Quarterly, 17(0732-1562), 20-34. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40003975 35 ibid 36 ibid 37 Labour.gov.za,. (2014). Employment Equity Act. Department of Labour, Republic of South Africa. Retrieved 25 November 2014, from http://www.labour.gov.za/DOL/legislation/acts/employment- equity/employment-equity-act 38 ibid 39 ibid 40 ibid 9
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This article guarantees that women will be granted their rights of independence, freedom, and equality, which will preserve their opportunities for having fair jobs and accommodation, and a better standard of living.41 Moreover, the 11th article of the Convention directly addresses the issue of feminization of poverty.42 The article requires that signing states must take any measures required in order to make women and men equal in the labor force, including rights such as: granting the right to work as an absolute right of all humans; access to equal opportunities and equal required criteria; “free choice of profession” along with granted benefited, security, and necessary training; equal pay, benefits and treatment in the workplace; access to “social security […] in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness […] as well as […] paid leave”; and access to safe and healthy working conditions “… including the safeguarding of the function of reproduction”.
However, although about 161 countries have ratified this convention, 44 of these countries held reservations about the implementation of the convention due to cultural, religious, or political reasons.43 Some of these countries include Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, China, Canada, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Netherlands, South Korea, Singapore, Spain, the United Kingdom and Venezuela.44
In March 2013, the CSW passed another resolution titled “Indigenous Women: Key Actors In Poverty And Hunger Eradication,”45 tackling all aspects of feminization of poverty and the different forms of discrimination that make women vulnerable to poverty and violence, drafted by Australia, Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Nicaragua.46 This resolution proposes solutions to obstacles women may face in the workplace.47
41 Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights,. (2014). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Retrieved 26 November 2014, from http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CEDAW.aspx 42 ibid 43 Deen, T. (2014). WOMEN: Reservations Grow Over UN Women's Treaty. Web.archive.org. Retrieved 25 November 2014, from http://web.archive.org/web/20040423160533/http://www.oneworld.org/ips2/ mar98/unwomen.html 44 ibid 45 Economic and Social Council of the United Nations,. (2012). Indigenous women: key actors in poverty and hunger eradication (pp. 1-2). UN. 46 ibid 47 ibid 10
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Possible Solutions
here are more than 1 billion people in the world living in poverty,48 T and 70% of who are women.49 On the bright side, there are many ways to reduce the massive number of cases of this kind of poverty. One of the solutions could be strict laws enforced by the country’s government that women have to complete their education. As the rates of educated women increases, they can make better decisions and be able to afford their basic day-to-day necessities. Education is considered the long- term solution of poverty;50 individuals with access to education may find more opportunities with better income.
The third goal of the Millennium Development Goals is to promote gender equality and empower women.51 Women should be treated equal to men and should be guaranteed equal access to their rights. The stereotyping should be reduced, if not eliminated, and women shouldn’t let the stereotyping and gender discrimination affect their decisions. Moreover, women make up 70% of the labor force, yet they earn approximately half of what a male earns. This can affect economic growth, which can also lead to lower standard of living and perpetuates poverty.52 Therefore, through the empowerment of women, feminization of poverty may be tackled.
The governments of nations should work hard on empowering women and helping them financially if they needed it. That would help a lot of women and the world would be a step closer to ending female poverty.
National governments can promote jobs in certain fields to employ more women, or feminizing professions, thus aiding women with a stable income that they earned as opposed to just welfare. Financial aid should be provided to women with children, or those with special needs; thus helping a group of women who may not be able to work even if the opportunity was provided. Additionally, the government should promote and support paid leave for both parents after childbirth.
Another factor that people don't focus on is rape; a lot of women today are under the line of poverty because they have been rape victims in the past,
48 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/directory/women_and_poverty_3001.html 49 http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals- network/2013/mar/26/empower-women-end-poverty-developing-world 50 Biddle 2011 51 http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals- network/2013/mar/26/empower-women-end-poverty-developing-world 52 http://www.theguardian.com/global-development-professionals- network/2013/mar/26/empower-women-end-poverty-developing-world 11
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53 which caused them to be traumatized. A traumatized individual of society cannot benefit themselves or society. Some other women were victims of human trafficking, which is a problem that the whole world is suffering from. If governments focus on helping rape victims and the victims that were a result of human trafficking, then perhaps some of them might have been very successful and wealthy. Governments should also focus on strictly implementing and enforcing laws against trafficking and raping of women; ones with no clear definition on ‘the trafficking of humans’ are urged to state strict laws against it.
53 U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs 12
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Topic 2: Tackling Violence Against Women
Introduction
n the world we live in, women are getting violated, physically, I emotionally or mentally, on a daily basis. Violence against women is one of the most dominant issues in our modern day society. It can be divided to several parts that could include physical, sexual, emotional and economic abuse. The most common types are domestic and sexual violence.54 It has been shown that at least one in five women have been physically or sexually abused by a man at some point in their lives.55
As horrifying as it sounds, women are used as weapons in war. Due to several cases, rape has been declared as one of the most used and overlooked weapons of war. Not only that, but it is on the rise. For instance, more than 20,000 women have been raped during the 1992 war in Bosnia.56
However, no state has ever been held accountable for the use of rape even though the Security Council recognized rape as a weapon of war, which has the possibility of being a threat to international security.57
Some leaders say they lack full control over their troops’ actions, whereas some argue that if a leader can control military operations, they surely can stop them from committing the crime of rape, and lack of control is nothing but an excuse. To some extent, rape is viewed as a way of calmly making civilians leave their property and land by making them flee.
54 http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/296-forms- of-violence-against- women-.html 55 World Health Organization (WHO), as cited in Venis, S., & Horton, R. (2002). Violence against women: A global burden. The Lancet, 359(9313), 1172-1172. 56 http://www.unicef.org/sowc96pk/sexviol.htm 57 http://globaljusticecenter.net/index.php/our-work/geneva-initiative/rape- as-a-weapon-of-war 13
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In addition, rape is a tool of genocide, as displayed in Bosnia, Darfur and Rwanda. A case emerged where Muslim women in specific were kept in “rape camps” where they were raped continuously. After the war some culprits justified their actions by saying that they had been ordered to rape, in order to ensure that the civilians would either flee or to impregnate women so that they bore the child of the enemy.58
In the spur of civilization, it would be thought that those are old habits, but they are anything but extinct. Resolutions should be passed and implemented to end this monstrous phenomenon in order to cease it.
History
iolence against women has been one of the most common violations V of human rights that has penetrated every society, race, age, and culture for centuries.59 Addtionally, gender-based violence disproportionately affects women from indigenous backgrounds and regardless of progress being made over the past decade, new dimensions of exploitation continue to arise including growing trades in the sex trafficking industry. The United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women) was one of the first intergovernmental organizations to target the structural power inequalities based on gender that have left women vulnerable.60 This chapter has partnered with many organizations in order to establish legal frameworks aimed at eliminating violence against women. The UN women routinely collects research to understand the scope of the problem depending on a variety of factors including region, age, socioeconomic status, and race.
In addition, throughout the centuries in times of war, rape has repeatedly been used against women as a weapon of war.61 It was not until 1993 that rape was recognized as a war crime with the foundation of The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) by UN Security Council resolution 827.62 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was formed a year later to provide a legal platform for women victims of rape during the Rwandan genocide to come forward. In the same
58 http://www.economist.com/node/17900482 59 "Ending Violence Against Women." UN Women Australia. Web. 13 Dec. 2014. . 60 "Achieving Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Strengthening Development Cooperation." United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Web. 13 Dec. 2014. . 61 "Achieving Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Strengthening Development Cooperation." United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Web. 13 Dec. 2014. . 62 "ibid" 14
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year, the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly with the "urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings."63 The Declaration aims to eradicate all gender-based violence that results in psychological, physical, or sexual harm to women both in the public and private spheres. It also went further to define, but not limit, what it considered to be violence against women and was one of the first formal declarations to include sexual harassment at work and forced prostitution in its aims of eradication. However despite many propositions, the issue at large remains unsolved during times of war and conflict, as well as rape cases in times of peace.
Violence against women however is not only a woman's battle but also one that must involve men. Recently organizations, such as the White Ribbon Campaign the world's largest effort of males to end violence against women in over 60 countries, have begun to work towards changing attitudes towards women as traditional household makers, to equal human beings.64 With a problem rooted in the patriarchal treatment and perception of women, without the cooperation of men to promote peace and equality, violence against women will continue to reign.
International and Regional Framework
s violence against women is a serious global concern, there has been a A lot of regional and international framework to tackle this issue. Many Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have specialized in standing up for women’s rights and associating them to human rights. One example of the women NGOs’ contributions was during the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, in which about 800 NGOs participated.65 In this conference Article 18 was adopted by the consensus of 171 states on the Vienna Declaration and Program of Action in 1993.66 First Article 18 recognizes women’s rights to become active contributors to the society, who cannot be neglected or discriminated against in any way, whether economic,
63 "A/RES/48/104 - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women - UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements". Dec. 2014. 64 "Achieving Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Strengthening Development Cooperation." United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Web. 13 Dec. 2014. 65 Un.org,. (2013). Human Rights Day, 10 December - The Vienna Declaration. Retrieved 8 December 2014, from http://www.un.org/en/events/humanrightsday/2013/about.shtml 66 ibid 15
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social, or political.67 Second, the article stresses on and denounces all forms of gender based violence, sexual harassment, and international women trafficking.68 By 1995, in the World Conference on Women in Beijing, all the mentioned forms of gender-based abuse were recognized as inhumane and considered as part of the universal human rights frame structure.69
Other statements and guidelines were made by international and regional health associations to highlight the magnitude of the public-health problems caused by violence against women, and to orient public-health workers on how to identify cases of domestic violence against women and how to refer and deal with them.70 Some organizations that were involved were the World Health Organization, the American Medical Organization, the International Federation of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the Royal College of Nursing, and others.71
Another form of violence against women that has been recognized and fought against, regionally and internationally, is rape of women as a weapon during war.72 One contribution to this aspect was the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, which recognized rape as a war crime.73 In 1995, in the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, the conference’s core document, the Platform for Action, declared rape in war as a human-rights crime.74 In this conference, it was noted that the UN security general said, “there is a deplorable trend towards the organized humiliation of women, including the crime of mass rape […] we will press for international legal action against those who perpetrate organized violence against women in time of conflict.”75 In general, governments have agreed to ratify and implement any conventions
67 Petkov, R., & Mindevska, A. (2012). Prevention methods of violence against women and girls as shared efforts by governments and NGOs. Review of European Studies, 4(2), 33-43. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.aus.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1021195 255?accountid=16946 68 ibid 69 ibid 70 Watts, C., & Zimmerman, C. (2002). Violence against women: Global scope and magnitude. The Lancet, 359(9313), 1232-7. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.aus.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/1989653 73?accountid=16946 71 ibid 72 News.bbc.co.uk,. (2014). BBC NEWS | In Depth | How did rape become a weapon of war?. Retrieved 9 December 2014, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4078677.stm 73 Falcon, S. (2001). Rape as a weapon of war: Advancing human rights for women at the U.S.-mexico border. Social Justice, 28(2), 31-50. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.aus.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/2319212 32?accountid=16946 74 Un.org,. Women and Violence. Retrieved 10 December 2014, from http://www.un.org/rights/dpi1772e.htm 75 ibid 16
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and declarations that aim to eradicate all forms of abuse and violence against women.76
Role of the UN
he United Nations has also had an active role in contributing to T eliminating all forms of violence against women. In 1989, the Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) added Recommendation 19 to its Women Convention, or Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women.77 In Recommendation 19, states were asked to report information about gender-based violence and were obliged to implement serious legal penalties against any abuse of women once they ratify the convention.78 There were specific obligations on states that signed the treaty; such as (1) having support and protective services for women, (2) hosting campaigns and workshops to promote awareness of the subject to public officials, and (3) submitting periodic reports that include comprehensive information about the actions the state has taken to achieve the aims of the convention.79
The United Nations also implemented a trust fund to support ending violence against women.80 The trust fund was created in 1996 by the UN General Assembly to support civil organizations, governmental, and non- governmental organization.81 The trust fund tends to support innovative ideas that can contribute to end the global problem.82 In 2010, the annual report focuses on the resulting achievements of the fund in which its priorities are defined as “prevention, expanding access to survivor services, and strengthening implementation of laws, policies and action plans”.83 Examples of projects implemented by assistance of this fund were in Lebanon, Brazil, Tanzania, Russia, Argentina, and India.84 Projects in such
76 ibid 77 Un.org,. (2000). Text of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Retrieved 13 December 2014, from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm 78 ibid 79 Chinkin, C. (1995). Violence against women: The international legal response. Gender & Development, 3(2), 23-28. doi:10.1080/741921810 80 UN.org. (2012). Retrieved 13 December 2014, from http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/trust% 20funds/untrustfundevaw/untf_annual-report_2012.pdf 81 ibid 82 ibid 83 unwomen.org,. (2014). The United Nations Trust Fund to End Violence against Women: Annual Report 2010. Retrieved 14 December 2014, from http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2011/3/the-united- nations-trust-fund-to-end-violence-against-women-annual-report-2010 84 ibid 17
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countries either encourage men to support gender-based violence awareness programs or to track cases in cities that will contribute to course changing decisions.85
In response to the issue of rape of women as a weapon of war the United Nations Security Council adopted the forum of Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in Resolution 827 which is made of 30 articles.86 The forum was adopted after the human rights violations that took place in former Yugoslavia, as it was a threat to the international peace and security.87
Possible Solutions
he situation of violence against women is not a new phenomenon; in T fact it had been there for a very long time. Violence against woman can be rooted to gender discrimination and stereotyping. There are many ways that a woman can be a victim of violence, such as rape, sexual assault and domestic violence.
Women have the right of freedom from torture, security of person, equal protection, liberty, and most importantly life, under the international human right law.88 Femicide is the act of a woman getting abused and killed because of her sex due to the stigma of the birth of a daughter in some cultures. Women and girls are abducted, raped, sexually enslaved, starved and tortured.89 In order to stop this crisis from happening, what are some solutions that can be taken against men to decrease and eliminate this idea of occurring in the world?
There are ways to prevent this crime against woman of happening. First and most important is education.90 Educating the younger generation to not discriminate based on gender, since gender discrimination leads to violence. By educating the males and females, they would be more appreciative of women and their role in society and the world.
Forced marriage is also considered one of the reasons for violence against women. By eradicating forced marriage, the number of women violated and abused will decrease. Seventy percent of women are experiencing abuse and
85 ibid 86 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,. (2014). icrc.org. Retrieved 13 December 2014, from https://www.icrc.org/ihl/INTRO/555' 87 ibid 88 http://www.stopvaw.org/Law_Policy2 89 http://www.stopvaw.org/Prevalence_Types_of_Femicide 90 http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against- women/prevention 18
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violence from their partners. 91 There are many conventions and declarations that discourage and reject child marriage along with forced marriage. Some examples of such are: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages, the Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. 92
During war females have been singled out for rape, imprisonment, torture and execution. Sexual violation of women erodes the fabric of a community in a way that few weapons can. The aftermath of rape during war can be devastating because of the strong communal reaction to the violation and pain stamped on entire families. The harm inflicted in such cases on a woman by a rapist is an attack on her family and culture, as in many societies women are viewed as repositories of a community's cultural and spiritual values.93 Women and girls are victims of rape that occurs in wars between countries, how can this phenomenon be eradicated to prevent women from getting raped during wartime?
The government can stop the violence from occurring by enforcing strict laws on the army. By enforcing them, the army will know the consequences of committing war crimes. However, the issue of violence during war from rebel groups remains, therefore, one questions how that can be resolved?
Case Studies
ape has always been one of the strategic weapons during times of war. R The women are captured and then abused through rape and other forms of sexual violence. There are multiple reasons to drive male soldier’s motivation to rape women of their enemy’s ethnicity. They want to intimidate and infuriate the opposing group of soldiers by victimizing their women and trying to weaken them. Sometimes, militarized rape occurs and it is different from the personal reasons of why soldiers rape women. In the context of militarized rape, the commanders who support rape visualize women as assets and as means to create additional resources. It is also practiced with the intention of ethnic cleansing so that the women are driven out of their homes and flee somewhere else to protect themselves. This
91 http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/ending-violence-against- women/facts-and-figures 92http://www.stopvaw.org/international_and_domestic_law_and_policy_on_for ced_and_child_marriage 93 http://www.unicef.org/sowc96pk/sexviol.htm 19
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eventually results in the destruction of their ability to produce for or within their own communities.94
During March of 1992, the politically stronger Serbs targeted Bosnians with severe violence, when the majority of them asked for independence. The Serbs had the support of Serbia and Yugoslav’s People Army and in attempts to take over, huge massacres and massive systematic rapes took placed lasting until the end of 1995. All the ethnicities involved like the Bosnians, Serbs and Croatians, were involved in committing violent acts but according to many researches and studies the Bosnian Serbs were to blame for the 50,000 to 60,000 rapes of the Bosnian Muslim women. The women were captured by force and places like schools, motels and huge buildings were turned into rape camps. The women were held there for several months, being continuously raped everyday which eventually resulted in hundreds of deaths. If any of these women tried to escape or resist the soldiers, then their limbs were cut and were tortured to death. Such large- scale rape was one of the major contributors of the Bosnian genocide.95
Domestic violence is prevalent in many ethnic communities and one of them is China. According to a survey conducted by the China Law Institute in provinces like Gansu, Hunan and Zhejiang, stated that at least one-third of the families that were surveyed reported witnessing some kind of domestic violence and about 85% of them were women. It is more seen in rural areas where educational level of women are low and thus the poor rural women don’t possess the power to fight violence imposed on them. With time their psychology reaches a stage where they think physical abuse is normal part of a women’s life. Such mind-set makes them more vulnerable to domestic violence and thus the Chinese government is taking quick actions.96
The gender equality national law was set 20 years ago and the success rate to end domestic violence in China is high. The continuous efforts of the All- China Women’s Federation (ACWF) and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) are working side by side and provide assistance to the victimized women and impose laws against domestic violence in all provinces across China. The most recent forum named ‘The Anti-Domestic Violence against Women’ was held in Beijing on September 28, 2014. Future strategies and
94 Turshen, M. (2000). The political economy of violence against women during armed conflict in uganda. Social Research, 67(3), 803-824. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.aus.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/2096704 84?accountid=16946 95 http://www.womenundersiegeproject.org/conflicts/profile/bosnia 96 http://www.theglobalist.com/the-persistent-problem-of-domestic-violence- in-china/ 20
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discussions on how to cope with domestic violence were discussed in the forum.97
Annotated Bibliography
Armstrong, S. (2014, Oct 25). Women as weapons of war. The Ottawa Citizen
Though the world is on a constant shift towards a better world for women, sexual assaults and violence still continues to live, especially in wartime.
Rape as 'weapon of war' condemned by top UN women. (2004, Oct 29). BreakingNews.Ie
The UN Development Fund for Women as well as the whole international community recognizes that rape and other forms of violence against women are being used as weapons of war, thus the International Criminal Court has included rape in its list of war crimes.
A weapon of war. (2014, Jun 10). The Times.
Rape, sexual assault and enslavement of women especially in wartime should never go unpunished, as it is horrific and humiliating to women.
Development efforts must include steps to end violence against women UN expert. (2010, Dec 07). PACNEWS
The author argues that violence is deeply rooted in biased ways, adding that new challenges have emerged in the fight of sexism because of issues such as the global economic crisis, environmental degradation and the continued usage of intense violence against women and using them as a weapon in wartime.
Raghavan, S. (2004, Oct 22). In sudan, authorities do little to combat rape as a weapon of war. Knight Ridder Tribune News Service
97http://www.womenofchina.cn/womenofchina/html1/news/china/1409/1526- 1.htm
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The author illustrates the story of a 19-year-old Sudanese woman who filed a complaint against the soldier who brutalized her that proves how officials in Sudan are overlooking rape.
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Written By Razan Ra’id Breiwish, Nasser Ali Nasser, Maissam ElKouche, Zahraa Yacoub Mohammed Mustafa Akbari, Anmol Ramchandani & Nasreen Sayed
Faculty Advisor Dr. Johannes Van Gorp
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
We are pleased to welcome you to the 8th Annual American University of Sharjah Model United Nations Conference (AUSMUN’15), and to the United Nations Development Program Committee. We hope that this conference is a rewarding, educational and enjoyable experience for you.
The topics under discussion are: I. Defining the Sustainable Development Goals post-2015 II. Reaching an International Agreement to Combat Climate Change
The United Nations Development Program is the United Nations major development arm. It coordinates the UN development group compromising of all UN agencies engaged in development across the world. The UNDP has been working with individuals at all levels within society to assist in building nations that can endure disasters, drive and maintain the sort of development that enhances the personal satisfaction for everybody. UNDP concentrates on helping nations establish and share results in four fundamental ranges: Poverty Reduction and Achievement of the MDGs Democratic Governance Crisis Prevention and Recovery Environment and Energy for Sustainable Development This Background Guide serves as a catalyst for committee preparation for the coming two days. This document can be used as the starting point for further research and should not be the only source of research. Useful websites have been provided at the end of each topic. Research beyond this guide is necessary to truly understand your country’s policies and to successfully contribute to the ongoing committee discussions.
Queries regarding conference preparation are welcome at [email protected]
All the Best!
Nasreen Sayed Director of Community Outreach
United Nations Development Program
Table of Content
History of the United Nations Development Program...... 2 Membership Details ...... 3 Historic Moments ...... 3 References ...... 4 Topic I: Defining the Sustainable Development Goals Post-2015 ...... 5 Introduction ...... 5 References ...... 6 History ...... 6 References ...... 7 International and Regional Framework ...... 8 References ...... 9 Role of the United Nations ...... 9 References ...... 10 Possible Solutions ...... 10 References ...... 12 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ...... 13 References ...... 15 Developing countries as environmental conserver: Bhutan ...... 15 References ...... 17 Topic 2: Climate Change ...... 18 Introduction ...... 18 References ...... 20 History of the Topic ...... 20 References ...... 21 International and Regional Framework ...... 21 References ...... 23 Role of the United Nations ...... 24 References ...... 25 Possible Solutions ...... 25 References ...... 27 Denmark ...... 28 References ...... 30 The Arctic Region ...... 30 References ...... 32
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History of the United Nations Development Program
stablished in 1966 with the merger of the Expanded Program of Technical Assistance (EPTA) and the United Nations Special E Fund, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) aims to improve the quality of life for citizens of the world and build nations that can be able to withstand crises. The UNDP is a crucial and important part of the UN; it is an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly. Facilitated by a number of organizations, the UNDP provides grants-in-aid to developing countries in order to improve the situation therein. It works in 177 countries and is currently attempting to assist nations in reaching the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), and is also an essential player in developing the post-2015 development agenda.
Established in 2000 as part of the Millennium Summit of the UN, the MDGs consists of eight goals that all 189 member states committed to achieve, or at least endeavor to achieve, by 2015. The goals were: to eliminate all forms of extreme poverty and hunger, to ensure that all children of the world receive primary education, to promote equality between genders and to subsequently empower women, to reduce child mortality rates, the improve maternal health, to battle mainly HIV/AIDs but also malaria and other diseases, to ensure environmental stability, and to finally develop a global cooperation aimed and intended to ease development. The UNDP releases annual “Human Development Reports” that measure the degree to which countries have progressed developmentally. The UNDP doesn’t work exclusively to tackle
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MDGS; it also focuses on a variety of other issues, including but not limited to democratic governance, crisis prevention and recovery, and capacity development. In order to be more effective in terms of the aid it provides, the UNDP frequently broadens and extends the scope of its activities in order to meet new challenges.
Membership Details
hence the MDGs were established in 2000, then 189 member states W of the UN signed and committed to work towards fulfilling the goals. UNDP partners with people at all levels in different regions around the world. Members of the executive board include eight from African states, seven from Asia-Pacific states, five from Latin American and Caribbean states, four from Eastern European states, and twelve from western European and other states. The UNDP uses their knowledge and experience to help people build a better, and more sustainable, life for as many people as they can. Various goodwill ambassadors include Antonio Banderas, Iker Casillas, Maria Sharapova, and Zinedine Zidane. These individuals foster within themselves a deep and collective concern for the world’s poor and they are committed to working towards creating a planet that is a better place for all.
Historic Moments
n 2014 alone, the UNDP was associated with 5,291 projects, had a budget of $5,586 million and expense of $2,991 million. According to I the UNDP website, key development results in 2013 were: 96 million people voted in UNDP assisted elections (41% women) 3.5 million people in 12 countries got access to modern energy services 6.47 million jobs created in 109 countries, over ½ for women 1.3 million people got access to life-saving anti-retroviral treatment for HIV/AIDS 15 million people in 72 countries benefited from more inclusive social protection Communities in 101 countries benefitted from more sustainable ecosystem management 4 million people in 117 countries have improved access to justice and legal aid, 49% of which are women 3.2 million work days created in short-term labor in 14 crisis- affected countries 3
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43 million new voters added and 68 countries supported Reduction of CO2 equivalent-emissions in 32 countries by 116- 142M SDGs must be, action- oriented, concise, The accomplishments of the UNDP aren’t fixed and static; there are various easy to communicate, new accomplishments every year and these accomplishments/results are limited in number, reported in the annual Human Development Report. The development aspirational, global in report is divided per region- so there is a section about development in nature, universally Africa, Arab region, Asia-Pacific, and lastly, Europe. Other applicable to all accomplishments of the UNDP include its Anti-Fraud Policy that reiterates and reaffirms that the UNDP adopts a zero tolerance policy in regards to countries while taking fraud. The section pertaining to Africa discusses UNDP’s efforts to make into account different opportunities available for all in order that many may have access to national realities, services and may also be able to work in decent jobs in an attempt to capacities and levels essentially decrease various forms of exclusion witnessed in Africa. The of development and section on the Arab region displays the UNDP efforts to build resilience respecting national therein and create stronger and more enduring infrastructure, as well as policies and priorities. create more jobs, to successively reduce the risk of upheavals. The Asia- Pacific section mentions, among other things, UNDP efforts to generate employment in order to contribute to a given country’s protection and sustainment of development gains. A specific example in this report discusses the introduction and implementation of improved health care centers, water quality, and schools in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The last section touches upon attempts of the UNDP in Europe including efforts made in building clean and secure energy and the development of natural resources therein. A specific case presented in the report provides and example of a developmental endeavor; the UNDP built a hydropower plant in a Tajikistan community to provide regular electricity within.
It is unfair to highlight specific accomplishments of the UNDP as every year there are new and important advancements and developments that benefit a variety of countries and, of course, individuals. Figure one shows the key accomplishments of 2013.
References
United Nations Development Program (n.d.). From http://www.undp.org/
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Topic I: Defining the Sustainable Development Goals Post-2015
Introduction
he Sustainable Development Goals were an outcome of the Rio+ 20 T conference; converging with post-2015 development goals, they are built upon the Millennium Development Goals and they seek to tackle eight main goals that center on poverty alleviation, education, gender equality, child and maternal health, environmental sustainability, reducing HIV/AIDS, communicable diseases and building cooperation for development. As outlined in the outcome document of the Rio+20, "The Future We Want," member states agreed that SDGs must:
. Be based on Agenda 21 and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. . Fully respect all the Rio Principles. . Be consistent with international law. . Build upon commitments already made. . Contribute to the full implementation of the outcomes of all major summits in the economic, social and environmental fields. . Focus on priority areas for the achievement of sustainable development, being guided by the outcome document. . Address and incorporate in a balanced way all three dimensions of sustainable development . Be coherent with and integrated into the United Nations development agenda beyond 2015. . Not divert focus or effort from the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. . Include active involvement of all relevant stakeholders, as appropriate, in the process.
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It was further agreed that SDGs must be, "action-oriented, concise, easy to The first major event communicate, limited in number, aspirational, global in nature, universally applicable to all countries while taking into account different national regarding sustainable realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national development took policies and priorities." Also specified in The Future We Want was the need place in 1972, in to establish a intergovernmental process that is accessible to all and Stockholm, Sweden. transparent for everyone.
It was agreed upon by the 192 UN members that the goals must very
importantly be, "action-oriented, concise, easy to communicate, limited in number, aspirational, global in nature, universally applicable to all countries while taking into account different national realities, capacities and levels of development and respecting national policies and priorities."
References
Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. (n.d.). From http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
History
uring the Rio+20 conference in 2012, the member States agreed to D begin a process to develop Sustainable Development Goals for the post 2015 era. Thus, began the debate to find the specific 6 Sustainable Development Goals for the new era that begins after the Millennium era that ends in 2015. These goals aim to tackle a range of sustainable Agenda 21 contained development issues, including combating climate change, ending hunger several declarations and poverty, improving health and education, making cities more and statements sustainable and protecting forests and oceans. regarding each nations’ right to The first major event regarding sustainable development took place in pursue social and 1972, in Stockholm, Sweden. Commonly known as the Stockholm economical Conference, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment development and discussed the environmental consequences of increasing global their responsibility to development while nations stressed on the point developing was required for the nations’ economical development. Hence the concept of ‘sustainable adopt a model of development’ was born in an attempt to find a compromise between the sustainable developments needs of undeveloped nations and the conservative needs of development the developed nations. (2014) From the Stockholm Conference, the United Na tions Environmental Program was formed in an attempt to promote the idea of environmentally sound development. The UNEP has helped in advising national governments and international organizations on 6
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appropriate actions with the world’s environmental and development problems. They have also helped set up other different organizations that aid in sustainable development such as International Environmental Educational Program and the World Conservation Strategy.
In June 1992, the first UN conference on Environment and Development, more famously known as the Earth Summit, was held in Rio de Janeiro and adopted Agenda 21, the Program of Action for Sustainable Growth. Agenda 21 contained several declarations and statements regarding each nations’ right to pursue social and economical development and their responsibility to adopt a model of sustainable development. Agenda 21 reaffirmed that sustainable development was delimited by the integration of the economic, social and environmental boundaries.
The concept of sustainable development has several effects on mankind and mankind’s perspective of the environment and humans’ impact on the environment. Humans’ views have changed drastically since the concept of sustainable development was introduced. (Billes, 2011) Mankind has began to think more about the environment and essentially saving it through sustainable development and many different non-profit organizations have been created to assist in encouraging sustainability and environmentally friendly practices.
All in all, sustainability has been present in our history for quite some time now and has affected the world and mankind greatly. With the coming end of the Millennium Era, the new Sustainable Development Goals will be of even greater importance.
References
Billes, J. H. (2011). The Social Impact of Sustainable Development. Strategic Development Partners. Retrieved from http://strategicdevelopmentpartners.com/sdp_laboratory/thought_le adership/the_social_impact_of_sustainable_development
United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. (2010). The History of Sustainable Development in the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.uncsd2012.org/history.html
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History of United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2014). Sustainability. Region 10: The Pacific Northwest. Retrieved from http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/oi.nsf/Sustainability/History
International and Regional Framework
s the name suggests, United Nations comprises of many nation states; A as a result any goals that are targeted have to be supported by member states or international organizations, in order to be accomplished. So, there have been certain organizations, groups and countries that have supported the UN in the implementation of the sustainable development goals. To begin with, the open working group that was supposed to work on sustainable developmental goals was established in 2013. Furthermore, a resolution was adapted by the UN General Assembly making the open working group’s proposal “the main basis for integrating SDGs into the post-2015 development agenda, while recognizing that other inputs will also be considered in this process at the 69th session of the UNGA”. In collaboration with the open working group, the FAO made an agreement with its members to work on many sustainability issues that mainly involved the environment. However, in the final report, the open working group working with the UN General Assembly came up with “17 goals and 169 targets”.
Apart from that, Asia Europe Environment Forum came up with a project to distinguish the best solutions to the sustainability problems. The duration to this programme is three years, and is carried out in: Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea in Asia and France, Germany, Hungary, Sweden, Switzerland in Europe. This research project also involves the consultations from the open working group. Plus, it merges with United Nations Office of Development Goals and United Nations Environmental Program.
Moreover, an article in the Lancet Global Health Journal stated the way sustainable development goals could be achieved more efficiently if there were “country specific targets”. The article further mentions the way country-specific targets should be the most important things for the post 2015 sustainable development goals, as they would ensure everything on the domestic level and according to every country type.
To sum it up, there are several organizations that have been working with the United Nations General Assembly, in order to work on the sustainable 8
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development goals. Those organizations work with their member states in
order to bring their projects in action.
References
Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF). (2014). “Study on Sustainable Development Goals in ASEM Countries.” Retrieved from
http://www.asef.org/projects/themes/sustainable-development/2914- study-on-sustainable-development-goals-in-asem-countries
Fitchett, J, R., & Atun, R. (2014). Sustainable Development Goals and Country-Specific Targets. The Lancet Global Health. 2(9), 503. Retrieved from:
http://www.thelancet.com/journals/Langlo/article/PIIS2214- 109X(14)70282-7/fulltext
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). (2014). “Open Working Group on Sustainable Development Goals.” Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/post-2015-mdg/background/open-working-
group-on-sustainable-development-goals/en/
Role of the United Nations
nited Nations has played a big role in enhancing the Sustainable Development Goals, and coming up with possible solutions. U However, the UN has to do a lot more to stabilize the sustainability and save the planet. Some of its roles include: setting up a future platform for ideal sustainability, collaborating with international organizations, convincing member and non-member states, come up with future projections, setting all the plans into action, etc. Nonetheless, the UN has taken few actions in the past about sustainability issues and resolutions have been passed.
On twenty-fourth May 2014, delegates from World Health Organization and representatives from national governments argued and negotiated conditions for the post 2015 sustainable development goals. After a series of debates several resolutions were passed. They focused on violence, drugs, health regulations, etc.
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Moreover, the UN secretary general has emphasized on the importance of sustainable transport. As we know, transport is key in connecting all the factors of production, and therefore, sustainability in the transportation sector is necessary. As a result, an advisory group has been established.
This particular group will operate for three years and work with governments to take care of their transport systems. Basically, this is a step taken in response to the post 2015 sustainable development goals.
In brief, the UN has done a lot to implement sustainability in many ways. It has further come up with strategies and plans, some of which aforementioned. There is a lot that the UN has planned to do in the future for the Sustainable Development Goals.
References
United Nations, Division for Sustainable Development (UN-DESA). (2014). “Secretary General’s High-Level Advisory Group on Sustainable
Transport.” Retrieved from http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1843
World Health Organization (WHO). (2014). “World Health Assembly Closes”. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/WHA- 20140524/en/
Possible Solutions
ue to the end of the era of the Millennium Development Goals, D member states as well as individuals need to prioritize and choose six of the sixteen existing Sustainable Development Goals. Each delegate is required to select six of the following goals in reflection of their country’s prime concern and draft a resolution dependent on the goal that they chose.
Freedom from discrimination and persecution This means there should be no restrictions on social, economic or political opportunities in regards to their race, ethnicity, disability, sexual preference, or any further reason. People should not fear for their safety in light of discrimination based on their race, ethnicity, etc.
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Access to clean water and sanitation This means that sanitation should be available to each individual. Water should be accessible for all; everyone should have access to safe water to both drink and also use for washing and cooking.
Protection against crime and violence This means protection should be provided in order to avoid any possible threats. Protection should be given to victims of sexual assault and domestic violence. Justice is to be acquired through a court or other system if they are a victim of a crime.
Protecting forests, rivers and oceans This means that food is acquired from natural resources and therefore they should be looked after. The government needs to diminish pollution. Sustainable agriculture and food systems are to be considered.
Phone and internet access This means that everyone should have access to communication technology in order to obtain online information and use online resources. The government and the private sector should provide the access to communication technology.
Political Freedoms This means that everyone has the right to vote, form, or join a political party. Freedom is to be given in cases of expressing one’s self or through media. People should have the ability to engage in trade unions and all aspects of civil society.
Better transport and roads This means that transportation should be improved, in order for people to travel around smoothly and easily.
Better healthcare This means that when in need of treatment, better quality health services are to be provided. Funding and the organization of health systems should live up to the needs of the country and there individuals that reside in that The most country. controversial issue Action taken on climate change regarding Sustainable This means that the government should keep its word and reduce carbon Development Goals is emissions. the evident lack of a concrete, fixed definition amongst all nations with regards 11 to what the goals entail.
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A good education
This means that children are to be provided with high quality primary and secondary education that prepares them for employment. The government and the private sector should collaborate with one another to provide such opportunities.
Better job opportunities This means that governments and the private sector should ensure that everyone possesses a job with a decent wage. Citizens of every nation-state should have the ability to contribute to the society.
Support for people who can’t work
This means that everyone should have enough money to survive. There should exists outlets to help citizens obtain jobs; the government should guarantee that citizens are given ample opportunities to secure said jobs
Affordable and nutritious food This means that everyone should be provided with the resources needed to live, such as food. No person is to be constantly hungry or malnourished, especially women that are pregnant and children that are aged less than two years old.
An honest and responsive government
This means that governments should eradicate the corruption that consumes it and be more effective and accountable for wrongdoings. Citizens should have the freedom to comment on the government’s actions and the freedom to participate in determining the priorities of said government. The people should be aware and informed of how public money is spent.
Equality between men and women This means that both genders should have the same rights and opportunities accorded to them equally. They both should be allowed to have the same chances when it comes to political and social life. The should be able to experience and have the same opportunities and rewards in the workplace.
Reliable energy at home. This means that all households should have dependable and reasonably priced electricity. In addition, energy is to be sustainably generated
References
MY World 2015. (2014). Have your say in the United Nations Global Vote. Retrieved 24 November 2014, from http://vote.myworld2015.org/
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Sustainabledevelopment.un.org,. (2014). Post 2015 process.:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. Retrieved 24 November 2014,
from http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015.html
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
he most controversial issue regarding Sustainable Development Goals T is the evident lack of a concrete, fixed definition amongst all nations with regards to what the goals entail. Brazil, Rio de Janeiro will be the centre point for the discussion of the sustainable development goals during the Rio + 20 conferences. Brazil is ranked 84th out of 187 nations in the United Nations development index. In terms of poverty, Brazil has brought about significant changes in poverty reduction through its “Bolsa Familia” campaign in
2003. This campaign has integrated the education and food subsidy programs into a cash assistance package that is given under the circumstances that certain development requirements be fulfilled. This campaign has led to the creation of many more initiatives such as the “Brazil Without Misery” campaign, which expands on the earlier campaign by making it a wider, more ambitious one, that will assist more children and provide more cash incentives to public services.
Sustainable human settlement development is also another initiative that Brazil wishes to tackle especially since 80% of Brazil's population is urban living, with 90% of Brazil's income flowing from urban areas. However 25% of urban living citizens live below the poverty line and a large majority face housing issues, such as insufficient sewage services and the lack of flowing electricity. Brazil has clearly come to terms with the fact that such obstacles can only be resolved through international cooperation and communication, as evident by the countries signing of the “Brazil- India-south Africa Human Settlement Agreement”.
Bio-diversity is also a major point to be discussed especially since the pinnacle emblem of biodiversity and nature is the Amazon rainforest that
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boasts the largest diversity of species of both plants and animals. The Brazilian farming lobby have, over the years, attempted to influence the passing of legislations that would put these species at risk as it involves legalising the cutting down of trees in certain environmentally protected areas of the Amazon rainforest. This bill has been met with widespread protests from the citizens of Brazil who have unified in an attempt to block the passing of the bill as they have gathered a petition signed by over one million people in order to block the bill. This is just one instance of the many global and domestic clashes that occur between economic aspirations and environmental protection.
Brazil has been the global pioneer in the use of ethanol as an energy source; however the Brazilian government is slowly shifting towards other forms of energy, wave/tidal energy in particular. This is due to the increasing global demand for energy resources that are affordable and efficient. Interestingly, with oil being so elusive, many decisions have been made that are quite controversial such as the offshor e drilling off the coast of Rio de Janeiro which have caused tremendous environmental hazards due to oil leaks that continue to threaten the sensitive biodiversity on the coastline. In addition, the Brazilian government has engaged in controversial issues with the proposed Belo Monte Dam which is to lead to the displacement of twenty- thousand people, many of whom are indigenous people. These decisions are made due to the difficulty of having to supply a nation as large as Brazil with a constant supply of electricity.
With the approach of the Rio + Bhutan’s government, 20, Brazil has taken major steps which has always towards approaching the been apprehensive to sustainable development goals on arrange for its people its own and to set an example for the finest resources, the world to follow. It's constant has been reporting re-evaluation of current negative net initiatives regarding poverty greenhouse gas reduction, housing, energy and emissions because of biodiversity have taken many its ecosystems major steps forward, however naturally acting as there are many more steps to be taken in the near future. carbon sinks (UNDP, 2012).
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References
Brazil: A Case Study for Sustainable Development. (2012, May 14).
Retrieved from https://urbantimes.co/2012/05/brazil-a-case- study-for-sustainable-development/
Developing countries as environmental conserver: Bhutan
sparingly populated developing country, Bhutan is a small kingdom A of eastern Himalayas bordered by India from the north and China from the south. Bhutan is one of the world’s least urbanized countries, with 22 per cent of the population subsisting in urban areas (ADB, 2004). The fascinating nature of this country – with rivers, a surprisingly high number of forests, huge mountains, and deep valleys has left it with higher vulnerability to phenomena such as earthquakes, floods, and water bodies’ corrosions (UNDP, 2012).
Although a lower-middle wages country, Bhutan has lead the way towards sustainable development in endeavors to subdue various encumbrances, ranging from a promptly growing population, a rapid increase in unemployment of urban youth, rural poverty, to reliance on expat labor, and exposure to international norms.
According to Bhutanese regulations concerning sustainable development, plastic bags are illegitimate, 26 per cent of Bhutan is conserved by reserves and national parks, and 60 per cent of this kingdom needs to be forested at all times (Planning Commission,1999).
Unlike Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which deals with spent money, Bhutan has created a system which quantifies development in terms of mere sustainability: economically, environmentally, and culturally. This system is known as Gross National 15
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Happiness (GNH); however, GNH enact ment is intricate to be acquired due to the contrastive struggles Bhutan is facing, and this is why nations, including Bhutan, should define their own needs and indicators in order to avoid eradication (Singer, 2014).
The government provides an adequate amount of social welfare policies to administer and monitor Bhutan’s social, economic, and cultural well-being. Free medical care, free basic education for nine years, job establishments in the private sector, skills-training assemblies, and much more policies are being intervened in the private sector to encourage urban youth to take part in the development of Bhutan and enable more favorable working conditions.
As for the skill-training sessions, this is a relatively new project that is purposed on provisioning basic skills for young skilled employers, orienting to the development of societal groups whose role is decisive in the impending years. This project will comprise new training centers, career counselling services, and other facilities that strengthen the private sector’s association with the employees (Frame, 2005).
Bhutan’s government, which has always been apprehensive to arrange for its people the finest resources, has been reporting negative net greenhouse gas emissions because of its ecosystems naturally acting as carbon sinks (UNDP, 2012).
Moreover, Bhutan is ensuing the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) to halve the number of people living under the national poverty line by 2015 (UNDP, 2012). Bhutan has also enhanced access to improved water and sanitation services as well as innovative behavioral motivation of Bhutanese to employ improved sanitation and hygienic practices (UNDP, 2012).
Acquiring a high reputation for creative conservative approaches towards sustainable development is keeping Bhutan socially, economically, and culturally, well-developed.
Clearly, Bhutan’s approach towards development has been driven by a committed and centralized government that devotes policies to take over the obstacles it encounters. However, one dispute with this approach is that eventually, due to the rapid access to technology and novel ideas through travel and trade, the social and economic aspect of sustainable development will overbeat the environmental and cultural aspect of sustainability. Bhutan’s government requires maintaining the steadiness of the three 16
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aspects to maintain the qualitative and quantitative management in a sustainable manner.
References
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2004 Key Indicators, of Developing Asian and Pacific Countries, Manila: ADB.
Frame, B. 2005. Bhutan: A Review of Its Approach to Sustainable Development. Development in Practice. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4030082?seq=3
Planning Commission (1999) Bhutan 2020: A Vision for Peace, Prosperity, and Happiness, Thimphu: Royal Government of Bhutan.
Singer, A. 2014. Bhutan’s Happiness Paradigm. WorldWatch Institute. Is Sustainability Still Possible? Retrieved from http://blogs.worldwatch.org/sustainabilitypossible/bhutan/
United Nations Development Programme. 2012. Triple Wins for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/Cross- Practice%20generic%20theme/Triple-Wins-for-Sustainable- Development-web.pdf
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Earth’s temperature
has been changing overtime, but just because it has been Topic 2: natural in the past does not mean it is
Climate Change natural now.
Introduction
he phones we use, the cars we drive, the bags we buy, the shoes we T wear, the houses we live in, and more; are all possible due to mass production and energy consumption. In this globalized era of today, factories have enhanced their production in order to make our lives easier. As we know, the luxuries of yesterday are the necessities of today. So well, even though all this increases the standard of living, it has a vast impact on climate change and global warming.
To be specific, the term ‘Climate Change’ means the rise in the average global temperature. As mentioned above, certain human activities cause this problem. It is mainly due to the increase in Carbon Dioxide (CO2).
(Natural Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, 2010).
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However, earth’s temperature has been changing overtime, but just because it has been natural in the past does not mean it is natural now. Since, a lot of investigation has been done about this matter, it is safe to say that anthropogenic activities are the main contributors to climate change. (Global Issues, 2010)
Moreover, there are many deadly problems that arise with this issue. For instance, a science journal reported that pests and diseases have increased due to climate change, plus, that Food and Agricultural Organization has stated there is going to be a massive insufficiency of food in several countries due to droughts.
In addition, the environment suffers massive losses meaning future generations are at stake. The holes in the Ozone layer, extermination of species, heating up of oceans and more, exemplify that it is questionable for the coming generations.
Furthermore, statistics show that third world countries are affected the most by this global issue. “Between 1991 and 2010 they found these were the most affected nations: 1. Bangladesh 2. Myanmar 3. Honduras 4. Nicaragua 5. Haiti 6. Vietnam 7. Dominican Republic 8. Pakistan
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9. Korea, DPR 10. Philippines”
Climate change is a problem that has risen due to massive production and consumption. Plus, it has been proven that it is based on human activities. Mainly, developing nations have been affected, however, the large emitters of green house gasses are United States and the European Union. Actions have been taken by countries to stop global warming and the United Nations plays a big role in attempting to resolve this issue.
References
Shah, A. (2013, November, 11). Climate Change and Global Warming Introduction. Retrieved from http://www.globalissues.org/article/233/climate-change-and-global- warming-introduction
History of the Topic
I n 1715 the British ironmonger Thomas Newcomen invented the first widely used steam engine, thus kick-starting the industrial revolution that was powered by coal. With this invention not only did economies and development plans grow, but also the ever looming and heavily ignored greenhouse gas levels grew as well (BBC, September 2013). It was not until the year 1979 that the worlds first climate change conference took place which led to the formation of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) which hosted the first intergovernmental meeting to discuss climate change in 1991. A series of discussions on climate change plagued the global agenda; the most prominent discussion, however, was the Kyoto protocol that was part of an initiative by the larger United Nations framework convention on climate change. The protocol was agreed upon in the year 1997 and due to a series of delays, was not fully enacted until 2005. The protocol achieved the long awaited goal of finally putting into place a series of solid and standardised goals to be worked towards by the participating delegates (although the focus was laid upon the developed countries as they produce the highest levels of carbon dioxide). One of the main building blocks to combating the climate change issue was the process of coming to terms with
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the fact that global warming is a " man made issue " as opposed to the popular arguments of the 19th and early twentieth century that claimed that global warming is not man made and even some went as far as to claim that it does not exist altogether. The world's major Ultimately signed by 192 counties, the Kyoto protocol itself laid within its economies are falling framework the premise that global warming not only exists but also is man further behind every made. Consequently, the world saw sweeping climate change agreements year in regards to the that focused specifically on carbon dioxide emissions. the most notable agreement to limiter being the Copenhagen accord(2009) , Cancun agreements(2010), the Durban platform(2011) which dealt with setting up a legal framework for decrease carbon combating climate change and the Doha amendments(2012) which renewed emissions ("World the deals for the Kyoto accords and extends Falls Behind"). the deadline for achieving the set goals until 31st December 2020. Climate change isn't looked upon with the necessary seriousness as would be expected for a global pandemic as reiterated by Leonardo Dicaprio when he addressed the UN general assembly on September 2014 by saying "As an actor I pretend for a living. I play fictitious characters often solving fictitious problems. I believe humankind has looked at climate change in that same way: as if it were a fiction, happening to someone else’s planet, as if pretending that climate change wasn’t real would somehow make it go away."(The Guardian, September 2014).
References
BBC Seprember 2013. http://www.un.org/climatechange/towards-a-climate- agreement/
International and Regional Framework
egional and international efforts to tackle climate change are essential in R solving the issue of climate change; the efforts taken at a regional level indeed extend to the international sphere. In recent efforts, China and the United States claimed that they were ready to tackle climate change and serious commitments must be made (Friedman). Various countries pledged 2.3 billion dollars to the Green Climate Fund, an operating entity of the 21
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change established to support projects and programs in developing countries that are parties to the convention. In other efforts, various businesses, development banks as well as governments pledged to mobilize 200 billion dollars in order to finance low- carbon development. Despite these efforts, it is still the case that, nonetheless, the world's major economies are falling further behind every year in regards to the agreement to limiter decrease carbon emissions ("World Falls Behind"). Mayor of Boston, Walsh announced the creation of a regional summit on climate change in order to facilitate efforts to deal with the growing pertinence of the issue of climate change (Schworm, 2014). Further international efforts include the creation of a "new and pivotal compact" that will provide "a clear picture of global state and regional governments’ overall contribution to greenhouse gas emission reduction and will help tackle climate change" ("New Compact of States and Regions to help tackle climate change launched at UN Summit", 2014). Although several states have committed and given their word that they will try to reduce emissions by 80% by 2050, it is unclear whether or not they will in fact achieve these goals. The R20, Regions of Climate Action, is a non-profit organization comprised of sub-national governments, private companies, international organizations, NGOs and academic and financial institutions. Together, they aim to help in the implementation of low-carbon projects and to assist in introducing various practices of renewable energy; the R20, through connecting regions, technology and finance aim to build sustainable low-carbon projects in countries that are in need. According to their website, the types of projects the R20 partakes in are renewable energy generation, energy efficiency, waste management and waste to energy and fuel switching. Furthermore, the European Commission has recently, over the past few years, developed an EU-pacific development partnership that aims to tackle climate change, as well as fight poverty (“New EU-Pacific development partnership”, 2014). The renewed partnership paves the way for a stronger focus on countering climate change in the Pacific Islands that have been victim to the adverse effects of climate change, and it also paves the way for a more efficient and coordinated cooperation. The World Wildlife Fund argues that they are, "working internationally to influence governments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, conserve vital forests and help developing countries cope with and adapt to our changing climate” (“Our International Climate Work”, 2014).
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It is clear that regional and international efforts to tackle global climate change are an important and an essential aspect of tackling climate change. By working together, regional organizations, regional coalitions, regional efforts, alongside international organizations, coalitions, and efforts have the power to develop treaties, agreements and conferences to combat climate change and develop ways in which countries can work towards a more sustainable environment.
References
Friedman, L. (2014, September 24). China and U.S. Promise to Combat Climate Change. Scientific American - Climatewire. Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/china-and-u-s- promise- to- combat-climate-change/
New Compact of States and Regions to help tackle climate change launched at UN Summit. (2014, September 1). Retrieved December 19, 2014, from http://www.theclimategroup.org/what-we-do/news-and- blogs/new-compact- of-states-and-regions-to-help-tackle-climate- change-launched-at-un-summit/
New EU-Pacific development partnership. (2014) Retrieved from http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-12-364_en.htm
Our international climate work. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.wwf.org.uk/what_we_do/tackling_climate_change/ho w_ we_re_tackling_climate_change/our_global_climate_work/
Schworm, P. (2014, October 24). Walsh announces regional effort to tackle climate change. The Boston Globe. Retrieved from http://www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2014/10/29/boston-mayor- announces-regional-effort-tackle-climate-change-rising-sea- levels/Jr0VFwXO1XylEjHpSOkn8O/story.html
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World Falls behind. (2014, September 7). Reuters. Retrieved from World In 2010, Falls behind. (2014, September 7). Reuters. Retrieved from governments around http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/09/07/environment-carbon- the world agreed to pwc- idUKL5N0R80TM20140907 reduce emissions in order that the global temperature does Website for R20: http://regions20.org/ not increase more then 2 degrees Celsius (“UN and Role of the United Nations Climate Change”).
he United Nations plays a crucial role in the pertinent question T regarding climate change; it attempts to answer the question of how we can combat it. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "Scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal;" this problem is real and it has, is, and will continue to affect the lives of many across the world. Currently, the trend of global warming is human-induced and is proceeding at a dangerous rate (Global Climate Change, NASA). The United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCC) was a treaty signed by 1992 by various countries; it dealt with questions of how to cope with the impact of climate change. The UNFCC wasn’t able to provide adequate provisions to reduce emissions and this lead to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. Today there are 195 parties to the Convention and 192 parties to the Kyoto Protocol (“UN and Climate
Change”). In 2010, governments around the world agreed to reduce emissions in order that the global temperature does not increase more then 2 degrees Celsius (“UN and Climate Change”).
The role the United Nations plays in combating climate change is crucial and significant as it has the power to affect many and the power to bring about change. By allowing climate Importantly, the United change to continue, Nations Security Council has we are going to be the the ability to adopt cause of one-fourth of resolutions regarding climate the Earth’s species change that will thereinafter extinction by 2050. be binding as a matter of international law. Efforts in the past have been made for the UN Security Council to recognize climate change as an international security threat; these efforts were blocked by Russia and China (King, 2013). There have been efforts by the United Nations that tackle environmental issues, one being the Millennium Development Goal "ensure environmental
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stability." The UN General Assembly has also adopted a draft resolution named, "Climate change and its possible security implications." Moreover, the UN will hold the Climate Change Conference, either COP21 or CMP11in late 2015. This meeting will be the 21st annual session to the UNFCC and the 11th session to the Kyoto Protocol. A desired outcome of both COP21 and CMP11 is to achieve a universal, legally binding agreement regarding climate change.
References
“Global Climate Change, NASA”. Global Climate Change: Evidence. (n.d.)., From http://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
Global Issues at the United Nations. (n.d.). Retrieved December 12, 2014, from http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/climatechange/
King, E. (2013). China and Russia block UN Security Council climate change action. From http://www.rtcc.org/2013/02/18/china-and- russia-block-un-security-council-climate-change-action
“UN and Climate Change”. Towards a climate agreement - UN and Climate Change. (n.d.). From http://www.un.org/climatechange/towards-a- climate-agreement/
Website for the Kyoto Protocol: http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
Website for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: http://unfccc.int/2860.php
Possible Solutions
limate change is one of the most vital threats facing planet earth today. C During the 2013 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the discussion to combat climate change took place. The solution in order to eradicate climate change by 2015 is crucial for later generations as 25
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well as the present. By allowing climate change to continue, we are going to be the cause of one-fourth of the Earth’s species extinction by 2050. Climate The most successful change is in full motion as seasons are shifting, sea levels are escalating and approach to tackle temperatures are rising. In order to survive on earth, earth must supply us climate change is with food, air and water. “The UNFCCC and its Kyoto Protocol have set a done through global significant precedent as a means of solving a long-term international action. environmental problem, but are only the first steps towards implementation of an international response strategy to combat climate change”(Ipcc.ch, 2014).
The Kyoto Protocol has stimulated an array of national policies, created an international carbon market and established a new institutional mechanism. The ultimate direction in order to reach a climate agreement is by setting specific and clear goals. A goal is to be set for long-term GHG concentration or temperature stabilization goal. “An alternative to agreeing on specific carbon dioxide concentration or temperature levels is an agreement on specific long-term actions such as a technology R&D and diffusion target – for example, ‘eliminating carbon emissions from the energy sector by 2060’” (Ipcc.ch,2014). Therefore, delegates of each country are intended to develop a set of goals in order to help the eradications of climate change.
The two major polluting nations are the U.S and China. Therefore, they possess the commitment to lessen the emission of greenhouse gases. Since they are the two largest emitters of greenhouse gases, U.S is now aiming to lessen the emission of greenhouse gas from 26 to 28 percent by 2025 (Biello, 2014). The main issue of pollution seems to be coal; burning coal is the leading cause of smog, toxic air pollution, acid rain and most significantly global warming. Hence, the Chinese central government has started to discuss on establishing a cap on coal-burning. “Statistics show that this year coal use in China slowed for the first time this century, dropping by around 1 percent, according to Greenpeace International” (Biello, 2014). By acknowledging such information, this ought to encourage other countries to adopt similar actions and policies. In addition, by constructing additional nuclear power plants, wind farms, hydroelectric dams and employing other renewable energy sources will in fact help in combating climate change and prevent it from destroying Earth. Moreover, the EU through implementation of internal 26
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policies that was able to reduce greenhouse gas emissions without effecting economic growth.
In addition to the actions implemented by the U.S and China, other countries are equally meant to enact similar or suggest and develop efforts in order to combat climate change. By achieving the fight against climate change, individual people are expected to begin making better decisions in living their daily lives. For example; in Canada, transportation causes about 25% of the greenhouse gas emissions. By advocating citizens to walk, cycle or carpool this will save money as well and the environment. Furthermore, citizens should be motivated to donate or start their own organizations that will work hard in order to find and implement solutions for combating climate change. The most successful approach to tackle climate change is done through global action. “The Commission believes that developed countries must commit to cutting their greenhouse gas emissions by 30 % compared to 1990 levels by 2020, as part of a post-2012 international agreement” (Europa.eu, 2014). However, to ultimately eradicate climate change, under developed, developed and developing countries are expected to consider and initiate efforts to help out in saving planet Earth. Thus, it is the delegates’ duty to suggest implementable and objective/subjective global solutions to reach a final solution on how to combat climate change globally and locally.
References
Biello, D. (2014). Everything You Need to Know about the U.S.–China Climate Change Agreement. [online] Scientificamerican.com. Availableat: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/everything-you-need-to- know- about-the-u-s-china-climate-change-agreement/ [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014].
Council on Foreign Relations, (2014). The Global Climate Change Regime. [online] Available at: http://www.cfr.org/climate-change/global- climate-change-regime/p21831 [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014].
David Suzuki Foundation, (2014). Top 10 ways you can stop climate change. [online] Available at:
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http://www.davidsuzuki.org/what-you-can- do/top-10- ways- you-can-stop-climate-change/ [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014]
.and beyondآ Europa.eu, (2014). Strategy on climate change for 0202 [online] Available at: http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/energy/european_energy_ pol icy/l28188_en.htm [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014].
Ipcc.ch, (2014). International agreements (climate change agreements and other arrangements) - AR4 WGIII Technical Summary. [online] Available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/tssts-ts- 13-4- international-agreements.html [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014].
Nature.org, (2014). Climate Change Impacts & Threats | The Nature Conservancy. [online] Available at: http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/global-warming- climate- change/threats-impacts/ [Accessed 13 Dec. 2014].
Denmark
ccording to various studies throughout the world, scientists have found A the top climate-change fighting country is Denmark (Upton, 2013). This is not a surprise as Denmark has made many revolutions to the concept of fighting climate change and sustainability and has topped the Climate Change Performance Index table for the third consecutive year. (2014) The country has conducted several strategies and policies that are contributing to the struggle against climate change of which includes, sustainable energy, use of efficient transport and in general sustainable living.
First and foremost, one of the main contributors to climate change is the release of greenhouse gases through consumption of fossil fuels used for energy and electricity supply. The Danes have solved this problem splendidly by employing endless energy from strong winds that are very common in the region. Today, Danish companies have installed 90 percent of the world’s offshore wind turbines.
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This wind power industry is extremely prominent in the country, employing Besides ecological and around 25,000 people. A key figure is that 28 percent hydrological of Danish electricity influences, originates from wind power temporarily climate and the country has planned factors like carbon to increase that statistic to 50 and methane are percent by 2050. (2014) major contributors to This plan is in line with climate change, Denmark’s plan to make the heaving the Arctic country completely region’s accountability independent of fossil fuels by 2050. to cut local pollutants
(Brother, 2014) and Another main, and probably the most famous, factor that is important for Denmark’s great sustainability is the country’s bicycle lifestyle. Denmark and dramatically its citizens are very well known for their love for cycling for as long as we can increasing remember. The country is a heaven for cyclist, especially the capital, antagonistic effects on Copenhagen, which has over 390 kilometers of special lanes meant only for people and wildlife. cyclists. It is also to no surprise Copenhagen has bene named ‘Best city for cyclists’ and ‘World’s most liveable city’ in past years. This is extremely helpful against climate change as cycling is a highly efficient form of transport. One of the main contributors to greenhouse gases and climate change is the release of gases from automobiles used for transport. Thus said, the great popularity of cycling in Denmark is essential to the sustainability of the country.
Furthermore Denmark has set many goals and plans in motion to improve their sustainability and efficiency. Today, around 30 to 40 percent of the energy in Denmark is used for heating, ventilation and lighting. The country has set out to renovate existing buildings in the city to make them more sustainable and so less energy is wasted. They believe that if they cut out these small wastes of energy from everywhere, this will increase the country’s efficiency as a whole. Another factor is the use of cow wastes as a producer of energy. Mainly cow waster is used as a fertilizer, however nowadays it is being collected and used to produce biogas, which is a renewable and stable form of electricity. Biogas has not been exploited fully but the Danes have plans to increase its production.
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All in all, Denmark can be considered to be the ideal country that is working against climate change and making revolutions in the industry of renewable energy and sustainability. The world should follow in the footsteps of the Danes and work towards a more sustainable future and in turn fight against climate change.
References
Upton, J. (2013, 20 Nov) . Super Euros: Top 10 climate-changing- fighting countries are all in Europe. Grist. Retrieved From http://grist.org/news/the-top-10-climate-change-fighting- countries-are-all-in-europe/
Denmark Leads Climate Change Performance Index 2015, Copenhagen Capacity (2014, 12 Dec). Retrieved from http://www.copcap.com/Newslist/2014/Denmark-leads-Climate- Change-Performance-Index-2015
Danish Wind Industry Association, (2014) . Green Living. The Official Website of Denmark. Retrieved from http://denmark.dk/en/green- living/
The Arctic Region
atural climate change ability is to N be for the unusual melting rates of glaciers in the Arctic region. Surrounding the North Pole and consisting of a number of countries including Canada, Finland, and Russia, the Arctic region is a unique area characterized by very cold temperatures of about -30°C and extreme conditions.
The escalation in ambient temperatures which is most prominent in polar regions resulted in dramatic changes and observable adversative
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consequences like the melting of glaciers. This leads to sudden flooding in the valleys because of an incre ase in the sea levels, impacting Arctic’s biodiversity, population, and water supply on the long run (UNESCO, 2009). Sea ice melting, glaciers defrosting, and snow patterns’ variability are proof to the Arctic environment changes. According to a recent report of Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA), Greenland’s warming up could be 1-3 times as massive as global warming rate (UNESCO, 2009).
Besides these ecological and hydrological influences, temporarily climate factors like carbon and methane are major contributors to climate change, heaving the Arctic region’s accountability to cut local pollutants (Brother, 2014) and dramatically increasing antagonistic effects on people and wildlife.
The importance of the Arctic region is that it acts as an indicator showing where this will lead to if no actions were executed. Changes in the Arctic are thus tangible and so they also contribute to the encounters elsewhere and will, in some cases, assess in expediting global warming.
The Arctic’s ecosystem is experiencing rapid and significant shifts ranging from threatening marine mammal life to local populations. Practicing vegetation in the Arctic region is an accommodated process performed by Arctic residents as Arctic summers are relatively warm.
In recent decades where punitive weather has been progressing, alder and willow shrubs have been growing uphill to the height of trees. Shrubs are usually prohibited by the extreme conditions of the Arctic. In the region where trees weren’t identified there, ten to fifteen per cent of the land extending between Finland and Siberia is covered by new tree-size shrubs, which are greater than two meters (Perry, 2012) in height. Ultimately, it is believed that warming will cause the forest to the south to crawl north into what is now a tundra (Perry, 2012).
Present-day influences of climate change on the Arctic region are threatening the conservation of this key landscape. The increasing concern about climate change issues the vitality of a governmental authority to share networks and practices with different Arctic nations. The effects of climate change, which can already be seen throughout the entire region, ensure a strong need for 31
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adaptation. Climate change in the Arctic region is an emerging concern for the impacts on climate change are becoming more apparent across the North.
When it comes to climate change, the Arctic region acts like a primary warning system that is quite sensitive to changes in the temperature. The government of the Arctic region needs to monitor, assess, and communicate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity and geography. A planned approach needs to be effectively calculated to manage ecological and habitual changes. To do so, Arctic communities are taking steps to acclimate and react. This could be done thorough investigation and integration of different knowledge fields that will support adaptation reactions to composite combinations of stressors.
One of the leading intergovernmental forums to ease interaction and coordination between the Arctic states is the Arctic Council. As from April 2015 until April 2017, the United States will take the wheel of the Arctic council in which domestic infrastructure development, responsible stewardship, and enhanced cooperation with our international partners is prioritized (Atkin, 2014). The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) is an Arctic Council Working Group documenting climate change and pollution trends and effects both locally and regionally (Arctic Council, 2011). Furthermore, the Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP) is another Arctic Council Working Group that discusses the threats of short- lived climate forcers (SLCFs), which are substances with a shorter atmospheric lifetime relative to other climate pollutants (Arctic Council, 2011). Last but not least, The Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF) is yet another Arctic Council Working Group that conducts assessments, monitoring, and additional projects to identify how climate change affects Arctic wildlife and its people (Arctic Council, 2011). The global change described above is anticipated to have a tremendously huge impact on the nature and culture of the Arctic region and the neighboring regions too. Climate change, which includes a rise in the sea level, changes in the global weather, and glaciers defrosting will dramatically impact the biodiversity, ecosystems, social, and even legal structures of the region.
References
Arctic Council. 2011. Retrieved from http://www.arctic- council.org/index.php/en/environment-and-people/environment- and-climate
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Atkin, E. 2014. White House: U.S. Has ‘Moral Obligation’ To Help Communities In Warming Arctic. Climate Progress. Retrieved from http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2014/12/02/3598303/white- house-warming- arctic/
Brother, M. 2014. What Can the Arctic Governments Do About Climate Change? The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/mona- elisabeth- brother/arctic- climate-change_b_5811612.html
Parry, W. 2012. Global Warming: Arctic Tundra's Climate Change Turns Shrubs Into Trees. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/04/climate-change- arctic- tundra- global-warming_n_1567888.html
UNESCO. 2009. Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage. Retrieved Fromwhc.unesco.org/document/106621
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Written By Farheen Hasan, Lamya Hassan, Maryam Arab, Mayan Masarani, Mira Afaneh, Rayan Hamza, Sara Abdelbarry & Shahid Abdul-Dayem
Faculty Advisor: Suzanne Joseph
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
It is of great pleasure that I welcome you into the largest, and hopefully most educative AUSMUN conference so far! As a first year board member, I aim to continuously support change, hence the introduction of the Human Rights Committee this year. For returning students, you will fortunately have the chance to delve into a new realm of topics and disputes. Most importantly, by being a participant of this committee, delegates will gain insight into current human rights violations on a global scale, which have recently been a great concern for the international community. However, this is where you as a delegate get to learn the controversy behind those violations by representing the assigned country’s viewpoint, and also at the same time be able to construct a relevant resolution.
The topics chosen for the Human Rights Committee include: I. The Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression: II. Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted Against Minorities
In context, the topics chosen for HRC this conference were done so with specific current cases in mind. One that was most common in the media was journalist’s right to freedom of expression and opinion, with incidents such as ISIS beheading western journalists and the Charlie Hebdo shooting in mind. On the other hand, the second topic was chosen in relevance to persecution, with examples such as the Ahmadis, Christians, and Hindus in Pakistan, or even the greatly publicized Michael Brown and Eric Garner cases in the U.S.
I am confident that this conference will not only be a valuable learning experience, but an enjoyable one as well. If there are any more questions or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact any of our board members. Wish you all the best of luck!
Roudha Ahli Director of Public Relations and Protocol
Human Rights Council
Table of Content
History of the Human Rights Council ...... 2 Topic A: Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression ...... 4 Topic B: Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted Against Minorities ...... 5 Topic I: Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression ...... 7 History and Realm of the Topic ...... 7 International and Regional Framework...... 9 International and UN Reaction, and Possible Solutions ...... 9 Freedom of expression in Uzbekistan ...... 11 Topic 2: Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted Against Minorities .. 13 History and Realm of the Topic ...... 13 Topic A ...... 16 Topic B ...... 16 International and Regional Framework...... 17 International, and U.N Reaction, and Possible Solutions ...... 18 Recommendations ...... 19 Non-State actors ...... 20 Regional and international actors ...... 20 Rwandan genocide ...... 21 References ...... 22
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History of the Human Rights Council
he Human Rights Council was born by a General Assembly resolution T (60/251) on March 15, 2006, after the disintegration of its precursor, the UN Commission on Human Rights, due to the heavy criticism the Commission came under for its membership that included human-rights violators. The Geneva-based council meets at least three times a year for 10- week sessions, and can call special sessions as well. Along with assessing other human-rights concerns around the globe, members are supposed to commit to upholding high human-rights standards at home. The UN mission states that the council fosters "dialogue and cooperation" on human-rights concerns.
Nominees are put forth with regional distribution: 13 from the African Group, 13 from the Asian Group, 6 from the Eastern European Group, 8 from the Latin American and Caribbean Group, and 7 from the Western European and Others Group (WEOG). A country must get the votes of at least 96 of the 191 states of the UN General Assembly to become a member. As of the 2009 UN General Assembly, the Human Rights Council members are: Angola, Argentina, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Cuba, Djibouti, Egypt, France, Gabon, Ghana, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kyrgyzstan, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Uruguay, Zambia.
The Human Rights Council responds to crises, supports human rights defenders, and brings human rights closer to people. Through advocacy, monitoring and training activities, it contributes to legislative and policy reforms to increase accountability for human rights violations and advance human rights. Many challenges lie ahead in the struggle to promote and enhance the dignity, freedom, and rights of all human beings. In the past two decades, however, significant progress has been made.
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There is global consensus that serious violations of human rights must not go unpunished. Victims have the right to claim justice, including within processes to restore the rule of law following conflicts. Since its creation, The Human Rights Council has been heavily focused on bringing perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity to justice. As of 2014, Israel had been condemned in 50 resolutions by the Council. The Council had resolved almost more resolutions condemning Israel than on the rest of the world combined. The 50 resolutions comprised almost half (45.9%) of all country-specific resolutions passed by the Council, not counting those under Agenda Item 10 (countries requiring technical assistance). By April 2007, the Council had passed eleven resolutions condemning Israel, the only country which it had specifically condemned.
The Human Rights Council was also heavily active in fighting the defamation of religion. Several non-binding resolutions have been voted on and accepted by the UN condemning "defamation of religion." The motions, sponsored on behalf of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, aim to prohibit expression that would "fuel discrimination, extremism and misperception leading to polarization and fragmentation with dangerous unintended and unforeseen consequences.". Critics of the resolutions including human rights groups argue that they are used to politically strengthen domestic anti-blasphemy and religious defamation laws, which are used to imprison journalists, students and other peaceful political dissidents.
The UN Human Rights Council has also addressed issues concerning the environment. In recent years, the recognition of the links between human rights and the environment has greatly increased. Many States now incorporate a right to a healthy environment in their constitutions. However, many questions about the relationship of human rights and the environment remain unresolved and require examination. The council approached the emerging issue by adopting the Resolution 10/4 about human rights and climate change under the right to a clean environment.
Many lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people of all ages and in all regions of the world are subjected to hate-motivated physical violence. Many more are discriminated against in the labor market, in schools and in hospitals, or mistreated and disowned by their own families. In at least 76 countries, having a partner of the same sex is considered a criminal offence. In June 2011, the Human Rights Council adopted the first United Nations resolution L.27/Rev.1 on sexual orientation and gender identity. Its adoption paved the way for the first official United Nations report on the issue prepared by the UN Human Rights, and is a critically important
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step towards combating violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity and upholding the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
HRC stands for Human Rights Committee. According to the Office of the High commissioner of Human Rights, the main role and purpose of this committee is to “monitor the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights by its State parties. All States parties are obliged to submit regular reports to the Committee on how the rights are being implemented. States must report initially one year after acceding to the Covenant and then whenever the Committee requests (usually every four years). The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of "concluding observations”” (2014).
Some of the achievements of this committee are: Women’s rights are now acknowledged as fundamental human rights. Discrimination and acts of violence against women are at the forefront of the human rights discourse (2014). There is global consensus that serious violations of human rights must not go unpunished. Victims have the right to claim justice, including within processes to restore the rule of law following conflicts. The International Criminal Court brings perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity to justice. There is now an international framework that recognizes the challenges facing migrants and their families which guarantees their rights and those of undocumented migrants. The challenges facing indigenous peoples and minorities are increasingly being identified and addressed by the international human rights mechanisms, especially with respect to their right to non-discrimination. The Human Rights Council, set up in 2006, has addressed vital and sensitive issues and its Universal Periodic Review, established in the same year, has allowed countries to assess each other’s human rights records, make recommendations and provide assistance for improvement.
Topic A: Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression
ith the increase in the rights of individuals, the right to free speech W and opinion in society has come to hold great importance in the modern world, but what is the Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression? It means the people are not to be reprehended by what they say or the opinions that they hold as long as they do not act upon them in a way that would harm society. The HRC is working on increasing such rights to people around the world as a mean to 4
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promote freedom and provide them with the rights that they should be entitled to. This is because such rights do not exist in many countries where people cannot publicly share their opinions or are forbidden to share certain views that could harm certain parties such as the government. An example of societies without such rights is equatorial guinea that’s is ruled by president Teodoro Obiang where any citizen that hold views of criticism or hate towards the government will be reprehended, for this reason the HRC works towards the abolishment of such oppression and ensuring that people live without fear of having a personal opinion. However, the HRC committee is not only set on simply providing free speech to countries without it, because that is only half the task, free speech is not only freedom of expression, but it is the people being aware that freedom of speech is not simply saying whatever you want without consequences or reprehension, but it is the expression of speech without inflicting harm on others, hence views of racism, although they could be considered as a private opinion, is a mean of inflicting harm on others and hence for that reason with freedom of speech comes consequences, and such consequences are the ones that the HRC is trying to limit. When we were first born, the first thing we ever did was cry, but that was us simply us asserting our voice in this world, it was born with us, and for that reason this topic is one of great importance as it is one that is about protecting a right we were born with and to not let it be oppressed.
Topic B: Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted Against Minorities
t is a common and general opinion in this world that we were all born I and created equal, however although that is true, in modern societies, many crimes are rooted due to the perspective of society being formed of different levels and hence minorities being singled out and being subjected to crimes based on the fact that they are classified as “minorities”. To first understand and go about solving such a problem, one must first understand what types of minorities are there, well it goes as the following: Ethnic minorities, gender minorities, people with disabilities, religious minorities, age minorities, political minorities and the individual as a minority. There is considerably high amount of crimes against minorities in today’s society. Racial crimes still take place, an example of such crimes are the policemen’s abuse of their powers through the harassment and the killing of African Americans in the USA which has caused riots in Ferguson, Missouri. Another example that can be used for the crimes that are taking place towards minorities are the crimes that go on in Russia, where 14 people have died and 77 were injured as result of hate crimes against minorities by September 2014, this was due to many Russians possessing 5
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xenophobia, which is the dislike of people from countries other than yours. Recent surveys show that more than 50% of Russians share this hate. These are only minor examples of the hate crimes and atrocities that take place against minorities around the world. The HRC committee is determined to stop or minimize such crimes as to achieve its objective of creating a world of tolerance and peace. Crimes against minorities are a form of intolerance and the HRC committee addresses it because no individual should be treated with prejudice based on personal qualities and characteristics that are out of their control. Such hate crimes are being more and more addressed in societies and people are slowly but surely coming together to put an end to it, however the rate of such crimes is still considerably high in a number of countries such as Russia and the USA as previously stated.
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Topic I: Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression
History and Realm of the Topic
reedom of Opinion and Expression refers to freedom in media, speech, F thought, culture and academic curiosity. Freedom of expression is the right that allows individuals to express their opinions without any interference from the government, including the right to criticize the state and the activities of the state and to inform the public about any illegal activities or injustices performed by the state. Freedom of expression includes the right to freedom of speech, which gives each citizen the right to express themselves and freedom of press which guarantees citizens freedom to express their opinions through media and dissemination of information.
Freedom of opinion refers to the ability of an individual to hold any opinions as per their discretion, and is a crucial element of freedom of expression. The Protection of Freedom of Expression and Opinion refers to the responsibility of the government to ensure that the people have the right to express their opinions freely, and that these rights are not compromised. However, the government does have authority to limit the freedom of speech in a situation where it may lead to violence or disrupt peace of the society.
Freedom of expression gained popularity in the 17th century, after John Milton’s famous political essay “Areopagitica”. In the essay, Milton proclaimed that “when complaints are freely heard, deeply considered and speedily reformed, then is the utmost bound of civil liberty attained, that
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wise men look for.” He delivered this powerful speech after the British Monarchy implemented the Licensing Act of 1643, which called for pre- censorship of all written material and newspapers. Milton’s text became the guiding view on Freedom of Expression and was an important work influencing the ideas of liberty in America, United Kingdom and France. After Milton’s essay established the idea of free speech, it was widely promoted in France which culminated in French National Assembly's
Declaration of the Rights of Man that inspired the French Revolution. This document was based on the principle that all “men are born and remain free and equal in rights.” This document formally entitled each man to the right to free expression and opinion and sought to promote and protect these rights.
Inspired by the document in France, the American Revolution fought for similar ideals of liberty and freedom, and established the U.S. Constitution's First Amendment, which was adopted in 1791 and provides for strong laws that seek to protect freedom of expression. The Amendment allows for citizens to freely express their opinions and publish them, without any constraints from the government.
However, despite these developments in Protection of free speech, it did not gain worldwide recognition until the Totalitarian regimes caused destruction in the 20th century. The rise of fascism and dictatorship entirely took away freedom of the people, and therefore, the end of World War II led to the formation of United Nations, which was created with the aim of protecting human rights. In regards to that, UN General Assembly adopted the UN Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 which seeks to protect basic rights, among which freedom of expression and opinion are included. All signatories to this document are bound to protect and promote free expression.
In today’s extremely connected and globalised society, the question of censorship and control is extremely important. What is the extent of disclosure that is acceptable? Is it right for countries that have restricted freedom of speech to detain and punish foreign journalists who seek to publish censored information? How do we define the line between free expression that causes civil unrest and that claims to expose the truth? These are some important ideas that are worth considering and seeking answers to.
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International and Regional Framework
nder Article 19, the right to freedom of expression is recognized as a U human right of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (Ambika Kumar, 2006). "Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference" and "everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice"—Article 19 of the ICCPR. In 1993, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. [3] Today, the promotion and protection of right to freedom of opinion and expression is just as imperative as it was in the past, but it is evolving. It is evolving in terms of disputes and resolutions. A dispute today the United Nations tries to solve is internet censorship which prevents individuals in some countries like China,
Cuba, and Iran from freely accessing the internet. Furthermore, a rising concern is the freedom of expression on the Internet. Forums and websites have thousands of people interacting on a daily basis that have the right to freely express their opinion and be oppressed or forced to give a biased opinion.
International and UN Reaction, and Possible Solutions
he main role of the UN is to maintain international peace and security T that must be preserved internationally, and strengthened in the developing countries, therefore the “Promotion and Protection of the right to freedom of Opinion and expression” is one in which it plays a role in peace and security issues. “In 1993, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.” In which they are expected to gather and collect information that involves violations of the right of freedom of opinion and expression or any threats or discrimination of some kind. Furthermore they are expected to seek and gain reliable information from all types of organizations who know any of these cases, therefore to be able to come up or recommend ate on different methods or ways to protect and promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression. All of the varies fundamentals of human rights in which it covers civil, cultural, economic, political and social, should be basically
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respected and protected by everyone, in order to maintain and promote peace and security.
As with time the UN found it vital to promote and protect the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression. Further resolutions have been done in these issues,one of the resolutions in which has been adopted orally but not with a vote, was the idea to “extend the mandate of the special Rapporteur for s further period of three years.” Furthermore the UN also pressured the rest of the States to all corporate with the special Rapporteur, in giving her updated and reliable data, or cases that they are aware off. Therefore allowing the Special Rapporteur to manage to submit annual report to the general assembly and the human Rights council that basically cover all the activities that have been undergoing. Countries have recognized how vital it is to raise awareness about this issue by knowing about the cases and therefore being able to come up with solution. The United States and Italy have created great emphasis on this matter, has seeing the importance to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression, it has been recognized that it is a fundamental pillar of any democratic society and therefore it is crucial of one to enjoy “of other human rights and fundamental freedoms.” In addition, for the European Union it is highlighted as one of the their priorities as freedom of opinion and expression constitutes “a pillar of democracy, rule of law, and peace and stability.” There fore the European Union also supported the importance of the special Rapporteur and so they wanted its renewal. In order to establish human rights it all resolves around the human, and therefore human freedom in being able to express themselves and stand up for their own right and as a result should be able to participate in realization of these acts of freedom and rights. “Emphasizing the responsibilities of all States, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations, to develop and encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion,” therefore it extends from the individual to the states themselves. With the technological advancements in communication methods, greater emphasis and efforts are needed in the area of the freedom of opinion and expression. States should be transparent in the use of the technology in communications in order to support individuals in the boundaries of their freedom of expression, allowing individuals to have a right for privacy under certain limitations and that each individual is aware of this. This reflects on the necessity of the cooperation between not only the states with special Rapporteur but further extending to the individuals themselves in order to encourage them in the promotion of freedom of speech. This can only be done with the help of the state the special Rapporteur and the individuals, which the state itself can bring together.
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UNESCO, has placed in its constitution, promotes the “free flow of ideas by word and image.” As promoting a comprehensive freedom of expression both on the internet and outside the inside, to allow for open and accessible internet. “Article 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights.” This outside international actor helps to solve this of promoting freedom of expression and opinion as instead of having governmental actors in the attempt of seeking political suppression of speech and rather have the freedom of opinion and expression in the best of the individual.
The freedom of opinion and expression is hindered all around the world, the example below is a case study in Uzbekistan. This only one example of the many countries around the world experiencing constraints in the freedom of opinion and expression. However the countries that highly restrict this include Albania, Uzbekistan, Macedonia, Kazakhstan and Russia.
Freedom of expression in Uzbekistan
n Uzbekistan, political and religious freedom is severely restricted and I the media is often controlled by the state. Critics note that the state uses intimidation and torture to assure compliance.
Uzbekistan has gained its independence from the USSR in 1989, and it is considered as one of the most authoritarian countries under the rule of the president Islam Karimov. The media is highly monitored and controlled by the state and even there is not religious freedom. However the government thinks that this is vital in order as there to limit the threats of Islamic groups from areas such as Tajikistan and other countries, which have the intentions of forming a new regime and setting up an Islamic state. Therefore the freedom of opinion and expression is limited in all different ways, in media or religion one cannot even express themselves because of the government seeking political suppression, as a fear of them to get overthrown by the Islamic groups and instead forming an Islamic state. As a result thousands of innocent Muslims have been thrown into prisons just for being Muslims, as reported by the local human rights. Although in Uzbekistan’s constitution they promote the freedom of opinion and expression through the press, that has not been the case, where the state fully controls and sensors what it wants in the media, throwing thousands of innocent journalists in prisons for expressing themselves through the media. Furthermore, other than the Muslims being thrown to jail for being Muslims, and the journalists for expressing themselves through the media so has the human rights workers that have went in there to investigate. There has been many reported cases of tortured and injured human rights workers that have been placed into prison and tortured for going in and investigating the issue of freedom of
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expression and speech. One example of the many human right workers that have been killed is “Mr Ruzimuradov allegedly died in police custody as a result of torture.”
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Topic 2: Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted Against Minorities
History and Realm of the Topic
he Human Rights Council was born by a General Assembly resolution T (60/251) on March 15, 2006, after the disintegration of its precursor, the UN Commission on Human Rights, due to the heavy criticism the Commission came under for its membership that included human-rights violators. The Geneva-based council meets at least three times a year for 10- week sessions, and can call special sessions as well. Along with assessing other human-rights concerns around the globe, members are supposed to commit to upholding high human-rights standards at home. The UN mission states that the council fosters "dialogue and cooperation" on human-rights concerns.
Nominees are put forth with regional distribution: 13 from the African Group, 13 from the Asian Group, 6 from the Eastern European Group, 8 from the Latin American and Caribbean Group, and 7 from the Western European and Others Group (WEOG). A country must get the votes of at least 96 of the 191 states of the UN General Assembly to become a member. As of the 2009 UN General Assembly, the Human Rights Council members are: Angola, Argentina, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Cuba, Djibouti, Egypt, France, Gabon, Ghana, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kyrgyzstan, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mexico, Netherlands,
Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Slovakia, Slovenia, 13
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South Africa, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Uruguay, Zambia.
The Human Rights Council responds to crises, supports human rights defenders, and brings human rights closer to people. Through advocacy, monitoring and training activities, it contributes to legislative and policy reforms to increase accountability for human rights violations and advance human rights. Many challenges lie ahead in the struggle to promote and enhance the dignity, freedom, and rights of all human beings. In the past two decades, however, significant progress has been made.
There is global consensus that serious violations of human rights must not go unpunished. Victims have the right to claim justice, including within processes to restore the rule of law following conflicts. Since its creation, The Human Rights Council has been heavily focused on bringing perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity to justice. As of 2014, Israel had been condemned in 50 resolutions by the Council. The Council had resolved almost more resolutions condemning Israel than on the rest of the world combined. The 50 resolutions comprised almost half (45.9%) of all country-specific resolutions passed by the Council, not counting those under Agenda Item 10 (countries requiring technical assistance). By April 2007, the Council had passed eleven resolutions condemning Israel, the only country which it had specifically condemned. The Human Rights Council was also heavily active in fighting the defamation of religion. Several non-binding resolutions have been voted on and accepted by the UN condemning "defamation of religion." The motions, sponsored on behalf of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, aim to prohibit expression that would "fuel discrimination, extremism and misperception leading to polarization and fragmentation with dangerous unintended and unforeseen consequences.". Critics of the resolutions including human rights groups argue that they are used to politically strengthen domestic anti-blasphemy and religious defamation laws, which are used to imprison journalists, students and other peaceful political dissidents.
The UN Human Rights Council has also addressed issues concerning the environment. In recent years, the recognition of the links between human rights and the environment has greatly increased. Many States now incorporate a right to a healthy environment in their constitutions. However, many questions about the relationship of human rights and the environment remain unresolved and require examination. The council approached the emerging issue by adopting the Resolution 10/4 about human rights and climate change under the right to a clean environment.
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Many lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people of all ages and in all regions of the world are subjected to hate-motivated physical violence. Many more are discriminated against in the labor market, in schools and in hospitals, or mistreated and disowned by their own families. In at least 76 countries, having a partner of the same sex is considered a criminal offence. In June 2011, the Human Rights Council adopted the first United Nations resolution L.27/Rev.1 on sexual orientation and gender identity. Its adoption paved the way for the first official United Nations report on the issue prepared by the UN Human Rights, and is a critically important step towards combating violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity and upholding the principles of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
HRC stands for Human Rihts Committee. According to the Office of the High commissioner of Human Rights, the main role and purpose of this committee is to “monitor the implementation of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights by its State parties. All States parties are obliged to submit regular reports to the Committee on how the rights are being implemented. States must report initially one year after acceding to the Covenant and then whenever the Committee requests (usually every four years). The Committee examines each report and addresses its concerns and recommendations to the State party in the form of "concluding observations”” (2014).
Some of the achievements of this committee are:
Women’s rights are now acknowledged as fundamental human rights. Discrimination and acts of violence against women are at the forefront of the human rights discourse (2014). There is global consensus that serious violations of human rights must not go unpunished. Victims have the right to claim justice, including within processes to restore the rule of law following conflicts. The International Criminal Court brings perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity to justice. There is now an international framework that recognizes the challenges facing migrants and their families which guarantees their rights and those of undocumented migrants. The challenges facing indigenous peoples and minorities are increasingly being identified and addressed by the international human rights mechanisms, especially with respect to their right to non-discrimination. The Human Rights Council, set up in 2006, has addressed vital and sensitive issues and its Universal Periodic Review, established in the same year, has allowed countries to assess each other’s human rights 15
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records, make recommendations and provide assistance for improvement.
Topic A
ith the increase in the rights of individuals, the right to free speech W and opinion in society has come to hold great importance in the modern world, but what is the Promotion and Protection of the right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression? It means the people are not to be reprehended by what they say or the opinions that they hold as long as they do not act upon them in a way that would harm society. The HRC is working on increasing such rights to people around the world as a mean to promote freedom and provide them with the rights that they should be entitled to. This is because such rights do not exist in many countries where people cannot publicly share their opinions or are forbidden to share certain views that could harm certain parties such as the government. An example of societies without such rights is equatorial guinea that’s is ruled by president Teodoro Obiang where any citizen that hold views of criticism or hate towards the government will be reprehended, for this reason the HRC works towards the abolishment of such oppression and ensuring that people live without fear of having a personal opinion. However, the HRC committee is not only set on simply providing free speech to countries without it, because that is only half the task, free speech is not only freedom of expression, but it is the people being aware that freedom of speech is not simply saying whatever you want without consequences or reprehension, but it is the expression of speech without inflicting harm on others, hence views of racism, although they could be considered as a private opinion, is a mean of inflicting harm on others and hence for that reason with freedom of speech comes consequences, and such consequences are the ones that the HRC is trying to limit. When we were first born, the first thing we ever did was cry, but that was us simply us asserting our voice in this world, it was born with us, and for that reason this topic is one of great importance as it is one that is about protecting a right we were born with and to not let it be oppressed.
Topic B
t is a common and general opinion in this world that we were all born I and created equal, however although that is true, in modern societies,
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many crimes are rooted due to the perspective of society being formed of different levels and hence minorities being singled out and being subjected to crimes based on the fact that they are classified as “minorities”. To first understand and go about solving such a problem, one must first understand what types of minorities are there, well it goes as the following: Ethnic minorities, gender minorities, people with disabilities, religious minorities, age minorities, political minorities and the individual as a minority. There is considerably high amount of crimes against minorities in today’s society. Racial crimes still take place, an example of such crimes are the policemen’s abuse of their powers through the harassment and the killing of African Americans in the USA which has caused riots in Ferguson, Missouri. Another example that can be used for the crimes that are taking place towards minorities are the crimes that go on in Russia, where 14 people have died and 77 were injured as result of hate crimes against minorities by September 2014, this was due to many Russians possessing xenophobia, which is the dislike of people from countries other than yours. Recent surveys show that more than 50% of Russians share this hate. These are only minor examples of the hate crimes and atrocities that take place against minorities around the world. The HRC committee is determined to stop or minimize such crimes as to achieve its objective of creating a world of tolerance and peace. Crimes against minorities are a form of intolerance and the HRC committee addresses it because no individual should be treated with prejudice based on personal qualities and characteristics that are out of their control. Such hate crimes are being more and more addressed in societies and people are slowly but surely coming together to put an end to it, however the rate of such crimes is still considerably high in a number of countries such as Russia and the USA as previously stated.
International and Regional Framework
t the Seventh Session of the United Nations Forum on Minority A Issues, Mr. Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, states out that the topic " Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted Against Minorities" is considered important as it shares vital disturbing history about humans and its solutions. Several atrocities corruptions such as genocides, acts of ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity and war crimes are all due to racisms, religion, singling out minority communities on the basis of their supposed differences, or perceived historical grievances." (Al Hussein, 2014, para.3). Human rights witness so many disturbing corruptions that affect people's lives nowadays for instance "deficient or corrupt governance and judicial institutions; discrimination and exclusion of minorities; inequities in development; exploitation and denial of economic and social rights; and 17
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repression of civil society and public freedoms are the major issues". (Al Hussein, 2014, para.4). As the author mentions, the Human Rights Institutions found in different places like Africa and Ukraine mainly the rights of the minority groups "are central to the prevention and mitigation of atrocity crimes"(Al Hussein, 2014, para.6). Their aim is to reduce the problems that are occurring so far towards the minorities because that's discrimination. OHCHR’s field offices not only propose dissipating the issue but at the same time, they are training and distributing many security and police officers everywhere to help "question people without using torture; how to manage peaceful protests; how to ensure that minorities can raise their voices and participate fully in the life of a nation"( Al Hussein, 2014, para.7).
International, and U.N Reaction, and Possible Solutions
hrough the Human Rights Council resolution 6/15 of 28 September T 2007, the UN has hosted an annual Forum on Minority Issues as a public platform, through which public discussion and subsequent recommendations to member nations and general society may be given (Office of the High Comminssioner for Human Rights). The realm of dialogue encompasses rights related to religious, ethnic, and linguistic minorities. The drafted recommendations are then presented to the Human Rights Council.
The first action of the UN with regard to protecting the rights of minorities was Resolution 47/135 of 18 December 1992 adopted through the General Assembly titled “Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities” outlining the obligations of nations toward their minorities, as well as emphasizing the protection and promotion of minority identity, equality and non- discrimination, and effective participation in all areas of social, political, civil, economic and cultural life. (United Nations, 1992).
On November 25th and 26th, 2014, the Forum on Minority Issues hosted its 7th annual Forum on Minority Issues on Preventing and Addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted against Minorities. During the UN Deputy Secretary-General’s address to the Forum, key points such as the atrocities taking place toward the Yezidis, Turkmens, and Christians, in Iraq and Syria were brought up as examples of recent heinous atrocities against minorities, including genocide. The goals of the convention include: understanding the nature of these crimes and their surrounding dynamics; detection of early warning signs and improving conflict prevention strategies; drafting recommendations to reduce conflict and promote post- 18
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conflict reconciliation within populations; as well as to intensify the efforts of member nations to promote and protect minority rights worldwide, to achieve development for those who are the poorest and most vulnerable (United Nations, 2014).
The Draft Recommendations on Preventing and addressing Violence and Atrocity Crimes Targeted against Minorities submitted during the 7th Forum on Minority Issues has outlined several suggestions on preventing violence and atrocity crimes, addressing ongoing violence, and on maintaining positive outcome in post-violence situations. While the suggestions are non-exhaustive, recommendations are presented to States, non-State actors, as well as regional and international actors.
Recommendations
egislation should be introduced prohibiting incitement to hatred and L violence and ensuring appropriate penalties, in line with international standards, including in relation to freedom of expression and hate speech States should avoid the creation or persistence of statelessness, denial or deprivation of citizenship for persons belonging to minorities, as that leaves minority communities vulnerable to violence and other rights violations, with only weak protection by State authorities who may not recognize them as citizens or nationals whose rights must be protected. The citizenship application process must be fair, transparent and non-discriminatory towards all minorities. States should take concrete steps to ensure good and inclusive governance and the participation of minorities at all levels of politics and in decision-making bodies as an essential means of ensuring that the issues and concerns of minorities, including the threat of violence, are recognized as early as possible and are appropriately addressed by government and public bodies.
Teaching of the principles of human rights, minority rights, equality and non-discrimination and of the positive contributions of minorities to societies should be integrated in formal and non-formal education, with a view to promoting dialogue, understanding and tolerance between different groups in society.
States should consider establishing dedicated institutions or dedicated units or departments within existing institutions, including in ministries in charge of minority rights protection and promotion, and include staff members from minorities and with expertise on minority issues.
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States should collect data disaggregated by, inter alia, gender, age, ethnicity, religion, mother tongue and geographical location, as a violence prevention tool providing a better understanding of the size and status of minorities. Particularly in societies in which violence or conflict have previously broken out, risk assessment methodologies should be employed, built upon analysis of past violent events to assess the extent to which certain communities may face renewed threats of violence.
States must ensure that minorities affected by violence, including the most marginalized groups and those affected by conflict in which they are not combatants, have access to immediate humanitarian aid and relief such as water, sanitation, food, shelter and health care and other essential services.
Non-State actors
Community and religious leaders should initiate and maintain constructive inter-ethnic and interreligious dialogue and should consider intercultural and interfaith initiatives, including youth initiatives, in order to promote harmonious relations and prevent violence against minorities potentially undertaken by terrorist or extremist nationalist, ethnic or religious actors.
Minority groups and majority communities should give special attention to the situation and perspectives of young people. Youth initiatives should be developed to promote understanding, tolerance and mutual respect across communities as well as to eliminate the possible recruitment or exploitation of young people by groups that promote or incite violence.
Regional and international actors
egional human rights bodies should systematically pay attention to R minority issues and potential threats to specific minorities within their work, including in the context of their monitoring of the implementation by States of regional and international standards.
Regional bodies should consider establishing specific regional mechanisms for the consideration of minority issues, including working groups, rapporteurs or other appropriate mechanisms with powers including undertaking country visits and analysing situations where minority rights concerns exist.
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Rwandan genocide
ithin a 3 month period in 1994, up to 800,000 people in Rwanda W were killed in the Rwandan genocide. For years leading up to the conflict, the international community contributed to efforts and provided substantial assistance to alleviate the suffering of Rwandese refugees and displaced persons, and to find a solution to the escalating conflict.
Some of the historical factors leading up to the conflict in Rwanda. One of which being the harsh regime that was imposed on semi-autonomous Tutsi and Hutu lineages, which manifested through confiscating their land and breaking their political power. This, followed be the increasing tension between Hutu groups, as well as Tutsi groups in contemporary times, among other things, led to the erupting conflict. Initial diplomatic peace talks led to the Arusha Accords, the implementation of which was formally overseen by the United Nations, who failed to make use of local African states. After that point the violence toward the Tutsi minority had only escalated further, and civil war had broken out.
Outlines of how to implement peaceful resolution were taking form; meanwhile documented structures of violence gave warning of potential genocide. States gave little interest in assisting these peace processes, meanwhile the UNHCR was understaffed, overburdened, and lacked the leverage to apply the needed pressure to resolve the issue. As such reports of these human rights inquiries were mostly filed away and were not heeded much attention, giving more light to what were regarded as more pressing issues at the time. There was a failure in both the UN system and the NGO community to link human rights reports to dynamic analyses of social conflict so as to pro-vide strategic policy choices. Further shortcomings to the early detection and warning of the case in Rwanda go further, including the UN lacking a specialized unit dedicated to analyzing and translating analyses into strategic options. Since there was a failure to monitor the situation, there too was a failure to correctly assess and handle the situation.
Conflict management, however, is not merely a collection of information, but also of interest and capacity of the UN, NGOs and State actors to react. While humanitarian aid and physical protection by the international community were key in resolving the Rwanda crisis, it must be noted that there is a close relationship between the level of security and the effectiveness of humanitarian assistance. The Rwanda crisis was characterized by the lack of a coordinated political strategy by the international community. Task forces dedicated to particular issues made up of key interested parties would help to encourage stronger linkages
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(Eriksson, 1996). Suggested reading: Amendment A/63/677 of 12 January, 2009.
References
United Nations. (n.d.) The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Retrieved from United Nations website: http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml
This website is the official United Nations page and provides the entire Universal Declaration of Human Rights along with the preamble. This is important and relevant information because it helps us understand one of the most critical developments in Freedom of Expression and Opinion and the rights that it confers on the signatories.
Democracy Web: Comparative Studies in Freedom. (n.d.) Freedom of Expression. Retrieved from Democracy Web website: http://www.democracyweb.org/expression/history.php
The Democracy Web site is a crucial and informative source since it provides a collection of information on the meaning and importance of free speech, its historical development, thinkers and revolutionaries who advanced the movement and the situation in various countries of the world.
Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute. (n.d.) Retrieved from Cornell University Law School website: http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/first_amendment
The Cornell Law School website provides information regarding the First Amendment in the US constitution. It explains the different clauses under the amendment and the rights that it confers on the citizens of the country.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. (2014). In Encyclopedia Brittanica. Retrieved from http://academic.eb.com.ezproxy.aus.edu/EBchecked/topic/503563/D eclaration-of-the-Rights-of-Man-and-of-the-Citizen
Brittanica mentions the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, the historical events leading up to these rights aswell as their implementation.
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Areopagitica. (2014). In Encyclopedia Brittanica. Retrieved from http://academic.eb.com.ezproxy.aus.edu/EBchecked/topic/33505/Ar eopagitica This section of the encyclopaedia provides information regarding John Milton’s famous speech. It writes about the circumstances leading to the speech, the content of the same and the consequences of Areopagitica on Milton and the society.
[1] Ambika Kumar (Summer 2006). "Using Courts to Enforce the Free Speech Provisions of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". Chicago Journal of International Law 7. In this article, Ambika Kumar looks into article 19 of the ICCPR and suggests that activists for liberal free speech rules must look to their courts for solutions. Courts may be exclusively situated to implement the ICCPR by relying on its language and reading an inherent right to political speech into the constitutions of their respective governments.
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Written By Sameera Younus, Shiza Chohan, Areej & Yonas Ackholm
Faculty Advisor Dr. Line Khatib
Welcome Letter
Dear Delegate,
We are pleased to welcome you to the 8th Annual American University of Sharjah Model United Nations Conference (AUSMUN’15), and to the League of Arab states Council. We hope that this conference is a rewarding, educational and enjoyable experience for you.
The topics under discussion are: I. Combating Religious Extremism II. Brain Drain
The League of Arab States is an anchor of stability in a troubled region. Its main goal is “strengthening of the relations between the member- states, the coordination of their policies in order to achieve co-operation between them and to safeguard their independence and sovereignty; and a general concern with the affairs of the Arab countries”. LAS is strategically located to address region specific problems in a manner other organizations cannot. From the decades old conflict between Israel and Palestine to the empowerment of women, LAS strives to better the well-being of its members.
This Background Guide serves as an introduction to the topics for this committee, along with all other information you will require through the next two days. The Guide does not replace further research, and we encourage you to carryout extensive study on the topics and explore your countries’ policies in-depth. For this purpose we have provided useful websites at the end of each topic. To truly gain from the conference you will need to research beyond this guide.
If you have any inquires whatsoever regarding the conference please do not hesitate to get in touch with us at [email protected]
All the Best!
Yonas Ackholm Director of International Relations
League of Arab States
Table of Content
History of the League of Arab States Committee ...... 2 Membership Details ...... 2 Historic Moments ...... 3 Topic I: Brain Drain ...... 5 Introduction ...... 5 History of Brain Drain ...... 6 Role of the UN ...... 7 Possible Solutions ...... 8 Egypt ...... 9 Tunisia and Morocco ...... 10 References ...... 10 Topic 2: Combating Religious Extremism ...... 15 Introduction ...... 15 History of Religious Extremism ...... 16 Role of the UN ...... 17 Iraq ...... 19 Iran ...... 19 References ...... 20
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History of the League of Arab States Committee
he League of Arab States Committee was established on March 22nd T 1945 in Cairo. It originated after World War II as mean to encourage unity between Arab states and strengthen their power against British and French Occupation which was spread in different countries across the Middle Eastern Region. It was also founded as a mean to bring awareness to the endangerments brought to the Middle East with the Zionist Occupation of Palestine. The main aim of the committee was to develop the economy of member countries, and to encourage trade of goods and labor force between them.
The University was founded shortly after the implementation of the Alexandria Protocol which included-but not limited to: The establishment of the League of Arab States from Independent Arab countries which accept to join the League in which every state has an equal vote on the board. The council’s mission is to ensure the implementation of agreements made by the Member states among themselves, to conduct regular meetings to maintain a constructive relationship between countries and coordinate political investigations to achieve cooperation between the Member States and protect the independence of member countries and look through Arab countries’ affairs in general.
Membership Details
he Committee started in March with only six member states which T were: Kingdom of Egypt (now known as the Arab Republic of Egypt), Kingdom of Iraq (now known as the Republic of Iraq), Transjordan (now known as The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan), the Lebanese Republic, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic. Shortly after, on May 5th 1945, the Republic of Yemen joined the Committee. The League of Arab States now has 22 countries, most of which joined during the second half of the 20th century. In addition to the previously mentioned members, the membership now includes: People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria, Kingdom of Morocco, Kingdom of Bahrain, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Palestine, the Union of the Comoros, the 2
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Republic of Djibouti, the State of Qatar, the Federal Republic of Somalia, the Republic of the Sudan, the State of Kuwait, the Tunisian Republic, the United Arab Emirates, the State of Libya and the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. The Syrian Arab Republic’s membership has been suspended since November 12th 2011 due to the current unstable conditions resulting from the conflict between the present regime and its opponents. The suspension of Syria’s membership was suggested to act as a threat to Assad. The Threat’s aim was to stop Assad’s war crimes in exchange of Syria being able to keep its seat in the League.
The State of Libya’s membership has also been suspended on February 22nd 2011. The decision was made by the former Secretary-General, Amr Mousa, following the commencement of the Libyan Civil War that included the usage of military forces against civilians. However, Libya was granted back its membership on August 25th 2011 in a statement made by the current Secretary-General, Nabil Elaraby, following the end of the Libyan Civil War and shortly before the murder of the Libyan Leader Muammar Gaddafi.
Historic Moments
he most historic moments in the history of the League of Arab States T are those in which major agreements or pacts were made, such as:
The Charter of the Arab League
The Charter was signed in 1945. Its main principle was sanctioning the idea of a unified Arab home, while maintaining the respect for each country’s independence. The Charter also included the internal guidelines of the Council of the Arab League and the committees, however; these were agreed to in October 1951. The regulations and duties of the Secretariat- General were added to the Charter in May 1953.
Arab Parliament
Arab States agreed on establishing an Arab Parliament during the Arab League Summit of 2001in Amman. The Parliament consists of multiple representatives from each Member State and one Observer State, Turkey. The current headquarter of the Parliament is Cairo, Egypt.
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The Pact of the Arab league
During the first summit in 1964, this Pact was created after Member States agreed on adding a delegate from Palestine to participate in the League’s conferences and Parliaments, until Palestine is granted its freedom. However, the State of Palestine was not added as full member of the Arab League until 1974.
The Arab Peace Initiative
During the Arab League Summit in 2002-Beirut, the Arab Peace Initiative was adopted. This initiative, which was Saudi-lead, suggested a peace plan for the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. It recommended the absolute standardization of the political and economic relations with Israel. In return, Israeli would withdraw from all territories it has occupied in the Middle East including the Golan Heights. Israel would also be required to recognise the independence of the Palestinian State which would take East Jerusalem as its capital in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, in addition to providing a fair solution for the Palestinian refugees.
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Topic I: Brain Drain
“The global stock of international migrants (i.e. people living in a country different from their country of birth) more than doubled between 1960 and 2000, from 76 to 159 million”
Introduction
rain drain, a sociological term, is an ongoing global phenomenon B which depicts the emigration of highly talented and skilled workers to other host countries. Human Capital Flight is another economical term which is closely related to brain drain. The origin of the term ‘Brain Drain’ was invented by the British Royal Society while explaining the departure of “scientists and technologists” to North America during “1950s and early 1960s.” This term was further commonly defined as the outflow of skilled manpower from their home countries to other host countries.
According to the United Nations Populations Division Report stated that, “Between 1960 and 2005 the number of international migrants in the world more than doubled passing from an estimated 75 million in 1960 to almost 191 million in 2005, an increase of 125 million in 45 years.”
The loss and gain derived from brain drain for developing and developed countries had proven to be both an advantage and a disadvantage on many economic and social patterns of living. The elevation of brain drain had resulted from various reasons, most of which are due to better healthcare facilities, job opportunities, political stability, extensive family relations in host countries etc. As it had established a brain gain for the former country for acquiring the skills and agility of foreign workers, it had moreover increased the dependency of native regions on other countries which had either a high or low income regionally.
However, most of the Arab states began to witness ‘Brain Gain’ after the uprising of the Arab Spring in 2011. The governments of most of the Arab
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states had taken the initiative of introducing educational facilities and new organizations to pursue the youths to return and advance forward with their education and working skills away from the foreign countries. Additionally, the advancement of technologies had also provided a vital key into initiating brain gain within the region. These were few of many solutions that had prospered into saving several nations from brain drain. However, brain drain still remains a prominent factor in most of the Arab states, which can be avoided by adopting numerous other solutions to wipe out this globalized occurrence.
History of Brain Drain
he ‘Brain Drain’ global trend was witnessed worldwide since the time T of 529 AD, during the Roman Reign. The first recorded brain drain had taken place under the rule of Justinian East Roman Emperor who had ordered the close down of the Platonic Academy, which had forced a great number of scholars and philosophers to escape the region from violence and war. This trend of immigration has continued for centuries and was introduced into the western and southern Europe after World War II. The gruesome after effects of the war had left many qualified experts of different fields at a loss. This was primarily the main reason for their emigration that had soon followed a mass emigrational pattern by the rest of the region. Africa was struck by this trend during 1980s and had continued for more than 10 years. An example would be the mass emigration from Ethiopia, estimating a 75% loss of qualified individuals from the country. Kenya and Nigeria were few other countries of Africa which had also experienced the global trend after Ethiopia. Immigration from the Arab countries began from 1980s and had continued to increase gradually over the years to come. The first Arabs to immigrate were from the Ottoman province of Syria to the United States during 1980s. Furthermore, Arabs of other states followed along and major emigration had started arising in the Arab world during the beginning of the 20th century. The second most important immigration for the Arabs was in the early 1950s where majority of Palestinians had migrated to other host countries besides United States as their destination. This was the time where the brain drain phenomenon had become prominent throughout the Middle Eastern regions. Lebanese immigration had increased in the early 1950s till the present day.
The Iraq War, which had taken place on May 20th 2003, contributed vastly into the brain drain trend regionally. Skilled, professional workers with
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higher education had escaped the turmoil and unstable Iraq during the war. Thousands had fled Iraq to the neighbouring countries which had caused Iraq to “suffer a massive brain drain under Saddam Hussein, when an estimated four million people fled into exile.” According to Professor Mongi Boughzala, of Economics and Management of Tunis University quoted, “Every year around 25,000 Tunisians leave their country because of structural unemployment which prevents them from finding work.” It has been estimated that between the years of 2003 and 2008, double the number of Tunisian undergraduates and graduates had immigrated to Europe as there was a 21.3% increase in the employment rate in Tunisia.
The brain drain occurrence had not gone unnoticed by higher officials worldwide. The topic was first raised in a debate which had taken place in Europe in early 1960s. ‘The European Population Conference’ was one of the forums who had discussed extensively about the analysis of European emigration over the years. During the early 1970s, the US had introduced the scheme of “Brain Drain Tax” which had tried to maintain the mass outflow of skilled workers and manpower for a period of time. These were some of the major solutions that had been proposed by the nations worldwide to reduce the outflow of manpower from their native countries. However, various organizations around the world are still combating to maintain this global trend, so as to prevent it from escalating in the near future.
Role of the UN
he UN has been in attempt to overcome the issue of such called ‘brain drain’ known as the “migration of the highly-skilled and educated people…especiallyT from developing countries to developed countries” (Özden, P.2). As for a fact, from the quantitative date acquired many of the different paths as “scientists, engineers, physicians, and other professionals from developing countries work in Canada, the United States, and Western Europe” (Carrington & Detragiache, 1999). This demonstrates that many of them who migrated to developed countries had expected a higher income yet that was false. It was slowing down the economic growth of the developing countries where the highly educated people came from since they all left and unfortunate ones were left behind. Brain drain will shape the future economic, cultural, and social profile of the impacted nation.
According to the reports published by the UN, OECD, IMF and the Arab League, it has been observed that many of the Arab countries were experiencing brain drain by 2010. From the acquired data, it can be said that close to a million Arab experts and specialists are known to be living in 7
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developed countries that receive an extremely low rate of income (OECD, 2001). Many of the reasons suggest that the migrating population is attracted to the jobs or opportunities in different “technological and scientific” (Makarem, 2010) fields mainly in the West since it was absent in the Arab World. Other factors evolve around political issues that have been a cause to ignition of the brain drain (Makarem, 2010). Yet by 2012, the rate of brain declined as more and more young students chose to stay and many other individuals from overseas started to return (OECD-UNDESA, 2013). Evidence shows that in 2013, that Saudi Arabia (9.1 million) and UAE (7.8 million) were amongst the top 10 countries in which international migrants resided (OECD, 2013). After the Arab Spring, it’s illustrated that many of young individuals were becoming entrepreneurs and instead of going to abroad (such as Western countries) many started their own businesses. Regardless of the on-going global recession, Arab countries saw that science was the key to their development and therefore had upgraded their educational programs.
Possible Solutions
rain drain proves to be one of the major problems faced by the Arab B countries, with regards to their educated and skilled personnel. To develop possible solutions or work on the policies or laws already implemented, the basic causes of the problems must be understood. For Arab countries, brain drain has proved be a hindrance in their ay of development. The situation has been aggravated by the presence of a variety of factors such as (i) Low job opportunities for the skilled population due to the reduction in the working opportunities matching the specialization of the individual as well as a drop in the number of development projects. (ii) Resulting low income. (iii) Political and economic instability (iv) More technological progress in the countries to which they migrate, and
(v) Monetary gains in terms of higher salaries. A number of policies and laws have been passed to contain this drain of resources, by individual countries as well as by international communities, such as LAS (League of Arab States), the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), UNESCO, etc. A few possible solutions to curb this phenomenon are listed as follows:
(i) Setting up joint institutions which deal with the situation, considering the framework of cooperation between countries.
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Keeping an up-to-date extensive statistical record of the migrants so that information about their educational and working status, etc. can be gained. (ii) Setting up policies which cater to the needs of manpower of the Arab countries with insufficient manpower, as well as setting up research and development centers, and organizations which help to organize the lives of the educated and skilled migrants. (iii) Cooperating with UNESCO, so that development projects and scientific centers are set up which will further help in contributing to their efforts in managing the phenomenon of brain drain. The following shows the laws and policies which have been adopted and implemented by different countries:
(i) Egypt considered the case of migration (or brain drain) as being beneficial to the country in terms of freeing its citizens from the social, economic and political restrictions. Institutions to manage the migration have also been set up, for example : Higher Committee for Migration, established in 1983 and restructured in 1997 for further cooperation between the different sectors if the government managing migration affairs. (ii) Morocco and Tunisia have signed bilateral agreements with the European immigration countries such as Belgium, France, Germany, etc. to cater to these countries’ labour demand. Institutions such as the Office for Tunisians Abroad (OTE) in Tunisia and a migration unit in the Ministry of Employment in Morocco contribute to the efforts. (iii) A few of the remittance policies adopted by the countries involve helping the migrants and their families access remittances, reducing the cost of remittance transactions, as well as using the remittances to improve the investment situation.
Egypt
he problem of brain drain is not new in the context of Egypt. Though T the comparison of the migration rates over the years has shown a decline in the rate of brain drain in general, there is still a loss of skilled population of the country to Middle East as well to the Western countries. A number of reasons have been identified for this situation. Studies show that Egypt is a country faced with rapid population growth, resulting in over population as well as high level of unemployment. Another reason is the rigid employment structure, limited job opportunities as well as lack of sufficient financial resources. The resulting brain drain in Egypt is found to be of two types – Temporary and permanent. Though brain drain has been considered to deprive the country of its gifted and skilled individuals, it has
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also proved to be beneficial to some; for example, it paved the way for the creativity of other scientists, along with leading to a boost in the economy through remittances from these migrants. Despite this, the country does have its own regulations and policies, such as the ‘Liberal Migration Policy’ along with other policies formulated in cooperation with other Arab countries to manage its brain drain.
Tunisia and Morocco
similar situation of brain drain exists in Tunisia and Morocco. The A major causes of brain drain in these two countries are unstable economy, poverty, high unemployment rates as well as underdevelopment in the country. Most of the migrants from Tunisia and Morocco are spread out over other Arab countries in the Middle East as well as member countries of the OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development). Both countries have certain policies and regulations which helps them to manage the situation. Both countries have formed bilateral agreements with countries which have high labour demands (for example, European countries like France, Germany, etc.) On the other hand, these countries have also passed laws to control human trafficking and illegal migration. Though there are regulations and laws to control extensive migration, there exists no definite law prevents such a situation from taking place. The countries have to further work towards implementation of their existing laws, which can help towards reducing the impact of the causes that lead to brain drain in the beginning.
References
Carrington, W., & Detragiache, E. (1999). How Extensive Is the Brain Drain? Finance Development, 36(2). Retrieved from http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/1999/06/carringt.htm
The article talks about the phenomenon of brain drain and states the importance of education. It introduces sub topics of estimating the brain drain, Brain drain to the United States, Brain drain to other OECD countries. This website was helpful to my research since it states how extensive brain drain is and which countries are affected by them. They are members of the OECD so I could use this source to talk about brain drain in outside countries.
Docquier, F., & Marfouk, A. (2006). International Migration by Education Attainment, 1990–2000. In International Migration, Remittances, and the Brain Drain. Washington, DC: World Bank. Retrieved from
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http://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_Ittmig_Arab/P10_ Ozden.pdf
The article talk about brain drain in Middle East and North Africa and the changes in migration flow from 19th century to the 20century. This was helpful to my research since it specifies our region and explains how these migration flows shape our economic, social and cultural profile in the near future.
Cervantus, M., Guellec, D., (2002). The Brain Drain: Old Myths , New Realities. OECD Observer. Retrieved 24th November 2014 from http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/archivestory.php/aid/673/The_br ain_drain:_Old_myths,_new_realities.html
This article explains the origin of the term ‘Brain Drain ‘, which was first used to describe intellectuals, who were mainly scientists and technologists that had emigrated vastly to the US and Canada. Furthermore, it explores the emigrational patterns of migrants globally over the past few years.
Hawley, Caroline (28th September 2007). Brain Drain puts new strain on Iraq. BBC News. Retreieved 24th November 2014 from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4726281.stm
A news article revealing a long term departure of Iraqi’s from their native country, to avoid the violence and instability of the political war. The majority of emigrants were Doctors who had observed into other host countries as a safe working haven, away from the unstable political war and violence back in their home countries.
Naff, Alixa (1993). Becoming American: The Early Arab Immigrant Experience. Southern Illinois University, p. 2.
This book represents the various historical examples associated with the earliest of Arab immigration, which had introduced a gateway for secure settlement and numerous opportunities for many other emigrants in a foreign country. This book also gives an overview of the history of Arab Americans’ emigrants of the pre-World War I generation, who had declared United States as the one of the destination of various opportunities for settlements and lifestyle advancements.
No author. (March 6, 2012). Youth Brain Drain continues in the Maghreb. Retrieved 24th November 2014, from 11
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http://www.femise.org/en/articles-en/la-fuite-des-jeunes-cerveaux- continue-dans-les-pays-du-maghreb/
This article informs the readers about the rate of increase in the departure of Tunisians, mainly undergraduate and graduate students, who had chosen to immigrate to Europe for the completion of their education and for employment opportunities. One of the primary reasons for these mass emigrations of Tunisian students was due to the escalation of unemployment rate percentage in Tunisia.
No author (n.d) Brain Drain in LEDC. Retrieved 25th November 2014 from http://www.spimun.com/?p=articles&id=36
This article gives the readers an informative background about ‘Brain Drain ‘and provides examples of brain drain trend in the Europe and African regions. The article also briefly talks about the measures and tactics undertaken by the US to maintain the outflow skilled workers during a period of time.
Orfalea, Gregory (2006). The Arab Americans: A History. Olive Branch Press, p. 207.
This book explores the various emigrational patterns undertaken by the Arab Americans, from different states, migrating to the United States as their primary destination.
Ozden, C., Parsons, C. R., Schiff, M., & Walmsley, T. L. (2011). Where on earth is everynody? The evolution of global bilateral migration, 1960-2000. World Bank Economic Review, 25(1), 12-56.
This journal article investigates the numerous models of immigration between developing and developed countries between the years of 1960-2000. It provides the readers with statistical data, graphs and cases of the global emigrational pattern.
Richard Sorabji. (2005). The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200-600 AD: Psychology (with Ethics and Religion), p. 11. Cornell University Press.
This book had emphasised the prominent trend of Brain Drain which had occurred during the reign of the Justinian Roman Emperor of the East, where the incidence of violence and corruption had forced philosophers and scholars of higher education to escape into safer territories. 12
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United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Population Division, Trends in Total Migrant Stock: The 2005 Revision (New York: United Nations Population Division, 2006), p. 1.
A report presented by the United Nations from the Department of Economic and Social Affairs stating the percentage increase in the immigration of migrants globally, assessing the comparison of major cases and statistical data over a period of years.
Brain drain in IDB member countries: Trends and Developmental Impact. Retrieved from
http://www.isdb.org/irj/go/km/docs/documents/IDBDevelopments/In ternet/English/IDB/CM/Publications/Occasional%20Papers/Brain_D rain.pdf
This research study also gives an idea about brain drain, its causes, as well as policies adopted by the countries’ governments to overturn the situation. It also shows each countries extent of the brain drain as well as how brain drain can prove to be useful to a country’s economy.
C. Schramm. Migration from Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia - Synthesis of Three Case Studies. Retrieved from: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/SF_backgr ound-4.pdf
This research study gives an extensive idea about the causes of brain drain by comparing the situation in three specific countries: Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia as well as shows the impact that brain drain has on the countries and the policies and laws adopted by them to handle the situation.
Brain drain in IDB member countries: Trends and Developmental Impact. Retrieved from : http://www.isdb.org/irj/go/km/docs/documents/IDBDevelopments/In ternet/English/IDB/CM/Publications/Occasional%20Papers/Brain_D rain.pdf
This research study also gives an idea about brain drain, its causes, as well as policies adopted by the countries’ governments to overturn the situation. It also shows each countries extent of the 13
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brain drain as well as how brain drain can prove to be useful to a country’s economy.
Brain drain from African and Arab countries and its consequences.(2003). Retrieved from: http://www.arab-ipu.org/english/news/afro10/item6.html
This document gives information about the causes of brain drain in the African and Arab countries, its negative impact as well as possible solutions which can be implemented to curb the situation.
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Topic 2: Combating Religious Extremism
Introduction
xtremism is a term that has stemmed from an ideology, which applies E to an action performed by an extremist that is beyond the common mainstream standards of living. The exact definition of the term has been debated over the past years. However, extremism at the present date is seen as a complex phenomenon which characterizes the actions performed as nonstandard. Extremism can be branched into religion, economics and politics. The root of extremism is explained meticulously by two professors: Dr. Coleman and Dr. Bartoli. According to the professors, extremism can arise from the following: lack of fulfilment of human needs in adverse conditions, political leaders constructing incentives leading to extremism, emotionally challenged individuals with dire aims, gathering of extremists over competition of power in a country and claimant over scarce resources in an environment.
Religious extremism is one of the categories that stems from extremism. This form of extremism deals more in detail with religious acts or beliefs. Religious extremism has been categorized into three dimensions by Charles Liebman. In his study he informs the readers about religious extremism of Judaism as an example. These dimensions of extremism in general include: the expansion of religious laws within a system, the belief towards extremists norms and rituals by the people within the system and the rejection of cultural values and traits.
Religious extremism, particularly extremism in Islam, has increased over the past few years. According to a survey conducted by Pew Research Center, 67% of the Muslim population are concerned with an increase in Islamic extremism in Middle East, Sub Saharan Africa and South Asia. One of the popular means of violence by Islamic extremists is suicide bombers. However, majority of the Muslim population believe that the actions
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performed by the extremists are not in the name of Islam. The Muslim population also have the least amount of positive support towards extremists group, namely: Al Qaeda, The Taliban, Hamas and Hezbollah. Boko Haram, an Islamist group, has shown associated negative support and unfavourable opinions among 92% of Nigerian Christians and 83% of Nigerian Muslims.
History of Religious Extremism
he formation of religious extremist groups and its effects was T witnessed decades ago around the globe. The forms of religious extremist’s acts have evolved over the years. Religious extremism is not only prominent in Islam, but in fact it has been witnessed in other religions, such as: Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism. Focusing into the religion of Islam, it is known that extremism had occurred back in the late 7th century. The Kharijites during that period held extreme beliefs towards their religion, which were not similar to the mainstream beliefs of the Shia and Sunni Muslims. The Kharijites did not support Ali ibn Abhi Talib’s rule and embarked on a violent quest against believers with other set of beliefs.
A well-known extremist group called the Muslim Brotherhood, which had established in 1928, in Ismailiyah, Egypt, by Hassan al Banna. This group had the most influential effect in terms of political and religious matter during its reign. The brotherhood’s doctrine is the Holy Quran and the Sunnah, which merges and results in the perfect living of a Muslim in the society. The brotherhood is strictly against the Westerners colonizing and preaching their faith which may affect the imagery of Islam as a religion. Hezbollah is a religious extremist group which had originated among the Shia Muslims in Lebanon, after the invasion of Lebanon by Israels in 1982. Originally, it had around 15,000 members whose principles had derived from the Iraninan Revolution and the “political writings of Baqir as-Sadr and Khomein. Hezbollah had grasped a powerful control in Lebanon with a dire aim of converting Lebanon into an Islamic province. The group had also called for possible battle with the United States and the destruction of Israels.
Another familiar Sunni extremist group was formed in Palestine called the Hamas. Hamas organization is labelled as a terrorist group by various countries including: United States, Egypt, Australia, Japan etc. However, some countries like Iran and Qatar do not consider the Hamas group as a terrorist organization. The group had launched attacks on soldiers and unarmed civilians of Israel. The attack on civilians was stated as war crimes by various human rights groups. Thousands of rockets were launched at the civilians in Gaza from December 2008 to January 2009. This had taken place during the three week military offensive by Israel in Gaza.
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The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) which had originated back in 1999 under the name Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad. Over the years the group have emerged very strong and upholds a significant presence in Iraq and Syria. It is a Sunni Islamist rebel group which has been denounced as a terrorist organization by several countries. ISIS is popularly known to use gruesome tactics against civilians. Recent propaganda includes the beheadings of several foreigners posted online on the internet.
Combating religious extremism can be a challenging task. However, many political and religious leaders around the globe are holding various conferences to discuss the possible tactics into combating religious extremist groups. In a recent conference held in Abu Dhabi in December 11th, several religious leaders belonging to various religious, had gathered and discussed about the challenged faced on recognizing and combating such groups. ‘Religions for Peace’ is an organization in New York which has revealed it’s “three year global action” to utilize the countries “education, advocacy and strategic humanitarian assistance in the fight against violent extremism.” Battling such groups by raising awareness among leaders and merging peaceful tactics into combating them may result into a positive outlook for our future.
Role of the UN
he UN resolves to undertake the following measures aimed at T addressing the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism, including but not limited to prolonged unresolved conflicts, dehumanization of victims of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, lack of rule of law and violations of human rights, ethnic, national and religious discrimination, political exclusion, socio-economic marginalization, and lack of good governance, while recognizing that none of these conditions can excuse or justify acts of terrorism:
1. To continue to strengthen and make best possible use of the capacities of the United Nations in areas such as conflict prevention, negotiation, mediation, conciliation, judicial settlement, rule of law, peacekeeping and peace building , in order to contribute to the successful prevention and peaceful resolution of prolonged unresolved conflicts. We recognize that the peaceful resolution of such conflicts would contribute to strengthening the global fight against terrorism.
2. To continue to arrange under the auspices of the United Nations initiatives and programs to promote dialogue, tolerance and understanding among civilizations, cultures, peoples and religions, and to promote mutual respect for and prevent the defamation of 17
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3. religions, religious values, beliefs and cultures. In this regard, we welcome the launching by the Secretary-General of the initiative on the Alliance of Civilizations. We also welcome similar initiatives that have been taken in other parts of the world.
4. To promote a culture of peace, justice and human development, ethnic, national and religious tolerance, and respect for all religions, religious values, beliefs or cultures by establishing and encouraging, as appropriate, education and public awareness programs involving all sectors of society. In this regard, we encourage the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization to play a key role, including through inter-faith and intra-faith dialogue and dialogue among civilizations.
5. To continue to work to adopt such measures as may be necessary and appropriate and in accordance with our obligations under international law to prohibit by law incitement to commit a terrorist act or acts and prevent such conduct.
6. To reiterate our determination to ensure the timely and full realization of the development goals and objectives agreed at the major United Nations conferences and summits, including the Millennium Development Goals. We reaffirm our commitment to eradicate poverty and promote sustained economic growth, sustainable development and global prosperity for all.
7. To pursue and reinforce development and social inclusion agendas at every level as goals in themselves, recognizing that success in this area, especially on youth unemployment, could reduce marginalization and the subsequent sense of victimization that propels extremism and the recruitment of terrorists. 8. To encourage the United Nations system as a whole to scale up the cooperation and assistance it is already conducting in the fields of rule of law, human rights and good governance, to support sustained economic and social development.
9. To consider putting in place, on a voluntary basis, national systems of assistance that would promote the needs of victims of terrorism and their families and facilitate the normalization of their lives. In
this regard, we encourage States to request the relevant United Nations entities to help them to develop such national systems. We 18
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will also strive to promote international solidarity in support of victims and foster the involvement of civil society in a global campaign against terrorism and for its condemnation. This could include exploring at the General Assembly the possibility of developing practical mechanisms assistance to victims.
Iraq
ne of the countries hit strongly by religious extremism is Iraq, O especially after 2003, which is also referred to as the post- Saddam period. Tension between Sunni and Shia Islamic groups led to both groups to become polarized in their views about one another, along with infiltration of al – Qaeda and movement of ISIS into Iraq, all of which have contributed to the rising religious extremism in the country. Extremist acts like suicide bombs as well as international threats have increased terrorism, making it a matter of grave concern. In light of these events, the country and its government have taken certain measures to oust these extremist groups. The Iraqi prime minister has recently called for a tribal revolution to “rid Iraq of this foreign enemy”. On the other hand, the Sunni forces against these extremist groups are supporting the Shia’ government groups, despite their differences. Though these extremist groups continue to spread terror and cause problems such as unequal rights for men and women, the measures taken up by the Iraqi government along with cooperation from other countries will definitely help in the elimination of religious extremism.
Iran
ran is one of the many countries in today’s world in which religious I extremism is prominent. According to the Voice of America, Iran is “ranked as one of the worst violators of a crucial and fundamental human right: the right to religious freedom.” Since the Islamic revolution in 1979, Shari′a has become the basic governing law of the country. The law is forcibly imposed by the religious extremists under the direct autocratic command of Mahmoud Ahmadenijad. Under Shari′a, the state does not ensure the right of citizens to change or renounce their religious faith. Women in Iran are also immensely affected because of extremist laws. Women in Iran are prohibited from presidency, leadership, judgeship and certain educational fields, as well as by inheritance laws. The concept of male surrogate and guardianship of females is one of the main pillars of
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Islamic Fundamentalism in Iran. In addition to this, there is no protection provided to women by family courts against domestic violence. Iran has not allowed rapporteurs to enter the country since 2005, despite the efforts of the U.N. Human Rights Council to combat Islamic extremism in
Iran by passing a resolution to establish a monitoring mechanism for Iran by appointing a Special Rapporteur.A summit was held on Nov. 23-24 in Qom titled "The World Congress on Extremist and Takfiri Movements in the Islamic Scholars’ View." The conference was attended by Iranian and non- Iranian Sunni clerics.
From December 9 to 10, Iran's Institute for Political and International Studies hosted a conference on countering violence and extremism in Tehran. The gathering was inspired by President Hassan Rouhani’s 2013 address to the United Nations, in which he proposed the “world against violence and extremism” (WAVE) initiative. In his opening address to the conference, Rouhani outlined ten strategies to counter violent extremist groups. They included calling on nations to cease support to terrorist groups, aiding developing countries, and combating extremism online.
References
Coleman, P., Bartoli, A. (n.d.) Addressing Extremism. Pp. 3-4. Retrieved from http://www.tc.columbia.edu/i/a/document/9386_WhitePaper_2_Extre mism_030809.pdf
This paper was written by two professors who have described the definition and roots of extremism in detail. This has helped me dwell deeper into the term of extremism and how the term differs drastically from radicalism. The article also provides information on how a particular scenario is termed as extremism based on certain pointers.
Gaza/Israel: Hamas Rocket Attacks on Civilians Unlawful (August 6, 2009) Retrieved from http://www.hrw.org/news/2009/08/06/gazaisrael-hamas-rocket-attacks- civilians-unlawful
This article talks about the violence that was unleashed upon unarmed, innocent civilians, which is considered as war crimes by
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the Human Rights Group. It cites several examples and incidents about the attacks in Gaza.
Hamzeh, N. A. (1997) Islamism in Lebanon: A Guide to the Groups. Middle East Quarterly, 4, 47-53 Retrieved from http://www.meforum.org/362/islamism-in-lebanon-a- guide-to-the-groups
This website page gives a detailed outlook about the various religious extremist groups that had originated from Lebanon. It also provides the readers with a summary of the group’s objectives and achievements within their society.
Liebman, S. C. (March 1983) Extremism as a Religious Norm. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. Vol. 22, No.1, pp. 75-86. Published by Wiley. http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1385593?sid=21105520012123 &uid=2 &uid=3737432&uid=
The article provides extensive information regarding the definition of the term, religious extremism, and also presenting the various roots of origin of the term. The author mainly focuses this article on Judaism as an example to explain further in detail about religious extremism. This gives us a better outlook towards understanding one’s perspective towards religious extremism.
Muslim Public Shares Concerns about Extremist Groups. (September 10, 2013). PewResearch Global Attitudes Project. Retrieved from http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/09/10/muslim-publics-share-concerns- about-extremist-groups/
This article is quite useful because it gives extensive amount of statistical data and analysis about Muslim population opinions against numerous extremists groups. The surveys were conducted in various Muslim countries around the globe, targeting well known extremist groups.
Spiritual Leaders Unveil Action Plan to Combat Violent Extremism (December 15, 2014) Retrieved from http://www.goodnewsnetwork.org/spiritual-leaders-unveil-action-plan- combat-violent-extremism/
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This article discusses about one of the ways of combating religious extremism, is by examining the cause and discussing various tactics to combat the effect. World leaders gathering together to discuss such vital issues is a step forward towards a safe future for everyone.
Retrieved from: http://blogcritics.org/the-rise-of-religious-extremism-in/# This article discusses the rise o religious extremism in Iraq, concentrating on the period after 2003, commonly referred to as the post- Saddam period as well as the invasion of US. It discusses the tension between the different Islamic groups as well as the rise of extremist groups in the country.
Retrieved from : http://www.icanpeacework.org/wpcontent/uploads/2014/04/Women- Religious-Extremism.pdf
This document discusses religious extremism and its effect on women, how it denies them their rights as well as how they can overcome this discrimination.
Retrieved from : http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle- east/2015/01/06/Iraq-PM-calls-for-tribal-revolution-against-ISIS.html#
This news article reports the Iraqi Prime Minister’s measure to fight against religious extremism in light of the recent rise in extremist activities.
Retrieved from : http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/12/shiite- sunni-unity-against-extremism.html#
This article discusses the Sunni and Shia’ Islamic groups’ decision to jointly fight against and condemn the religious extremist groups in Iraq.
Retrieved from : http://www.wfafi.org/laws.pdf
This document shows all the official laws against women in Iraq, showing how religious extremism also targets women and their rights.
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