Commemorating

60y e a r s of the work of the Staff of FAO

Former FAO and Other UN Staff Association

Table of contents

Introduction ...... 1

The origins of the idea...... 2

The beginning...... 7

Six Directors-General 1945–1993...... 8

Before the move from Washington...... 12

The transfer on the “Saturnia”...... 12

The arrival in Rome. The first years...... 15

The start of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign. . . . 16

Man’s Right to Freedom from Hunger...... 18

Sixty years of FAO’s Constitution Sixty years of FAO’s Constitution and of FAO’s activities in the legal field...... 20

FAO’s Fisheries Department, 1945–2005...... 22

Sixty years of FAO’s Forestry Department...... 25

A new UN Programme comes into being...... 26

The World Food Programme and FAO. The early years...... 28

The beginning of ICT in FAO...... 31

The Senior Agricultural Adviser/. FAO Country Representative...... 34

The Great Sahelian Drought FAO coordinates UN system’s emergency response ...... 36

Le problème du Sahel...... 38

Bio Warfare in the Sky The NWS eradication programme in North Africa 1988–1992. . .40

Seconded to IFAD...... 46

Postscript...... 47

Introduction Rome, March 2006

his brochure was produced through the World War and during the following period when new combined efforts of the retired staff of FAO, nations were created and others became independent TIFAD and WFP. It took shape thanks to the countries. For many of them it was the best period of generous assistance of the Information Division of FAO their lives which gave meaning and added value to the whose dedicated cooperation and valuable expertise we years they spent serving FAO, IFAD and WFP. gratefully acknowledge. Furthermore, the Administrative It seemed to us that this anniversary of FAO Services Division of IFAD made an important and effective represented a unique opportunity, not to be missed, contribution by printing 3000 copies of the Brochure. because if we didn’t do it now there would, at a future This booklet spans the period beginning with the anniversary, be only a very few left who could still creation of the “International Institute of Agriculture”, remember what had happened and how it was done and FAO’s predecessor, until today and it contains the by whom. The story is far from complete; writing a history recollections of some of the men and women who believed of FAO has been done before and would in any case have in their ideal of a world without been beyond our abilities and hunger and who transformed resources. Unfortunately, some their ideas, their long hours of ...to meet the challenges important aspects of FAO’s dedicated work, their beliefs in of serving the new world activities have remained untold and their commitments to the that pushed at the doors through lack of contributions .. humanitarian cause of the United of the United Nations However, this is the first Nations into the virtual brick after the end of the collection of historical accounts and mortar of the achievements Second World War... written by former staff members. realized over the years by the We hope that the reminiscences staff of the Food and Agriculture and the significant events of Organization of the United Nations. Many of them joined FAO’s recent past that are described in the following pages IFAD and WFP when those organizations were created strike a chord in the hearts of those who were there and and others transferred to different UN Organizations did the work that had to be done. when the development of their career took them there. Together with the other members of the Executive Whatever their background, however, they are now all Committee I would like to express our appreciation for the members of the United Nations family of senior citizens. efforts made by the authors of this booklet and hope that It appeared appropriate to the Executive Committee many of our members will recognize the events and the of FFOA that it should ask its members to contribute atmosphere described herein and say to themselves: “Yes, their reminiscences and to put in writing what the years that is how it was done and I was there when it happened”! spent in the service of FAO. IFAD and WFP had meant We can all be proud of our careers and the time we to them. Because the story of the first sixty years of served FAO, IFAD and WFP. FAO is also and foremost their story, for many of them it was a significant part of their life. It was a period that With my best wishes for your future, brought forth the best of their skills and talents to meet Anton Doeve the challenges of serving the new world that pushed at the President of the Executive Committee FFOA doors of the United Nations after the end of the Second

1 The origins of the idea1

t is worth while to explore a bit further the Impressed by Lubin’s sincere conviction, the king wrote background against which FAO was created. This on 24 January 1905 to his Prime Minister, Giovanni Ishould be seen both in the short term and over the Giolitti, pointing out that “it might be extremely useful much longer term, in relation to how man and agriculture to set up an international institute which, without any have evolved . political designs, would study the conditions of agriculture Many people contributed to the thinking that led in the various countries of the world and periodically issue eventually to the creation of FAO, but the thoughts and information on the quantity and quality of crops”. This actions of half-a-dozen were critical to the development led to the convening of a Conference in Rome, and, on of the idea and to the final outcome, either because they 7 June 1905, the signing by 40 countries of a Convention contributed importantly to the idea itself, or because they establishing the International Institute of Agriculture with were in the right position, at the right time, to take action. Headquarters in Villa Umberto, donated by the King, in A brief account of their contributions will therefore serve Villa Borghese, in Rome. to indicate how the idea emerged Frank L. McDougall, of and eventually took shape in the Australia, in the summer of form of the present international David Lubin became 1935, wrote his memorandum on intergovernmental organization . concerned over the The Agricultural and the Health David Lubin a Polish-born plight of farmers during Problems, in which he stated that American citizen, who had the depression of the “it would argue a bankruptcy of achieved considerable success I880s and 1890s... statesmanship if it should prove as a merchant in California, impossible to bring together a became concerned over the great unsatisfied need for highly plight of farmers during the depression of the I880s nutritious food and the immense potential production of and 1890s, which had also created difficulties for him modern agriculture”. McDougall drew upon the findings in his own farming enterprises. Setting out to develop of leading nutritionists in the United States and the United some mechanism at the international level for bettering Kingdom, and upon the views of his colleagues at the the farmers’ lot, and through single- mindedness and League of Nations, and his memorandum served as a first persistence, he persuaded Ministers in several countries to step towards bringing before an international forum the heed his ideas, and despite many obstacles an organization findings of nutritionists that a large portion of the world’s along the lines he had in mind was created in 1905: the population did not get enough of the right sort of food to “International Institute of Agriculture” (IIA). This first eat, and the view that food production should be expanded international intergovernmental organization to deal with to meet nutritional requirements, rather than restricted. problems of agriculture generally functioned, within the Stanley Bruce, at that time Australian High limitations of its mandate, without serious interruption Commissioner in London and previously Prime Minister until World War II, after which its assets were absorbed by of Australia, (later Viscount Bruce or Melbourne, FAO. A major asset was the library, which is now housed and also first Independent Chairman of the FAO in FAO as part of the David Lubin Memorial Library. Council), addressing the League of Nations Assembly King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy proved to be the on 11 September 1935 and basing his comments upon key person David Lubin contacted during his crusade. McDougall’s memorandum, made a strong case for

2 1 Source document: “FAO: its origins, formation and evolution 1945–1981” by Ralph W. Phillips, seventh Deputy Director-General of FAO, 1978–1981 what became known as “the marriage of health and certainly a problem common to all, even if the world seems agriculture”, in the hope that the League, then being to have “discovered” it as an issue only during the 1970s. thwarted by insoluble political problems, might be President Framklin D. Roosevelt was attentive, persuaded to turn constructively to economic and but gave no indication at the time as to what action, if social issues ..The favourable reaction to this speech led any, he might take. McDougall heard nothing more until McDougall to cable to Sir John Boyd Orr, who ten years he read a newspaper announcement that the President later became the first Director-General of FAO, “We have was going to invite allied governments to participate in this day lighted such a candle, by God’s grace, in Geneva, a United Nations Conference on Food and Agriculture, as we trust shall never be put out.” During October in Hot Springs, Virginia. The Conference, held from 18 1942 discussions on an International Wheat Agreement May to 3 June 1943, set up an Interim Commission which in Washington, McDougall led to the establishment of FAO, wrote a second memorandum, on 16 October 1945, at the First in consultation with a small ...a first step towards Session of the FAO Conference group of individuals (mostly bringing before an in Quebec ..Thus the candle lit from the US Department of in Geneva in 1935, and nearly international forum the Agriculture). Prepared for private extinguished by World War II, findings of nutritionists circulation only, under the title burned ten years later with a Draft Memorandum on a United that a large portion of the brighter flame than ever. Nations Programme for Freedom world’s population did The scenario from the from Want of Food, it contained not get enough of the 1880s to the 1940s was of some ideas as to how governments right sort of food to eat... course much more complex, might develop an organization to and many more people played deal with food and agricultural parts in it than the foregoing problems. In its title the term “United Nations” referred summary suggests. The object here is to provide only to the countries that were then banded together in a broad outline of the situation and events which led their effort to win World War II, and not to the present to the founding of FAO in 1945. However, one further organizational sense of the expression . contribution to the early development of the FAO idea Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt (wife of the President should be noted . of the United States), learning of this memorandum The League of Nations Secretariat had contained and becoming actively interested in its contents, met a small Health Section which originally developed from McDougall and decided that the ideas it contained were an international commission created to control typhus worth bringing to the President’s attention. As a result in Eastern Europe after World War I. About 1930, when McDougall was invited to dine with a small group at there was growing recognition of the importance of the White House, where he made the point to President nutrition for health, it was decided that the Section should Roosevelt that, while the United Nations were thus far include nutrition in its programme. The first international held together by the exigencies of war, once the war was nutrition officer appointed to it was Dr. W. R. Aykroyd, over they would need some common problems upon which who some 15 years later became the first Director of to work if their cooperation was to continue. Food was FAO’s Nutrition Division. One of the products of the .

3 The origins of the idea

Health Section was a paper on Nutrition and Public the Assembly established two bodies, a Technical Health (Burnet and Aykroyd, 1935), in which an attempt Commission on Nutrition to consider inter alia human was made to show the vital significance of good nutrition physiological food requirements, and a Mixed Committee for human well-being, and to indicate practical measures to report on nutrition in relation to health and agriculture for improving nutrition. Published just before the League and on the economic aspects of the subject. The of Nations Assembly debate on Commission produced a report nutrition, in which Stanley Bruce on “The Physiological Bases of called for “the marriage of health Thus the candle lit in Nutrition (League of Nations”, and agriculture”, it was written Geneva in 1935, and 1936), and the Mixed Committee independently of the memorandum nearly extinguished by a report on “The Relation of and speech prepared by the World War II, burned ten Nutrition to Health, Agricultural Australian team, but served to years later with a brighter and Economic Policy (League some extent as a background flame than ever. of Nations”, 1937). The threat document for the debate . of World War II and, soon The discussion on nutrition thereafter, its outbreak, halted in the Assembly, despite expectations that it would these promising activities, although their influence was felt generate little interest, lasted three days, and this was in some countries during the war period, and they helped all the more surprising because the main political issue to set the stage for the Hot Springs Conference and the before the Assembly at the time was the impending Italian subsequent formation of FAO. aggression against Ethiopia. As a result of the discussion

4 The letter of King Vittorio Emanuele III to his Prime Minister

5 The origins of the idea

His Majesty King Vittorio Emmanuele III attending the opening session of the First Conference of the International Institute of Agriculture

Delegates attending the opening session of the First Conference of the International Institute of Agriculture on the steps of Villa Umberto

6 The beginning

The plaque commemorating the Hot Springs Conference and the Homestead Hotel in Hot Springs

The Hotel Chateau de Frontenac in Quebec in 1945 and the plaque commemorating the first session of the FAO Conference in that hotel

The Longfellow Building in Washington FAO Headquarters in Rome

7 Six Director-Generals 1945–1993

The six Directors-General who had retired at the time this brochure 2nd – Norris E. Dodd was published are mentioned below . Born in Nashua, Iowa,

1st – Lord John Boyd Orr USA on 20 July 1879. Died Born in Kilmaurs, in Phoenix, Arizona, USA Ayreshire, Scotland, on on 23 June 1968, educated 23 September 1880 ..Died in schools at the State ..He on 25 June 1971 . settled in Oregon in 1900 Studied at Glasgow and after some years as a University, graduated pharmacist, he began in in three faculties: Arts, 1910 to devote himself Science and Medicine .. full time to farming. He worked, in various capacities, Director of the Institute of for associations and governmental agencies in the field Animal Nutrition at Aberdeen, Scotland. During World of agriculture. In April 1946 he was appointed US War I he served with the Royal Army Medical Corps and Under-Secretary of Agriculture. He participated as US was awarded the Military Cross and the Distinguished representative in several FAO Conferences and Council Service Order for bravery in action. After the war he sessions, as well as in the FAO Preparatory Commission served as Director of the Rowett Institute for 25 years. on World Food Proposals. Sir John participated in the first session of the FAO Mr. Dodd was elected Director-General on 14 April Conference as technical adviser of the UK delegation. 1948 at the 1st Special Session of the FAO Conference. The Conference elected him Director-General of FAO He was re-elected Director General during the 6th for a two year term ending 31 December 1947. This term Session of the FAO Conference in 1951. When his term was extended at the 3rd session of the FAO Conference of office expired again at the end of the 7th Session in and Sir John consented to serve until the election of his 1953, he requested that his name be withdrawn from the successor by a special session of the Conference in 1948. list of nominations submitted for the position of Director- In 1935 he was knighted for his service to agriculture General. However he agreed to remain in office until his and it was during that year that the League of Nations successor took up his duties on 22 Feb .1954 . set up, with his cooperation, a Committee for the It was during his period of leadership that the establishment of normal food requirements . Organization moved from Washington, D.C. to Rome. He received many academic distinctions and in 1947 was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1949 he was made a British Baron . Sir John’s proposals for a World Food Board in 1946 led to the creation of the FAO Council, the terms of reference of which included a continuing review of commodity situations, advising Member Governments on agricultural commodity policies.

8 3rd – Philip V. Cardon The first Director General to come from a Born in Logan, Utah, USA developing country Mr. Sen was elected Director-General in 1889. Died in Utah his of FAO in September 1956 by the 3rd Special Session of home station, after a long the FAO Conference convened following the resignation illness, in November 1965. of Mr. Cardon through the end of 1967 (11 years) He received his Bachelor Among the many initiatives which took place during of Science degree in 1909 his mandate was his historic declaration of Freedom by the Utah Agricultural from Hunger as “man’s first fundamental right” and College and a Master’s consequently the launching in 1960 of the FAO Freedom degree in Agricultural. from Hunger Campaign, the organization of the Special Economics from the University of California. Assembly on Man’s Rights to Freedom from Hunger and Mr. Cardon began his career as an employee of the the preparation of a Manifesto signed by a number of US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and continued, eminent personalities, the convening of the first World mainly, with the US Government in various positions in Food Congress and in 1965 the Young World Assembly the fields of agriculture, land policy etc. While holding the Programmes. Mr. Sen was the driving force behind . position of Assistant Agricultural Research Administrator of the establishment of the World Food Programme; he . the USDA, he participated in the Hot Springs Conference gave impetus to the FAO’s World Food Surveys. He in 1943 as Secretary of Section II, Committee 2, of the established The Indicative World Plan for Agricultural Technical Secretariat. He became Director of the USDA’s Development, as well as the Joint FAO/World Bank Graduate School, resigning from the post to assume his Cooperative Programme. duties with FAO in 1954. Mr. Cardon was elected Director- The 7th Session of the General Assembly of FFOA General in December 1953 at the 7th Session of the FAO conferred the title of Honorary President on Mr. Sen on Conference. He resigned from FAO in April 1956. 24 October 1977.

4th – Binai Ranjan Sen 5th – Addeke Hendrik Boerma Born in Dibrugahr, Assam Born in 1912 in Alco, (India) in January 1898. Netherlands. Died in Died in Calcutta in June Vienna in May 1992. He 1993. He was educated attended the Agricultural at Calcutta and Oxford University of Wageningen, Universities. Dr. Sen had where he graduated. He a long and distinguished worked with the Dutch career in the Indian Civil Farmer’s Organization, Service culminating in his joined the Food Supply appointment as Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture. Office of the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture. In 1944 He had also a brilliant diplomatic career as Ambassador he was appointed Government Commissioner for Food of India to Italy and Yugoslavia; to the USA, Mexico . and Agriculture in the liberated part of the Netherlands and Japan . and in 1945 Acting Director General of Food. .

9 Six Director-Generals 1945–1993

From 1946 to 1948 he was the Government the Government of Lebanon and from 1957 through Commissioner for Foreign Agricultural Relations. 1961 he was a member of the Programme Committee. Mr. Boerma‘s involvement with FAO began in 1946 From 1962 to 1965 Mr. Saouma served as FAO’s when he participated in the Preparatory Commission set Deputy Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific up following the Copenhagen Conference. Following the in New Delhi. In 1965 he was appointed Director of establishment of the FAO Council, he represented his the Land and Water Development Division, a post he Government in it. In 1948 he took up the post of FAO occupied until the end of 1975. This was a period of Regional Representative for Europe which he held until expansion for the Division with development projects 1951 when FAO’s Headquarters was transferred to Rome. all around the world, as well as global developments at At that time Mr. Boerma became Director, Economics Headquarters, such as the Soil Map of the World. From Division, a post he held until 1958 when he was 1969 through 1975 he also served as Chairman of the designated Director, Programme and Budgetary Service. Interdepartmental Working Group on Natural Resources In 1960 this post was elevated to the level of Assistant and the Human Environment. In November 1975 Mr. Director General, and he served in this capacity until Saouma was elected by the FAO Conference to the post 1962. When the World Food Programme was established of Director-General for the six-year period 1976–1981. in 1962, he became its first Executive Director. In November 1981 he was re-elected for a second six-year In November 1967, Mr. Boerma was elected to the term from 1982–1987 and in November 1987 for a third post of Director General of FAO for a four-year term. In six-year term from 1988–1993. November 1971 he was re-elected for another four years Among the innovations Mr. Saouma introduced until the end of 1975 . during his first term as Director-General two are of The 7th Session of the General Assembly of FFOA particular note. He was responsible for setting up a corps conferred the title of Honorary President on Mr. Boerma of FAO Representatives, as main instrument for the on 24 October 1977. decentralization of FAO’s activities to the country level. Mr ..Saouma is also responsible for the establishment 6th – Edouard Saouma within the Regular Programme of a Technical Born in Beirut, Lebanon, Cooperation Programme (TCP) for the provision of small- on 6 November 1926. scale, short-term assistance of an urgent nature. He received a degree The 24th Session of the General Assembly of FFOA in Agricultural Chemistry conferred the title of Honorary President on Mr. Saouma from the St ..Joseph’s on 12 October 1994. University in Beirut in 1949 and a degree as Ingénieur Agronome from the National School of Agronomy in Montpellier, France. From 1952 through 1962 he held various positions in the field of agriculture with the Government of Lebanon. Mr. Saouma participated in FAO Conference and Council sessions from 1955 through 1961 on behalf of

10 FAO awards named after Directors-General

The following awards have been created as a tribute to The Award consists of: past Directors-General • a scroll describing the recipient’s achievements;

The B.R. Sen Annual Award • a prize of US$ 10,000; The FAO Conference, at its Fourteenth Session held in • an all-expenses paid visit to Rome for the Award November 1967, decided to create a new permanent winner and spouse to receive the Award. feature of FAO activity associated with the name of The Edouard Saouma Award B.R. Sen, and requested the Council “to take action as appropriate to constitute such a permanent and The FAO Conference, at its Twenty-seventh Session held continuing tribute”. The Council, at its Fifty-first Session in November 1993, decided that an “Edouard Saouma held in October 1968 agreed to the Director-General’s Award” be established, for presentation at the beginning proposal that a yearly award be given to the field officer of each regular session of the Conference, to a national who had made the most outstanding contribution to the or regional institution which has implemented with advancement of the country or countries to which he or particular efficiency a project funded by the Technical she had been assigned” . Cooperation Programme (TCP). The award consists of: The Award consists of: • a medal engraved with the name of the recipient; • a medal inscribed with the name of the recipient • a scroll describing his or her achievements; institution; • a cash prize of US$ 5,000; • a scroll describing the achievements of the • a round-trip fare to Rome and associated travel recipient institution; expenses for the Award recipient and spouse, and • a cash prize of US$ 25,000. for any of their young children if they cannot be left unattended at the duty station.

The A.H. Boerma Award The Eighteenth Session of the FAO Conference, in November 1975, decided to institute a new permanent activity in FAO as a tribute to Mr. A.H. Boerma who. at that time, was completing his service as Director-General. The Conference requested the Council to choose and initiate such an activity. The Council, at its Seventy-first Session in June 1977, welcomed the proposal of the Director-General that an Award be established to be presented biennially to a journalist or journalists who, through their work, helped to focus public attention on important aspects of the world food problem, particularly as it relates to agriculture and rural development in developing countries .

11 Before the move from Washington by Miriam Carusi Walker

Before the great move from Washington to Rome deeper, and bring much comfort, as the years go by. t is a pleasure to recall years in the FAO European Sometimes there is a surprising phone call. “Hello! Regional Office, in the gracious building of . This is ...... , ...... gave me your number”. It may be IVilla Umberto, in Villa Borghese Gardens, above someone not seen for many years, whom it is a pleasure to Piazzale Flaminio. hear, and an even greater one to meet again. I came to Rome for six months, in 1946, with a What FAO means to a limited ageing individual, branch of the British Foreign Office. When this closed I was in the pulsating past and the fertile present, is the many unready to leave, found this post, which brought me into a fine people she has known there, often splendid and fine group of colourful and international people – Italian, courageous, and with questing intellects. English, Belgian, French, Dutch, American, Czech. One is heartily glad of whatever solid help has been Although an insignificant staff member who never given, is given and will be given to many countries, hoping made her way in so many years! I am always enriched its effects and influence, both economic and agricultural, by having worked in an alive and a communicative will be durable. ambience, with its many vibrant relationships, and, more And one is proud to have been an infinitesimal part than all, with friendships in three continents, which grow of its offering .

The transfer on the “Saturnia”

fter nearly six years at a temporary Accordingly those staff members who opted to be Headquarters in Washington, the Fifth Session transferred to Rome travelled in two ships to Naples, one A of the FAO Conference in November 1949 of which was the “Saturnia”. decided, after five ballots, to accept Italy’s offer to host the Organization and to move FAO’s seat to Rome.

12 The following FAO Staff were passengers on the “Saturnia”

Miss Baker, Alice, D-G’s Secretary Mr. Leloup, Marcel, Director, Forestry Div. Mr. Bender, Clyde F. Miss Lipchik, Margaret Miss Bengtsson, Marie-Louise Miss Lomsdal, Kristina, Library Mr. Bergeron, Marcel W., Finance Mr. Makins, William C., Information Mrs. Bergeron, Marie Louise Mrs. Makins, Mary Mr. Chaux, Jacques, Fisheries Prof. Morath, Edgar D. Sc., Forestry Mr. Clarke, B, Forestry Mrs. Morath, Matilde Mrs. Clarke, B Mr. Morin Patrick C., Sc., Information Mr. Curnutt, Harris M., Publications Mrs. Morin, Norma, Economics Division Mrs. Curnutt, Harris M. Master Morin, Patrick, C., Jc. Master Curnutt, Jean-Paul Miss Morin, Diane Miss De Freitas, Mary Claire, Fisheries Miss McCall, Nancy, Forestry Miss Fenn, Dolores, Fisheries Miss McLaren, Sylvia, Forestry Dr. Finn, Donovan, Director, Fisheries Div. Mr. Orbaneja, A.G. , D-G’s Office Mrs. Finn, Florence Miss Roulston, Mary, Fisheries Master Finn, Julian Mrs. Sara, Alexa, Administration Miss Finn, Fiona Mrs. Singer, James J., Fisheries Mr. Fortunescu, Radu C., Forestry Miss Singer, Anna Mae Mr. Gertenbach, L.P.D., Fisheries Miss Steedman, Elizabeth, Mr. McDougall’s secretary Miss Grossman, Susy Mr. Traung, Jan-Olof, Fisheries Dr. Hess, Ernest, Fisheries Mrs. Traung, Annastina Mrs. Hess, Ernest Miss Traung, Anna-Catharina Mr. Hoyos, Francisco A., Fisheries Miss Vergara, Josefina, Fisheries Mr. Jenssen, Hans, Librarian Mr. Vernell, Leslie J., Forestry Mrs. Jenssen, Inger Mrs. Vernell, Sylvia M. Miss Jenssen, Hanna-Pia Master Vernell, Christopher D. Miss Jones, Nora, Information Division Miss Vernell, Deborah S. Mr. Jul Mogens, Fisheries Mr. Vinzant, Jean, Forestry Mr. Kelly Laurence, Mail Room Supervisor Mr. Wall, Duncan, Information Mrs. Kelly, Emily Mr. Winsor, Harry, C., Fisheries Mrs. La Stella,-Arnold, Natalia Miss Wright, Patricia, Administration Master La Stella, Marcello

13 The transfer on the “Saturnia”

Celebrating the tenth anniversary of their arrival in Rome some of the staff members who made the crossing on the “Saturnia”

Seated at the table, from left to right are: Claire de Freitas (British); Norma Morin (USA); Patricia Wright (USA) and Mary Rolston Crowe (Canada)

Standing: L . Vernell (British) – Forestry; D . Gertenbach (South African) – Fisheries; H . Jensen (Danish) – Librarian; H . Curnutt (USA) – Publications; D . Wall (USA) – Information Services; J . Chaux (French) – Fisheries; F . Hoyos (Chilean) – Fisheries; A . Orbaneja (Spanish) – Assistant to the D-G

14 The arrival in Rome The first years by Daphne Wilson Ercoli

wonder how many of us remember the first FAO Arts Graduate but thanks to him I got a month’s contract as a Conference in Rome (its sixth session) in November file clerk and became an Editorial Clerk G-3. Little did I know I 1951. There was frenzied activity by the Italian that I was beginning a career which would last 33 years. government contractor trying to complete the new building A. My slow climb through the ranks took me from It looked impossible. The building site was still full of rubble proofreading to editorial work with Forestry Division, giving and even if the builders worked all through the night with me an insight into the world’s ecology problems and the search lights, the opening was only hours away. But when vital importance of forests ..I developed a great respect for morning came – lo and behold – the splendid building, the rather aristocratic, élite group of professional Foresters. designed by modern Italian architects and artists, was a As a “G” one had little hope of promotion to any kind wonderful contrast to the forbidding of Professional job as there was fascist architecture of Building B a quota system and the British intended for the chimerical Italian I...was impressed by the were over-represented. But when colonies of East Africa. the World Food Programme quality and dedication A garden had sprung up with began in 1965, it had no quotas, of international and lawns and flowerbeds and all was I was chosen to assist the Public in order to welcome the delegates local field staff and their Relations Officer as a “P”. to the new organization for Food “hands on” approach I was lucky enough to be and Agriculture which had begun to often formidable involved with the newly-created work in Washington DC. problems. programme using food surpluses It was a proof of the energy, for needy people in practical ways: skill and imagination and “skin of as food-for-work, nutrition of your teeth” success which impressed the world about post mothers and school children and helping disaster victims war Italy. – an inspiring service of material for our publications, films FAO staff was still in a somewhat traumatized and photographs. With time I was able to visit and report condition after the upheaval of transferring to Italy. They on WFP’s projects and was impressed by the quality and came over in the spring in two shipments to Naples. Some dedication of international and local field staff and their where shocked survivors of a very rough crossing but were “hands on” approach to often formidable problems . a closely knit group because of the shared experience. I retired reluctantly but feeling that I had been doing Another small group came from the International a worthwhile job in a badly needed organization. Institute of Agriculture in Villa Borghese. Note by the Editorial Committee: At the time of the transfer from My own arrival coincided with the November Washington only Building “B” was ready . The foundations of Building “A” had been laid and the building was completed just in conference. I had come to Italy to explore the wonders of time to allow the Sixth Session of the FAO Conference to be held Italian art and had taken a job as an au pair. Then I learnt that there . Work on Building “C” had started earlier in earlier years but this building was only completed and made available to FAO in there might be jobs going for English speakers and presented October 1964 . Building “E”, a small pre-fabricated “temporary” myself at the front desk of Major Woodcock. He was one of building in the courtyard between Buildings “C” and “D” was completed in October 1965 . The Building “F” on the Via Cristoforo a number of ex- British Army men who had remained in post Colombo provided temporary office space for the AFS, FI and FO war Italy. He had no idea what the demand might be for an divisions . Building “D” was turned over to FAO in 1980 .

15 The start of the Freedom from Hunger Campaign by Charles Weitz

o understand the need for a Freedom from this note “agriculture” is the shorthand for all FAO’s’ Hunger Campaign one must first look at FAO disciplines, forestry, fisheries, crops, animals, land, etc.) Ton the international scene in 1958–1960 . Sen also saw the box the UN System was in – UN membership was still small; the Specialized marginal to the essentially bilaterally focused interests of Agencies were largely insulated from the United Nations member states, largely unknown to the public at large (the UN’s first Strategy for Development Decade I, (except for UNICEF’s and UNHCR’s excellent PR 1961–1970 treated agriculture and rural development in outreaches) and particularly for FAO, the low status of a few unimaginative lines), UN development assistance agricultural ministers (down with Posts and Telegraphs) in (still titled ‘technical assistance ) was a fraction of today’s influencing the national political debate on international billion dollar levels, there was no issues over the greater power of World Food Programme and FAO the foreign and finance ministers. was a highly professional technical In looking at what So, while strengthening and agency which saw its role as refocusing FAO’s programme, B.R. Sen set out limited and was organized as a Sen understood he had to be able to accomplish typical academic faculty, separate to go around governments and disciplines largely self managed, (and largely achieved) to reach outside the mechanical, each focused on its speciality. in the atmosphere at the rule-bound strictures of the NGO’s were ‘non-persons’ ritually end of the 1950s, Secretariat ..Thus the Freedom admitted under severe restrictions he looms as a giant. from Hunger Campaign – resting and used in the System in the in part on his deeply felt concern main for public relations fund for the millions suffering from raising by UNICEF and UNHCR.UNICEF and UNHC1 hunger and malnutrition and a coming crisis in world food And this was in the developed world. supplies and in part on his understanding that adequate In looking at what B.R. Sen set out to accomplish action would not be possible through governments alone. (and largely achieved) in the atmosphere at the end of Aware also of the weakness of FAO acting alone the 1950s, he looms as a giant. A British educated senior and that agriculture could not be a technical question civil servant (administrative class) Sen had watched but had to be seen as an essential ingredient in balanced millions of his country people die during World War II development, Sen first went to ECOSOC. In July 1958 he when as food commissioner for India he was powerless presented his idea for a campaign to focus public attention to obtain external food supplies to avert a famine ..He on a world-wide scale on the continuing problem of hunger came to FAO with a profound suspicion about the “good and to mobilize national and international effort toward its will” of governments, over the active opposition of the solution ..In his presentation Sen also coupled the hunger USA (which had dominated FAO from 1947 until his issue with the population explosion, a radical voice in the election) and set about to liberate the budget, restructure 1950’s. Sen then went to the Council of FAO in October of its programme and refocus its objectives from technical 1958 with his plan; the FAO Council warmly welcomed his agricultural aims (larger pigs, higher grain yields, etc.) ideas and set up an Ad-Hoc Committee to assist in fleshing to the human purposes of development. (Throughout out plans. Sen also took his ideas to the ACC and obtained

16 its endorsement and indications of cooperation from But what was the Campaign in relation to FAO’s other UN agency heads. After further actions by the FAO specialized expertise and technical assistance? It had Council, ECOSOC in July of 1959 endorsed the plans for two components – ACTION and INFORMATION/ the Campaign and in November EDUCATION. But if the truth 1959 the FAD Conference with be known, aside from these its Resolution 13/59 approved the ...his deeply felt broad definitions it did not have Director General’s plans for the concern for the millions a programme. It began, grew, Freedom from Hunger Campaign expanded, attracted support suffering from hunger to extend through 1965 ..The and cooperation on inspiration, and malnutrition and Campaign was to have a climax adaptation, improvisation. It in 1963 and was to hold in that a coming crisis in drew from and incorporated the year a World Food Congress in world food supplies... genius of its many cooperating Washington, DC on the 20th adequate action would agents, national committees, anniversary of the holding of not be possible through national and international the Hot Springs Conference, the governments alone. NGOs, individuals and bodies founding meeting of FAO. The who ‘associated’ with the Campaign was officially launched Campaign and the inspired work in July 1960. In October 1960, the United Nations of a small but wonderful band of people who dedicated General Assembly adopted a unanimous resolution in themselves to the Campaign. It was constantly changing support of the Campaign ..The Director General had form and focus. Its driving force was leadership and done his homework and laid a solid framework. continuous attention of Director General Sen .

17 Man’s Right to Freedom from Hunger

The Manifesto of 14 March 1963

18 The signatures of the eminent personalities

19 Sixty Years of FAO’s Constitution Sixty years of FAO’s Constitution and of FAO’s activities in the legal field by Alec Roche

ntergovernmental organizations (IGOs), such as being the host country of an important specialized agency FAO, are normally established through the adoption of the United Nations carried not only a certain political Iof a treaty by two or more states and have a legal prestige, but also the possibility of Rome becoming, like personality independent of that of those individual states. Geneva, an important centre for IGOs. In the past sixty The FAO Constitution, which defines FAO’s structure years Italy has become the host of the headquarters or and functions, was adopted in Quebec in 1945; a new offices of around thirty IGOs, both large and small. FAO IGO was born. In the past 60 years the FAO Constitution and its work are now well-known, but in the 1960s, if one has been amended on numerous occasions, yet it is true told a Roman that one worked for FAO, a perplexed look to say that the essential features of FAO’s structure and was generally followed by the comment ‘Oh, the place functions have remained substantially the same. When where you can buy duty-free goods’. Fortunately this is the preamble of the Constitution no longer the reaction, but one was amended in 1965 to add the should also remember that in words ‘ and ensuring humanity’s Among FAO’s the early days the ‘Commissary’ freedom from hunger’ the was much more of a necessity important activities in Conference recognized that those because the staple foods of some the legal field is that of words merely reflected what was, staff members, such as basmati in any case, the ‘ultimate aim of promoting agreements rice and cornflakes, were not all the work of the Organization’. for cooperation readily available. However; FAO has changed among states. Among FAO’s important considerably in the way in which it activities in the legal field is that carries out the functions assigned of promoting agreements for to it; above all by being far more operational in the field. cooperation among states. For example, Article XIV of The constitutive instruments of IGOs, along the Constitution expressly envisages the creation of semi- with certain rules and principles of International Law, autonomous intergovernmental organizations through provide the legal framework for the performance of the adoption by the FAO Conference of conventions their statutory activities, but additional provisions or agreements to which interested states could become are essential, to regulate their modus operandi in the parties. These bodies are subject to certain supervisory country where they are based. After nearly six years at a functions exercised by the Conference and Council, and temporary headquarters in Washington, in 1949 the FAO many of these bodies created in the early years, such as Conference decided to move FAO’s seat to Rome. After the “General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean”, five ballots Rome beat Washington by 30 votes to 28. (1949), and the “International Plant Protection Accordingly a Headquarters Agreement with the Italian Convention”, (1951), still play an important role in both Government was signed in Washington on 31 October regional and world-wide cooperation. One of the most 1950. This Agreement is still in force today, subject to recent developments under Article XIV is the entry comparatively minor amendments and interpretations. into force in 2004 of the “International Treaty on Plant It was a generally-speaking generous agreement and this Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture”. This is a was, no doubt, influenced by the fact that, at the time, major step towards the legal protection of bio-diversity for

20 the future. Another legal technique adopted by FAO has FAO staff working closely with governmental officials. been to act as a technical catalyst and, when the moment Another development that deserves mention is the was judged to be ripe, to convene a plenipotentiary ever-increasing authority and stature of the “Codex conference at which states adopted the constitution of an Alimentarius” whose food standards were recently autonomous IGO. The “International Commission for recognized by the World Trade Organization as world- the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas” was established in wide standards. this way, and has been active for close on 40 years. Famine and malnutrition persist in a Another of FAO’s legal activities relates to advising demographically expanding world. But one of the more governments on the introduction encouraging developments over or up-dating of their legislation the years of FAO’s existence is in FAO’s areas of competence. the increasing public awareness ...the accomplishment This activity reflects FAO’s overall of these problems. Public evolution from a semi-academic of FAO’s constitutional awareness and resentment to an operational organization ..In mission in the next sixty towards the existence of such the early days, and well in to the years may well find tragic human circumstances, l960’s, FAO produced a number its greatest support in puts pressure on governments, of (I hope) learned studies based the reactions of the and this, in turn, generates largely on the legislative texts public at large. action. A reflection of this may extracted from its almost unique perhaps be found in the FAO collection of Official Gazettes Council’s adoption in 2004 of provided by governments. I recall poring over legislation the “Voluntary Guidelines to support the progressive on the permitted levels of food additives, and wondering realization of the right to adequate food in the context of whether my lunch would contain only permissible national food security”. The moral cogency of documents amounts of repulsive sounding substances such as that are not legally binding can be even more effective butylated hydroxy anisole (probably more euphemistically than legally binding ones, and the accomplishment of labelled something like ‘E 150’ nowadays). An extensive FAO’s constitutional mission in the next sixty years may legislative data-base is still made available, now much well find its greatest support in the reactions of the public more easily on-line, and is widely used. But this activity at large. And it is not coincidental that one of the areas in is in effect secondary when compared with operational which public international law has developed most in the work, usually in the field, whereby expert advice on the last sixty years is in what may, in broad terms, be called drafting of legislation is given directly to governments by humanitarian law.

21 FAO’s Fisheries Department, 1945–2005 by Siebren Venema

ittle was known about fisheries and potential Before the introduction of the computer, planning resources in large parts of the world when was quite easy, for example, Gulland used to ask us for L a pre-FAO Fisheries Technical Committee our requirements for the next biennium, scribbling at submitted its report in April 1945. The statistics in that the back of an old envelope, saying: “You don’t need any report amount to annual pre-war landings of less than consultants, do you?” 17 million tonnes, while whaling yielded not less than The Fisheries Department is unique in that it is 40,662 whales, with the British Empire and Norway as top a self-contained unit collecting its own statistics, first producers. There were few independent countries in Asia under strict guidance of Gertenbach, resulting in Fishery and Africa, and some colonial powers had no clue of what Statistical Yearbooks. Much emphasis was also placed was happening there. Therefore, it is not surprising that on bibliographic activities, with Holt, Saila, Angelescu, at first much emphasis was placed Gloria Soave and Gianna Landi on information gathering . as key figures,.the “Fisheries The Fisheries Department We all remember fondly Information, Data and Statistics was unique since it was located Unit (FIDI)”, founded by Akyüz, the roars of laughter away from the main HQ building is a result of that work, as well when Doeff told one during most of its existence, as the “Aquatic Sciences and which created a sense of “being of his famous stories in Fisheries Abstracts” (now a in the field”. Some staff members the Golden Bar. commercial activity). did not even recognize the DG Producing manuals was when he paid a surprise visit to a main task from the very the Department, which is perhaps the reason why it is beginning, the subjects covered almost all aspects of now located in the Saouma building. People used to meet fisheries and range from simple guides for fishermen frequently in the many small restaurants near building to extremely complicated ones on fish stock assessment “F” located on the Viale Cristoforo Colombo ..We all and acoustics. Training was and still is an important remember fondly the roars of laughter when Doeff told component, perhaps because local universities and schools one of his famous stories in the Golden Bar . lack the expertise and funds to set up special training in Outsiders have a tendency to see FAO as a very fisheries science and fishing technology. bureaucratic organisation. This is certainly not true for the The Fisheries Department became the secretariat Fisheries Department where staff members had a lot of for a large number of regional fisheries bodies, covering freedom to pursue subjects that had their particular interest. . practically all seas and oceans and inland waters, except Personal initiatives have led to projects based at HQ, to the far northern and southern oceans, part of this work is mention a few: the “ADCP (Acoustic Doppler Current now a task of Regional Fisheries Officers. Profiler) aquaculture programme” (Pillay), the “Indian From an evolutionary point of view capture fisheries Ocean Programme” (Winsor), “Identification sheets and are still at the level of hunters and gatherers ..It is not guides” (Fischer), “Globefish and its predecessors” (Krone), possible to show an investor or administrator how much training projects (Raitt, James, Lupin and Venema) and fish there is in a sea or lake. It requires a lot of sampling, the “Nansen Programme” (Sætersdal, Watzinger). survey (and guess) work to get an idea of what may be

22 available. The next step is then to find out how to catch it, projects were the African Lakes Programme (Clay), the which is not always easy in tropical areas. Gulfs project (Bahaa el-Din, Yesaki), the South China A first review of the “Fish Resources of the Ocean”, Sea Programme (Woodland, Simpson, Oswald), the Bay edited by Gulland appeared in 1970. It contained of Bengal Programme (Engvall, Sivasubramaniam), the educated guesses on the fisheries potential of large areas. CECAF project (Everett, Ansa-Amin), the Red Sea project Later these potentials could be verified through resource (Ben Alaya, Sanders) and the South West Indian Ocean surveys, including those with the R/V “Dr. Fridtjof Project (Ardill, Sanders). Nansen”, using acoustic techniques. A prediction by An expert in Mukalla in southern Sudan became Sharp based on oceanographic data on the vulnerability famous because he had built a mud hut for himself at of tunas to surface gear in the Indian Ocean proved to be the premises of the project, for which he was charged accurate and a huge tuna fishery developed. US$ 300 a month. It took a travel to Mukalla of a very Fishing operations may high official from New York to range from a single fisherman undo those charges. Fjeldstad catching garfish by flying a kite The Fisheries Department helped a population on a very with a baited noose from a beach was far ahead of small island in eastern Indonesia in Lombok, to a joint operation the rest of FAO in using to catch whales. Later he taught of forty Peruvian purse seiners word processors... them how to catch fish, which each catching 500 tonnes of was a better solution. Sen- anchovy from one school in thirty awards2 were given to Lusyne, . minutes, as I observed in December 1971. In those years for his training work in South Korea and Scheffers for Peru alone produced some 15 million tonnes of fish. The work on Lake Kivu, Ruanda. nature of technical assistance to be provided depended on With every country trying to produce as much fish such local circumstances . as possible, helped by motorization, improved fishing Field projects started as early as 1948 with a number techniques and fish detection equipment, and ever of missions ..Since 1967 the Fisheries Department had its increasing numbers of small scale fishermen, it became own Operations Unit (Winsor, Kojima, Kato), with a large gradually clear that this kind of development could not number of POO’s (Simpson, Mann, Kvaran, Isarankura, go on forever and that brakes needed to be applied .. Iyengar, Gonzalez Alberdi, to name a few). Shortly after the war, Peru and other South American In the seventies field staff outnumbered HQ staff. countries took the initiative to expand their fishing There were many activities at global, regional and national zones to 200 nautical miles (EEZs). More countries scale, ranging from setting up fishery research institutes followed in the seventies, in particular after the cod-war and fishery resource surveys, training administrators and between Iceland and the UK, and gradually most of the all kinds of technicians, to building fish markets, boats and continental shelf areas fell under the jurisdiction of some landing facilities. Much of the time of HQ staff was spent country. Namibia’s first law was the fisheries law, declaring on backstopping and providing administrative support 200 miles. Foreign vessels were forced to leave by armed for all those projects. Projects ranged in size from about freedom fighters dropped on deck from helicopters. Some 30 foreign and local staff to one single expert ..Important were allowed to return after payment of a licence fee.

23 2 The awards which have been named after Directors-General are mentioned in the article “Six Directors-General” FAO’s Fisheries Department, 1945–2005 by Siebren Venema

The development of the UN Law of the Sea led to a now applying Vessel Monitoring Systems to keep track of complete change in the tasks of the Fisheries Department, local and foreign fleets operating in their waters. and lawyers became very important (Carroz, Moore, For people working for many years in the field or at Savini). The 1984 World Conference on Fisheries became HQ there were important changes in the type of work a milestone for further developments ..The Code of to be done and the way it could be done. Secretarial Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and the Guidelines staff gradually changed from predominantly British associated with it changed the objectives of work at HQ to a wider international coverage. From the luxury of and the few remaining field projects. one secretary per professional, the number of support Knowledge and application of aquaculture gradually staff gradually decreased. Running around with typed expanded ..The culture of large marine shrimps and forms and telexes to obtain signatures for clearance was tilapia spread rapidly once the replaced by computer work. techniques had been developed .. The Fisheries Department was Small scale fish culture, as applied ...the pioneering work far ahead of the rest of FAO in Asia, was exported to other in using word processors, of of many old and new areas and declining marine which one of the benefits was projects and the work catches were supplemented by that a letter for the signature fish cultured in large cages in of HQ staff is still being of the DG could be produced protected marine areas ..Much recognized as unique without stress. Nowadays most salmon and seabass that is in the and important... people are typing their own market nowadays comes from correspondence, contacting the such cultures . world and each other by e-mail. Marketing and processing of fish and fish products The numerous departmental meetings dealing with field also underwent phenomenal changes, not the least projects belong to the past, but somehow those meetings through several FAO projects such as Info (-fish, -pesca, were useful in creating bonds across units and essential -pêche, -samak). Enormous losses through discards at sea information on what everybody was doing, e-mails alone were reported earlier; however, a recent study shows that cannot replace that . discards are limited now, due to scarcity of fish and better It is regrettable that the Fisheries Department has marketing possibilities ..The problem of catching protected lost so much of its presence in the field. On the other species such as dolphins, turtles, birds and even sharks is hand, the pioneering work of many old and new projects still not solved, although several measures to prevent such and the work of HQ staff is still being recognized as catches have been implemented. Protection of marine unique and important and we can only hope that it will resources has become a big issue, and several countries are continue to be useful for quite some time .

24 Sixty Years of FAO’s Forestry Department by Jim Ball

joined FAO in 1974 and spent 17 of my 27 years “Forest Products Statistics” was another area which in the field, so this account lacks an insider’s in the immediate aftermath of World War II was of great I knowledge of what was happening at Headquarters importance – and which continues to be so to this day. during the 1970s and 1980s . Philip Wardle was responsible for running this service In those days we had a big field programme, often for many years. larger than the size of the Department would suggest. The promotion of sustainable forest management Two Directors I recall especially, Louis Huguet, and has been a concern from the beginning, but we are now Maharaj Muhtoo; the latter particularly made an only one among many in this field. One important area in important contribution to the field programme. Those. which FAO led the way was the conservation and use of of us in the field regarded forest genetic resources, which ourselves as doing the “real” was pioneered by Christel work, and in retrospect I’m “Forest Products Palmberg-Lerche . amazed at the uncomplaining Statistics” was another Unasylva, the forestry technical support we received journal of FAO, has been area which in the from Headquarters. One of those published since 1947. It was immediate aftermath of backstopping staff was Oscar one of the main ways I and Fugalli, who joined FAO in the World War II was of many others used to keep in early 1950s and still works, albeit great importance – and touch with technical and policy as a volunteer, in the FO Library.3 which continues to be developments when in the field – When I came to so to this day. before the World Wide Web .. Headquarters in 1991 I was There have been two attempts soon disabused of my views to stop publishing Unasylva as an and concentrated on FAO’s mandate to collect, analyse economy measure, and both have been reversed in the and disseminate information in the forestry field. There face of widespread protests. You can read articles on the seem to me to be four areas in which FAO provided first ten, the first forty, and the first fifty years of FAO’s information that no other body did, but which was and Forestry Department at www.fao.org/forestry still is, widely used and quoted – or misused and/or My overriding impression, however, is of the unquoted. They are: friendliness of my colleagues; we may have been the The “Assessment of Global Forest Resources”. smallest of FAO’s Departments but we certainly seemed The first global forest inventory had been compiled in to get on with one another very well. 1948, and subsequent global forest inventories have been published for base years 1953, 1958, 1963, 1980 (tropical forests), 1990, 1995 (interim) and 2000. Staff associated with this include Jean-Paul Lanly and K.D. Singh .. The Global Forest Resources Assessment is now one of the flagship activities of FO, with requests for more information continually made by member countries.

25 3 Unfortunately, Oscar Fugalli passed away on 15 October 2005. A new UN Programme 4 comes into being by Bronek Szynalski

e are now in 2006 and the World Food The inspiration for the creation of a multilateral Programme is the unchallenged leader facility to provide food assistance to food deficit countries Win terms of resource allocations among came from George McGovern, the first Director the group of agencies constituting the humanitarian of Food for Peace Office under the Presidency of community, with some US$ 4.6 billion biennial pledges. John F. Kennedy. D. John Shaw, in his book, The UN With an estimated 800 million people going to bed World Food Programme and the Development of Food hungry every day, this figure, covering food aid and its Aid, describes him as consistently “pursuing his aims related transport and administrative costs is not surprising of giving fairness to the United States farmer, sharing but is impressive, and begs the question how is it that America’s agricultural bounty at home and abroad, and there was no food aid agency prior to WFP coming into supporting the United Nations and international action”. being. There was of course FAO, As adviser to the President, he but its mandate covered technical was behind Kennedy’s statement assistance, food policy and a in his speech in South Dakota It [WPF] came into mandate to draw attention to food on 22 September 1960 saying: “I being primarily because crises and apart from the Freedom don’t regard . . agricultural surplus from Hunger Campaign (covered the world did not know as a problem, I regard it as an elsewhere in this brochure), it was how to deal with its opportunity...not only for our not geared to delivery of food food surpluses... own people, but for the people to the hungry. And yet, WFP all around the world...if we was hardly born as a result of a recognise that food is strength, perceived need to feed the starving of this world. It came and food is peace, and food is freedom, and food is a into being primarily because the world did not know how helping hand to people around the world whose good will to deal with its food surpluses, the notorious ‘grain, butter and friendship we want.” and milk mountains’ that crammed storage facilities, cost The Marshall Plan after the Second World War was vast sums of money and were an embarrassment to the a response to massive food shortages in Europe, and whilst civilised nations in the face of food shortages and suffering not a model, it was looked at as inspiration for the creation in many parts of the planet. A parallel consideration of a multilateral facility adopted by the FAO Conference was how to turn these surpluses to good use, for social and UN General Assembly parallel resolutions establishing and economic development without adversely affecting WFP in 1961 on an experimental 3-year basis. However, agricultural production in recipient countries and it must be recognised that from its inception in 1945 FAO disrupting international trade . persistently advocated the establishment of some form Strong in the knowledge that the world produces of world food security arrangement and the constructive enough food to guarantee adequate supply to everyone, it was use of food surpluses. The first proposal to create a World a question of how to facilitate access to these supplies that Food Board was put forward to the first FAO Conference was on the mind of such people as Senator John Kennedy in Copenhagen in September 1946 but was not accepted. in 1960 when he promised support for a multilateral food A second attempt, in 1949, to set up International distribution system in his presidential campaign. Commodity Clearing House was likewise turned down.

26 4 This article draws heavily on D. John Shaw’s book ‘The UN World Food Programme and the Development of Food Aid. John Shaw spent over 30 years in WFP, and when retired from the Organisation was its Chief of Policy Affairs Service. The paper has also used material from an unpublished History of WFP by Eberhard Luhe. FAO persisted, despite these setbacks to press the idea From the outset it was stipulated that all requests forward through a series of studies, including a pilot study for food aid were to be made by developing country in India and a report on ‘An expanded Programme of Governments, and each request was to be scrutinised by Surplus Food Utilisation’. It drew up guidelines for the UN technical agencies such as FAO, UNESCO, ILO, disposal of food surpluses in 1954 . WHO and the UN itself. Such services were provided on Although established in 1961, WFP began a reimbursable basis, i.e. at cost to WFP. All emergency operations only in 1963, with a three-year budget of assistance was, and still is, approved by the Director- $100 million, as proposed by McGovern, 40% of which General of FAO, which organisation was responsible for were pledged by the USA, which WFP’s finances, personnel and in addition was to provide cash much of its administration well or services for transport of its ...from its inception in into early 1980-ties. The first food contribution ..McGovern 1945 FAO persistently Executive Director of WFP also proposed to limit the scope was Addeke Boerma, Director advocated the of the experimental programme of FAO’s Economic Affairs establishment of some to respond to emergencies and Division ..Building on his success engage in pilot interventions form of world food running WFP he later became such as school lunch and labour security arrangement and the Director-General of FAO. intensive projects. Food aid the constructive use of Few would ever have in this context was not to be food surpluses. imagined, at the time of its a handout, but a window of creation that WFP would opportunity for the hungry poor, become the principal channel by offering possibility of work and allow access to food for humanitarian assistance, widely praised for its at the same time. The interpretation of this concept was effectiveness, efficiency and speed of delivery. It became quite generous in that initially much of the ‘development’ expert in such unusual matters as putting up Bailey category projects was limited to school and pre-school bridges and causeways over rivers to move food across, feeding. As WFP grew in experience, food-for-work ship in ferry boats to remote lake areas, and manage fleets and infrastructure projects, erosion control and forestry, of hundreds of trucks, planes and helicopters... It has hospital feeding and training came onto the agenda. And, become an organisation that now feeds about 90 million as confidence and expertise grew, WFP became a real people year in year out, moves five million tons of force in social development and especially in relief and commodities, and has staff of over 10,000. Our hats off recovery interventions. to those who conceived the idea in the first place.

27 The World Food Programme and FAO The Early Years By Jens Schulthes

Note: The following is a personal and therefore inevitably one sided FP was a wonderful place, when I first recollection of one of the most complicated and in the end failed joined it in July 1969. Six satisfactory relationships between two UN Agencies . The ‘tutelage’ of FAO over Wexperimental years lay behind and the WFP was probably never the ideal solution because the raisons d’être atmosphere was one of cautious optimism – WFP was of the two organisations were from the beginning too different: by its beginning to find its place. The UN Capacity Study nature, food aid was not a resource for agricultural development but (‘Jackson Report’) had just been issued and WFP seemed to for social development . However, during the early years, when WFP’s be well positioned to move forward along its central theme: main activity – funding of development projects with food – was still Interagency Joint Programming. When established in 1963, experimental and its staff new, close reliance on the two established the idea had been as simple as it had been far sighted: WFP leaders in the UN – UNDP and FAO – seem, even in retrospect, would use surplus food for the (partial) funding of recipient quite reasonable . May be, this reliance went from the beginning government projects which met two basic conditions: unnecessarily far: The Executive Director was appointed by the first: ‘Developmental Soundness’ (what this meant, was as Secretary General in consultation with the Director General; FAO was much debated then as it is today) and second: ‘Absorptive responsible for managing all aspects of personnel administration and Capacity for Food Aid’ (basically understood as the financial control of WFP’s cash resources; the DG had to approve minimum organisational capacity of recipient countries appointments of senior (P-5 and above) staff; and all emergency to handle and account for WFP food as a means of operations also depended on his approval . No wonder that in Rome project funding without risking disincentives for local food WFP was often regarded as a division of FAO while in the Field, producers). WFP would assume the initial – not exclusive being formally represented by the UNDP Resident Representative, the – responsibility for assessing the latter, and the Agencies, ’WFP Adviser’ was considered as part of the staff of UNDP office. foremost among them FAO – again not exclusively – for However, as WFP began to acquire the mandate for an increased assessing the former condition, but both roles were seen operational role, especially in managing the logistics of large scale as quite limited because the lead role for project identification, emergencies and as vastly expanded resources were channelled through planning and implementation would rest with Governments . the Programme, the relationship of ’tutelage’ became more and more The principal reason for this emphasis on strained and in the end artificial. In an epic struggle over almost his government ownership – in which WFP was ahead of its full tenure as Executive Director (1982–1992), James Ingram, with time – was a concern of donors with costs: The resources the support of WFP’s main donors, won the independence from both of WFP were to be surplus food, i.e. an additional FAO and UNDP and thereby enabled the Programme to realize its resource, while fungible cash would be allowed almost full potential and subsequent growth . exclusively for international transport. Ownership of WFP All this would make for a long story . The following paper deals supplied food passed to recipient governments at the port with one – and in the recollection of the writer, happy – aspect of of entry and all internal logistics were then to be taken it: the early cooperation between WFP and FAO in the evolution of on by governments. WFP’s ‘administrative costs’ were to ’Food Aid for Development’ . The writer likes to thank, in particular, be kept to a minimum and were jealously watched by all. Peter Simkin and Edward Clay for their helpful comments . Professional grades in WFP were lower than anywhere else in the UN, from the Executive Director (ADG) to the Chiefs of the Regional Bureaux, who were real kings at P-5, to the P-4 ‘WFP advisers’ in the field some of

28 whom ran huge emergency operations like Trevor Page friendly team of Directors – Sushil Dey, Tom Robinson, in the Sahel, or Emile Syts in Nigeria after the Biafra war Feridun Üstün, George Peissel and the ’chief theoretician’ (of which Allen Jones handled the largest part in Enugu (not : ideologist) Dr. Otto Matzke who was allowed as a P-1). It will probably come as a surprise to many one assistant, an ’Associate Expert’ (me). Boerma was people today to learn that the figure of about 6 % for followed by Francisco Aquino, who coming from the administrative costs for the first 20 years included all staff, Inter-American Development Bank brought the banker’s Headquarters and Field, and all technical support .. view to food aid (which would later be disregarded and During the early years cooperation with the in the end nearly frowned upon in favour of the ’Hungry Agencies, and in particular with FAO, was lively and Poor’). It was during Aquino’s tenure that WFP began to effective, and their concern was a common one: What cautiously think about broadening its strictly prescribed were the ‘right’ projects for project approach in favour of a WFP? When was food the ‘right’ programme approach (Jamaica resource? What worked and what During the early years mission 1969) but the key didn’t? Food aid always remained donors took a dim view of this cooperation with a controversial issue and WFP and India’s Operation Flood the Agencies, and in learned to live between its friends remained the great exception .. (Christopher Stevens’ 1968 ‘Food particular with FAO, was However, even the narrow Aid – More Sinned Against than lively and effective... project approach presented quite Sinning’, and foes such as Tony enough challenges in practice Jackson’s devastating attack in and indeed also in theory. There ‘Against the Grain’. Both, a decade later, would probably was one (!), although brilliant ’Economic Adviser’ provided make the same good reading today). Spin words like by the UN – Victoria Marrama, later followed by Joe ’empowerment’ or ’gender’ or ’participatory beneficiary Moscarella who would today have the title of ’Director monitoring’ or even ‘food insecurity’ had not yet been of Policy’ and who drew freely on the help of volunteers invented, but people were quite aware of the underlying (some of them quite junior) across other sectors of issues and conscious of the complexity of ‘development’ WFP – Fabian Holder, John Shaw, Peter Simkin, Pascale in general. As an organisation WFP was eager to learn. Montanaro, Maurizio Gnocchi, Janvid Flere, Jean-Pierre There were still few projects and plenty of time for debate Nastorg, Jozef Wojcicki, Bronek Szynalski, Margaret of what these projects should look like. The Programme Wilkins, Krishno Dey, to name only a few of those who had been well endowed with a first generation of senior enjoyed – and were allowed – to add their voice and and junior staff capable of, and indeed enjoying a writing to the ever increasing demand for ’policy papers’. kind of continuing policy debate – self searching and Consultations with the UN (van der Heide), WHO critical in an informal, non-hierarchical style. The first (formidable Jean-Pierre Dustin), UNESCO (Richard Executive Director, Addeke Boerma, who had himself Loewald) and ILO (Tony Dawson who later joined come from FAO (to where he would later return as WFP) were frequent and collaboration with FAO daily DG, accompanied by his assistant Declan Walton, who and comprehensive – be it on individual projects in eventually became DDG) had created a strong and Headquarters and the Field, or resources or general ’food

29 The World Food Programme and FAO, the Early Years By Jens Schulthes

aid policy’. Jake de Geus headed for many years a team operations, among them very large emergencies. The of FAO specialists, many of whom truly enjoyed working governing body approved funding for internal transport for WFP. There was an uninterrupted succession of and storage, and this gave the organisation a greater enthousiastic foresters – Chuck Lancaster, Hans Winkler, role in the practical operational management and direct Seppo Ruuskanen, Philippe Terver, and Giuseppe Topa, supervision of food distribution ..Development priorities who seemed to identify with WFP as much as with FAO. focussed increasingly on the poorest countries, and Their contributions have probably survived most visibly within these, on the poorest people. Where, because of in such places as Pakistan and Ethiopia, as anybody who this ambitious new emphasis, government ownership today visits can still see. But there were others – Erdal was lacking, WFP tried to step in with assessment, Ozbilen, Hubert Creupelant, Wolfgang Krostiz, and organisation and monitoring ..This increased involvement many more without whose technical knowledge and led, in turn, to more direct technical support and training cheerful commitment for exploring the potential – and of counterpart staff. For a while the Agencies and in pitfalls – of food aid WFP’s field particular FAO hang on to their and desk officers would, in these constitutional function of quality early days, have felt quite lost. WFP developed an ever control (‘Technical Clearance’), Several members of the first but eventually the time for it more efficient logistic Governing Body (IGC) like Hans passed even before the political capacity and learned to Deelemann from the Netherlands, storm broke that cut WFP loose Phil Griffin from Ireland or Frank take on more demanding from FAO. Chefrin from Canada took a operations, among them Was it a UN ‘success story’? critical, but friendly interest in very large emergencies. During the first years: Probably WFP and the great Hans Singer ‘yes’ – if only because large (today Sir Hans Singer) provided volumes of additional food were his special contribution from the Institute of Development programmed and delivered to millions of hungry people Studies, University of Sussex (I remember a wonderfully at record low costs. Interagency cooperation to ensure a impromptu conference by him on ’The ’Future of Food minimum of project quality was for a while a sound and Aid’ in a small FAO conference room together with FAO’s cost-effective approach. When this ended, would there legendary Gerda Blau). The paper on ‘Food Aid in the have been room for another, a new role of collaboration Second Development Decade’ that WFP submitted in with the Agencies, and a special role for FAO? Again: 1970 to the UN General Assembly and that would even probably ‘yes’. WFP learned to judge, and quite often to today pass as an excellent policy blueprint, was written in achieve project ‘effectiveness’. What it did learn less well the fullest cooperation with all agencies. was to judge ‘resource efficiency’ – to find convincing But WFP grew. Resources increased and answers to the question of where its food – as a resource bureaucratic routines evolved. New projects began to – fits and where it does not. Early efforts to approach this resemble earlier ones and with each new project, the question – the comparative advantage of food aid – were not Agencies’ advice began to look a little more predictable. pursued. Here all Agencies, and in particular FAO, could Operational issues began to drive out the relaxed policy have been (and probably could still be) helpful. But that debate. WFP developed an ever more efficient logistic would be another story. capacity and learned to take on more demanding

30 The beginning of ICT in FAO by Giuseppe Pace

he reason I joined FAO in 1963 was were used to store staff data on metal plates, to compile mainly due to the management decision monthly and yearly stats and/or print lists of different Tof introducing the first computer in the types for embassies, internal management and personnel organization. We were in the early sixties and the FAO officers. In fact, the Computing Centre was one Section Computing Centre was a very tiny office located in a of the Establishment Branch in the Personnel Division. couple of small rooms on the right of the ex-commissary Nevertheless, in addition to Personnel Statistics, the main entrance of building B. At that time the organization’s outputs of the Computing Centre were the organizational complex was made up of buildings A and B. Buildings C, payroll and the accounting reports which were produced E and F didn’t exist, while building D was occupied by the for the benefit and use by the Finance Division. Italian Ministry of Postal Services. The early sixties had seen The equipment installed in the advent of the first electronic the Computing Centre totalled In early 1963 the computer, the famous IBM 1401. some 4 punching machines, 2 FAO management had This computer was contained in verifying machines, a couple of a large cupboard equipped with made the decision sorting machines, one collating 4K of ferrite memory which was of computerizing the machine, an electro-mechanical capable of distinguishing positive calculator and a couple of organization and an or negative status of each position tabulating machines. The whole IBM 1440 was put depending on electronic signals lot was used to punch and process on order for delivery (on/off) used to polarize the small data on 80 column cards ..Data in April 1964. ferrite rings that represented one were punched in different fields single bit. Obviously the speed made up of the 80 available of the new computer was much columns and their positioning could be recognized by faster than that of the electro-mechanical machines in use each of the unit record machines through brushes and until then, though the main means of entering and storing metallic rolls through which the cards were forced to data had initially been left to the use of the 80 column slide by rotating electrical engines. A database could punched cards. The major step that was experienced by then be made up of one to many cards per identifying the electronic age immediately after the introduction of key (punched on all the relevant cards), each containing the IBM 1401 was the linking of electronic peripherals different information (bio data, salary items, accounting to the main computer. So the first external magnetic data, statistical information, etc.) and each capable of memories were introduced first on drums and then on being elaborated in different ways (sequencing, merging, disk-packs. To give you an idea of the size of the first disk calculating, printing, etc.). units you should think of packs of some 10 layers each Well, the two small rooms of the FAO Computing made up of plates of 40 centimetres of diameter on which Centre were full of file cabinets containing payroll and data could be written and read as required. However, accounting information, while statistical data were still at their storage capacity was initially very limited, some 4K a very early stage of collection. The Computing Centre of memory per disk-pack. The first computer equipped was also equipped with some data plates machines which with these peripheral was the IBM 1440.

31 The beginning of ICT in FAO by Giuseppe Pace

In early 1963 the FAO management had made This meant to go back to the roots of my job: in other the decision of computerizing the organization and an words I was put in front of a wall of punched cards and IBM 1440 was put on order for delivery in April 1964. I was asked to have them sequenced according to certain The introduction of the new computer had been sold fields by using a sorting machine. The impression I gave by the IBM representatives as a golden opportunity to my boss who was used to manage by watching was to convert the payroll and the accounting procedures rather favourable particularly because, I was told later, by of the organization into new programmes and into a exploiting my big hands I was able to manage large packs more modern system to store relevant data in electronic of punched cards without having them slipped away and format, by practically getting rid of punched cards and without any major difficulty. of the related operating machines. At that time it was However, in order to make a long story short, I also recognized that some internal expertise had to be was finally introduced in the new team and after some built while some fresh blood needed to be injected. I was training on the new IBM 1440, which I attended with identified as the fresh blood: The my new colleagues, the team IBM representative who was started programming the new taking care of the FAO client procedures. The first few months ...in other words approached me at another client’s were spent in understanding they [IBM] were place where I had been working the size of the problem and for few months on an IBM 1401. recommending to mount how the new applications could The idea was for me to become FIAT 500 wheels on a fit on the capacity of the new part of the team in charge of Chrysler Imperial. computer. One important aspect the change-over in the FAO of the problem was that, due to Computing Centre and to support budget limitations (even in those both the organization and the IBM in their joint venture. early days...), the introduction of the new computer was At the time FAO, though still a small organization necessarily linked to the dismissal of all the unit record with less than 1.000 staff, was regarded as a major target machines, the assumption being that, once the data had been particularly for a young chap like me: so after a couple . loaded on the electronic memories such as the disk units, of weeks of meditation I accepted the offer and I started there wouldn’t be any need to rely on card files and on the with the new job. The couple of weeks of meditation manual sequencing, collating and storing of punched cards. were due to the fact that the new contract was on a fixed The problem that surfaced during the analysis I term basis while my then existing contract was based undertook while involved in the development of the new on a continuing assignment and that the monthly salary programmes was that the two disk drives that had been increase by almost 30% of my previous remuneration ordered as main peripherals of the new computer had a was mitigated by a very unusual salary distribution (no very limited capacity (4K each) thus making impossible tredicesima, no double salary every three months, etc., . to convert all manual operations of punched cards into as was the case under the Italian system). electronic processes. I remember that initially nobody I remember that my first days on the job were not wanted to take seriously my findings and conclusions in as expected. Rather than being assigned immediately to this respect, IBM had recommended a given configuration the new team as a junior programmer, my boss insisted and it was rather impossible to think that they had so that I spent some time on learning my duties on the job. severely underestimated the storage capacity.

32 My boss, who was in charge of the project, started by concluding that I would have continued to do my best becoming rather nervous about the issue, despite IBM in order for the Organization to avoid being exposed to attempts to minimize the problem ..I remember that one commercial people and by pretending that from thereon afternoon he came to my office and asked me to explain the Organization could talk to IBM technical people only. in detail how serious I thought the problem was. At that Well, this was my first contribution to ICT at point I had to use an example that fortunately worked FAO: to some extent, initially I was rather disappointed out very well: my boss had a very large car, a Chrysler by the development of my first project, but finally I Imperial, which at the time was very impressive in terms appreciated that I had assisted the Organization in of size and power, particularly avoiding some more complex when compared to an Italian Fiat problems. However, since then, 500. Well, in order to explain the We went through the ICT at FAO has experienced nature of the problem I told him mainframe age down major developments, both in that the IBM was trying to sell to mobile computing terms of infrastructure and of FAO a computer that in terms information systems, to which I by experiencing all of engine was equivalent to the feel proud having contributed all the pains of several power of his car but that in terms my support and my professional of peripherals was equivalent to intermediate steps, enthusiasm. We went through the the wheels of a Fiat 500: in other such as departmental mainframe age down to mobile words they were recommending minicomputers, computing by experiencing all to mount FIAT 500 wheels on a word processors and the pains of several intermediate Chrysler Imperial. personal computers. steps, such as departmental After having listened to me, minicomputers, word processors I remember he stared at me for and personal computers ..We some seconds, than he thanked me, he got up from the went from the stand-alone processors to the wide area chair in front of my desk, got back to his office, called network and most recently the wi-fi connectivity passing the IBM representative over the phone and went on through Ethernet cabling and wide-band networks. We shouting at him at least for half an hour. The day after the experienced the introduction of e-mail, productivity tools contract for the new computer had been cancelled. I also and office systems. We went through the development and remember that a week later I received a visit by the IBM implementation of major information systems such as representative who dared to tell me that, after all, they Waicent, the Virtual Library, ERP applications and web- had sponsored my recruitment at the FAO and that they enabled systems that are now hosted on the “www.fao.org”, didn’t expect that as a result of my analysis their contract one of the most quality intensive websites of the Internet would have been cancelled. Then I was compelled to environment. I guess not bad..., after a false start!!!! explain to the guy what my definition of job loyalty was,

33 The Senior Agricultural Adviser/ FAO Country Representative by Christoph Beringer

was in Djakarta, Indonesia, early in 1971, when I health project in Bursa, a genetic resources project in received a three line cable from FAO Headquarters Izmir and a whole series of other interesting activities in I in Rome, asking me whether I might be interested forestry, hides and skins and fisheries. in a post of Senior Agricultural Adviser/FAO Country After listening for a while to their expose, I Representative in Iran. The cable was signed by Mr. Karl interrupted and said: “But Mr. Olsen, what you are telling Olsen, Deputy Director, Field Liaison Division. At first, me is very interesting, but your cable said that I should go I didn’t feel like replying. I was involved in a World Bank to Iran, the programme you are talking about seems to financed study on fertilizer production, consumption be somewhere else.” “Oh, sorry,” he replied, “we forgot and distribution in Indonesia; the work pressure was to tell you, the Iranians want a representative who is a considerable and the deadline for finishing the study was national from another Muslim country, but Turkey would tight. So, under the circumstances, have no objection to a German.” I just didn’t feel like leaving my “Never mind,” I said, “it sounds post and travel halfway around equally good” and so, as often Some 50 international the world to interview for a job in life, one’s fate was decided by experts were working about which I knew little. pure coincidence . About a month or six weeks in the various projects, A few weeks later the later a follow up message arrived not counting local formal offer from Rome for from Mr. Olsen, telling me that counterpart personnel. the Turkey assignment arrived either I came to Rome for an and I accepted, but not without interview, or the post would go a considerable feeling of to someone else. Kirsten, my wife, urged me to go and at trepidation. True, I did have several years of practical least find out, what the job was all about. We both knew experience in developing countries behind me, but how a little about Iran, having visited there a few times on our could I adequately represent FAO, the largest Organization way to and from Karachi, an earlier assignment with the in the UN family, without the slightest knowledge Ford Foundation. After some further reflection we both of its overall programme, its structure, the persons thought that it might be a good place to live and work, so responsible for the various technical departments and the why not give it a try. administration and without ever having worked there? When 1 finally arrived in Rome, I met Karl Olsen, Well, “sink or swim”, was the only option I had. A friendly and rather relaxed behind his desk, without week or ten days of briefing at HQ did provide a general shoes and just socks on. Next to him George Hutton, an idea of the programme, the operational procedures, experienced field man for FAO in various assignments. reporting requirements which had to be followed and They asked me a few questions about myself and then thousand other details, but how could anyone grasp a began explaining the FAO programme in the country. whole programme in a few days time. Whatever, for me it Mostly it consisted of UNDP financed projects which was “off to Ankara” and a desk in the local UN office. FAO executed and there were a few trust funds financed As it turned out, most of what had to be learned by bilateral donors. They spoke with pride about the about the programme was in any case right there on the Yallova project, dealing with horticulture, a large animal spot ..It covered in the broadest sense a large part of the

34 spectrum of FAO’s work, most of the technical divisions to visit their projects regularly, to get to know personally in Agriculture and, in particular: Plant Production and the government departments to which their projects were Protection; Agricultural Services as well as Animal attached. And then there were the funding sources, be they Production and Health, but in addition the Fisheries and UNDP or Trust Funds, who had to be convinced that FAO, Forestry Departments. Some 50 international experts both at HQ and in the field looked after their projects were working in the various projects, not counting local and wished to make them successful. A personal visit to counterpart personnel . Turkey by Mr. Boerma, the FAO Director General, greatly Initially, as happens in any new job, it was at times facilitated the task. It was in this environment, technical, rather rough going and a bit lonesome, in a strange country, political and administrative, that the FAO Representative with people one knew little about had to try and define his role as a and hardly anyone to consult with catalyst among the various, and or ask for advice. The project Motivating government at times competing agents and directors, many of whom had been departments to provide interests involved in an important in the country for a long time, field programme. the necessary support were friendly enough but at the Speaking about the role and at the same time same time cautious in accepting and functions of an FAO a new and relatively junior learning to understand Representative, as the author FAO Rep., who might look over also their constraints experienced it some thirty years their shoulders, perhaps report became a central part of ago, would not be complete independently to HQ, without the FAO Rep’s work. without mentioning briefly a really knowing the background of few historical aspects which their projects, the difficulties they have shaped the relationship had to wrestle with on a daily basis vis-à-vis government between UN, UNDP and the specialized agencies. It is departments to which their projects were assigned. easily forgotten, that certain strains within the System, Quite obviously, defining ones own role as an FAO which persist to this day, go back to basic decisions which Rep. was not to try and second-guess them in their were made during the preparatory discussions which technical specialties, but rather to get them to provide you in 1945 led to the adoption of the UN Charter, “How with a basic understanding of their often complicated closely should the technical services within the System subject matter and at the same time understand the be integrated with and controlled by the more politically human, administrative and financial problems which oriented UN Center” was a fundamental question debated they had to face in carrying out their job. Motivating at that time ..Should the structure be similar to that of the government departments to provide the necessary support predecessor, the League of Nations, with closely integrated and at the same time learning to understand also their technical departments, or should it be a system of largely constraints became a central part of the FAO Rep’s work. autonomous, independently operating agencies, brought The other side of the coin was to secure the regular into a more or less loose relationship with the UN? The involvement of the mostly overburdened technical and decision, as we now know, was in favour of the latter. One operational services at HQ. They had to be encouraged of the arguments advanced at the time in favour of a

35 The Senior Agricultural Adviser/FAO Country Representative by Christoph Beringer

decentralized structure was stated rather explicitly: if for Country Representative” posts, mainly to assist in the political reasons the Center should ever falter, then at least programming of these additional resources These posts the technical structure would have a chance to survive were financed by UNDP and the incumbents, although independently. Looking at the embattled UN Center they were selected by FAO, came under a UNDP contract. from today’s perspective and observing the forces which At the country level the relationship between the UNDP are at work shaking at its foundations, it seems that the and FAO representatives was not very clearly defined considerations of the founding fathers some 60 years ago and was thus dependent on the good will and flexibility were not all that far fetched. of the personalities involved; in my own case it worked The fact that the basic structure of the UN System out rather well, but as a general arrangement, there was was originally decided in this way, did not guarantee, obviously quite some room for misunderstandings and however, that it was also wholeheartedly accepted in this frictions. It became clear, therefore, that in the longer form, particularly not by the major contributors to the term certain adjustments in the arrangement were called various budgets. Their aim, obviously, was to secure more for. Other specialized agencies, for example WHO, were co-ordination and a much greater measure of control over traditionally less dependent on UNDP for the financing the entire system, and in particular its field activities. of their field programme. They financed more of their The Jackson Report which came out in 1969/70 had country and regional activities from their regular budget, led to a major expansion in UNDP resources and these maintained perhaps fewer representatives at the field level, additional funds had to be allocated and programmed in but had them under direct contract and control . the various recipient countries. The concept of “country Beginning in 1976, following the election of programme” and “country programming” was borne. As Edouard Saouma as FAO Director-General, the FAO was traditionally the most important channel for the FAO Representatives were increasingly financed implementation of UNDP financed projects, agreement from the regular budget and the SAA /FAO Country was reached between FAO and UNDP to create a Representative scheme was gradually phased out. The number of so called “Senior Agricultural Adviser/FAO phasing-out process was completed in 1979.

The Great Sahelian Drought FAO coordinates UN system’s emergency response by Trevor Page

hirty-odd years ago, when FAO coordinated stricken Sahelian states – Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, the United Nations humanitarian response Haute Volta, Niger and Chad – appealed for international Tto the crisis caused by the Great Sahelian assistance. Addressing the FAO Council, he said that for Drought, the world handled emergencies very differently five years the governments of the stricken six had tried from today. There was no UN emergency humanitarian to cope with the cumulative effects of successive years of coordinator to sound the alarm, no office of humanitarian drought. The scale of the disaster, he said, had gotten too affairs to coordinate flows of information. While big for the Sahelian governments to handle on their own, today’s emergency response mechanism is far more and it was time for the international community to come comprehensive, 30 years ago it was more personalized. to their rescue. As he spoke, the carcasses of hundreds of In 1973, President Sangoule Lamizana of Haute Volta thousands of cattle lay strewn across 3,000 kilometres of (now Burkina Fasso), speaking on behalf of the six drought- the Sahel. People too were starting to starve to death. 36 The Great Sahelian Drought by Trevor Page

The UN system sprung into action. As the crisis Nations. WFP chartered a Norwegian DC-4 for the was seen as largely agricultural, the Secretary-General, airdrop. It was this exercise that launched WFP on its Kurt Waldheim, nominated FAO as the UN system’s way to becoming the logistics arm of the UN-system for ‘lead-agency’. Its Director-General, A.H. Boerma, quickly humanitarian emergencies .. put together a small team of specialists at HQ under Of course, most of the food aid, seeds and other the leadership of veteran Inter-Agency Affairs Director, agricultural supplies were delivered by truck from ports J.V Nehemiah. He also created a new a new unit called on the West African coast. Four of the afflicted countries OSRO – the Office of Sahelian Relief Operations. are landlocked. In 1974, few airlifts were needed and The DG moved his Regional Representative for Africa, camel caravans of food aid replaced airdrops in Niger and Moise Mensah, to Ouagadougou, where the Sahelian Chad. The mass-starvation that was feared was averted. governments had set up their own coordinating machinery. OSRO was successful because it was small and As large quantities of food aid were urgently required because it was backed with the authority of the DG. to prevent mass starvation, the Cooperation with WFP was World Food Programme also put excellent. FAO bureaucracy together a small team at HQ to While today’s emergency and customary UN work support OSRO. I was seconded to habits were dispensed with. response mechanism is FAO as OSRO’s Chief Logistics Communications, always crucial far more comprehensive, Officer in the Sahel. Most import, in an emergency, were difficult the network of FAO and WFP 30 years ago it was between the Sahel and Rome. officers serving in the Sahel was more personalized. The best time to phone was very mobilized for the relief effort .. late at night – between midnight Most had long experience in and 4 a.m. So, every night for the aiding the drought stricken populations of the region .. better part of 1973, that is when I briefed J.V. Nehemiah Within a fortnight, OSRO’s first airlift of food aid and when I received my instructions. JV actually moved started from Lagos in Nigeria to Agadez in Niger. Three into his guest room so that he could take my calls without Royal Canadian Air Force Hercules C130s were the first disturbing his wife! But it was not only JV that needed to join. Very soon after, 19 transport aircraft from the briefing and I often needed urgent information from WFP armed services of Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, on the status of a shipment or the arrival of an aircraft .. Libya and the United States of America were airlifting Each night after dinner, at around 9 p.m., my secretary food aid to isolated areas of the Sahel, from Mauritania would take the day’s outgoing telex messages to a UNDP in the west to Chad in the east. It was crucial to deliver office and send them off herself. No waiting in line, no as much food as possible before the rainy season made begging a telex operator to send our messages urgently. At the dirt roads impassable. In all, about 8,000 tons of food the same time, she would collect my incoming messages. aid – enough to feed over 100,000 people for 6 months This regime was only possible because of the cooperation – was airlifted. To stricken areas where large transport of UNDP Resreps across the Sahel and the understanding aircraft could not land, food aid was airdropped. OSRO’s and flexibility of my excellent secretary. airdrop in Chad was the first ever mounted by the United

37 Le problème du Sahel par A.L. Molle

omme tous les ans les populations pastorales du naturelle qui ne manquerait pas d’avoir de graves Sahel ont poussés leurs troupeaux vers le Nord conséquences en matière d’agriculture et d’alimentation Cpour hiverner sur des pâturages temporaires .. et pour la solution de laquelle l’aide alimentaire était de Leur mouvement en sens inverse devait attendre le retour première nécessité ..Tous ces domaines ressortaient de des pluies apportées par le front sahélien montant du golfe la FAO. et M. Boerma décida de lancer un appel à la de Guinée ..En 1973 cette arrivée des pluies ne s’est pas solidarité et à l’aide internationales. produite ou tout au moins a été retardée et tellement faible Je passai plusieurs heures avec M. Declan Walton, que la végétation ne s’est pas développée et les puits du son chef de cabinet, pour rédiger les termes de cet appel Sahel ont tari ..De cet enchaînement de circonstances il qui eut un grand retentissement immédiat, surtout du fait découlait que les populations nomades ont été coupées . qu’une fois l’appel lancé les télégrammes de confirmation des approvisionnements en eau nécessaires à leur retour d’une situation dramatique et de demandes d’aide des vers le sud . gouvernements concernés Un télégramme adressé au commencèrent à pleuvoir tandis Programme alimentaire mondial Grâce à votre que l’assistance internationale (PAM), et par hasard copié au se mobilisait : j’avais vu juste. connaissance de Bureau Afrique, demandant Maintenant il fallait créer à l’Afrique, l’appel que j’ai quand viendrait l’assistance la FAO une cellule de crise. promise qui permettrait de lancé est déjà un succès. Deux jours après l’appel la subvenir aux besoins des Il nous faut une cellule porte de mon bureau s’ouvre populations et au surcreusement de crise que je vais créer et M ..Boerma entre et s’installe des puits, me tombe entre les immédiatement. devant moi. « Grâce à votre mains. Après avoir réfléchi à ce connaissance de l’Afrique, que cela signifiait dans le cadre l’appel que j’ai lancé est déjà un historique connu des grandes sécheresses du passé j’ai succès. Il nous faut une cellule de crise que je vais créer pu diagnostiquer avant beaucoup d’autres l‘arrivée de la immédiatement. Je sais ce que l’on vous doit à l’origine grande sécheresse sahélienne de 1973–74 ..J’allai montrer de cette affaire, mais pour des raisons diverses, je suis le télégramme à M. Pierre Terver le Sous-directeur contraint de mettre à sa tête le Directeur de la Division général chargé du Département du développement des liaisons internationales, qui fait partie de mon avec lequel j’entretenais des liens d’estime et de bureau, mais je compte sur vous pour l’aider de toutes les compréhension mutuels ..Ensemble nous avons estimé manières possibles et en particulier en ce qui concerne ce qui allait se produire c’est-à-dire une catastrophe votre connaissance du français qui lui manque ..» qui, malheureusement, avait des précédents et ce sont Ainsi fut créé l’Office for Sahel Relief Opération ceux-là précisément qui décidèrent M. Terver à aller (OSRO) auprès duquel je fus détaché de mon voir le Directeur Général M. Boerma. Un appel à l’aide poste d’adjoint au Directeur du Bureau Afrique. internationale était généralement du ressort du Secrétaire Immédiatement mon alter ego du PAM vint nous Général des Nations Unies. Ce fut le cas lors des rejoindre. Puis un agent détaché de la Société pour évènements du Congo en 1960. Mais ici, il ne s’agissait le contrôle de la navigation aérienne (SECNA) par plus d’un fait politique mais bien d’une catastrophe l’assistance technique française vint assurer le nécessaire

38 liaison avec leurs agents basés dans les aérodromes par la BBC lors de mon voyage en Angleterre en 1947, nationaux africains de la région ..Bientôt tout un réseau mais cette fois il s’agissait de la télévision et en italien .. d’informations fut tissé qui impliquait le contrôle de Dans un entretien préalable avec le speaker responsable, bateaux au large des côtes de l’Afrique de l’Ouest et Piero Angela me demanda ce que je pensais être capable leur détournement éventuel vers des ports non engorgés .. de faire : une émission en direct ou une émission en Les gouvernements occidentaux (la France, la Belgique, différé avec enregistrement préalable ce qui permettait des l’Allemagne, ...) mirent des avions de transport à corrections en cas de difficultés ? Après quelques minutes disposition pour le transport de conversation le speaker me des ports vers l’intérieur et dit qu’il lui semblait que cela pour le largage des aides sur Bientôt tout un réseau irait suffisamment bien et que de des aires déterminées. La Royal d’informations fut tissé toute façon quelques erreurs de Canadian Air Force envoya un qui impliquait le langage ne pourraient qu’ajouter colonel pour coordonner cette à la véracité du récit. Et me voilà contrôle de bateaux aide dans le cas particulier du parti ..Je crois que l’exposé a eu au large des côtes de Nigeria : pendant trois jours le résultat attendu malgré un « nous restâmes au téléphone pour l’Afrique de l’Ouest tremendamente » sur lequel j’ai régler les problèmes les plus et leur détournement trébuché d’une manière qui est divers depuis les autorisations de éventuel vers des ports restée célèbre dans la famille qui, survol, jusqu’au ravitaillement non engorgés. à mon insu, a tout enregistré. Le en essence ! La FAO nous avait lendemain à la FAO je reçus des fourni des lignes téléphoniques félicitations du DDG M ..Jackson supplémentaires et surtout une batterie de fax pour les et même du service de presse . communications écrites. Au total en huit mois 400.000 t. Je fus encore mêlé aux prolongements de l’appel d’aide alimentaire ont été transportées et distribuées . initial du DG qui devait être soutenu dans le temps par des Les communiqués de presse de la FAO engendrèrent messages de mises au point successifs. Probablement sur le une demande de la Radiodiffusion Italienne (RAI) pour conseil du Représentant permanent de la Belgique auprès qu’un responsable vienne exposer la situation et ses de la FAO M. Van Hauwermeiren, le DG choisit l’ancien conséquences au cours de l’émission du journal parlé du Ministre belge De Schrijver comme son envoyé personnel soir et je fus désigné. C’était pour moi une expérience auprès des gouvernements occidentaux et j’eus à jouer le nouvelle. Bien sûr j’avais déjà été interviewé dans le passé rôle d’officier de liaison avec lui pendant un certain temps.

39 Bio Warfare in the Sky The New World Screwworm eradication programme in North Africa 1988–19925 by Anton Doeve

Background information infections, frequently causes the death of the host animal. his story is about a battle between human The screwworm fly is about two-and-a-half times beings and an insect, a particularly nasty one larger than the common house fly. It has a blue-green Tat that. That it was won, this time, by the body, with three distinct stripes, and orange-red eyes. Its human beings was largely due to the professional skills, larva has large, backward projecting spines, which earned imagination and teamwork of dedicated staff members it the name screwworm. serving in the United Nations Organizations involved, The NWS has existed on the American continent supported by expert consultants with long experience in since ancient times, and its name is found in all the the fight against the New World Screwworm fly or, to give principal indigenous dialects. Throughout the Americas it the creature its scientific name, is known by various local names, “Cochliomyia hominivorax” .. including gusanera, bichera and The last syllable of this ...New World bichiera and, most commonly, in name, “hominivorax”, means Screwworm (NWS) has English, the screwworm. literally: “devourer of man” Untreated screwworm been described as a and the New World Screwworm infections can kill a grown steer “flesh devouring insect (NWS) has been described as a in less than a week. Before “flesh devouring insect monster, monster, straight out of a being eradicated from the straight out of a horror story” and horror story” and as United States in the late 1970’s, as “the worm of death”. These “the worm of death”. screwworms devastated the ‘pet names’ can be appreciated southern U.S. livestock industry, fully if we consider the costing hundreds of millions screwworm’s nasty business. The adult flies lay their eggs dollars annually. It was introduced in the late 1980’s, at the edges of the wounds of warm-blooded animals. The probably through trade, in North Africa where it made its eggs hatch into larvae that feed and grow in the wounds first appearance in the Eastern Hemisphere. until they drop off, pupate in soil and start the cycle anew. While the fly itself is harmless it owes its fearful reputation The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) as a deadly parasite to its larvae, which are totally The sterile insect technique, the first insect pest control dependent on the living tissue of host animals for their method involving genetics, can most simply be described as survival. NWS larvae penetrate the wounds and only eat a form of birth control. Combined with surveillance, wound living flesh and the resulting secretions. As they feed, they treatment, animal movement control and quarantine, dramatically enlarge wounds, creating a pocket-like cavity the use of SIT has been phenomenally successful, as and discharging substances that give rise to secondary demonstrated in the Americas and in North Africa. infections and prevent the wounds from healing. The technique involves mass rearing of the pest Wounds infected by NWS larvae are generally very species, sexual sterilization by radiation and the release deep, up to 10 cm. resulting from the extensive tissue of vast numbers of sterile insects into the infested areas destruction. The extreme damage caused by the feeding with a ratio of sterile to wild of 10:1. When a wild female of the larvae, combined with resulting secondary bacterial mates with a sterilized male, she will lay infertile eggs

40 5 Source documents are: ‘The New World Screwworm Eradication Programme” – Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome 1992 – . “History of the screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) eradication in the Eastern Hemisphere” by V. Kouba – Historia Medicinae Veterinariae, 2004, 29, 2:43–53 and thus will not produce offspring. If sufficient numbers in the USA and Mexico. A production plant with a capacity of sterilized males are released, so that most indigenous to produce 600 million sterile flies per week was opened in females are mated by them, numbers in the wild population Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, in Mexico in August 1976. will consequently be reduced. Continued release of sterile flies will progressively reduce the reproductive capacity of The North African emergency the wild population and eventually result in its extinction. The discovery of the New World screwworm in the Libyan Unlike many other methods of pest control, the sterile Arab Jamahiriya in the spring of 1988 represented an insect technique is environmentally friendly. No chemicals emergency, not only for Libya, but for the entire North are used, no residues are left behind. And there are no ill- African region. For the first time in history, this relentlessly effects on non-targeted species . destructive pest had become The idea that economically established outside its natural range in the Americas and, important insects, such as the The extreme damage NWS, could be controlled or if left uncontrolled, it would caused by the feeding eradicated through genetic inevitably spread to neighbouring of the larvae, combined manipulation was first developed countries and eventually into sub by the American entomologist with resulting secondary Saharan Africa, the Near East Dr. Edward F. Knipling in the bacterial infections, and Mediterranean Europe ..It late 1930’s. Knipling’s ability to frequently causes the was quickly realized that the test his theory was greatly assisted death of the host animal. Nile Valley, through Egypt and by the work of his colleague, Sudan, could enable the NWS entomologist Dr. Raymond to spread into sub-Saharan C. Bushland. The breakthrough came in 1950 when a countries where it would have caused immense losses to fellow entomologist, Dr. D.A. Lindquist, drew Knipling’s livestock producers and would have seriously threatened attention to the experiments carried out by Nobel wildlife. If screwworms had been allowed to become Laureate Dr. Herman Muller which enabled him to prove domesticated in those countries they would have been that sterilization of NWS was possible. impossible to control or eradicate at any cost. Drs. Knipling and Bushland were presented with Early in 1989 the Libyan government requested the Special Science Awards by the Director-General of FAO, United Nations’ assistance. Consequently, the Food and Dr. Edouard Saouma, in November 1991 for their work in Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), developing the sterile insect technique . the International Fund for Agricultural Development By mid-May 1972, the screwworm problem was (IFAD), the International Atomic Energy Agency (AEIA) completely out of hand in Texas, but sterile fly releases and the United Nations Development Programme throughout the year prevented the reintroduction of the (UNDP) became involved to varying degrees in the early pest into the southeastern states . stages of the emergency, with FAO taking the lead in In the same year the joint “Mexico-United States developing plans first to control and then to eradicate. Commission for the Eradication of the New World Screw- the pest with the support of the other three United worm” was established with the aim of eradicating the pest Nations Agencies.

41 Bio Warfare in the Sky by Anton Doeve

The implementation of these plans represented Action Group was formed within FAO on 27 April with an enormous technical, logistical, legal and diplomatic the task to coordinate FAO’s activities and to prepare a challenge. Since the screwworm had previously only been programme to eradicate the NSW from Libya by using found in the Americas, the only countries with experience in the sterile insect technique. A meeting, attended by top- screwworm biology and with the capacity to produce sterile level international screwworm experts, senior veterinary flies were the United States and Mexico. The agreement officers from Libya and other countries at risk as well between the United States and Mexico specifically prevented as FAO representatives was held at FAO HQ on 5 and the sale of sterile flies outside the Americas. While FAO 6 June. It outlined the “Screwworm Action Plan” and and other UN agencies could and did employ Mexican and initiated discussions on the formulation of an eradication United States experts, action by the US Congress and the programme. Following this meeting FAO formulated its Mexican Government was required plans for a trial SIT programme in before sterile flies could be obtained Libya followed by a full eradication for an eradication programme in When a wild female programme ..The formation of the Libya. In an extraordinary example mates with a sterilized “Screwworm Emergency Centre of politics being put aside in the male, she will lay infertile for North Africa (SECNA)” on face of an international emergency, 15 June 1990, marked a crucial eggs and thus will not all obstacles to implementing the turning point .6 produce offspring. If eradication programme were In a letter to the USA eventually overcome. There is no sufficient numbers of Permanent Representative to doubt that the involvement of the sterilized males are FAO in November 1989 the United Nations proved to be the released...numbers in Director-General requested decisive factor to convince the the wild population will sterile flies for the planned US Congress to adopt legislation consequently be reduced. eradication programme ..The approving the provision of the letter also requested permission sterile flies produced by the plant for US nationals to take part in in Mexico for their distribution in Libya. the campaign in Libya, as the United States government had barred all of its citizens from entering Libya. The UN springs into action IFAD also responded promptly to the emergency. The first action by FAO was to send a mission to Libya, Its Technical Advisory Division Director, Dr. A. Kesseba, from 15 to 22 April 1989, to investigate and confirm discussed the situation with the Libyan Minister of the existence of the NSW in Libya. By the second day Agriculture in early March and, consequently, IFAD of the mission, led by Dr. V. Kouba, Chief of FAO’s received a formal request from the Libyan government Animal Health Service, it was confirmed that the New for assistance on 3 May 1989. IFAD promptly World Screwworm was present in Libya and the mission contributed funds in the form of a technical assistance urged that the situation be regarded as an emergency. grant and played a crucial role in lobbying for donors’ The Libyan government immediately requested FAO’s funds for the eradication programme. Two donors assistance on 22 April 1989. pledging conferences, jointly sponsored by FAO and Little time was wasted as emergency measures were IFAD, were held at IFAD’s Headquarters which raised enacted by FAO’s Director-General. A Special Screwworm US$ 32.6 million in international funds. IFAD also

42 6 The SECNA team in FAO Headquarters consisted of Dr. E.P. Cunningham, Dr. A.E. Sidahmed, Dr. M. Vargas-Teran, Mr. S. Barnes, Ms. M. Kassa and Mr. P. McCormick and the team in Tripoli of Dr. D.A. Lindquist, Dr. M. Abusowa, Mr. F. Salvatori, Capt. Larry Messick, Mr. Mohammed El-Shawsh, Dr. Mohammed Husni, Mr. Fourat Dridi, Dr. Eduardo Rios, Dr. Omar El-Rais and Dr. Miguel Arturo produced an information video on the screwworm waged and which role they had to play. During the and funded other videos which were used to educate beginning of the eradication campaign the government livestock owners and the general public about the menace instructors had to explain why empty boxes coming from created by the screwworm. Brochures, posters and other America (!) were found on the farmers’ land, under the information materials were prepared and distributed in then prevailing circumstances a delicate task! the countries concerned . UNDP, being the only UN agency with a How the job was done permanent representation in Libya, its participation The confirmation that the Libyan wild screwworm during the initial phase of the Action Plan was crucial. It fly was sexually compatible with the mass-produced provided funds in June 1989 for a project which assisted Mexican sterile fly had given the green light to the use in establishing surveillance and of the sterile insect technique .. treatment activities, as well as the However, extensive planning and essential support and equipment Unlike many other preparation were necessary before to consultants working in methods of pest SIT could be applied in Libya and Libya under an FAO Technical control, the sterile considerable work was still needed Cooperation Programme project. to strengthen the surveillance, insect technique is The office of the UNDP Resident prevention and control activities environmentally friendly. Representative ensured that any which would support fly problems related to administrative No chemicals are used, dispersal. The Field Programme and financial matters were no residues are left Director of SECNA, Dr. D.A. resolved promptly. behind. And there are Lindquist, later commented that IAEA, through the no ill-effects on non- the programme would never have joint FAO/IAEA Division of targeted species. succeeded without the intensive Nuclear Techniques in Food and detailed planning that was and Agriculture, had a major done during the early months of support role in the screwworm campaign; in planning 1990. Probably the most important FAO mission to Libya for both the pilot and the main eradication programme; during the planning phase was the formulation mission in in research and development and in the provision of June 1990 with the task of preparing the project document staff, equipment and funding. In October 1989 an IAEA and budget for the operation of the SIT eradication expert collected NWS pupae reared in Libya which were programme. The resulting document was the culmination then transported to the Agricultural Research Service of of all the planning and research undertaken since FAO, the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) for mating IFAD, IAEA, UNDP and other international bodies had compatibility testing. In December tests confirmed that become involved and laid the basis for the implementation Mexican and Libyan strains were indeed compatible. of the eradication programme in 1991 . The Libyan Government for its part committed Following the decision to eradicate the NWS in significant funds and resources to the screwworm control North Africa, it was necessary to determine which aspects programme. It educated the staff of the veterinary clinics of the programme could be performed by FAO and the in the infested zone and launched a campaign to inform other agencies and which needed to be subcontracted farmers and livestock owners how the battle would be to outside bodies. At this point, as the Chief of FAO’s

43 Bio Warfare in the Sky by Anton Doeve

Contracts Branch, I became actively involved myself. putting our own clothes back on. You see, security there During a meeting I had with the technical staff early in was unique in that it did not intend primarily to keep 1990 it became clear quickly that three major components unwanted people out but to prevent flies from escaping! of the programme had to be sub-contracted. First of all, The second contract had to provide for the transport the plant in Tuxtla Gutierrez would have to agree and by air of the boxed pupae, sleeping beautifully, from be able to increase its production of sterile pupae from Mexico City airport to Tripoli. At a later stage the flights 600 million per week to 640 million and, in addition, took off from Tuxtla directly. While for the first contract, it should prepare them, packed in cardboard boxes, with the plant in Mexico, there was no question of putting for their shipment by air to Tripoli under very strict the job out to tender, as there was only one such plant specifications, ensuring a temperature of 100 Celsius in the world, for the second contract, covering the air throughout the journey in refrigerated trailers from the transport of 40 million (!) pupae per week, we decided to plant to Mexico City airport invite the few airline companies where a commercial aircraft that had experience with should be ready for immediate The letter also requested transporting live animals ..In the take-off, with all pre-flight checks permission for US end German Cargo Services, a performed, the moment the subsidiary of Lufthansa, offered nationals to take part in cargo of some 10 .000 cardboard the best guarantees for observing the campaign in Libya, boxes had been loaded. I flew to the extremely strict and detailed Tuxtla Gutierrez in August 1990 as the United States specifications governing the and, with the precious assistance, government had barred preparation of the airplane, throughout my mission, of the all of its citizens from including, in particular, the office of the FAO Representative entering Libya. purity of its cargo bays and the in Mexico, Mr. Rodrigo Duarte conditions of the transport itself 7 .. Torres, I was able to visit the Moreover, it was vital that the plant and discuss the details of the job to be done with entire operation be performed with clockwork precision its staff. I vividly remember my first visit to the actual since the pupae “passengers” should be kept asleep inside plant itself where, together with other members of the their boxes for the exact number of hours required by team, we had to exchange our clothes for protective their dispersal schedules . overalls before entering. It was a disgusting sight to see Finally, the third contract should cover the handling the larvae of the wild flies crawling, inside their rearing of the cardboard boxes upon their arrival at Tripoli cages, on pieces of bloody meat and gelled blood, just as airport, their subsequent storage in temperature- if they were devouring some poor animal. Once they had controlled trailers at the dispersal centre, including the pupated, the male pupae were placed in large drums for quality control and longevity tests of the pupae, until the sterilization, while taking care that they did not lose their boxes could be loaded onto the Twin-Otter aircraft used “macho” attraction for the female wild flies in Libya. The by the Libyan Aero club for dispersal over the infected sterile pupae were then packed in cardboard boxes, each areas in accordance with the detailed specifications of containing 1.600 pupae, and cooled down to the required the dispersal programme. These planes, with the capacity temperature to put them to sleep for their flight to Tripoli. of carrying 2000 boxes of flies each, were fitted with At the conclusion of our visit we had to shower before specially designed slides along which the boxes would

44 7 German Cargo Services had transported, among other cargoes, 150.000 live chickens to Tehran and polo horses from Argentina to Brunei Darussalaam glide down at predetermined intervals to be opened at the service. The other major element of good fortune was last moment thus allowing the meanwhile fully awakened that the technology for eradication had already been sterile male screwworm flies to swarm out and look for developed and was available. Nevertheless, while the SIT attractive wild female flies. The ratio was 10 sterile male had been widely and successfully used in the Americas, flies to 1 wild female fly so a fierce competition for female those campaigns had been conducted close to the plant favours was ensured! The Libyan Aeroclub was awarded that produced the insects ..The long-distance air transport the contract for the dispersal flights after responding to the involved in the North African programme introduced a call for international tenders with the lowest bid. totally new dimension and, with it, great uncertainty. The The first flight of 10.5 million pupae arrived in key to the success of the SIT is the competitive ability of Tripoli on 14 December 1990 .. the sterile flies when dispersed. Meanwhile SECNA had shown Their quality is adversely affected that it was well prepared to The staff of the United by suboptimal handling at any implement a successful SIT Nations was showing, stage. Much experimentation was programme ..Just over nine once again, that it was required with shipping routes months later, following the release capable of meeting the and environmental controls, and of more than 1 .300 million sterile very detailed interaction was challenge of a sudden flies, supported by intensive necessary at all stages with the emergency in one of surveillance, treatment and contract companies providing quarantine activities, the SIT the member countries the transport and distribution .. programme was brought to a through prompt, This attention to detail paid off: successful conclusion and Libya well coordinated, the quality of the flies distributed was declared NSW free. The professional, technical was maintained at a very high victory was achieved rather and administrative level throughout the programme . more rapidly than might have planning and action. Apart from technical been expected and well under matters, some of the most budget. Originally estimated to anxious moments throughout cost US$ 117.5 million in 1990, the actual eradication the campaign arose from difficulties on the diplomatic programme was completed at a cost of US$ 66.6 million. front. It is a tribute to common sense that the difficult According to a special study, commissioned by SECNA, diplomatic climate between certain countries involved was the NWS eradication from North Africa resulted in an not allowed to impede progress. Even . annual benefit of US$ 300 million for the region. The the outbreak of hostilities in the Persian Gulf, just as . study showed a benefit/cost ratio for the region of 30:1. the programme was moving into high gear, did not . cause interruptions . Conclusion The programme had many elements of a military The success of the NWS eradication programme can campaign, and to some extent its success is also attributed be attributed to various factors. It was fortunate that the to the fact that it was managed along those lines. The initial outbreak occurred in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, key factor was the clear delineation of responsibilities by a relatively wealthy country with good infrastructure and, FAO’s Director-General from the start. Once the lines in particular, a strongly developed national veterinary of responsibility were clearly drawn, the partners could

45 Bio Warfare in the Sky by Anton Doeve

effectively co-operate. In particular, the partnership with to achieve the highest possible standard of performance .. the Libyan authorities worked extremely well. The staff of the United Nations was showing, once again, It is also true, though, that the whole programme, that it was capable of meeting the challenge of a sudden from the beginning to the end, appealed to the emergency in one of the member countries through imagination, the enthousiasm and the sense of dedication prompt, well coordinated, professional, technical and and commitment of the staff members involved. It was administrative planning and action . one of those memorable occasions when the staff worked It has been said that the most valuable assets of the long hours, slashed through the red tape and used their United Nations are the dedication and sense of commitment personal contacts with friends and colleagues to get things of its staff, let us hope that those qualities will not disappear, done quickly and effectively. It became a matter of pride whatever else in the UN may be “reformed” away.

by Mary Brocklesby, Margaret Duncan Seconded to IFAD Ava Robino, Marina Sansonetti

pring 1978 saw IFAD, the then newest UN into traditional UN methods, usually not without agency, open its doors for business when it lively debate with FAO’s “old hands”. The urgency of Smoved from its birthplace in FAO to its own executing IFAD’s primary purpose, the identification Headquarters at 107 via del Serafico, surrounded by green and preparation of projects which met IFAD’s specific fields where sheep grazed undisturbed. And what about mandate, for submission to the almighty Executive Board the poppy fields immortalized in the First Annual Report! resulted in working many late hours and weekends. The The new building was in final stages of completion, administrative details of mounting missions to recipient but the initially very limited space and facilities quickly countries, report evaluations, revisions, approval, fostered collaboration between the established core staff translations, etc required considerable time and attention and new arrivals; working relationships formed and in that pre-dawn of computer use. But the staff mix of identification with this small UN agency and its very diverse nationalities and cultures willingly shared the focussed mandate began. As the weeks passed, more common goal demonstrating that this unique little UN space became available and was swiftly occupied by agency could and would provide constructive assistance newly fledged departments and divisions. Hitherto close in alleviating the desperate plight of the rural poor in colleagues disappeared to far off quarters only to reunite developing countries. The early years of setting up IFAD at lunchtime in a small extemporary cafeteria where were tough, good.-humoured, collaborative and rewarding. airline-type meals on plastic trays were served. Before long, We were proud of the new organization and when most retreated to a newly-opened bar across the road. inevitably the end of secondment came for FAO staff, Amongst IFAD’s core staff, affectionately known though reluctant to leave “mamma FAO”, most elected to as the “brick layers”, were a dozen or so seconded stay on and become full staff members of IFAD. FAO professional and general service personnel, long We are now all retired but occasional reunions experienced in UN practice and procedures. As the work remind us nostalgically of those early days of shared of IFAD got underway, newly recruited professional moments of fun and frustration, heated arguments, and support staff from a wide geographic range arrived friendships that have endured and, above all, satisfaction bringing innovative and practical ideas to be tailored that we had been part of setting up something worthwhile.

46 Postscript

he Headquarters of FAO in Rome has been and will continue to be not only a witness Tof the activities of the United Nations Organization in charge of Food and Agriculture but also of the ancient splendours of the Eternal City, as it is located close to the “Terme di Caracalla” , the “Circo Massimo” and the “Palatino”. The association of the ancient and the modern, embodied by FAO, is illustrated on the following reproductions of the Staff Magazine “Caracalla” edited and published by the FAO Staff Council. Its first issue appeared in 1953.

47 Former FAO and Other UN Staff Association c/o FAO, Room D-139 Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome, Italy

Tel.: +39 06 57 05 48 62 Fax: +39 06 57 05 31 52 Email: [email protected] www.fao.org/ffoa