HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE CREATION OF INDIVIDUAL SOCIAL CAPITAL: A STUDENT ORGANIZATION ETHNOGRAPHY
by
Jeffrie W. Miracle
Bachelor of Arts, Brigham Young University, 2004
Master of Education, University of Pittsburgh, 2009
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of
The School of Education in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
University of Pittsburgh
2013
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
This dissertation was presented
by
Jeffrie W. Miracle
It was defended on
April 3, 2013
and approved by
Dr. Audrey J. Murrell, Associate Professor, Business Administration, Psychology, Public and International Affairs, Katz Graduate School of Business
Dr. B. Jean Ferketish, Adjunct Professor, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies, Assistant Chancellor and Secretary of the Board of Trustees
Dr. John C. Weidman, Professor, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies
Dissertation Advisor: Dr. W. James Jacob, Associate Professor, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies
ii
Copyright © by Jeffrie W. Miracle
2013
iii HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE CREATION OF INDIVIDUAL SOCIAL CAPITAL: A STUDENT ORGANIZATION ETHNOGRAPHY
Jeffrie W. Miracle, PhD
University of Pittsburgh, 2013
Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and acquire skills and knowledge—often referred to as human capital. Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking—often referred to as social capital. While it is understood that higher education is an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital, it is not as clearly understood how higher education can be an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate other forms of capital, such as social capital. The consequence of not having an equivalent emphasis on how higher education creates social capital among students potentially implies that higher education may not be explicitly making an effort to promote opportunities for social capital investment; students and researchers may not be aware that higher education can facilitate social capital investment; and students may not understand the application of social capital in their own lives. In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of social capital investment, this study looks at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate student participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation in higher education. Qualitative research methodology was used to collect, analyze and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data to gain insights in the phenomenon of higher education in the creation of social capital. The population for the study was undergraduate students at the
iv University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations. As the result of criterion- based sampling, the sample chosen for the study was the Blue and Gold Society, a student ambassador organization that supports and represents the University while providing members with opportunities to network with faculty, staff, other students, university donors, alumni and community members. Ethnography, more specifically participant observation, semi-structured interviews and cultural artifact review, were utilized to collect the data. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software was utilized to efficiently manage, organize and analyze data.
The results from the research study answer the questions: 1) What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social network and how are those relationships developed? 2) What forms of social capital are embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members? 3) What role does trust play in an undergraduate student organization member’s access to social capital and how is trust developed among social network members? The findings state that members of the Blue and Gold Society student organization are able to collectively invest in and accumulate 18 forms of social capital amongst a social network of 30 distinct individuals/types of individuals; Society members develop relationships with these individuals through 21 distinct processes; trust plays a role in Society members’ ability to invest in and access social capital embedded in their social networks; and,
Society members utilize 16 distinct processes to develop trust within their relationships with social network members. Recommendations are provided for higher education student affairs professionals, researchers, institutional leadership and assessment designers.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ...... XX
1.0 INTRODUCTION ...... 21
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 22
1.2 PURPOSE STATEMENT ...... 22
1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...... 23
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 25
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ...... 26
1.6 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS ...... 27
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF REMAINING CHAPTERS ...... 27
1.8 SUMMARY ...... 28
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 30
2.1 SOCIAL CAPITAL AS A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ...... 31
2.1.1 Networks ...... 32
2.1.2 Levels of social capital ...... 35
2.1.3 Trust ...... 37
2.1.4 Forms of social capital ...... 38
2.1.5 The role that trust plays in social networks and social capital
accumulation ...... 46
vi 2.1.6 A Summary of elements of individual social capital ...... 47
2.1.7 A conceptual model of individual social capital ...... 50
2.1.8 Measurements of networks and resources ...... 52
2.1.9 Measurements of trust ...... 59
2.2 ETHNOGRAPHY AS A RESEARCH METHOD TO STUDY SOCIAL
CAPITAL ...... 61
2.3 HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE CREATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL .... 65
3.0 METHODOLOGY ...... 72
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 73
3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE ...... 74
3.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURES ...... 81
3.4 SETTING ...... 84
3.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 87
3.6 INSTRUMENTATION ...... 89
3.7 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES ...... 101
3.8 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 106
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...... 115
4.1 BLUE AND GOLD SOCIETY MEMBERS ...... 116
4.1.1 Blue and Gold Society members – committed, devoted, and engaged ... 122
4.1.2 Blue and Gold Society members – family-like and support network ..... 123
4.1.3 Blue and Gold Society members – diverse, elite, and of good character 124
4.1.4 Blue and Gold Society members – well connected, well known, and
privileged ...... 126
vii 4.1.5 Blue and Gold Society members – trustworthy and helpful ...... 127
4.1.6 Blue and Gold Society members – leaders and University representatives
128
4.1.7 Blue and Gold Society members – respected and happy ...... 129
4.1.8 Blue and Gold Society members’ characteristics – points for discussion
130
4.2 CONCERNING SOCIAL NETWORKS ...... 132
4.2.1 Findings: Blue and Gold Society members – social network composition
133
4.2.2 Blue and Gold Society members – type/strength of social network ...... 139
4.2.2.1 Blue and Gold Society ...... 142
4.2.2.2 Faculty and staff ...... 148
4.2.2.3 Students ...... 155
4.2.2.4 Other individuals ...... 162
4.2.3 Blue and Gold Society members’ social network – development process
168
4.2.3.1 Social network development process – Blue and Gold Society ..... 171
4.2.3.2 Social network development process – faculty and staff ...... 177
4.2.3.3 Social network development process – students ...... 186
4.2.3.4 Social network development process – others ...... 194
4.3 FORMS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL ...... 201
4.3.1 Instrumental forms of social capital ...... 202
4.3.1.1 Information flow ...... 207
viii 4.3.1.2 Human capital creation ...... 210
4.3.1.3 Norms of reciprocity ...... 212
4.3.1.4 Occupational mobility ...... 215
4.3.1.5 Goal achievement ...... 218
4.3.1.6 Education attainment ...... 221
4.3.2 Other instrumental forms of social capital...... 224
4.3.2.1 Meet new people ...... 226
4.3.2.2 Mentoring ...... 229
4.3.2.3 Free tangible/material items ...... 231
4.3.2.4 General help ...... 233
4.3.2.5 Unique opportunities ...... 236
4.3.3 Expressive forms of social capital ...... 237
4.3.3.1 Identity recognition ...... 241
4.3.3.2 Sanctions ...... 244
4.3.4 Other forms of expressive social capital ...... 246
4.3.4.1 Comfort ...... 248
4.3.4.2 General support ...... 251
4.3.4.3 Friendship or family-like feeling ...... 253
4.3.4.4 Connectedness to the University ...... 254
4.4 THE ROLE THAT TRUST PLAYS IN ACQUIRING SOCIAL CAPITAL
255
4.4.1 The role that trust plays in social capital ...... 257
4.4.1.1 The role that trust plays in instrumental forms of social capital .. 264
ix 4.4.1.2 The role that trust plays in other instrumental forms of social
capital 267
4.4.1.3 The role that trust plays in other expressive forms of social capital
268
4.4.2 Level of trust that exists in Blue and Gold Society members’ social
networks ...... 270
4.4.2.1 Level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in
members of their social networks ...... 271
4.4.2.2 Level of trust members of Blue and Gold Society members’ social
networks have in Blue and Gold Society members ...... 277
4.4.3 Processes through which trust is developed ...... 283
4.4.3.1 Blue and Gold Society members’ processes for developing trust in
social network members ...... 284
4.4.3.2 Processes through which Blue and Gold Society members gain the
trust of others ...... 300
4.4.3.3 The role that trust plays in acquiring social capital ...... 312
5.0 CONCLUSION ...... 316
5.1 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS ...... 316
5.1.1 Key findings concerning social networks: research questions 1A-1C .... 318
5.1.2 Key findings concerning social networks: research question 1D ...... 320
5.1.3 Key findings concerning forms of social capital: research questions 2A
and 2B 322
5.1.4 Key findings concerning trust: research questions 3A...... 326
x 5.1.5 Key findings concerning trust: research questions 3B1 and 3B2 ...... 327
5.1.6 Key findings concerning trust: research questions 3C1 and 3C2 ...... 328
5.2 PURPOSE STATEMENT: REVISITED ...... 331
5.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT: REVISITED ...... 332
5.4 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS ...... 333
5.5 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS ...... 339
5.5.1 Student affairs professional associations ...... 340
5.5.2 Student affairs professionals...... 341
5.5.3 National Survey of Student Engagement...... 343
5.5.4 Academic journals ...... 345
5.5.5 Institutional leadership ...... 347
5.6 FUTURE RESEARCH ...... 349
APPENDIX A ...... 352
APPENDIX B ...... 354
APPENDIX C ...... 356
APPENDIX D ...... 358
APPENDIX E ...... 360
APPENDIX F ...... 362
APPENDIX G ...... 364
APPENDIX H ...... 366
APPENDIX I ...... 367
APPENDIX J ...... 387
APPENDIX K ...... 389
xi BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 393
xii LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Summary of the elements of social capital ...... 48
Table 2.2: Example of name generator questions ...... 53
Table 2.3: Example of position generator questions ...... 54
Table 2.4: Example of resource generator questions ...... 57
Table 2.5: Summary of the measures of social networks and social capital ...... 58
Table 2.6: Summary of select social capital studies in higher education...... 70
Table 3.1: Non-Blue and Gold Society members utilized in the research study ...... 79
Table 3.2: Setting and setting descriptions ...... 85
Table 3.3: Research questions as they relate to the concepts and specific elements of social capital ...... 88
Table 3.4: Participant-observation opportunities throughout the course of the research study .... 90
Table 3.5: Semi-structured interview questions for Blue and Gold Society members as they relate to the research questions and elements of social capital ...... 94
Table 3.6: Semi-structured interview questions for the eight individuals with whom Blue and
Gold Society members regularly come into contact ...... 96
Table 3.7: Cultural artifacts - documents ...... 98
Table 3.8: Cultural artifacts - photographs ...... 99
xiii Table 3.9: Cultural artifacts – email correspondence ...... 100
Table 3.10. Work plan ...... 101
Table 3.11: Data collection date, time, activity, location, and data collection method ...... 104
Table 4.1: Blue and Gold Society members – characteristics by data collection method ...... 121
Table 4.2: Research question 1A – Blue and Gold Society members and their social networks 134
Table 4.3: Individuals and a description of the individuals who make up the social network of
Blue and Gold Society members...... 135
Table 4.4: Research questions 1B and 1C – Blue and Gold Society members’ bonding and bridging social capital networks ...... 140
Table 4.5: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with individuals linked to the Blue and Gold Society by data collection method ...... 142
Table 4.6: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with faculty and staff by data collection method ...... 149
Table 4.7: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with students by data collection method...... 156
Table 4.8: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with other individuals by data collection method ...... 163
Table 4.9: Research question 1D – Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes ...... 169
Table 4.10: Social network development processes with individuals tied to the Blue and Gold
Society by data collection method ...... 172
Table 4.11: Social network development processes with faculty and staff by data collection method...... 177
xiv Table 4.12: Social network development processes with students by data collection method ... 187
Table 4.13: Social network development processes with other individuals by data collection method...... 194
Table 4.14: Research question 2A – Blue and Gold Society members and their instrumental social capital...... 202
Table 4.15 – Instrumental forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method ...... 206
Table 4.16: Other instrumental forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method ...... 225
Table 4.17: Research question 2A – Blue and Gold Society members and their expressive social capital ...... 238
Table 4.18: Expressive forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method ...... 240
Table 4.19 Other expressive forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method ...... 247
Table 4.20: Research question 3A – the role that trust plays in accessing social capital ...... 257
Table 4.21: The role of trust in social capital accumulation by Blue and Gold Society Members by data collection method ...... 260
Table 4.22: 3B1 – Level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in others ...... 271
Table 4.23: Level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in social network members by data collection method ...... 274
Table 4.24: Research question 3B2 – Level of trust social network members have in Blue and
Gold Society members ...... 278
xv Table 4.25: Level of trust social network members have in Blue and Gold Society members by
data collection method ...... 280
Table 4.26: Research question 3C1 – processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in social network members ...... 285
Table 4.27: Blue and Gold Society member trust in Blue and Gold Society – trust development
processes ...... 288
Table 4.28: Blue and Gold Society member trust in faculty and staff – trust development
processes ...... 293
Table 4.29: Blue and Gold Society member trust in students – trust development processes ... 296
Table 4.30: Blue and Gold Society member trust in others – trust development processes ...... 299
Table 4.31: Research question 3C2 – processes through which social network members develop
trust in Blue and Gold Society members ...... 301
Table 4.32: Social network member trust in Blue and Gold Society members – trust development
process...... 303
Table 4.33: Overview and comparison of social network processes and trust development
processes ...... 313
Table 5.1: Individuals who make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks and
strength of relationships ...... 319
Table 5.2: Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes ...... 321
Table 5.3: Instrumental forms of social capital embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’
social networks ...... 323
Table 5.4: Expressive forms of social capital embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’
social networks ...... 325
xvi Table 5.5: Role of trust in social capital accumulation by Blue and Gold Society members ..... 326
Table 5.6: Blue and Gold Society members’ level of trust in social network members ...... 327
Table 5.7: Social network members’ level of trust in Blue and Gold Society members ...... 328
Table 5.8: Blue and Gold Society members’ processes for developing trust in social network members ...... 329
Table 5.9: Social network members’ processes for developing trust in Blue and Gold Society members ...... 330
Table 5.10: Summary of practical recommendations ...... 348
xvii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Conceptualization of individual social capital ...... 50
Figure 3.1: Blue and Gold Society members - gender ...... 75
Figure 3.2: Blue and Gold Society members - year in school ...... 76
Figure 3.3: Blue and Gold Society members - semesters in Blue and Gold Society ...... 77
Figure 3.4: Blue and Gold Society members - school major ...... 77
Figure 3.5: NVivo – Source folders ...... 107
Figure 3.6: NVivo – primary themes ...... 108
Figure 3.7: NVivo example node structure ...... 110
Figure 3.8: NVivo example of data assigned to a specific node ...... 112
Figure 4.1: Characteristics of Blue and Gold Society members ...... 118
Figure 4.2: Blue and Gold Society members: self-described characteristics ...... 119
Figure 4.3: Blue and Gold Society members: characteristics described by others ...... 120
Figure 4.4: NVivo – individuals in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks ...... 138
Figure 4.5: Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes node structure...... 170
Figure 4.6: NVivo – Instrumental forms of social capital ...... 204
Figure 4.7: Expressive forms of social capital ...... 239
xviii Figure 4.8: NVivo – role of trust in social capital accumulation node structure ...... 259
Figure 4.9: NVivo – Blue and Gold Society members’ level of trust in social network members
node structure ...... 272
Figure 4.10: NVivo – Level of trust social network members have in Blue and Gold Society
members ...... 279
Figure 4.11: NVivo – Blue and Gold Society member development of trust in social network
members node structure ...... 286
Figure 4.12: NVivo – Blue and Gold Society members secure trust of social network members node structure ...... 302
Figure 5.1: Conceptualization of individual social capital – revisited ...... 334
xix PREFACE
I want to thank my wife Elizabeth, and my children Jack, Wellesley, Matthew and
Emerson, for their unwavering support, love and prayers over the past six years as I have worked
to complete my graduate studies. Others who have also played a significant role in helping me
achieve my goal of earning this doctorate degree through various forms of support include my mother, mother- and father-in-law, sister, the Bulloch family, and many other wonderful family,
friends, co-workers and professors. I embarked on this journey with the hopes of furthering my own education and proving to myself that I am capable of such an accomplishment. As it pertains to my personal interest in the topic of this dissertation research study, the “other”
outcomes of higher education are of particular interest to me because I strongly feel that I have
learned much more about myself, about life, and about non-academic related matters than I have about the actual topics I have studied over the past 10 years as both an undergraduate and graduate student. I hope that my research inspires others to rethink the outcomes of participating in higher education and I hope that other students are able to enjoy the choice non-academic related growth and special experiences that I have throughout my higher education studies.
Finally, I wish to thank my tireless advisor and dissertation committee chair, Dr. Jacob, and committee members Drs. Weidman, Ferketish and Murrell, for their guidance in helping me to complete this particular research study. And a special thank you to my department chair, Dr.
Kerr, for helping me to believe in myself and believe that I could do this. xx 1.0 INTRODUCTION
Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in
and acquire resources such as skills and knowledge—often referred to as human capital. Human capital is defined as the skills and knowledge acquired by an individual that facilitate productive activity (Coleman, 1988). Human capital, or the skills and knowledge that an individual possesses, has been shown to positively contribute to an individual’s earnings (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2010), marketability and job attainment (Anderson & Keys, 2007) and quality of life
(Winters, 2011), among other desired outcomes. Throughout history, individuals have invested in human capital through higher education to better themselves and their opportunities in life through knowledge and skill acquisition.
Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as
information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking—often
referred to as social capital. Social capital is defined as “the aggregate of the actual or potential
resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized
relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition—or in other words, to membership in a
group” (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 21). Examples of social capital include information flow (Lin, 2001),
reciprocity (Halpern, 2005), occupational mobility (Coleman, 1988), identity reinforcement (Lin,
2001) and emotional support (Deo, 2009). Current research focused on identifying and
21 measuring the individual outcomes of higher education tends to focus on human capital creation rather than social capital creation.
1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
While it is understood that higher education is an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital, it is not as clearly understood how higher education can be an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate other forms of capital, such as social capital. Just as a college education, or human capital, can increase productivity, so too can social relationships positively affect the productivity of individuals (Putnam, 2000). The consequence of not having an equivalent emphasis on how higher education creates social capital among students potentially implies that higher education may not be explicitly making an effort to promote opportunities for social capital investment; students and researchers may not be aware that higher education can facilitate social capital investment; and students may not understand the application of social capital in their own lives.
1.2 PURPOSE STATEMENT
In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of investment in social capital, this study will look at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate student participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation through participating in higher education. Student organizations are typically
22 defined as student run groups focused around a wide variety of themes with opportunities to
interact with peers, faculty, staff and alumni in areas of mutual interest (Nolfi & Rubin, 2010).
“Education is a series of social settings in which people meet, a valued and attractive form of
social status in modern societies, and a powerful way to gain other forms of high status” (Lin &
Erikson, 2008 p.7). Thus, student organizations represent a prime population and social setting in which to study social capital accumulation in the context of higher education, in the hope of informing higher education institutions, students and researchers about the opportunities that
exist to accumulate social capital through higher education.
1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
The literature review contained herein accomplishes three primary objectives. First, the
literature defines and outlines the concept and primary elements of individual social capital.
Simply stated, social capital is defined as the relationships among individuals and the actual or
potential resources embedded in those relationships (Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988; Lin, 2001;
Putnam, 2000). Social networks serve as the basis for the accumulation of social capital, and
produce two types of social capital—bonding social capital and bridging social capital (Halpern,
2005). The trust that exists between and among individuals facilitates the effective access and
flow of resources throughout the social network (Fukuyama, 1996). A plethora of different
forms of social capital may exist within these social networks, falling into two forms—
instrumental forms of social capital and expressive forms of social capital (Lin, 2001).
Second, the currently and most commonly utilized methods of measuring individual
social capital are reviewed and analyzed. These methods primarily consist of surveys and
23 interviews administered to individuals to map social networks and measure resources embedded in the social networks. Some focus is devoted to the difficulty in measuring social networks and resources due to the complexity of social capital as a concept and its multidimensional nature.
The predominant measure of trust in individual social networks is reviewed as well.
Third, due to the complexity of measuring individual social capital and the inadequacies of current methods of measurement, the research method of ethnography is considered and reviewed as a possible means of overcoming the shortcomings of currently utilized measures of social capital. Ethnography, simple stated, is a qualitative method that studies “the lived experiences, daily activities, and social context of everyday life from the perspectives of those being studied to gain an understanding of their life world” (Mertens, 2010, p.231). Typically, this method entails utilizing observation, participant observation, semi-structured interviews and other field methods to collect data. A review of social capital, its measures and ethnography reveals that ethnography may be an effective means for conducting empirical research on individual social capital.
Fourth, the possible role that higher education might play in the creation of individual social capital is explored through the review of a selection of empirical studies focused on social capital creation in higher education. Each of the studies provides evidence to support the possibility of such a link, while revealing the need for future and improved investigation on the topic. Each of the studies points to participation in student organizations as one means of building social networks and acquiring resources during the higher education experience. Thus, a student organization will be utilized in this research study.
In summary, the literature develops a conceptual framework for the study of individual social capital for this research study. Next, the literature review demonstrates how ethnography
24 may prove to be an effective research method for the study of individual social capital. Finally,
the literature review provides empirical evidence from recent studies of individual social capital
in higher education to serve as a launching point for this research study.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions will be utilized in this research study. These questions will be outlined again in greater detail in the methodology section and will be specifically and directly linked to pertinent aspects of the literature review to provide justification for posing such
questions.
Concerning social networks:
1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social
network?
1B. Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s
bonding social capital?
1C. Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s
bridging social capital?
1D. Through what processes does an undergraduate student organization member’s
social network develop?
Concerning forms of social capital:
2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the social network of an
undergraduate student organization member?
25 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social network of an
undergraduate student organization member?
Concerning trust:
3A. What role does trust play in helping an undergraduate student organization member
acquire social capital?
3B1. What level of trust do undergraduate student organization members have in their
social networks?
3B2. What level of trust do social network members have in undergraduate student
organization members?
3C1. Through what processes do undergraduate student organization members develop
trust in social network members?
3C2. Through what processes do social network members develop trust in undergraduate
student organization members?
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
As previously mentioned, this study is significant for three reasons. First, understanding how individual social capital can be created through participating in higher education provides higher education institutions with evidence and guidance to develop programming and opportunities for students to develop effective social networks and leverage resources in the form of social capital.
Second, if higher education institutions are aware of social capital opportunities and in turn promote those opportunities to students, students will become aware of the non-human capital related outcomes possible through higher education and hopefully take advantage of them.
26 Third, a better understanding of how individual social capital can be created through participating in higher education will provide researchers with another lens and line of inquiry to continue the study of social capital in general, and social capital as it relates to higher education specifically.
1.6 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
A set of primary definitions is included in Appendix K. These definitions are not necessarily inclusive of every term utilized in this research study, but rather include the most pertinent terms necessary to build a foundation for which to better understand the study. Some of these terms are best understood in the context of the literature review along with their accompanying illustrations and more expansive explanations.
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF REMAINING CHAPTERS
The remainder of the study consists of four chapters, a bibliography and appendixes in the following order. Chapter Two serves as the literature review for this research study. First, the literature defines and outlines the concept and primary elements of individual social capital.
Second, the currently and most commonly utilized methods of measuring individual social capital are reviewed and analyzed. Third, due to the complexity of measuring individual social capital and the inadequacies of current methods of measurement, the research method of ethnography is considered and reviewed as a possible means of overcoming the shortcomings of
27 currently utilized measures of social capital. Fourth, the possible role that higher education
might play in the creation of individual social capital is explored through the review of a
selection of empirical studies focused on social capital creation in higher education. Chapter
Three outlines the research design, reiterates and expounds upon the research questions,
describes the instruments utilized to gather the data, discusses the population and sample and
introduces the method of data analysis. Chapter Four serves as the section devoted to the
analysis of the data and discussion of the study’s findings. The overall summary, conclusions
and recommendations are found in Chapter Five. The remaining sections include the study’s
bibliography and appendixes.
1.8 SUMMARY
Few people will dispute the idea that higher education can profoundly affect an individual’s life
(Astin, 1993). Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital (Becker, 2008). While it is assumed that higher
education is an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital, it is
not as clearly understood how higher education can be an effective way for an individual to
invest in and accumulate other forms of capital, such as social capital. This is problematic
because it potentially implies that higher education may not be explicitly making an effort to
promote social capital investment; students and researchers may not be aware that higher
education can facilitate social capital investment; and students may not understand the
application of social capital in their own lives. In response to the lack of emphasis on higher
education as a form of investment in social capital, this study will look at one segment of higher
28 education, namely participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation through participating higher education. Ethnography will be used as the primary research method for this research study.
29 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review seeks to accomplish three primary goals. First, the literature will define and outline the concept and primary elements of individual social capital—networks, trust and resources—for the purpose of investigating higher education as a source of social capital creation for college students. Second, this discussion will describe the commonly utilized methods and tools for measuring individual social capital and its related elements, namely the Name
Generator, Position Generator, Resource Generator and commonly used measurements of trust.
Third, this section will introduce ethnography as a research method for studying individual social capital creation among college students in an attempt to compensate for the current weaknesses in the commonly utilized measures of individual social capital. Fourth, recent empirical studies of individual social capital creation in higher education settings will be reviewed to outline current research on the topic and future opportunities for continued research. The overarching
goal of this section is to introduce a conceptual framework of individual social capital; evaluate
commonly utilized measures of individual social capital; and review current research on the topic
of individual social capital creation in the setting of higher education.
30 2.1 SOCIAL CAPITAL AS A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Putnam (2000) broadly defines social capital as “connections among individuals—social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them” (p.19).
Similarly, Bourdieu (1986) refers to social capital as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition – or in other words, to membership in a
group” (p. 21). Coleman (1988) describes social capital as a social structure that facilitates the
actions of a person or persons, making possible the achievement of certain ends that in its
absence would not be possible. Social capital can be stated as “the valuable resources embedded in a person’s social network” (Lin & Erikson, 2008, p.8).
Each of these definitions shares three common themes. The first common theme relating to social capital is social networks, described above as “connections with individuals,”
“network,” “membership in a group,” “social structure,” and “social network.” Social capital clearly exists in and by virtue of an individual’s social networks based on the definitions provided above. These social networks can be described as anything from companionships, relationships with neighbors, family ties to professional acquaintances. “The central idea of social capital is that social networks are a valuable asset” that provide a means for individuals to interact and cooperate with one another for mutual advantage (Flap, 2008, p.14).
The second common theme identified in the definitions above refers to the trust that facilitates the functionality of social networks, described above as “trustworthy” and “durable.”
A social network built on the foundation of trust allows individuals to accomplish certain ends and feel confident in his or her access to the resources that exist within the social network. Trust is a significant indicator of the existence of social capital in a social network (Woolcock, 1998),
31 because it facilitates collective action and mutual cooperation between and among individuals for mutual benefit (Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999).
The third common theme identified in the definitions above refers to the outcomes or benefits of an individual’s social networks, such as “actual or potential resources,” “reciprocity,”
“valuable resources,” and “achievement.” In other words, social capital is the mutually beneficial resources accessible by individuals as a result of membership in a social network.
“Social capital basically refers to the importance of resources, which, although possessed by other persons, are available to a given individual through their social relations with these others”
(Flap, 2004, p.7). These resources of affiliated individuals act as substitutes for an individual’s own resources.
Based on the introductory definitions provided and the three primary themes identified above—networks, trust and resources—it can be said that social capital exists in and as a result of an individual’s trustworthy social networks in the form of resources that provide benefit to the individual immediately or at some point in the future. Hereafter, these three themes will be discussed in greater detail along with other important elements of social capital to ultimately develop a conceptual framework for this research study.
2.1.1 Networks
Based on the definitions of social capital previously mentioned, the general premise of social capital is that it exists within a social network, which social network provides the necessary condition for access to and use of embedded resources by members of the social network (Lin,
2008). A social network, for example, can take on the form of family, a Sunday school class,
32 regulars who play poker, college roommates, a civic organization, an Internet chat group or an
individual’s professional acquaintances recorded in his or her address book (Putnam, 2000).
Bourdieu (1986) and Putnam (2000) note that social networks come in many shapes and
sizes. These social networks can exist in rigid, institutionalized forms of relationships, as well as
in less rigid, randomized forms or informal mutual acquaintances. Social networks can be closed and inward looking, seeking to keep exclusive the resources embedded in the network, or can be open and outward looking, encompassing a diverse group of people, networks and resources.
Two terms typically used in the literature to further describe these types of inward and outward looking social networks are bonding social networks and bridging social networks (Halpern,
2005).
The networks through which social capital can be accessed may stem from both inclusive and exclusive relationships. Putnam (2000) distinguished between these two basic forms of social capital by referring to them as bonding social capital and bridging social capital. While bonding social capital tends to reinforce exclusive relationships and resources, bridging social capital tends to bring together relationships and resources across diverse social divisions. Each type of social capital is helpful in meeting different needs and providing diverse resources to individuals (Field, 2008).
Social capital accumulated through networks that are inward looking and link individuals who are similar in fundamental respects is referred to as bonding social capital (Putnam &
Feldstein, 2003). Inward looking networks such as these are comprised of individuals with similar characteristics, interests and other familiarities. Families, neighborhoods, the workplace, a particular race and even a nation are all considered social networks that produce bonding social capital (Halpern, 2005). Social networks such as these seek to reinforce the exclusivity of capital
33 or resources within the social network and among its members; bonding social capital is created,
preserved and reproduced within these homogeneous-like social networks (Putnam, 2000;
Bourdieu, 1986; Lin, 2001).
The ties between individuals that result in bonding social capital are defined as strong as
opposed to weak; the strength of these ties manifests itself in the form of a “combination of the
amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding) and the reciprocal
services which characterize the tie” (Granovetter, 1973, p.1,361). Strong ties such as these are typically seen in close friendships and family relationships, or those relationships that have a high frequency of interaction (Easley & Kleinberg, 2010). It is not always possible to distinguish between what constitutes a strong tie versus a weak tie. The strength of a tie can vary across different times, situations and other subtleties. Although strong, bonding ties play an important role in social capital accumulation, weak ties play an equal if not more significant role in social capital accumulation, as will be described in the next section.
Putnam (1988) compares the social networks that produce bonding social capital to a kind of sociological superglue that binds the individuals and resources within a social network together, whereas he compares social networks that produce bridging social capital to a kind of
sociological WD-40 that facilitates more open social networking and sharing of resources found
in outside social networks. Social networks that produce bridging social capital are also referred
to as relationships maintained by means of weak ties, as opposed to the strong ties discussed in
the previous section. The weak ties that result in bridging social capital are those bonds that
exist between individuals whose interaction is infrequent and casual rather than frequent and
intimate (Tischler, 2010). Whereas examples of social networks that produce bonding social
capital might include friendships and family relationships, examples of social networks that
34 produce bridging social capital might include acquaintances or contacts (Easley & Kleinberg,
2010).
Bridging social capital is accumulated as individuals search for social resources from
various sources outside of their own immediate social network. In a sense, these individuals are
building a bridge from their own immediate social network to another (Halpern, 2005; Lin,
2001). At first glimpse, one would think that the strong ties that produce bonding social capital may prove to be more beneficial than the weak ties that produce bridging social capital. Others would argue that the weak ties that produce bridging social capital may prove to be equally or even more beneficial to an individual because they contribute diversity to an individual’s social network and open up social capital opportunities to an individual not readily available within their stronger ties among family and close friendships (Erickson, 1996; Lin, 2001). Resources embedded in weak ties may prove to be less redundant than resources embedded in close ties, and may prove to be more additive to an individual’s social capital than overlapping (Burt,
2001).
In summary, networks serve as the foundation of social capital, meaning that it is the relationships that individual have one with another in which resources or social capital reside.
These networks can exist as small, one-on-one relationships, or as large, group relationships.
The next section will review at what levels social networks exist, paying close attention to the individual level for the purposes of this study pertaining to individual social capital creation.
2.1.2 Levels of social capital
Social capital can be located at both the individual level and group level. At the group level,
Coleman (1990), Putnam (1995) and others proposed theories where social capital is seen as “a
35 collectively produced and owned entity, from which the whole community may benefit” (Van
der Gaag & Snijders, 2004, p.200). Bourdieu (1984) similarly described social capital as having
a group benefit, with the added nuance that social resources embedded in social relations served
the purpose of creating and reproducing an iniquitous type of social capital, from which
primarily the particular group may benefit rather than the larger community as a whole.
Social capital at the individual level on the other hand, which is the focus of this study,
refers to how individuals access and use resources for some benefit to the individuals themselves
(Lin, 2001). More specifically, social capital at the individual level looks at how individuals
invest in social relations and how individuals capture available resources within these social
relations to produce a personal return. The extensity and diversity of an individual’s social
relations explains the sum of the social resources that they possess (Lin, 1982). The study of
individual social capital seeks to measure both the access that individuals have to resources and
their individual mobilization of these accessible resources.
Whether social capital is studied at the group or individual level though, it is implicit that the social resources embedded in a social network ultimately benefit both the group and the individuals within the group (Lin, 2001). In other words, the social resources available to a group are also available as resources to those individuals who share access to that particular social context (Edwards & Foley, 1998). As a result, the method or lens used to investigate social capital plays a role in whether social capital is understood at the individual or group level.
This study will focus on the former—social capital at the individual level, rather than the later— social capital at the group level.
All social networks, and for the purposes of this study of individual social networks, rely on trust to solidify and facilitate healthy and beneficial relationships. Similarly, trust in social
36 networks promotes the transfer of social capital or useful resources from one to another. The next section describes the role that trust plays in individual social capital.
2.1.3 Trust
In a sense, all social relationships and networks are not created the same. The condition and usefulness of a person’s social network is contingent on the trust and trustworthiness in and among members of the social network. Trust can be defined as the expectation or commitment that arises within a social network as a result of regular, honest and cooperative behavior among its members (Fukuyama, 1996). Trustworthiness, sometimes used similarly or interchangeably with trust, can be defined as behavior that increases the returns to people who trust you (Glaeser,
Liabson, Scheinkman & Soutter, 1999).
A social network that embodies extensive trustworthiness and trust is able to accomplish much more than a comparable group without the same level of trustworthiness and trust, based on the insurance and credit that trust and trustworthiness provide to individuals and the social network as a whole (Coleman, 1998). The greater the level of trust among individuals, the more cohesive is that social network; similarly, the greater the level of distrust among individuals, the less cohesive is that social network (Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999). In other words, the trade of resources between and among individuals occurs with much more ease when trust and trustworthiness exist than when trust and trustworthiness do not exist (Coleman, 2008).
Generally speaking, trust and trustworthiness are stronger in networks where bonding social capital exists compared to networks where bridging social capital exists. In more exclusive, closed social relationships, trust can be effectively sanctioned between and among individuals based on the underlying reputation and collective sanctions that tie the network
37 together. In a more open and inclusive social relationship, trust cannot be as effectively sanctioned because the underlying collective obligation among network members ceases to exist, and rather it is left up to the individual to whom the obligation is owed to provide what is promised to or expected from another (Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999).
Up to this point, social networks, in particular individual social networks, and trust have been outlined as important elements of the concept of social capital. Hereafter, the actual benefits and/or manifestations of social capital will be introduced—typically referred to in the literature as forms of social capital. Examples will be provided to complement the literature and illustrate the various forms of social capital. Following the forthcoming section on the forms of social capital, the role that trust plays in social networks and accessing the various forms of social capital will be revisited to properly unite the concepts of social networks, trust and the forms of social capital.
2.1.4 Forms of social capital
Social capital, or the resources and benefits available to a person as a result of membership in a social network, can manifest itself in a number of ways. Sometimes, social capital exists as a result of an effective social network, somewhat like a cause and effect relationship. Bourdieu and Wacquant (1992) share this view of social capital as the resources that accrue to an individual by virtue of belonging to a social network. For example, as a result of a person having acquaintances in the banking industry, he or she may be able to find a job at a local bank upon graduating from college.
Alternatively, social capital can sometimes be defined by its function, meaning that the causal factor creating social capital is sometimes captured by its effect (Coleman, 1998). For
38 example, because a person was able to find a job in a bank upon graduating from college, the
acquaintances he or she had through a network of individuals in the banking industry actually
turned out to be a form of social capital. It is a stretch to claim that because an effect happened,
a cause was identified; what Coleman (1998) is attempting to explain though is that social capital
might not always manifest itself on the front end, but the cause of the effect may become more
visible after the benefit of the social network manifests itself.
Thus, the benefits and manifestations of social capital arise because individuals actively choose to participate in social networks, and because individuals who choose to participate in social networks for some other reason happen to experience social capital as a by-product of their engagement in the social network (Field, 2008). Hereafter, eight forms of social capital will be discussed, along with examples to illustrate each form of social capital. The first six forms of
social capital—information flow; human capital creation; norms of reciprocity; occupational
mobility; goal achievement; and educational attainment—are categorized primarily as instrumental forms of social capital, meaning that their aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual gain something or get ahead (Lin, 2001). The seventh and eighth forms of social capital—identity reinforcement and sanctions—are categorized primarily as expressive form of social capital, meaning that their aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help maintain current resources (Lin, 2001).
One form of social capital is often referred to as information flow (Lin, 2001; Coleman,
1988). Social networks enable information to flow between and among individuals. This flow of information can provide individuals with details and facts about opportunities and choices that would otherwise not be available were it not for the particular social network. Social networks that promote bridging social capital among acquaintances are particularly valuable in enabling
39 the exchange of knowledge, particularly ‘hot’ information and tactic knowledge; social networks that promote bonding social capital among closer relationships are effective in enabling the exchange of knowledge that is more routine and immediately applicable to the individuals within the social network (Field, 2008). Having knowledge of information about opportunities and choices requires attention on the part of the individual.
An example of the information flow that can occur from a social network between a student and a professor might include a professor passing along information to a student about possible internship opportunities unbeknownst to the student. Another example might be a professor counseling a student about the benefits and drawbacks of taking a particular class during the course of a semester. In other words, the internship guidance and course advice provided to the student by the professor—a form of information flow—is a result of the student having a social relationship with the professor. Information flow is categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an individual to achieve certain outcomes.
Coleman (1988) suggests that a second form or benefit of social capital is its subsequent ability to facilitate human capital creation. Human capital is defined as the acquisition of talents, knowledge and skills through education and training that increase a person’s income and other useful outputs over time (Becker, 1975). Social networks foster human capital development by imparting certain skills and capabilities from one who possesses such skills and capabilities to another. In other words, a father who has a skill of working on cars can pass this knowledge and training on to his son as a result of the social relationship that exists between the two. Without this social network between this father and son though, human capital could not be transferred from one to another in this manner. Social capital, in this sense, is a powerful factor of production, perhaps as important as human capital itself; having skills and education is clearly
40 a factor of production for an individual and social capital acts as a conduit for the investment in
and obtaining of skills and education by an individual (Paldam & Svendsen, 2004). Human
capital creation is categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an individual to
achieve certain ends.
A third commonly referenced form of social capital is norms of reciprocity. A norm can
be defined as a standard or custom. Reciprocity can be articulated as a mutual exchange of
favors or obligations that characterize the relationship between two or more individuals. A
benefit of social networks is norms of reciprocity, or standards of durable obligations that exist
so as to provide mutual acts of kindness and help between and among members of a social
network (Bourdieu, 1986; Putnam, 2000; Coleman, 1988).
In order to illustrate this concept, consider two individuals or a small social network. As
some point in time, individual A provides individual B with a ride to the airport to visit a friend.
As a result of the social network that exists between the two individuals and the favor that has
been performed, it is explicitly or implicitly expected that individual B will return the favor in
some form or another to individual A at some unspecified time in the future.
Norms of reciprocity are a common and productive form of social capital. The level of
trustworthiness that exists within a social network acts as a foundation or catalyst for the
existence of these norms of reciprocity between and among individuals. The expectancies, credit
slips and/or durable obligations that exist in social relationships are to some extent dependent on the strength of the particular social tie and level of trust between two individuals, although reciprocity may also be found in weaker, less trustworthy as well (Wellman & Frank, 2004). As a general rule, the more of these credit slips that an individual possesses, the more social capital they are considered to possess and able to call upon in times of need. Norms of reciprocity is
41 categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an individual to achieve certain
outcomes.
A fourth common form of social capital is career development, job attainment and/or
career networking, referred to herein as occupational mobility (Coleman, 1988). Very simply
stated, social networks help an individual in identifying and securing job opportunities.
Occupational mobility can come to pass as members in a social network provide job leads and
introductions to an individual hoping to improve employment opportunities or navigate through a
job market. Interestingly, weak ties, as opposed to strong ties, prove to be even more beneficial
in career mobility; weak ties allow an individual to bridge their own immediate social network to another—bridging social capital—and open up opportunities not readily available within their stronger ties among family and close friends (Burt, 2001; Erikson, 1996; Halpern, 2005; Lin,
2001).
In another vein, social networks can exert influences on agents who play a role in
decisions involving an actor; in other words, because an individual belongs to a particular social
network, he or she may have a ‘leg up’ on the competition because they are associated directly or
indirectly with a well-respected or positively-influential social status (Lin, 2001). For example, a social network to which an individual belongs, such as being a Harvard University graduate, may influence the manner in which he or she is viewed by an employer by virtue of belonging to the social network, despite or in addition to the actual job qualifications the individual may possess.
Occupational mobility is categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an
individual to achieve certain ends.
A fifth commonly referenced form of social capital is unspecific resources for goal achievement (Flap, 2004). Simply stated, social networks make possible the achievement of
42 certain ends by an individual that in their absence would not be possible (Coleman, 1988).
Putnam (2000) similarly notes that social relations act as conduits for assistance that facilitates
the achievement of an individual’s goals and aspirations. Specifically defining goals and
aspirations as they relate to how social relations aid in an individual’s achievement is quite
difficult due to the reality that goals and aspirations greatly vary across broad sub-domains of
life. Knowing the right people may help an individual achieve a goal in unforeseen ways (Flap,
2002). More broadly stated, any resource that helps in goal achievement that is owned by a
social network member can be regarded as a form of social capital (Van der Gaag & Snijders,
2003).
To illustrate this form of social capital, consider a community with a park that is
threatened to be destroyed by a local developer for the purpose of turning it into a parking lot.
Alone, a single individual may not have much influence in fighting the park demolition project
or in achieving a decision reversal in the matter. On the other hand though, if this individual is
able to assemble a social network of other individuals who are against the destruction of the
park, he or she may be able to harness the collective influence of the group of people to widen awareness and make an individual issue a collective issue to bring about positive change.
Similarly, this individual may have a relationship with a neighbor who knows the process for filing a complaint with the community township to protest the proposed parking lot; or, this individual may have a relationship with a local business owner who can donate supplies to make signs and flyers to post throughout the community to garner support from others. Goal achievement is categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an individual to achieve certain outcomes.
43 The sixth commonly referenced form of social capital to be reviewed herein is education
attainment. Education attainment, as a form of social capital, is generally described as an
individual’s persistence in school, improved test scores and/or the pursuit of post-secondary
education as a byproduct of social relationships (Putnam, 2000; Halpern, 2005). For example, a
young individual with a social network consisting of parents, grandparents and/or friends who
genuinely interact with and are involved in their life, receive support and encouragement to stay
in school and aspire to succeed. Another example to consider is that of a young individual who
boasts a social network comprised of members of a community youth program or caring teachers
in his or her local school. This individual might experience increased education attainment
through these social relationships as a result of the support and encouragement provided to them
and the expectancies conveyed to them by these networks. Education attainment is primarily
categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an individual to achieve certain
ends.
A seventh common form of social capital, as described by Bourdieu (1986), Halpern
(2005) and Putnam (2000), is sanctions. Sanctions are the formal and informal laws or rules of conduct that govern and/or reaffirm the limits of a social network. Although sanctions can be considered a characteristic of a social network, sanctions also provide a number of benefits to an individual in the form of social capital.
For instance, consider an individual’s neighborhood social network. As most neighborhood social networks do, this individual’s neighborhood may have an informal rule of conduct—or sanction—that states, for example, that network members should exercise heightened awareness when it appears that a person or family is out of town for the weekend.
Another example to consider is that of a group of friends who go out frequently on the weekends.
44 A social network sanction might exist, stating that if any individual in the network appears to have had too much to drink while out late at night, another network member should remove the keys from the individual and either take them home or call a cab for them. Both of these illustrations demonstrate how sanctions act as a form of social capital among individuals in a social network. Sanctions is categorized as an instrumental form of social because it helps an individual to achieve certain outcomes.
Lin (2001) and Bourdieu (1986) state that an eighth common form of social capital is identity reinforcement, or the manner in which an individual’s identity is reinforced and/or recognized by virtue of belonging to a given social network. “Social ties, and their acknowledged relationships to the individual, may be conceived by the organization or its agents as certification of the individual’s social credentials” (Lin, 2001, p.20). In other words, a member of a local church congregation is reassured of his or her identity as a worthy member of the congregation as a result of his or her membership in the congregation. Similarly, outsiders may view this individual to have certain moral standards as a result of his or her membership in a congregation where others have the same certain moral standards. Simply stated, because a person is associated with certain attributes and resources based on his or her membership in a social network, he or she is seen by themselves and by others to worthily possess those same attributes and resources. This reinforcement and recognition, along with the emotional support and maintenance of mental health that it provides, is a form of social capital. Identity reinforcement is primarily an expressive form of social capital, although it can at times be considered an instrumental form of social capital at times because it helps support an individual’s current social network resources.
45 These eight forms of social capital are not necessarily spelled out this clearly in each
social capital theorist’s body of work. Rather, for the purposes of this study, these forms of
social capital represent a more holistic view of the resources available in trustworthy networks to
individuals. The next section summarizes networks, trust and resources, as outlined thus far.
2.1.5 The role that trust plays in social networks and social capital accumulation
Briefly stated, an individual tends to trust another individual to do something based on what is
known about his or her disposition, ability and reputation (Fu, 2004). Stated another way, trust is
grounded in an individual’s belief that another individual will perform or behave in a certain way
at some future point in time, and vice versa. Trust, as it relates to the concept of social capital,
indicates an individual’s willingness to be open to another individual to both provide resources to
the individual and receive resources from the individual (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). Coleman
(1988), Putnam (1993) and Bourdieu (1986) all consider trust to be a prerequisite of individual social capital.
Perhaps trust, and its role in social capital accumulation through an individual’s social network, can be best understood through examples or illustrations. Consider, as a form of social capital, occupational mobility. An individual may approach another person for assistance in finding a job, which might typically entail the individual asking the person to introduce himself to some of the person’s friends or coworkers. No matter if the individual has a strong or weak relationship with the person, the individual would not ask the person for assistance if the individual did not first believe that the person would actually introduce the individual to some of the person’s key friends or coworkers. In this case, trust is acting as a prerequisite for an individual to ask another person for assistance in meeting people to find a job. Likewise, the
46 person being asked by the individual to introduce the individual to the person’s friends or coworkers would not be willing to introduce the individual to the person’s friends or coworkers were it now for the person knowing to some extent the ability, disposition and reputation of the individual. For this person to make the decision to help this individual, again, requires the existence or prerequisite of trust. Another example might involve a letter of recommendation.
An individual would not ask a person to write a letter of recommendation on their behalf if the individual did not trust that the person would say positive things about the individual. Likewise, the person would not be very willing to write a letter of recommendation for an individual if the person did not trust the individual to some extent. Thus it can be seen the role that trust plays in accessing social capital in an individual’s social network.
In other words, as Coleman (1998) noted, a social network that embodies extensive trustworthiness and trust is able to accomplish much more than a comparable group without the same level of trustworthiness and trust, based on the insurance and credit that trust and trustworthiness provide to individuals and the social network as a whole. The greater the level of trust among individuals, the more cohesive is that social network; similarly, the greater the level of distrust among individuals, the less cohesive is that social network (Kawachi, Kennedy &
Wilkinson, 1999). The trade of resources between and among individuals occurs with much more ease when trust and trustworthiness exist than when trust and trustworthiness do not exist
(Coleman, 2008).
2.1.6 A summary of elements of individual social capital
In summary, the concept of social capital is comprised of various elements (see Table 2.1).
47 Table 2.1: Summary of the elements of social capital
Component Description Sample of Sources Social Capital Resources embedded in social networks that are available Putnam, 2000; Bourdieu, for use by network members. 1986; Coleman, 1988; Lin & Erikson, 2008 Social Networks Necessary condition for access to embedded resources. Putnam, 2000; Bourdieu, 1986
Take on various forms (i.e. family, Sunday school class, Lin, 2008; Putnam, 2000 regulars who play poker together).
Bonding social capital—a result of closed, inward looking, Halpern, 2005; exclusive social networks. Putnam & Feldstein, 2003
Bridging social capital—a result of open, outward looking, Halpern, 2005 inclusive social networks. Lin, 2001 Individual Level of The ways that individuals invest in, access and use Lin, 2001; Lin, 1982; Social Capital resources embedded in social networks. Edwards & Foley, 1998 Trust The expectation or commitment that arises within a social Fukuyama, 1996; Coleman, network as a result of regular, honest and cooperative 2008 behavior among its members.
Enables social networks to function more effectively and accomplish much more than untrustworthy social networks. Coleman, 1988; Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999 Forms of Social Information Flow—details and facts about opportunities Lin, 2001; Coleman, 1988 Capital and choices that would otherwise not be available.
Human Capital Creation—provides a conduit for the Coleman, 1988; Paldam & acquisition of talents, knowledge and skills. Svendsen, 2004
Norms of Reciprocity—mutual exchange of favors or Bourdieu, 1986; Putnam, 2000 obligations that characterize the relationship between two or more individuals.
Occupational Mobility—help an individual in identifying Burt, 2001; Erikson, 1996 and securing job opportunities.
Goal Achievement—social networks make possible the Flap, 2004; Coleman, 1988 achievement of certain ends by an individual that in their absence would not be possible.
Education Attainment—an individual’s persistence in Halpern, 2005; Putnam, 2000 school, improved test scores and/or the pursuit of post- secondary education as a byproduct of social relationships.
Identity Reinforcement and Recognition—the manner in Lin, 2001; Bourdieu, 1986 which an individual’s identity is reinforced and/or recognized by virtue of belonging to a given social network.
Sanctions—formal and informal laws or rules of conduct Halpern, 2005; Putnam, 2000 that govern and/or reaffirm the limits of a social network for the benefit of network members.
48 First, social capital is defined as resources embedded in social networks available for use by network members. Second, these social networks can be a family relationship, a Sunday school class or a group that plays poker. Third, depending on the closeness of the social relationship tie, the embedded resources that exist are considered either bonding social capital or bridging social capital. Fourth, social capital can be investigated at the collective, group level or the individual level. Fifth, the greater the trust that exists between two individuals, the more durable, reliable and accessible are the resources embedded in the social network. Sixth, a number of forms or benefits of social capital exist, such as information flow, occupational mobility and norms of reciprocity. Table 2.1 provides a brief overview of the elements of social capital discussed thus far, along with a sample of references supporting each element.
In addition to these elements outlined, social capital can be conceptualized according to the model that will now be introduced in Figure 2.1 in the next section. This model was developed by the author for the purposes of this research study.
49 2.1.7 A conceptual model of individual social capital
Individuals A and B represent a social network, consisting of either a strong or weak relationship tie; trust between Individuals A and B facilitates access to the various forms of social capital:
Trust
FORMS of Social Capital
Close, Exclusive Tie = Bonding Social Capital
Individual Individual O r A B Weak, Inclusive Tie = Bridging Social Capital
Information Flow
Human Capital Creation
Norms of Reciprocity Instrumental Forms of Social Capital Occupational Mobility
Education Attainment
Goal Achievement
Sanctions Expressive Forms of Social Capital Identity Reinforcement Note: Conceptual model developed by the author of this study based on a review of the literature
Figure 2.1: Conceptualization of individual social capital
50 The conceptual model of individual social capital in Figure 2.1 depicts two individuals,
Individual A and Individual B. Individuals A and B have a relationship with each other, referred to as a Social Network. The Social Network that exists between Individuals A and B is considered more or less useful in terms of social capital accessibility based on the Trust or level of mutual expectation and commitment that exists between Individuals A and B. Depending on the strength and closeness of the relationship that exists between Individuals A and B, useful resources are embedded in the social network in the form of Bonding Social Capital or Bridging
Social Capital. Various forms of social capital may be embedded in the relationship between
Individuals A and B, including: Information Flow; Human Capital Creation; Norms of
Reciprocity; Occupational Mobility; Goal Achievement; Education Attainment; Identity
Reinforcement; and Sanctions. The first five forms of social capital listed are categorized as
Instrumental Social Capital: the last two forms of social capital listed are categorized as
Expressive Social Capital.
Equally as important as understanding the definition and numerous elements of individual social capital as a concept, is having an understanding of the most commonly utilized measures of individual social capital, namely networks, trust and resources. First, three primary measurements of individual networks and resources will be outlined, known as the Name
Generator, Position Generator and Resource Generator. Second, the primary means for measuring trust as it relates to social capital will be explored, known as attitudinal and behavioral measures of trust. Examples of each measurement tool will be provided to better illustrate each method of measuring networks, trust and/or resources.
51 2.1.8 Measurements of networks and resources
Now that the elements of social capital have been outlined and a conceptual model has been proposed for this research study, the next logical step is to review how social capital is commonly measured. This section will describe the current methods of measuring individual social capital. The strengths and weaknesses associated with each method will be included as part of the analysis.
Various attempts have been made to study social capital at the individual level using a plethora of research methodologies. The study of social capital becomes complicated due to the vague definition of concepts, difficulty quantifying underlying social relations, the mixing of functional and causal conceptions and a lack of a set of key indicators, among other reasons
(Durlauf, 2002). “The multifaceted nature of social capital has resulted in a bewildering array of definitions and measurement” (Flap, 2004, p.7). In other words, researchers tend to differ on their definitions of social capital and its associated elements. Similarly, by its nature social capital is considered multidimensional and cannot always be viewed as a single element or variable, but rather necessitates consideration from multiple dimensions, levels, forms, types and other interrelated elements. Over the years, a number of attempts have been made to measure an individual’s networks and associated resources in the form of strength of relationships, density of relationships, usefulness of relationships, types of resources, availability of resources, and so forth.
The name generator is a method used to map an individual’s personal social networks and then describe the characteristics, structure and accessible resources of those networks (Van der Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008). Generally speaking, the strategy asks individual’s to name people they know in a particular way (Marin & Hampton, 2007). For example, a researcher
52 might ask an individual for the names of the people he or she knows at work or in their
neighborhood; or the names of the people he or she knows with certain competencies or skills; or
the names of the people with which he or she has confidential or trusting relationships (Lin,
2001). Then, the individual is asked a series of follow-up or interpreter questions to gather
demographic characteristics about each person, such as occupation, education level, age and gender (see Table 2.2). Additionally, the researcher inquires with the individual about the
particular resources embedded in each of these relationships. This information can then be used
to create a profile for each person within the individual’s social network, which can then be
aggregated to describe the individual’s overall network structure, mean characteristics for each
person, communication activity, network range, and resource density (Marin & Hampton, 2007).
In fact, the resource generator is very effective at providing detailed and informative social
capital descriptions (Van der Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008).
Table 2.2: Example of name generator questions
Sample Sample Question Follow-up Sample Follow-up Question Sample Follow-up Question Question Tell me the name of a What is this What is this person’s education What benefits are there to person you know your person’s level? knowing this person? neighborhood. occupation?
Although the name generator can provide a rich, detailed record of an individual’s social
network, it limits an individual’s responses to a small number of close relationships (Lin &
Erikson, 2008). In other words, weak relationships are excluded from this method, which
according to the literature previously reviewed on the concept of social capital are some of the
most important relationships an individual can have with another to accumulate and access social
capital (Burt, 2001; Erikson, 1996). “The task of identifying network members is not so simple
53 as asking respondents ‘Who do you know?’” (Campbell & Lee, 1991, p.204). Rather, social capital research should involve methods that do not constrain the study of an individual’s social network and its embedded resources by content, role and/or geographical area. Weaker ties and diversity of relationships are important because they provide an individual with more diverse resources in dissimilar locations, which can be sources of new knowledge and assets (Burt,
1992).
Whereas the name generator is a method used to identify and map the names of the people an individual intimately knows and then inquire about the resources available from each person, the position generator is a method used to count and measure an individual’s access to people—sans name—in hierarchical social positions where resources are likely to exist (Van der
Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008). In other words, rather than seeking to primarily map an individual’s social network, the position generator seeks to measure access to resources based on prestigious locations in society (see Table 2.3).
Table 2.3: Example of position generator questions
(Assumption the researcher might make based on Sample Questions position prestige) Do you know anyone who is a doctor? Doctors have money if you need financial help.
Doctors can write you a prescription. Do you know anyone who is a mechanic? A mechanic can fix your call.
A mechanic can provide you with information about buying a new car.
Generally speaking, the strategy asks individuals to identify the contacts—strong and weak—that he or she has from a sample of various structural locations that are salient in society, such as the medical field or local government. Then, the individual is asked to provide relevant
54 details about their relationship with each contact, such as whether they are a friend, relative or
acquaintance (Lin, 2001). The position generator then works on the assumption that because an
individual knows someone in the medical field, for example, then he or she potentially has
access to resources or information related to the medical field based on his or her relationship
with that person’s place in society—not necessarily the person. The position generator can be
aggregated to measure the range of available social resource prestige, highest available social
resource prestige and the sum of available resources of prestige.
The position generator provides some benefits over the name generator. For example, it
takes into account the resources available in weak relationships, something that the name
generator lacks the ability to do. Also, it probes an individual’s entire network rather than the
resources held by a select number of people, again, something that the name generator struggles to accomplish.
Although the position generator provides some benefits over the name generator, it also has its own limitations (Lin & Erikson, 2008). The position generator is primarily focused on resources embedded in relationships related to prestigious occupational positions in society and therefore does not take into account people without an occupation, or people with other beneficial resources to offer, such as a home-maker, retired person or younger person still in school (Van der Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008). Additionally, the position generator tends to focus on social positions where resources can be utilized in the accomplishment of instrumental actions to gain resources, such as to find a better job (Lin, 2001). Other social capital exists in the form of resources that can be utilized in the accomplishment of expressive actions to maintain well-being, such as in the form of practical assistance and emotional support. In short, position generators seek to identify resources that gain something for an individual, rather than
55 maintain something for an individual. Finally, it does not have the ability to map network structure and specific relationship constituents like the name generator can (Van der Gaag,
Snijders & Flap, 2008).
Thus far, the name generator has been described as a method of mapping an individual’s social network and then performing a social resource inventory based on each person mentioned
by the individual to exist in his or her social network. Also, the position generator has been
described as a method of measuring an individual’s access to social resources in various
prestigious occupational locations in society. The name generator primarily lacks the ability to
measure weak ties and diversity of relationships; the position generator primarily lacks the
ability to measure non-occupational social positions and resources, and the ability to take into
account more expressive forms of resources such as encouragement and general support. The
resource generator seeks to overcome the limitations of the name generator by taking into
consideration the measurement of weak ties and diversity of social relationships; the resource
generator seeks to overcome the limitations of the position generator by taking into consideration
the measurement of all useful types of resources from several domains of life, not just resources
that exist in prestigious locations in society (Van der Gaag & Snijders, 2005; Lin & Erikson,
2008).
Simply stated, the resource generator uses a checklist to survey an individual’s access to
a list of useful and specific resources, such as economic resources, support resources, skill
resources and so forth (see Table 2.4). Then, the resource generator measures the strength of the
individual’s access to the resources by asking the individual specifically about their relationship
role to each of the resources, such as access through family members, friends or acquaintances
(Van der Gaag & Snijders, 2005). Generally speaking, the resource generator is constructed in a
56 theory-guided fashion to list resources in the survey instrument that are focused on specific
domains of life (Van der Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008). The resource generator is beneficial in measuring individual social capital because it provides measures based on notions of volume of social capital, diversity of social capital and specificity of social capital. Data from the resource generator can be aggregated to describe volume, diversity and domains of resources available to an individual.
Table 2.4: Example of resource generator questions
Is the person an acquaintance, friend or family Question Yes or No? member? Do you know anyone who can fix a car? Do you know anyone who can give you advice on matters of the law?
Despite having some advantages over the name and position generator, the resource
generator also has its own limitations. For example, the resource generator is difficult to
construct because it necessitates that the researcher develop questionnaire items addressing
distinct life-domains based on substantive theoretical guidance (Lin, 2001). Also, although it
takes into account weak ties and diversity of relationships, it does not map an individual’s social
network to the extent that the name generator does.
Table 2.5 lists the name, position and resource generators, and outlines their respective
purposes, strengths and weaknesses as it relates to measuring an individual’s social network and
associated social capital. Interestingly, and not noted until now, is that none of these three
frequently utilized measures of individual social capital incorporate trust into their respective
methods.
57 Table 2.5: Summary of the measures of social networks and social capital
Sample of Measure Purpose Strength Weakness Resources Name Maps an individual’s Provides a rich, Excludes weak tie Van der Gaag, Generator personal social network detailed record relationships; does Snijders & Flap, (by name) and describes and description of not distinguish 2008 the network members’ an individual’s between characteristics and social network instrumental and Marin & resources expressive social Hampton, 2007 capital; does not measure trust Position Counts and measures an Identifies both Does not measure Lin, 2001 Generator individual’s access to strong and weak expressive social resources, not specific ties to social capital; measures Lin & Erikson, people (by name), based capital social capital 2008 on each person’s based on prestige job/location prestige in and neglects non Van der Gaag & society prestigious Snijders, 2005 location in society; does not measure trust Resource Surveys an individual’s Measures volume Does not provide a Van der Gaag & Generator access to useful, specific of social capital, rich, detailed Snijders, 2005 resources, not linked to a diversity of social record and person’s name or position capital and description of an Van der Gaag, in society specificity of individual’s social Snijders & Flap, social capital in network; does not 2008 several domains of measure trust life (not just Lin, 2001 prestigious locations in society); measures both instrumental and expressive actions
After having the opportunity to review the measurement of networks and resources, the next step is to review the methods commonly utilized to investigate trust as it relates to individual social capital. The next section looks specifically at attitudinal and behavioral measures of trust typically used in the study of individual social capital. As has been noted, these trust measures are typically treated separately from the measures of networks.
58 2.1.9 Measurements of trust
Thus far, the name generator, position generator and resource generator have been reviewed as measures of individual social networks and associated social capital. What is missing from each one of these methods is a measure for trust, another primary element of individual social capital.
As previously noted, the condition and usefulness of a person’s social network is contingent on the trust and trustworthiness in and among members of the social network.
Trust acts as a fundamental ingredient or lubricant of social relations and social capital
(Gambetta, 1988). Trust, according to Fukuyama (1996), is “the expectation that arises within a community of regular, honest, and cooperative behavior, based on commonly shared norms, on the part of other members of that community” (p.26). Social capital, then, is the “capability that arises from the prevalence of trust in a society or in certain parts of it” (p.26). Despite the key role that trust plays as it relates to social capital, the study of trust is less frequently examined compared to networks and resources, partly due to its measurement and conceptualization difficulties (Putnam, 2005; Luhman, 1988). Notwithstanding these difficulties, a sample of frequently used measures of trust will now be described.
Three frequently used surveys of trust are the European Values Survey (EVS), World
Values Survey (WVS) and General Social Survey (GSS). The EVS is a large-scale, cross- national and longitudinal survey on basic human values that provides insights into beliefs, attitudes and values of Europeans (About EVS, n.d.). The WVS is a by-product of the EVS and similarly measures basic human values on an international scale (About WVS, 2011). The GSS parallels the purposes of the EVS and WVS and likewise surveys basic values and beliefs based primarily on attitudinal questions on a national scale (About GSS, n.d.).
59 Although these surveys inquire about a number of items, each of them asks similar question pertaining to trust. For example, the EVS, WVS and GSS pose questions to respondents similar to the following:
Generally speaking, would you say that most people can be trusted or that you can’t be too careful in dealing with people?
Would you say that most of the time people try to be helpful, or that they are mostly just looking out for themselves?
The problem with asking individuals questions like the ones stated above is that they are vague and do not take into account situational context whatsoever (Glaeser, Laidson,
Scheinkman & Soutter, 2000). An improvement on this type of question can be seen in the following examples from the Australian Community Survey (ACS), which adds a layer of context to measurements pertaining to social trust beyond what the previously mentioned surveys employ (About ACS, 2009):
Generally speaking, most people in my local area can be trusted.
Generally speaking, most Australians can be trusted.
Generally speaking, you can’t be too careful in dealing with most people in my local area.
Generally speaking, you can’t be too careful in dealing with most Australians.
Although an improvement, these questions are still quite abstract and difficult to interpret. One final example demonstrates how measurements of trust can be crafted to take into account situational approaches in addition to context (Onyx & Bullen, 2000):
Do you feel safe walking down your street after dark?
Does your area have a reputation for being a safe place?
Measurements of trust can also be devised to address particular social locations such as in the following example (Hogan & Owen, 2000):
60 How often can you trust each of the following to act in your best interests? (Always, Mostly, Sometimes, Rarely, Never, or Not Applicable)
Your minister/priest Politicians generally The police Public servants The state government Political parties
In response to the attitudinal measures listed in this section, Putnam (1995) suggests that
a more effective way to measure trust as it relates to social capital is through the use of
behavioral measures of trust, which will now be described.
Researchers are increasingly attempting to utilize behavior measures of trust in studies of social capital. Examples of behavioral questions pertaining to trust include asking respondents whether they lie to peers and family members, whether they lend money or possessions and
whether they leave the door unlocked. These types of questions highlighting past trusting
behavior tend to illustrate the level of trust that exists within and among people in an individual’s
social network more effectively than attitudinal questions (Glaeser, Laibson, Scheinkman &
Soutter, 2000). These types of questions provide respondents not only with more context, but
they also provide respondents with a framework through which to describe how they react or will
react in the future with others as it relates to trust, rather than what they merely think about the
trust that exists between and among themselves and others in their social networks.
2.2 ETHNOGRAPHY AS A RESEARCH METHOD TO STUDY SOCIAL CAPITAL
Now that the commonly utilized measures of social networks, social capital and trust have been
reviewed, it is now necessary to explore another possible method of measurement not mentioned
61 to this point in any of the literature. All three of these elements of social capital are
understandably difficult to conceptualize and measure. As we have seen thus far, surveys and
individual interviews are the most often used tools to measure social capital. One research
method not mentioned is ethnography.
Ethnography, “the descriptive study of people in their natural settings,” is a qualitative research method that seeks to obtain a holistic understanding of human behavior within social and cultural settings (Angrosino, p.2). In contrast to experimental research where a researcher manipulates subjects or variables, ethnography studies people’s actions and perspectives within their natural, everyday contexts. The goal of ethnography and ethnographic research methods is
“to develop clear, communicable understandings and interpretations of human behavior as social and cultural activity” (Wagner, p.196). A simple example of an ethnographic study is that of a researcher who attempts to investigate the culture of dog owners through living, observing and describing the daily life and behaviors of dog owners for a significant amount of time.
Ethnographic research espouses a number of common features (Hammersley & Atkinson,
2007). First, ethnographers seek to study people’s actions and accounts in unstructured, everyday circumstances. Second, ethnographers gather data from a range of sources, such as documentary evidence of various kinds, participant observation, and informal conversations.
Sunstein and Chiseri-Strater (2007) similarly note that data can be obtained through library and archival research, cultural artifacts, fieldnotes, photographs, interviews, and reflective memos.
Third, the categories that ethnographers use to interpret what people say or do are discovered through data analysis, rather than through a rigid data collection process. Fourth, in order to facilitate an in-depth ethnographic study, the ethnographer usually focuses on a small-scale, single setting or group of people. Fifth, data is analyzed and interpreted to discover the
62 meanings, functions, and results of human actions and institutional practices, which can then be
applied to broader contexts and can lead to explanations and theoretical development.
As the goal of ethnographers is to understand a people’s culture, it is important to have an
understanding of the term culture as it relates to ethnography as well as an understanding of the
means by which it is investigated by ethnographers. Rather than being considered the study of
culture, ethnography seeks to uncover the “customary social behaviors” of a group of people in a
particular setting and is viewed as a “way of seeing” culture, not as a way of explaining culture
(Wolcott, p.241). Stone Sunstein and Chiseri-Strater (2007) similarly define the culture that ethnography attempts to explain as “an invisible web of behaviors, patterns, rules, and rituals of a group of people who have contact with one another and share common languages” (p.3). In
short, ethnographers do not conduct ethnography with a predetermined idea of a particular
group’s culture in mind. Rather, ethnographers utilize ethnographic methods of research to
uncover a group’s culture. Ultimately, a well conducted and thought out ethnography should
offer a holistic understanding of the human behavior of a group of people within the group’s
natural social and/or cultural setting. Ethnography is valuable because it goes above and beyond a quick observation, single interview or brief visit to a site; rather, it uncovers the culture of a people and helps the outsider obtain the viewpoint of an insider.
The concept of social capital is inherently abstract and requires subjective interpretation in its translation into operational measures (Narayan & Cassidy, 2001). As highlighted in the literature review, social capital’s operational measures are oftentimes invariably indirect substitutes of their associated constructs. “Social capital is stubbornly resistant to quantification” and because it is multi-dimensional, some of its dimensions are subject to different understandings (Coleman, 2002, p.11-12). The best instruments for measuring social capital are
63 likely ones that entail time spent in the field in order to capture local individual realities
(Woolcock, 2002).
Based on the measures of resources, networks and trust reviewed herein, it is clear that social capital is difficult to measure holistically. Some measures are vague, some measures are employed outside of any particular context, some measures are redundant, some measures look at one aspect of social capital and not another, and so forth. Social capital is rooted in the way that individuals utilize networks, and ethnography may be effective at accessing these details more completely than simply a single survey or interview (Crossley, 2008). Ethnography presents an accurate reflection of peoples’ perspectives and behaviors; ethnographers seek to build and tell stories around the words, views, explanations and interpretations of individuals in the study (LeCompte & Schensul, 2010). In short, ethnography allows for a more thoughtful, situational and contextual approach to the study of social capital.
One of the difficulties of studying trust and reciprocity as it relates to social capital was
the common use of attitudinal measures of trust and lack of behavioral measures of trust.
Ethnography potentially solves this problem as it “examines behavior and belief in context,”
allowing the researcher to see for him or herself the concept of trust and reciprocity in action
LeCompte & Schensul, 2010, p.22). In short, it is believed that trust and reciprocity, as they
relate to social capital creation and maintenance, may be investigated in their natural setting
through an ethnographic study—something a simple survey or interview alone cannot do as effectively.
A tool for measuring any form of social capital must be sensitive to cultural and social variation (Grootaert & Bastelaer, 2001). LeCompte and Schensul (2010) concur that ethnography can enable a researcher to explore variation within a group so as to avoid
64 stereotyping and over generalization of group members, something that frequently occurs in the
social capital measures previously described. In particular, this was noted as one of the
disadvantages to the network and resource measures discussed previously.
“Social capital is multidimensional, and some of those dimensions themselves are subject
to different understandings” (Coleman, 2002, p.12). Ethnography has the capability to
investigate social capital multidimensional and contextually, and overcome some of the weaknesses of other commonly utilized measures of networks, trust and resources pertaining to individual social capital. The purpose of this section was not necessarily to develop an exact methodology for studying social capital creation through ethnography, but rather to introduce ethnography as a research method and demonstrate how it might be an effective means of studying social capital—networks, trust and resources—more thoughtfully and holistically. The next section will now tie together the conceptual framework of social capital and review how higher education act as a means to invest in individual social capital.
2.3 HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE CREATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL
Few people will dispute the idea that higher education can profoundly affect an individual’s life
(Astin, 1993). Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital (Becker, 2008). Human capital is defined as the skills and knowledge acquired by an individual that facilitate productive activity (Coleman, 1988).
Human capital, or the skills and knowledge that an individual possesses, has been shown to positively contribute to an individual’s earnings (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010), marketability and job attainment (Anderson & Keys, 2007) and quality of life (Winters, 2011), among other
65 outcomes. Throughout history, individuals have invested in human capital through higher
education to better themselves and their opportunities in life through knowledge and skill
acquisition.
In additional to the human capital creation that most speak of, a number of empirical
studies have found that individuals are also able to benefit in other ways from higher education
besides learning skills and gaining knowledge in the classroom and ultimately obtaining a
college degree (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). An entire body of literature exists around the notion that student involvement in faculty-student interaction, extracurricular activities, peer collaboration and active learning opportunities in higher education produce additional positive outcomes for students challenge (Astin, 1993; Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Kuh et al., 1991,
2005; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005).
Among these studies of the alternative, non-human capital related outcomes of higher
education, are a relatively small number of empirical studies that specifically investigate the
manner in which students can accumulate social capital through higher education. One such
qualitative study utilized semi-structured interviews to examine the experiences of 32 high
achieving academic undergraduate male students across six large, public research universities.
The students were characterized as high achieving because they held a cumulative grade point
average above 3.0 on a 4.0 scale, held established records of leadership and involvement in
campus organizations and in the community, developed relationships with high-ranking
administrators and faculty, and so forth. The study inquired about how the students acquire
social capital and what value is attached to the social capital they have obtained through higher education.
66 The participants described the access they had to interact with key people throughout the
university and community, such as the university president, faculty, staff and
community/business leaders. The students also detailed the privileged information that was theirs as a result of these relationships related to scholarships, internships, awards and other various opportunities. Ultimately, the study found that the more involved a student is on campus, the greater the opportunities that exist to build and take advantage of social capital. One
student noted that “I may not have a 4.0, but I can get a letter [of recommendation] from the
Provost, which I know carries a lot of weight [when applying for scholarships or jobs]” (Harper,
2008, p.1041). Several students talked about how they were able to secure summer internships
and jobs through the social networks they built during their higher education experience. Other students claimed that they were able to make connections with influential individuals that helped them get accepted into top tier graduate programs. The students studied leveraged their access to social networks and activated their social capital for goal actualization during and immediately after college. The author suggests that further research be conducted in the area of social capital creation through higher education to build on the current study’s findings that tremendous opportunities await college students in the form of social capital should they choose to seek after such opportunities.
A second study of social capital creation through higher education investigated the ways in which law student organizations provided bonding a bridging social capital resources to members (Deo, 2009). Through a national, longitudinal data set of surveys, focus groups and interviews with law school students, the study specifically investigated how members of student law organizations create and benefit from social capital in the form of networking, career opportunities and general support.
67 Data from the study shows that students join law student organizations with the
expectation of receiving various types of encouragement and support. In addition, the study
found that being a member of a law student organization helped students to network with those
outside of their immediate peers and faculty members, such as alumni, employers and legal
professionals, to develop beneficial bridging social capital in the form of internship and job
identification. Additionally, law students noted that specific types of support, such as cultural,
emotional and academic support, were available to them as a result of belonging to a student
organization. One major limitation of this study noted by the author is that it only investigates
one type of student organization—law student organizations. The author suggests that studies of
other types of student organizations be carried out to see if the social capital available differs
from one type of student organization to the next.
In a third study, utilizing interviews from a national sample of students who had
successfully matriculated through a four-year university who previously participated in
engineering student organizations, researchers examined the role of engineering student
organizations in generating social capital among its members (Daily, Eugene & Prewitt, 2007).
Those interviewed in the study overwhelmingly stated that belonging to an engineering student organization provided them with familial type relationships with their peers and others in the field of engineering. The research team found that bridging social capital existed as a resource to engineering student organization members in the form of established norms and obligations, meaning that the organizations provided members with a similar closeness and familial structure to aid in their general welfare and academic achievement. Another form of bonding social capital identified was the access to invaluable information for the members of the organization.
Forms of bridging social capital were also identified; researchers found that engineering student
68 organizations helped students confidently navigate relationships and identify opportunities to career network outside of their narrow world as an engineering college student. The basis for access to these bonding and bridging social capital resources was rooted in the genuine mutual respect, or in other words trust, among members that permeated the student organizations. These bonding relationships resulted in norms of reciprocity and trust between and among each other.
Not only were bonding relationships formed, but bridging relationships were also formed that resulted in various forms of bridging social capital such as job networking and career guidance.
In terms of future research, the authors intend to look at engineering students outside of student organizations who participate in mentorship programs to investigate other avenues for social capital creation through opportunities offered in association with higher education.
These three empirical studies investigate social network and social capital creation in the setting of higher education (see Table 2.6). The first study of high achieving students who actively participate as student leaders and in student organization on campus ultimately found that the students were able to network with people both inside and outside the university to leverage various resources, such as information about internships and awards, and secure recommendation letters to increase their chance of job attainment (Harper, 2008). The second study looked specifically at both bonding and bridging relationships and social capital creation through a national sample of law student organization members (Deo, 2009). Specifically, the study found that the networks that students made through their membership in law student organizations helped them to build relationships with their immediate peers as well as alumni and legal professionals, resulting in emotional support and career guidance, among other outcomes. Utilizing a national sample of engineering school graduates, the third study investigated how participating in engineering student organizations helped students to build
69 beneficial social networks and leverage social capital opportunities (Daily, Eugene & Prewitt,
2007). In particular, the study found that engineering students were able to build trusting, familial relationships with each other that aided in their general welfare and academic achievement. Additionally, students noted that they were able to establish bridging relationships that helped them identify job opportunities and obtain career guidance.
Table 2.6: Summary of select social capital studies in higher education.
Elements of Elements of Suggested Social Social Population Methods Key Findings Future Capital Capital not Research Investigated Investigated Sample of high Semi- Networks Trust Leadership opportunities To confirm achieving structured and student organization and expand undergraduate interviews Resources participation provided findings students who students with beneficial participate in relationships and resources leadership such as information flow, opportunities and support and job networking student organizations (Harper, 2008) National sample of Surveys Networks Trust Participating in law student Study other law student organizations provided types of organization Focus Resources students with beneficial student members (Deo, groups relationships and resources organization 2009) such as emotional support, to confirm Interviews identity recognition and and expand career networking findings National sample of Interviews Networks Participating in engineering Study other matriculated student organizations types of non- engineering student Trust (to a provided students with student organization small extent) beneficial relationships and organizations, members (Daily, resources such as norms of such as Eugene & Prewitt, Resources reciprocity, sanctions and mentorship 2007) career networking programs
All three studies primarily used qualitative research methods in the form of interviews.
Each of the three studies advocated for additional research to be done on other types of students and other types of student organizations. Two of the three studies did not situate trust as it
70 relates to social capital creation as an element to investigate in their studies; the third study
incorporated trust but more indirectly than directly.
In summary, these three studies provide a general idea of recent studies that have been conducted to investigate individual social capital creation as a result of higher education. What this study hopes to contribute to these studies set in the context of higher education and other studies in the field of social capital in general is a more holistic view of individual, contextual, multi-dimensional view of social capital creation as a result of higher education through the use of ethnography as a research method. The forthcoming section will outline this study’s methodology for doing so.
71 3.0 METHODOLOGY
Quantitative research typically involves collecting numerical data, utilizing larger sample sizes, and carrying out little personal interaction with the participants in a given study (Gay, Mills &
Airasian, 2006). This research study does not collect numerical data, nor does it utilize a large sample size. It also involves immense personal interaction with the participants in the study. As opposed to quantitative research that typically deals with numbers and uses statistical models to explain data, qualitative research tends to avoid numbers and deals with interpreting social realities (Bauer & Gaskell, 2000). Qualitative research,
implies an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. They seek answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes. (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p.14)
As such, qualitative research has specifically been chosen as the primary methodology to
investigate higher education in the creation of individual social capital. As discussed in the literature review, “social capital is stubbornly resistant to quantification” and because it is multi- dimensional, some of its dimensions are subject to different understandings (Coleman, 2002,
pp.11-12). The best instruments for measuring social capital are likely ones that entail
qualitative methods and time spent in the field in order to capture local individual realities
(Woolcock, 2002).
72 This chapter will outline the methodology of the research study. First, this section will
provide an overview of the research design. Second, the populations, samples, and sampling
procedures will be outlined. Third, the setting will be described. Fourth, the instrumentation for
the study will be discussed. Fifth, the data collection procedures will be charted. Sixth, the data
analysis method will be articulated.
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
The type of research methodology utilized in this study was qualitative research. Qualitative
research was used to collect, analyze, and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data to
gain insights into the phenomenon of higher education in the creation of social capital among
college students (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006). More specifically, ethnography is “the
descriptive study of people in their natural settings” that seeks to obtain a holistic understanding
of human behavior within social and cultural settings (Angrosino, 2007, p.2). In contrast to
experimental research where a researcher manipulates subjects or variables, ethnography studies
people’s actions and perspectives within their natural, everyday contexts. Ethnography was
chosen for this research study in order to “develop clear, communicable understandings and
interpretations of human behavior as social and cultural activity” as it pertains to the manner in
which individual social capital can be created through participating in higher education (Wagner,
p.196).
73 3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
The primary population for this research study is undergraduate students at the University of
Pittsburgh, a large four-year, primary urban residential, very high research activity university
(Classifications: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 2010), who participate
in student organizations. Pertinent to this population, the University of Pittsburgh has 488
student organizations grouped into 14 categories. These student organization categories include: academic related, arts/literature, competitive sports, ethnic/cultural, honorary, political/advocacy, recreational, religious, service, social fraternities/sororities, special interest, student affairs affiliated, student governance, and intramural sports (Student Groups, n.d.).
The primary sample for this research study is The Blue and Gold Society, a 37-person student affairs affiliated undergraduate student organization at the University of Pittsburgh. The
Blue and Gold Society is the student ambassador group of the University of Pittsburgh. Founded in 1993 by then Associate Vice Chancellor for Alumni Relations and Executive Director of the
University of Pittsburgh Alumni Association, the mission of the Blue and Gold Society is to strengthen the University of Pittsburgh through student-alumni relationships. Selection into the
Blue and Gold Society is based on a written application, letters of recommendation, and personal interviews. Students are formally inducted in the Blue and Gold Society during a special induction ceremony in the University of Pittsburgh’s Chancellor’s Office at the end of each spring semester, after they have completed the application and interview process during that same spring semester.
The number of students in the Blue and Gold Society each year varies from approximately 35-45 undergraduate students, based on need and desire to maintain a diverse group of members (i.e. ethnicity, interests, areas of academic study, areas of extracurricular
74 activities, gender). Blue and Gold Society members remain a member of the student
organization until they graduate or until they decide to leave the group for personal reasons.
Serving in The Blue and Gold Society is not a paid position. Rather, members volunteer their
time to meet weekly as a group, host University of Pittsburgh related events, and interact with
students, faculty, staff, and alumni (History of the Blue and Gold Society, 2004). A more
detailed description of the Blue and Gold Society members was obtained during the data
collection and analysis processes, and will be provided later with the research studies findings in
Chapter 4.
The current group of 37 Blue and Gold Society members utilized in this research study is
comprised of 21 male students and 16 female students (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Blue and Gold Society members - gender
Of the student organization’s 37 members, five are sophomores, 14 are juniors and 18 are seniors
(see Figure 3.2). Freshman students are not permitted to apply. Thus, there are no freshman
Blue and Gold Society included in this research study.
75 Blue and Gold Society Members - Year in School Freshman, 0 Sophomore, 5
Senior, 18
Junior, 14
Figure 3.2: Blue and Gold Society members - year in school
During the course of the research study, the author inquired with each member of the Blue and
Gold Society to identify how long they had been a member of the student organization. The majority of Blue and Gold Society members have been in the Blue and Gold Society for either two or four semesters (see Figure 3.3). As new members are inducted only once annually, and most remain in the student organization until they graduate or leave for personal reasons, which is rare, this explains why most have been members for an even number of semesters. Likewise, since freshman cannot apply for membership in the student organization and upper-classmen tend to be elected over under-classmen, this explains why most have been members for either two or four semesters.
76 Blue and Gold Society Members - Semesters in Blue and Gold Society
20 14 15 15 10 4 5 0 0 2 2 0 0 Numberof Members Semesters
Figure 3.3: Blue and Gold Society members - semesters in Blue and Gold Society
Also during the course of the research study, the author inquired with each member of the
Blue and Gold Society to identify their academic major. Figure 3.4 notes the diverse range of major areas of academic study undertaken by members of the Blue and Gold Society. Business and science were the primary areas of study among members, while education, communications, social work, and psychology were the areas studied least.
Blue and Gold Society Members - School Major
15 11 9 10 6 3 5 1 1 1 2 2 1 0 Numberof Members
School Major
Figure 3.4: Blue and Gold Society members - school major
77 A secondary population was also utilized in this study. In addition to the previously
described population of undergraduate students at the University of Pittsburgh who participate in
student organizations, the secondary population for the study will be those faculty, staff,
students, alumni, and other individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom
Blue and Gold Society members come into contact. In other words, the secondary population is
comprised of those individuals who are to one extent or another part of Blue and Gold Society
members’ social network. As this is a study about relationships, trust between individuals, and
the mutual exchange of resources, this additional population and perspective was included as a means of looking not only at one side of the social network—Blue and Gold Society members, but the other side of the social network as well—those who are a part of Blue and Gold Society members’ social network.
The secondary sample utilized in this research study is outlined in Table 3.1. It total, eight individuals were chosen to provide the additional perspective lobbied for in the preceding paragraph. Only eight individuals were chosen because this research study’s purpose and research questions pertain specifically to the Blue and Gold Society members themselves and not necessarily to those who make up their social network. Nevertheless, the author felt that including this secondary population and sample would enrich the research study, bolster the findings, and assist in suggesting future ideas and avenues for research. A rational as to why
these eight individuals were chosen by the author as the secondary sample will be provided in the
forthcoming Sampling Procedures section. As a brief introductory explanation though, these
individuals were selected because they provide a diverse representation of individuals with
whom Blue and Gold Society members regularly come into contact, according to the Blue and
Gold Society members themselves and based on the data collected by the author through the
78 course of this research study. These individuals fit into four distinct categories: faculty and staff, students, Blue and Gold Society, and other. Along with listing the specific individuals chosen,
Table 3.1 also describes the characteristics and roles of each individual.
Table 3.1: Non-Blue and Gold Society members utilized in the research study
Non-Blue and Gold Society Description Member Faculty and Staff – faculty and staff at the University of Pittsburgh Alumni Relations Staff Person (I2) A female staff person in her late-twenties who works in the Office of Alumni Relations at the University of Pittsburgh. This staff person has opportunities for frequent interaction with Blue and Gold Society members, but has no responsibility or influence over them. Blue and Gold Society members tend to work closely with the Office of Alumni Relations, so naturally, Blue and Gold Society members may have more frequent interactions with this staff person than a non-Office of Alumni Relations staff person at the University. Graduate School of Business Staff A male staff person in his mid-forties who works in the University of Person (I6) Pittsburgh’s Graduate School of Business. He hosts a number of events for the School of Business where Blue and Gold Society members are often asked to assist. Students – students at the University of Pittsburgh Greek Life Student (I4) A junior female undergraduate student who is the member of a sorority at the University of Pittsburgh. She knows a few Blue and Gold Society members, and I was referred to her by a member of the Blue and Gold Society. Student (I7) A male, junior, pre-med, undergraduate student at the University of Pittsburgh. Student Government Board A male, senior, undergraduate student who serves as the President of the President (I8) Student Government Board at the University of Pittsburgh. Blue and Gold Society – staff, students, and others associated with the Blue and Gold Society Manager of Student Alumni A female Office of Alumni Relations staff person in her mid-forties who also Programs (I5) serves as the primary advisor for the Blue and Gold Society. She has been their advisor since the student organization was founded in 1993.
Other – alumni, donors, trustees, government officials, and others affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh
Alumnus (I1) A male alumnus in his early-forties who earned an undergraduate degree from the University of Pittsburgh. As an active alumnus, this individual occasionally observes and interacts with Blue and Gold Society members while attending local University events where Blue and Gold Society members are present. Board of Trustee Member (I3) A male, late-forty-year-old member of the University of Pittsburgh’s Board of Trustees.
79 Each Blue and Gold Society member was assigned a distinct code, labeled with the letter
M, and a distinct number ranging from 1 to 37, for example M1, M2 and so forth. Appendix J
lists all 37 Blue and Gold Society members according to their corresponding code. Each code
also includes the demographics described in this subsection, namely gender, major, number of
semesters in the Blue and Gold Society and year in school for each Blue and Gold Society
member. These codes will also be utilized in the data analysis and findings section to quote and
cite answers to specific interview questions and other references to particular Society members.
Each non-Blue and Gold Society member was also assigned a distinct code, labeled with
the letter I, and a distinct number ranging from 1 to 8, for example I1, I2 and so forth. Appendix
J and Table 3.1 list all eight individuals included in the secondary sample for the research study
according to their corresponding code. Each code also includes the specific demographics for
each non-Blue and Gold Society member, such as gender and other characteristics such as job
description, affiliation with the University, relationships with Blue and Gold Society members,
and so forth. These codes will also be utilized in the data analysis and findings section to quote
and cite answers to specific interview questions and other references to particular non-Blue and
Gold Society members.
Later in the findings section, the participant codes M and I will also be coupled with the
unique numbers for specific interview questions to accurately cite and reference when a
particular Blue and Gold Society member made a statement as a result of a particular research
question. For instance, a statement or quotation followed by the code M8-1D indicates that the
data being referred to came from the eighth Blue and Gold Society member interviewed in
response to a specific semi-structured interview question 1D. The same pattern applies to the other non-Blue and Gold Society members interviewed during the course of the research study.
80 In conclusion, this section has described the populations and samples for the research study. First, the primary population for this research study is undergraduate students at the
University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations. Second, the primary sample for this research study is the Blue and Gold Society. Third, the secondary population for this research study is those faculty, staff, students, alumni, and other individuals affiliated with the
University of Pittsburgh with whom Blue and Gold Society members come into contact. Fourth, the sample for this secondary population is the eight individuals listed previously in Table 3.1.
During the course of the research study, the author gleaned a number of other insights related to
the primary sample, or the Blue and Gold Society, and these additional insights will be treated as
findings and will be included in the forthcoming Findings chapter to offer an even more detailed
and in-depth description of the primary sample.
3.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURES
Criterion-based sampling was utilized to select the Blue and Gold Society as the primary sample
for this research study. Criterion-based sampling is a purposeful mode of sampling commonly
utilized by social science researchers, defined as the act of selecting a particular case that meets a
set of criteria or possess a particular characteristic (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006). The criteria
for the primary sample in this study, based on the literature review provided herein, is
individuals—or students in this case—who have frequent opportunities to develop a diverse
range of trustworthy social relationships inside and outside of their immediate social circle where
a diverse range of embedded resources may exist.
81 Within criterion-based sampling resides the specific selection procedure, referred to as
Bellwether or ideal case selection.
The researcher describes a “recipe” for a situation in which the researcher can say, “These are the ideal conditions under which to observe the phenomenon I am interested.” The researcher then seeks out an example that matches that recipe or description. (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999, p.114)
Student organizations, by definition, are student run groups focused around a wide variety of themes with opportunities to interact with peers, faculty, staff and alumni in areas of mutual interest (Nolfi & Rubin, 2010). “Education is a series of social settings in which people meet, a valued and attractive form of social status in modern societies, and a powerful way to gain other forms of high status” (Lin & Erikson, 2008 p.7). Student organizations represent a prime population and social setting in which to study social capital accumulation in the context of higher education.
More specifically, the Blue and Gold Society is considered a student ambassador type of student organization (Ruderman & Niparko, 2010). Student ambassador organizations are typically made up of undergraduate students and exist for the purpose of supporting the operational aspects of a university, such as assisting with alumni relations, stewarding donors, supporting academic initiatives, promoting new programs and engaging community members.
Student ambassador organizations typically operate under a university’s alumni, admissions or development office. Members of these organizations elect to participate as they would in most other student organizations, although they are often selected by application involving interviews based on relevant selection criteria and willingness to fulfill membership responsibilities.
Student ambassador organizations fulfill a number of responsibilities, including but not limited to representing the university at campus and off-campus events; developing positive relations and interactions among students, alumni, faculty, staff, government officials and community
82 members; providing tours to potential students and their parents; and maintaining traditions
among the university community.
Additionally, student ambassador organizations provide a number of benefits to its
members (Ruderman & Niparko, 2010). They provide members with networking opportunities
to foster personal and professional relationships with faculty, staff, other students, university
donors, alumni and community members. Student ambassador organizations afford members
opportunities to develop social skills and practice principles of leadership. Members of student
ambassador organizations are abreast of information and develop a powerful reference base
where they can turn to for support from influential and knowledgeable individuals both inside
and outside the university community.
In short, student ambassador organizations, such as the Blue and Gold Society, represent
a prime sample student organization to consider utilizing in studying the creation of social capital
among undergraduate students. Student ambassador organizations are a form of social network,
whose members have opportunities to interact with each other and with other networks inside and outside the university. Members of student ambassador organizations have access to a number of resources embedded in these networks that allow them to achieve certain means that otherwise would not be attainable.
As for the secondary population consisting of those faculty, staff, students, alumni, and
other individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom Blue and Gold Society
members come into contact, the author utilized snowball sampling to contact people from the
secondary population until eight individuals willing to participate in the study were identified.
Snowball sampling is the act of choosing participants for a research study who have information
important to the study. In snowball sampling, the researcher asks those knowledgeable about a
83 particular program or community being studied to recommend people to whom the researcher
should talk to and include in the sample of the study. These suggested individuals are chosen
based on their knowledge of the program or community being studied (Mertens, 2010). In
ethnography, and similar to the concept of snowball sampling just described, the researcher is
able to utilize emergent member-identified and/or observer-identified sample individuals to
incorporate into a research study (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007), a necessary step in this
research study to identify those faculty, staff, alumni and other individuals affiliated with the
University of Pittsburgh with whom Blue and Gold Society members come into contact. In
determining which individuals from the secondary population to approach about participating in
this research study, the author first considered with whom current Blue and Gold Society
members regularly come into contact, based on the preliminary findings of the research study.
For example, as the author saw that Blue and Gold Society members frequently mentioned
alumni as being a part of the social network, the author asked for suggestions from others to help identify an alumnus of the University of Pittsburgh with knowledge of the Blue and Gold Society that could be contacted to potentially be a part of this secondary sample. All eight individuals contacted by the author chose to participate in the research study upon being asked. Again, a detailed description of these eight individuals is included in Table 3.1.
3.4 SETTING
As previously stated, this research study took place at the University of Pittsburgh, a large four-
year, primary urban residential, very high research activity university (Classifications: Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 2010). More specifically, the setting for this
84 study included locations such as the physical space where the members of the group meet regularly, different entertaining/hosting areas around campus such as conference rooms, ballrooms, the student union, the Office of Alumni Relations offices, and so forth (see Table
3.2).
Table 3.2: Setting and setting descriptions
Setting Setting Description
Alumnus Home This particular home in a nearby suburban area near the University of Pittsburgh’s campus belongs to an alumnus and his family. The large, well-kept home is older but recently renovated to appear more functional and modern. Alumni Center Located in the Office of Alumni Relations in Alumni Hall at the University of Pittsburgh, the Alumni Center is a small, intimate area set aside for hosting staff, students, alumni, staff meetings and other small gatherings. It contains a small bar/serving area, comfortable couches, television, tables, chairs, kitchen, and various photographs of locations and scenes throughout campus and of alumni gatherings. The Center also contains various plaques recognizing alumni for different accomplishments and volunteer service to the Pittsburgh Alumni Association. Alumni Center Located within the Alumni Center is a large conference room used for various staff and alumni Conference Room related meetings. The room is quite grand, with a large rectangle boardroom style table that can seat approximately 30 individuals. The room contains a television, leather chairs, white erase boards, and various plaques recognizing alumni for their different accomplishments and service. Campus The University of Pittsburgh campus is urban and is typically busy with automobiles, pedestrians, and other activities. Although some areas and buildings are easily distinguishable as part of the University’s campus, a visitor to the campus may find it difficult at times to decipher what is actually part of the campus and what is actually part of the city or the surrounding residential area. The campus is well populated with trees, flowers, and other impressive landscaping. Busy streets run through the campus and the area as a whole gives a person the feeling of being in a city rather than a closed-off residential university campus. Caribou Coffee Shop One of the many coffee shops located within the University of Pittsburgh’s urban campus, this shop resembles the typical coffee shop with limited, crowded seating filled with a good amount of conversation and noise provided by the customers and staff. Cathedral of Learning The Cathedral of Learning is a 535 foot, 42-story tall gothic architecturally inspired building that serves as a landmark on the University of Pittsburgh’s campus. The building houses various meeting space, study space, classrooms, auditoriums, and faculty and staff offices. Cathedral of Learning This classroom, located on the second floor of the Cathedral of Learning, resembles an Classroom auditorium more than a typical classroom. The room has stadium seating on hard, wood benches and seats up to a few hundred students. The room’s exterior walls are stone. It has a podium with multiple chalkboards. Cathedral of Learning A large grassy area surrounds the Cathedral of Learning at the University of Pittsburgh, Lawn particularly on the northern side. The grassy areas are used for casual sports among students like Frisbee and playing catch. The area is well maintained and has the capability to host outdoor events.
Chancellor’s Office Located inside the Cathedral of Learning on the first floor is one of the Chancellor’s offices at the University of Pittsburgh. The room is long and rectangular shaped, and is filled with
85 Setting Setting Description
historic pictures and artifacts of the University. This office is able to host small gatherings and it is considered the more public office of the Chancellor as opposed to the more private office the Chancellor uses to conduct more official, private business. Connolly Ballroom Within Alumni Hall at the University of Pittsburgh exists a large ballroom on the main floor that can be fitted to sit up to 400 guests for dinner or up to 500 theatre-style. The room is outfitted with dark wood trim and features a number of chandeliers hanging from the ceiling. Manager of Student This office is used by the Manager of Student Alumni Programs—the advisor for the Blue and Alumni Programs Gold Society. The room is very unique and awe-inspiring. The walls are literally covered Office from top-to-bottom and side-to-side with a history of pictures of Blue and Gold Society members at various events and with various alumni and others. One could visit the office and come away with a fairly complete visual history of the Blue and Gold Society over the years. Panera Bread A trendy sandwich, soup, dessert, and beverage restaurant situated within the University of Pittsburgh urban campus. The restaurant is nearly always busy, fairly noisy and used for the purposes of eating, studying and congregating. Petersen Events The Petersen Events Center has a main dining area to cater to students and event guests. Center Dining Area Ample seating is offered, primarily in the form of hard, plastic chairs surrounding plastic tables. There is some more comfortable seating though in the form of leather sofa chairs and wood end tables. Petersen Events Within the Petersen Events Center, the home of the University of Pittsburgh’s men’s and Center Lobby women’s basketball teams and a plethora of other staff offices and student facilities, exists a large entrance/lobby. The space is surrounded by floor to ceiling glass walls and serves as an impressive entrance to the building. Author’s Office This space is used by the author as an employee in the Office of Institutional Advancement at the University of Pittsburgh. The office includes a chair for a guest and has a door to ensure privacy. Graduate School of This medium-sized office is located in the Graduate School of Business. It is somewhat Business Staff untidy, with papers and other items scattered throughout it giving off the impression that the Person’s Office particular staff person to whom the office belongs is quite busy in their work for the School. Student Union The William Pitt Union functions as the student union of the University of Pittsburgh. Renovated from an old hotel, the building contains a number of meeting rooms, ballrooms, staff offices, and student organization offices. There are areas for students to study, relax and play. Student Union Within the William Pitt Student Union at the University of Pittsburgh, the Assembly Room Assembly Room serves as a large multi-purpose space for various events. The room can easily hold a few hundred people. The room has a large stage and boasts the physical lighting and a production booth necessary to carry out plays and concerts. Student Union Lawn Extending from the William Pitt Student Union’s Lower Lounge is a large covered patio and and Patio grassy area, used for hosting more informal gatherings, fundraisers and public displays. The space faces the Cathedral of Learning and can be considered the center of campus. Student Union Lower The Lower Lounge is the most elegant meeting space in the William Pitt Student Union at the Lounge University of Pittsburgh. Tall marble-patterned beams support the room, which is surrounded by floor to ceiling glass windows that look out on the campus from three different angles. The room can hold a couple hundred people and is used to host some of the higher profile events on campus. University Club A private, members-only club for faculty, staff, and alumni, the University Club at the University of Pittsburgh hosts a number of events on a daily basis. The building houses a small coffee shop/bakery, multiple small, medium and large business and elegant meeting spaces, and a full-service restaurant and bar. Also contained therein is a private workout facility for its members.
86 As is customary in ethnographic research, the author opened himself up to the acts of seeing and
recording sensory details to create a verbal, visible snapshot of the actual settings (Stone
Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater, 2007). As such, Table 3.2 lists the specific locations where data
collection took place and includes a detailed description of each setting. The forthcoming
instrumentation and data collection procedures sections will further compliment the information
in this table by outlining the data collection method utilized in each setting and the specific
activity that occurred in each setting.
3.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
As stated would occur in Chapter One, Table 3.3 now outlines the study’s research questions as
they relate to the conceptualization and specific elements of social capital illustrated and
discussed in Chapter Two in the literature review. The research questions are categorized into three sections to address social capital creation through participating in an undergraduate student organization. Those three categories contain questions concerning social networks, the forms of social capital, and trust. Each category has 2-4 questions. Table 3.3 also clearly links each research question with the literature on social capital to demonstrate the close tie between the questions and the concepts and elements of social capital previously discussed.
87 Table 3.3: Research questions as they relate to the concepts and specific elements of social capital
Element of Social Capital Based on Literature Research Question Review
Concerning Social Networks
1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student Necessary condition for access to embedded resources organization member’s social network? (Putnam, 2000; Bourdieu, 1986)
Take on various forms (i.e. family, Sunday school class, regulars who play poker together) (Lin, 2008; Putnam, 2000) 1B. Which individuals provide access to an Bonding social capital—a result of closed, inward undergraduate student organization member’s looking, exclusive social networks (Halpern, 2005; bonding social capital? Putnam & Feldstein, 2003) 1C. Which individuals provide access to an Bridging social capital—a result of open, outward undergraduate student organization member’s looking, inclusive social networks (Halpern, 2005; Lin, bridging social capital? 2001) 1D. Through what processes does an undergraduate The ways in which relationships are developed, ranging student organization member’s social networks from rigid, institutionalized means to random, informal develop? means (Halpern, 2005)
Concerning Forms of Social Capital
2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are Resources embedded in social networks that are embedded in the social network of an available for use by network members (Putnam, 2000; undergraduate student organization member? Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988; Lin & Erikson, 2008)
Aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual gain something or get ahead (Lin, 2001) 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are Resources embedded in social networks that are embedded in the social network of an available for use by network members (Putnam, 2000; undergraduate student organization member? Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988; Lin & Erikson, 2008)
Aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual maintain current resources (Lin, 2001)
Concerning Trust
3A. What role does trust play in helping an Enables social networks to function more effectively and undergraduate student organization member accomplish much more than untrustworthy social acquire social capital? networks (Coleman, 1998; Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999) 3B. What levels of trust exist among an undergraduate Degree to which an individual believes that another student organization member and those within his person will perform or behave in a certain way or her social network? (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998)
3C. Through what processes is trust developed among an Developed as an individual learns about another undergraduate student organization member and person’s disposition, ability and reputation (Fu, 2004) those within his or her social network?
88 3.6 INSTRUMENTATION
Three primary instruments were utilized in this research study, namely participant observation,
semi-structured interviews, and cultural artifact review. The first, participant observation, is defined as the act of becoming involved in the daily life of a culture in addition to observing it
(LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). Similarly, Angrosino (2007) notes that participant observation entails a researcher becoming an active member of the group being observed. Another way of thinking about participant observation is to consider it as the act of experiencing. Experiencing implies that a researcher is seeking to obtain information that comes directly through all of the senses, not only by seeing and doing (Wolcott, 2008). Researchers utilizing participant observation are encouraged to obtain data through seeing, hearing, tasting, touching, and smelling, as necessary, available and applicable. Simply stated, the author in this research study attended and/or participated in formal and informal activities, meetings, happenings, socializing, and conversations in the dual role as an observer and participant for the duration of approximately 16 weeks. While acting as a participant observer, the researcher recorded any and all details related to the research questions outlined in Table 3.3. Table 3.4 lists and briefly describes the 28 participant-observer opportunities the author engaged in throughout the course of the research study. Later, Table 3.11 lists the date and the amount of time spent in each participant-observer opportunity.
89 Table 3.4: Participant-observation opportunities throughout the course of the research study
Participant-Observation Description Opportunity Alumni Faculty and Staff An annual lunch reception for University of Pittsburgh Staff and Faculty Alumni at Luncheon which the Chancellor makes a presentation to provide guests with an update on the progress of the University to date. A member of the Blue and Gold Society is given the responsibility each year to introduce the Chancellor to the audience. Blue and Gold Society members also typically attend to help greet and seat guests. Blue and Gold Society New This yearly ceremony is held in the Chancellor’s office to induct and welcome new Member Induction Ceremony members into the Blue and Gold Society at the end of each spring semester. Special, invited guests include executive level University staff, faculty, alumni, donors and trustees. All Blue and Gold Society members attend as well. Board of Trustees Meeting – The public session of the meeting of the University of Pittsburgh Board of Trustees Public Session is held regularly throughout the year and allows students, staff, faculty, media and other members of the public to attend. Blue and Gold Society members usually attend this meeting, time permitting. Chancellor State Budget During the threat of extreme state budget cuts in higher education during fiscal year Update 2012, the Chancellor held a small presentation to update the audience of students, faculty, staff and media members on the measures being taking by the University of Pittsburgh to fight the proposed budget cuts on behalf of the University community. Blue and Gold Society members were extended a special invitation to attend. Dinner with 12 Panthers Annually, the University of Pittsburgh Office of Alumni Relations and Pittsburgh Alumni Association connect alumni with approximately 12 students, through which alumni ultimately host a dinner for the students in their home or at a nearby restaurant. The purpose of the dinner is to build and strengthen relationships between students and alumni. Blue and Gold Society members are each assigned to help co-host the dinners. Dinner with 12 Panthers This meeting was held just prior to the actual Dinners and served as an opportunity Meet-and-Greet for the co-hosting Blue and Gold Society member and the other students attending the dinner to get to know each other. Executive Board Meeting – The Blue and Gold Society has a president and four vice presidents with different 1/9/12 responsibilities. This executive board of members of the Society meets regularly to discuss the leadership and affairs of the Blue and Gold Society. Executive Board Meeting – See above. 2/6/12 Graduation Central This event is a one-stop area set up and provided for graduating University of Pittsburgh students to pick up their regalia, purchase University keepsakes, register to be a formal member of the Alumni Association, and so forth. Blue and Gold Society members typically work a shift or two during this multi-day event each year. Graduate School of Business This annual event honors prominent alumni in the University of Pittsburgh’s Annual Alumni Awards Graduate School of Business. Alumni also speak at the event. Blue and Gold Society members help to host this event, register guests and are permitted to listen to the presentations and interact with alumni in attendance. Martin Luther King Jr. Day Each year, the Office of Student Affairs holds a local Martin Luther King Jr. Day of of Service Service, filled with numerous service activities in which students can participate. Blue and Gold Society members typically get a group of themselves together and volunteer that day. Networking Meeting with A Blue and Gold Society member approached the author, a staff person at the Blue and Gold Society University of Pittsburgh, about possible internship opportunities within the author’s Member Regarding place of employment. This meeting took place in the author’s office. Internship Networking Meeting with A Blue and Gold Society member approached the author, a PhD student at the Blue and Gold Society University of Pittsburgh, about possible connections with local public school
90 Participant-Observation Description Opportunity Member Regarding Service leaders to contact about developing a service project for Blue and Gold Society Project members. This meeting took place in the Office of Alumni Relations. New Alumni Blue and Gold Society members are regularly invited to help Alumni Relations Member/Alumni Renewal staff place new alumni member thank-you calls/alumni member renewal calls. Calls These calls take place in the Office of Alumni Relations. New Blue and Gold Society Interviews to be considered for the Blue and Gold Society are held annually in the Member Candidate Office of Alumni Relations conference room, with various staff, alumni and Blue Interviews and Gold Society members present. New Blue and Gold Society Prior to the New Member Candidate Interviews, Blue and Gold Society members Member Candidate Picture take pictures of each candidate in the lobby area of the Office of Alumni Relations. Taking New Blue and Gold Society This annual recruitment session takes place in the Alumni Center in the Office of Member Recruitment Session Alumni Relations, with Blue and Gold Society members present. Paint the Pete Pink Service This service project takes place in the Petersen Events Center lobby area, where Project Blue and Gold Society members paint the windows in support of breast cancer awareness. Personal Communication During a basketball related event in the Petersen Events Center, the author was with Blue and Gold Society engaged in conversation via text message with a Blue and Gold Society member in Member via Text Message attendance. Relay for Life A fundraising event for the American Cancer Society primarily held on the lawn outside the Cathedral of Learning lawn. Numerous Blue and Gold Society members, students and student organization members were present. Reoccurring Casual Meeting This reoccurring meeting occurred between the author and the Blue and Gold 1 with Same Blue and Gold Society member with whom the author had personal communication with via text Society Member message (see above). This interaction occurred after the new Blue and Gold Society member candidate interviews. Reoccurring Casual Meeting This reoccurring meeting occurred between the author and the Blue and Gold 2 with Same Blue and Gold Society member with whom the author had personal communication with via text Society Member message (see above). This interaction occurred during a walk across campus from Alumni Hall to the Student Union. Reoccurring Casual Meeting This reoccurring meeting occurred between the author and the Blue and Gold 3 with Same Blue and Gold Society member with whom the author had personal communication with via text Society Member message (see above). This interaction occurred while the member was studying in the Alumni Center. Reoccurring Random This reoccurring meeting seemed to take place a couple times a week throughout Meeting with Same Blue and the course of the research study, just by chance while walking around campus and Gold Society Member through various buildings on campus. Springtime Community A University-based service project for Blue and Gold Society members, students, Service Project staff, faculty and alumni to plant flowers and beautify the campus through various means. Student Alumni Association A student-led Alumni Association meeting to plan Student Alumni Association Sub-Committee Meeting activities, attended by some members of the Blue and Gold Society and typically held in the Alumni Relations Conference Room. University Honors College Held in the Student Union prior to Honors Convocation, this luncheon is for invited Convocation Luncheon guests of the University community, including faculty, staff, alumni, trustees; Blue and Gold Society members are present to help greet and host guests. Personal Visit from Blue and A Blue and Gold Society member visited the author at his place of work on campus Gold Society Member to learn more about the author’s field of work and to inquire about possible internship opportunities. Weekly Meetings 1/11/12, Each Wednesday morning the Blue and Gold Society hold a meeting at 7:00am in 1/18/12, 1/25/12, 2/1/12, the Alumni Relations Conference Room to plan for the coming week. The 2/15/12, 2/22/12, 3/14/12, Manager of Student Alumni Programs and Associate Director of Alumni 3/28/12, 4/4/12 Membership typically attend the meeting as well.
91 Instruments utilized to measure social capital must be sensitive to cultural and social
variation (Grootaert & Bastelaer, 2001), and are likely ones that entail time spent in the field in
order to capture local individual realities (Woolcock, 2002). The concept of social capital is
inherently abstract and requires subjective interpretation in its translation into operational
measures (Narayan & Cassidy, 2001). Participant observation provides a researcher with the
opportunity to present an accurate reflection of peoples’ perspectives and behaviors, while
seeking to build and tell stories around the words, views, explanations and interpretations of
individuals in the study (LeCompte & Schensul, 2010). In short, participant observation is an
appropriate instrument for this study because it allows the researcher to obtain data through a
thoughtful, situational and contextual approach to the study of social capital.
The author typically utilized a pre-designed note-taking sheet intended for studies
involving ethnographic research (see Appendix A). The note-taking sheet both reminded and
allowed the author to record date, time, location, specific research questions to keep in mind, direct observations, researcher impressions, and follow-up questions for future observations.
The author revised and digitized these notes on an ongoing basis in preparation for the analysis stage of the research study.
The second instrument, semi-structured interviews, is defined as purposeful interactions in which the researcher is trying to obtain information from a participant during a research study
(Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006). These interviews are not always necessarily directed by a specified set of questions to be asked, but rather accomplished through questions prompted by the flow of the interview. Although semi-structured interviews may initially utilize a structured approach to begin, the interviews are able to be guided by the participant’s responses and the researcher’s desire to clarify and inquire about particular details. The use of semi-structured
92 interviews in this research study is justified because they allowed the author to obtain a full range
and depth of information to both inform and complement the data obtained from participant
observation.
“Social capital is multidimensional, and some of those dimensions themselves are subject
to different understandings” (Coleman, 2002, p.12). Semi-structured interviews allowed the
author to probe participants to obtain these different perspectives. Wolcott (2008) describes semi-structured interviews as the act of enquiring, meaning that the researcher takes an active role in asking about what is going on, rather than simply taking a passive role and recording answers in an interview setting.
All 37 members of the Blue and Gold Society and all eight individuals with whom members frequently come into contact were interviewed in the research study. The general outline or guide for questioning the Blue and Gold Society members during the semi-structured interviews is included in Appendix B. The general outline or guide for questioning the eight individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society members regularly come into contact during the semi-structured interviews is included in Appendix C. The interviews were audio-recorded under most circumstances and whenever possible and transcribed on an ongoing basis to prepare for the analysis stage of the research study. On occasion, noise level and other circumstances necessitated the author to record interview data by hand. Table 3.5 illustrates how the semi- structured interview questions for Blue and Gold Society members seek to address the conceptualization and elements of social capital outlined in Chapter 2 as well as the research questions.
93 Table 3.5: Semi-structured interview questions for Blue and Gold Society members as they relate to the research questions and elements of social capital
Semi-Structured Interview Element of Social Capital Based on Research Question Questions Literature Review
Concerning Social Networks 1A. Specifically as a result of 1A. What individuals make up an Necessary condition for access to being a member of the Blue undergraduate student embedded resources (Putnam, 2000; and Gold Society, what organization member’s social Bourdieu, 1986) individuals make up your network? social network? Take on various forms (i.e. family, Sunday school class, regulars who play poker together) (Lin, 2008; Putnam, 2000) 1B. Which of these relationships 1B. Which individuals provide Bonding social capital—a result of closed, would you describe as access to an undergraduate inward looking, exclusive social networks strong, family or close student organization (Halpern, 2005; Putnam & Feldstein, friend type relationships? member’s bonding social 2003) capital? 1C. Which of these relationships 1C. Which individuals provide Bridging social capital—a result of open, would you describe as weak access to an undergraduate outward looking, inclusive social networks relationships or student organization (Halpern, 2005; Lin, 2001) “acquaintances”? member’s bridging social capital? 1D. Through what processes have 1D. Through what processes does The ways in which relationships are your relationships with these an undergraduate student developed, ranging from rigid, individuals developed? organization member’s social institutionalized means to random, network develop? informal means (Halpern, 2005) Concerning Forms of Social Capital 2A. Describe the benefits or 2A. What instrumental forms of Resources embedded in social networks resources that are available social capital are embedded in that are available for use by network to you as a result of the the social network of an members (Putnam, 2000; Bourdieu, 1986; relationships you have undergraduate student Coleman, 1988; Lin & Erikson, 2008) develop as a member of the organization member? Blue and Gold Society that Aim and/or outcome is ultimately to help help you to gain something an individual gain something or get ahead or get ahead in life. (Lin, 2001) 2B. Describe the support you 2B. What expressive forms of social Resources embedded in social networks receive as a result of the capital are embedded in the that are available for use by network relationships you have social network of an members (Putnam, 2000; Bourdieu, 1986; developed as a member of undergraduate student Coleman, 1988; Lin & Erikson, 2008) the Blue and Gold Society organization member? that help you to maintain the Aim and/or outcome is ultimately to help resources that you already an individual gain something or get ahead have. (Lin, 2001) Concerning Trust 3A. What role does trust play in 3A. What role does trust play in Enables social networks to function more the benefits or resources helping an undergraduate effectively and accomplish much more available to you as a result student organization member than untrustworthy social networks of the relationships you have acquire social capital? (Coleman, 1998; Kawachi, Kennedy & described thus far? Wilkinson, 1999)
94 Semi-Structured Interview Element of Social Capital Based on Research Question Questions Literature Review
3B1. How would you describe the 3B1. What level of trust do Degree to which an individual believes level of trust you have in the undergraduate student that another person will perform or behave individuals with whom you organization members have in a certain way (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, have developed relationships in their social networks? 1998) as a result of being a Blue and Gold Society member? 3B2. How would you describe the 3B2. What level of trust do social Degree to which an individual believes level of trust that individuals network members have in that another person will perform or behave with whom you have undergraduate student in a certain way (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, developed relationships have organization members? 1998) in you? 3C1. Through what processes 3C1. Through what processes do Developed as an individual learns about have you developed trust in undergraduate student another person’s disposition, ability and the individuals in your organization members reputation (Fu, 2004) social network (see 3B1)? develop trust in social network members? 3C2. Through what processes 3C2. Through what processes do Developed as an individual learns about have individuals in your social network members another person’s disposition, ability and social network developed develop trust in reputation (Fu, 2004) trust in you (see 3B2)? undergraduate student organization members? Other 4. What else would you like to N/A This question will ensure that the share about the Blue and Gold respondent has the opportunity to share Society not already discussed any thoughts beyond that for which the in this interview? author probed in questions 1-3.
Table 3.6 illustrates how the semi-structured interview questions for the other individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society members regularly come into contact are merely rephrased to parallel the questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members.
95 Table 3.6: Semi-structured interview questions for the eight individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society members regularly come into contact
Semi-Structured Interview Questions for the Eight Semi-Structured Interview Questions for Blue and Individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society Gold Society Members Members Regularly Come into Contact Concerning Social Networks 1A. Specifically as a result of being a member of the 1A. How would you describe your relationship with Blue and Gold Society, what individuals make current members of the Blue and Gold Society? up your social network? 1B. Which of these relationships would you describe as strong, family or close friend type 1B/1C. Please describe the strength and/or closeness of relationships? your relationship with current members of the 1C. Which of these relationships would you describe Blue and Gold Society. as weak relationships or “acquaintances”? 1D. Through what processes have your relationships 1D. Through what processes have your relationships with with these individuals developed? Blue and Gold Society members developed? Concerning Forms of Social Capital 2A. Describe the benefits or resources that are 2A. Describe the benefits or resources available to current available to you as a result of the relationships Blue and Gold Society members as a result of your you have develop as a member of The Blue and relationship with them that might help them gain Gold Society that help you to gain something or something or get ahead in life. get ahead in life. 2B. Describe the support you receive as a result of the 2B. Describe the support available to current Blue and relationships you have developed as a member of Gold Society members as a result of your relationship The Blue and Gold Society that help you to with them that might help them to maintain the maintain the resources that you already have. resources they already have. Concerning Trust 3A. What role does trust play in the benefits or 3A. What role does trust play in the benefits or resources resources available to you as a result of the available to Blue and Gold Society members as a relationships you have described thus far? result of your relationship with them? 3B1. How would you describe the level of trust you 3B1. How would you describe the level of trust that Blue have in the individuals with whom you have and Gold Society members have in you? developed relationships as a result of being a Blue and Gold Society member? 3B2. How would you describe the level of trust that 3B2. How would you describe the level of trust you have individuals with whom you have developed in current members of the Blue and Gold Society? relationships have in you? 3C1. Through what processes have you developed 3C1. Through what processes have Blue and Gold Society trust in the individuals in your social network members developed trust in you? (see 3B1)? 3C2. Through what processes have individuals in your 3C2. Through what processes have you developed trust in social network developed trust in you (see Blue and Gold Society members? 3B2)? Other 4. What else would you like to share about the Blue 4. What else would you like to share about the Blue and and Gold Society not already discussed in this Gold Society not already discussed in this interview? interview?
96 The third instrument utilized to collect data in this study is referred to as reviewing cultural artifacts, or reviewing objects that might be available to help a researcher the sample being studied. Described by Stone Sunstein and Chiseri-Strater (2002), cultural artifacts are objects that allow a researcher to learn about a people’s rules, rituals, activities, history and so forth. Wolcott (2008) encourages ethnographers to utilize these objects to accomplish the
“examining” aspect of ethnography. Examining entails the researcher turning his or her attention to what already exists or has been produced by others.
Most certainly that includes archival research, but archival research in its technical sense limits eligible sources to documents accessible to other investigators. That is far too limiting for a fieldworker who may be privy to personal letters, diaries, and photographs, to examining ordinary apparel or esoteric are objects, to listening to recordings of speech or music, to making or reviewing inventories of household items—anything that informants may have in their personal possession that might be shared with the ethnographer but are not necessarily available to anyone else. (Wolcott, 2008, p.50)
There is no one single recipe that explains to a researcher how and when to utilize this method of data collection; generally speaking though, the researcher makes this determination based on his or her perceptions of what data will contribute to the understanding of the particular phenomenon being studied (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006). Therefore, items such as relevant pictures, formal documents, email communication, informal notes and other objects available to the author were used to both inform and complement the data obtained from the instruments of participant observation and semi-structured interviews. This third instrument is justified in using in this study because a truly effective study of social capital is one that is sensitive to cultural and social variation, context, interpretations, perspectives, and views that are difficult to clearly identify and define through typical individual social capital measurements, as previously discussed in the literature review (Grootaert & Bastelaer, 2001; LeCompte & Schensul, 2010). The cultural artifacts utilized were divided into three categories, namely documents, photographs, and email
97 correspondence. Table 3.7 outlines and describes the cultural artifacts, in the form of various documents, obtained and utilized throughout the course of the research study and links them to the specific research questions to which they were able to provide data.
Table 3.7: Cultural artifacts - documents
Cultural Artifact – Documents Relevant Research Question
Blue and Gold Society Recruitment 1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization Information Session PowerPoint member’s social network? Presentation – The Blue and Gold Society 1D. Through what processes does an undergraduate student held an hour long recruitment information organization member’s social network develop? session. The author was granted a copy 2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the of the PowerPoint presentation to review social network of an undergraduate student organization member? and reflect upon. 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social network of an undergraduate student organization member? Other - Blue and Gold Society member characteristics Induction Ceremony Notes – A member 1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization of the Blue and Gold Society and the member’s social network? Executive Director of the Office of 2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the Alumni Relations both spoke at the new social network of an undergraduate student organization member? member induction ceremony and the 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social author was entrusted with a copy of each network of an undergraduate student organization member? of their notes to review. Other - Blue and Gold Society member characteristics Weekly Meeting Agendas – Meeting 1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization agendas were drafted by and distributed to member’s social network? Blue and Gold Society members at the 2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the beginning of each meeting, and then social network of an undergraduate student organization member? distributed via email to all organization 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social members after the meeting. network of an undergraduate student organization member? New Member Application – Students 1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization applying to be considered for membership member’s social network? in the Blue and Gold Society complete 1D. Through what processes does an undergraduate student and submit this form each spring organization member’s social network develop? semester. 2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the social network of an undergraduate student organization member? 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social network of an undergraduate student organization member? Guidelines and Responsibilities for 1A. What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization Dinner with 12 Panthers Blue and Gold member’s social network? Society Hosts – This dinner involves an 1D. Through what processes does an undergraduate student alumnus co-hosting a dinner at his/her organization member’s social network develop? home with a Blue and Gold Society 2A. What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the member for approximately 12 University social network of an undergraduate student organization member? of Pittsburgh undergraduate students. This 2B. What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social particular document outlines the network of an undergraduate student organization member? guidelines for the event as it relates to the particular Blue and Gold Society member host
98 Table 3.8 outlines and describes the cultural artifacts, in the form of photographs, obtained and utilized throughout the course of the research study and links them to the specific research questions to which they were able to provide data.
Table 3.8: Cultural artifacts - photographs
Cultural Artifact – Photographs Relevant Research Question
Photographs – The Office of Alumni Relations posts event photographs on their public website, available for the author or others to view. Most events have pictures of Blue and Gold Society members posing with, sitting with, conversing with, and/or collaborating with other individuals. 1A. What individuals make up an o Pittsburgh Alumni Association Board Meeting – A bi-annual meeting undergraduate student of alumni board members organization member’s social o Chancellor’s Annual Faculty and Staff Alumni Luncheon – An annual network? luncheon hosted by the Chancellor for faculty and staff who are alumni. 1D. Through what processes does an o Day of Caring Service Project – A campus beautifying service project undergraduate student involving faculty, staff, and students. organization member’s social o Dinner with 12 Panthers – This dinner involves an alumnus co-hosting network develop? a dinner at his/her home with a Blue and Gold Society member for approximately 12 University of Pittsburgh undergraduate students. 2A. What instrumental forms of o Graduation Central – A yearly, one-stop event for graduating students social capital are embedded in to obtain graduation regalia and sign up for various alumni the social network of an opportunities. undergraduate student o Vice President of the United States Speaking Event – The Vice organization member? President held an exclusive speaking engagement to discuss education and the needs of students as it relates to the current presidential 2B. What expressive forms of social administration capital are embedded in the o Membership Renewal Event – A recruiting event hosted by the Office social network of an of Alumni Relations to encourage student alumni and alumni to renew undergraduate student their alumni association membership organization member? o Pitt Day in Harrisburg – An annual day trip to the state capital involving students, faculty, staff, alumni, donors, and others to rally support from the state for the University of Pittsburgh and higher education.
Table 3.9 outlines and describes the cultural artifacts, in the form of email correspondence among Blue and Gold Society members, the Manager of Student Alumni Programs, and the author, obtained and utilized throughout the course of the research study and links them to the specific research questions to which they were able to provide data.
99 Table 3.9: Cultural artifacts – email correspondence
Cultural Artifact – Email Correspondence Relevant Research Question
Email Correspondence – The Blue and Gold Society Members, along with their advisor, the Manager of Student Alumni Programs, regularly correspond with each other via email. The author was on the Blue and Gold Society’s email distribution list. o Ablauf Scholarship Opportunity – An email sent to Blue and Gold Society members to inform them about a $5,850 merit based scholarship opportunity. o Big East Conference Volunteers – An email forwarded to Blue and Gold 1A. What individuals make up Society members from a member of the Blue and Gold Society, advertising an an undergraduate student opportunity to volunteer at the Swimming and Diving Big East Championship organization member’s being hosted at the University of Pittsburgh. social network? o Springtime Community Service Project – An email sent out by the Blue and Gold Society to all alumni faculty and staff of the University of Pittsburgh, 1D. Through what processes advertising an opportunity to participate in a campus beautification project. does an undergraduate o Dinner with 12 Panthers Details (day of) – An email sent out by a Blue and student organization Gold Society member to all participants in the Dinner with 12 Panthers being member’s social network hosted by this member, to review day-of details pertaining to the dinner. develop? o Dinner with 12 Panthers Information Sheet – An email sent out by a Blue and Gold Society members to all Blue and Gold Society members co-hosting 2A. What instrumental forms dinners at the homes of alumni of social capital are o Henderson and Springer Scholarship Opportunities – An email sent to Blue embedded in the social and Gold Society members by the Manager of Student Alumni Programs to network of an inform them about two need based scholarship opportunities undergraduate student o New Member Induction Invitation – An email to invite current and new organization member? members of the Blue and Gold Society, along with other special guests around the University, to the Blue and Gold Society new member induction. 2B. What expressive forms of o International Youth Leadership Conference – An email sent by a member of social capital are the Blue and Gold Society to all members of the Blue and Gold Society to embedded in the social inform them of an opportunity to participate in a leadership conference in network of an Prague, Czech Republic undergraduate student o Run to Fight Cancer Opportunity – An email sent out by a member of the organization member? Blue and Gold Society, who is a member of another student organization on campus, to invite Blue and Gold Society members to participate in a service project to help raise money for cancer research o Weekly Meeting Minutes (1/25/12) – An email sent out by a member of the Blue and Gold Society detailing the minutes from their weekly meeting o Weekly Meeting Minutes (3/21/12) – An email sent out by a member of the Blue and Gold Society detailing the minutes from their weekly meeting
Not all cultural artifacts are able to provide data for each research question. Prior to beginning the research study, the author did not plan which specific cultural artifacts to utilize. Rather, throughout the course of the study, the author chose to utilize these cultural artifacts as they were discovered and thought to provide helpful information for the research study.
100 3.7 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
The primary purpose for this section is to describe in detail all the steps that the author took to conduct this research study and the order in which each step occurred (Roberts, 2004). Table
3.10 presents an approximate general work plan and timeline detailing each step for this research study.
Table 3.10. Work plan
9/12– 2/1 12/11 1/12 2/12 3/12 4/12 5/12 6/12 7/12 8/12 Work Plan Description 1/13 3
Obtain IRB Approval X Gain Access to Blue and Gold Society / Provide Gatekeeper Recruitment X Script
Identify Key Informants / Provide Informant Recruitment Script X
Provide Participant Recruitment Script to X Participants
Conduct Participant Observation X X X X Conduct Semi-Structured Interviews X X X X X X
Identify and Utilize Cultural Artifacts X X X X X
Manage and Analyze Data in NVivo 9 X X X X X Prepare Write-Up and Presentation X X X X
Dissertation Defense X
101 First, in December 2012 the author gained University of Pittsburgh Institutional Review
Board (IRB) approval to conduct an Exempt research study. Changes to the research study
methodology became necessary when a secondary population and sample were added, which
necessitated the author to submit those changes and gain additional approval from the IRB.
Second, the author gained formal access to The Blue and Gold Society from the
University of Pittsburgh Office of Alumni Relations Manager of Student Alumni Programs in
December 2011. This person is considered the gatekeeper, or the person that can legitimately grant or withhold official permission to conduct this research study as it relates to becoming a participant observer in the Blue and Gold Society (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007). The author provided the Manager of Student Alumni Programs with a copy of the Gatekeeper Recruitment
Script as a part of the process (see Appendix D).
Third and also in December 2011 once formal access had been granted, the author utilized assistance from the Manager of Student Alumni Programs to identify four key informants from the Blue and Gold Society, or insiders who were able to assist and guide the author as it pertained to obtaining insider information, clarifying inferences, securing contact information, being added to distribution lists, and locating calendar items, among other things, to help the author to have a smooth transition into the Blue and Gold Society (Stone Sunstein &
Chiseri-Strater, 2007). Gaining access and identifying informants eventually allowed the author to obtain an insider or emic perspective of the group; informants generally provide ethnographers with information that is not available first hand and clarify inferences made from the ethnographer’s observations (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). The informants were provided with the Informant Recruitment Script as well prior to beginning the research study (see
Appendix E).
102 Fourth in January 2012 once obtaining formal approval to proceed from the author’s
dissertation committee, the author met for the first time with the Blue and Gold Society and provided them with the Participant Recruitment Script (see Appendix F). The author ensured the group that although ethnography tends to make public things that are at times done in private, the author would make every effort to exercise his best judgment to ensure confidentiality, informed consent and respect of persons, as well as use anonymous identifiers in the eventual write-up of the study (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Stone Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater, 2007).
Fifth, the author started conducting participant observation (PO) for approximately 16 weeks, beginning in January 2012 and ending in May 2012. The author met with, observed and/or participated with the group or select members of the group during weekly meetings and other opportunities that arose. These specific data collection dates, times, durations, and locations are outlined in Table 3.11 in chronological order of when the setting was utilized and the data was collected. A description of the locations and activities in Table 3.11 are included in
Table 3.2 and Table 3.4, respectively. In total, the author spent 1,890 minutes or 31.5 hours engaged in participant observation with the Blue and Gold Society.
103 Table 3.11: Data collection date, time, activity, location, and data collection method
Data Date Start Time (minutes) Activity Location Collection Method 1/9/12 5-5:30pm (30min) Executive Board Meeting Alumni Center PO 1/11/12 7-8am (60min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO Alumni Center/Alumni Center 1/11/12 8:30-9:45pm (15 min) New Member Recruitment Session Conference Room PO 1/16/12 9-11am (120 min) Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service William Pitt Union PO 1/18/12 7-7:45am (45min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 1/18/12 8-8:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 1/20/12 10-10:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Author's Office SSI 10:30-10:35am Personal Communication with B&GS 1/21/12 (5min) Member via Text Petersen Events Center Lobby PO 1/25/12 7-8am (60min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 1/25/12 7:45-8:15am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 1/25/12 8:15-8:45am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 1/25/12 11:15-1pm (75min) Alumni Faculty and Staff Luncheon Connolly Ballroom PO Alumni Membership Renewal Thank 1/26/12 11am-12pm (60min) You Calls Alumni Center PO 1/30/12 4:30-5pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 1/30/12 5-5:10pm (10min) Networking Meeting w/ B&GS Member Alumni Center PO 2/1/12 7-8am (60min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 2/2/12 4:45-6:30pm (105mn) Dinner with 12 Panthers Practice Alumni Center PO 2/3/12 12-12:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 2/6/12 4:30-5pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 2/6/12 5-5:15pm (15min) Executive Board Meeting Alumni Center PO 2/15/12 7-7:45am (45min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 2/15/12 7:45-8:15am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 2/15/12 8:15-8:45am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 2/15/12 8:45-9am (15min) Networking Meeting w/ B&GS Member Alumni Center PO 2/16/12 2-2:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 2/17/12 1-1:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI Student Alumni Association Sub- 2/17/12 4-5pm (60min) Committee Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 2/20/12 2:30-3pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center Conference Room SSI 2/20/12 5-5:30pm (30min) Chancellor State Budget Update Alumni Hall Ballroom PO 2/20/12 8-9pm (60min) Dinner with 12 Panthers Meet-and-Greet Cathedral of Learning Classroom PO 2/21/12 6:30-7:30pm (60min) Other Participant Interview - Trustee Panera Bread Restaurant SSI 2/22/12 7-7:15am (15min) Weekly Meeting Petersen Events Center Lobby PO 2/22/12 7:15-8am (45min) Paint the Pete Pink Service Project Petersen Events Center Lobby PO 2/22/12 8-8:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Petersen Events Center Dining Area SSI 2/22/12 8:30-9am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Petersen Events Center Dining Area SSI 2/23/12 4-4:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Caribou Coffee Shop SSI 2/24/12 11-12:30pm (90min) Trustees Meeting Public Session Student Union Assembly Room PO 2/24/12 12:30-1pm (30min) University Honors College Luncheon Student Union Lower Lounge PO 2/25/12 5:15-8pm (205min) Dinner with 12 Panthers Alumnae Home PO 2/27/12 11-11:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 2/27/12 4:30-5pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Cathedral of Learning SSI 2/28/12 8:45-9am (15min) B&GS Candidate Pictures Alumni Center PO 2/28/12 9-10am (60min) B&GS Candidate Interviews Alumni Center Conference Room PO
104 Data Date Start Time (minutes) Activity Location Collection Method 2/28/12 10-10:15am (15min) Reoccurring Casual Meeting with B&GS Alumni Center PO 2/28/12 11-11:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Panera Bread SSI 2/28/12 3:45-4:15pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 2/29/12 8-8:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 2/29/12 8:30-9am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 2/29/12 11-11:15am (15min) Visit from B&GS Member Author's Office PO 2/29/12 2-2:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 2/29/12 4:30-5pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 3/1/12 8-8:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI 3/2/12 1-1:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Student Union SSI Reoccurring Chance Meeting with B&GS Campus Street and Other Locations 3/2/12 1:45-1:50pm (5min) Member Recently PO 11:45-12:15pm 3/7/12 (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 3/7/12 12:15-12:45pm (30m) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 3/14/12 7-8am (60min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 3/14/12 8-8:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 3/14/12 11-11:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 3/15/12 2-2:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Panera Bread Restaurant SSI 3/15/12 4:30-5pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Author's Office SSI 3/16/12 11-11:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 3/16/12 3:15-3:45pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 3/26/12 8-8:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Telephone SSI 3/28/12 7-8am (60min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO Reoccurring Random Meeting w/ B&GS PO 4/3/12 1:45-2pm (15min) Member Campus 4/3/12 2-3pm (60min) Springtime Community Service Project Campus PO 4/4/12 7-8am (60min) Weekly Meeting Alumni Center Conference Room PO 4/5/12 12:30-1pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 4/5/12 1-1:30pm (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI 4/11/12 12-1pm (60min) Graduation Central Connolly Ballroom PO 4/13/12 2:30-2:45pm (15min) Relay for Life Cathedral of Learning Lawn PO Graduate School of Business Annual 4/13/12 3:30-4pm (30min) Alumni Awards University Club PO 4/18/12 11:30-12pm (30min) Student Alumni Assoc. Renewal Event William Pitt Union Lawn and Patio PO Reoccurring Casual Meeting with B&GS 4/18/12 4-4:15pm (15min) Member Alumni Center PO 4/19/12 4-5pm (60min) New Member Induction Ceremony Chancellor's Office PO 4/19/12 10-10:30am (30min) B&GS Member Interview Alumni Center SSI Other Participant Interview - Manager of Manager of Student Alumni 5/2/12 10-10:30am (30min) Student Alumni Programs Programs Office SSI Other Participant Interview - Staff 5/8/12 2:30-3pm (30min) Person, Graduate School of Business Staff Person's Office SSI 5/8/12 3-3:30pm (30min) Other Participant Interview - Alumnus Campus SSI Other Participant Interview - Student 5/23/12 2-2:30pm (30min) Government Board President Telephone SSI Other Participant Interview - Greek Life 5/30/12 12-12:30pm (30min) Student Student Union SSI Other Participant Interview - Alumni 6/14/12 4-4:30pm (30min) Relations Staff Person Telephone SSI 6/17/12 2-2:30pm (30min) Other Participant Interview - Student Telephone SSI
105 Sixth and also outlined in Table 3.11, beginning in January 2012 and ending in June
2012, the author began conducting semi-structured interviews (SSI) with all 37 members of the
Blue and Gold Society and the eight faculty, staff, students, alumni, and other individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom Blue and Gold Society members come
into contact. As the author identified and contacted faculty, staff, students, alumni, and other
individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom Blue and Gold Society
members come into contact to interview for the research study, the author also provided each of
them with the Other Participant Recruitment Script (see Appendix G). In total, the author spent
1,380 minutes or 23 hours conducting semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society
members and the eight individuals with whom they regularly come into contact. Also beginning
in February 2012 and lasting through approximately June 2012, the author sought out, collected,
and utilized the cultural artifacts previously outlined in Tables 3.7-3.9.
Seventh, beginning in March 2012, the author began utilizing NVivo 9 qualitative data
analysis software to manage and analyze the data collected, continuing through approximately
July 2012. Eighth, beginning in July 2012 and lasting through January 2013, the author
incorporated the findings into the dissertation write-up and prepared defense presentation
materials. Ninth, the author successfully defended this dissertation study in February 2013.
3.8 DATA ANALYSIS
NVivo 9, a particular type of computer assisted qualitative data analysis software, was utilized to
assist in analyzing the study’s data. NVivo 9 allows the researcher to effectively and efficiently
manage, organize and analyze data (Bringer, Johnston & Brackenridge, 2004) by making these
106 tasks less time consuming and facilitating more meaningful interaction with the data (Bazeley,
2007). It is important to note that NVivo 9 can help the researcher create concepts and theories
from the data, but NVivo 9 cannot create concepts and theories by itself; in other words, it is a
means and not an end of managing and analyzing data in general and for this research study
specifically (Richards & Richards, 1991; Weitzman, 1999).
As noted in the previous section, data from participant observation, semi-structured interviews and review of cultural artifacts was regularly transcribed and uploaded into NVivo 9.
This process was done by simply importing documents in Word, PDF, Excel, and jpeg formats into the NVivo software program. The data and documents were arranged into separate source folders (Figure 3.5). NVivo works similar to how any file system would work and helps the researcher to electronically “organize and keep track of the many messy records that go into making a qualitative project” (Bazeley, 2007, p.2). For example, all of the photographs are stored in the photographs folder and all of the participant observation fieldnotes are stored in the participant observation folder.
Figure 3.5: NVivo – Source folders
107 Next and in order to reduce the data into a more manageable and recallable form, the author began to code and sort the data based on predetermined themes initially identified in the literature review (deductive analysis) and then began to code and sort the data based on new themes that arose as the author examined the data (inductive analysis). Both deductive and inductive analysis methods will be expounded upon in greater detail shortly. Coding is defined as the act of identifying similar data units and assigning an identification code to represent concepts, categories or themes (Gaskell, 2000; LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). NVivo utilizes something called nodes—containers for specific topics or references—to assist the researcher in his or her coding efforts (NVivo 8: Getting Started, 2008). These codes become the terms and themes by which the researcher uses to begin to sort through and clean up the data (Campbell
Galman, 2007). The six primary themes that arose during the data management and the initial sorting or coding process are displayed in Figure 3.6, along with a description of each theme to ensure that data being assigned to each theme or node remained consistent throughout the research study.
Figure 3.6: NVivo – primary themes
108 An analysis of the data occurred next. In other words, the author began to sort through
the data and assign it to different nodes. NVivo’s analysis capabilities allow a researcher to
catalogue data into hierarchical node structures, moving from a general theme to more specific categories, and vice versa. As previously mentioned, each node acts as a container that houses the data that the researcher chooses to place in it or assign to it. The highest data reference or
node in a hierarchy is referred to as a parent node; the nodes contained under the parent node are
referred to as child nodes. An example of this is provided in Figure 3.7.
The parent node located at the top of the node structure in Figure 3.7 is Forms of Social
Capital, a prominent theme clearly identified in the literature review, as well as a prominent
theme related to the research questions. Located directly under the parent node is a child node
entitled Instrumental Forms of Social Capital, again, another prominent element of social capital
discussed in the literature on social capital theory. Secondary, and more specific child nodes,
exist under the Instrumental Forms of Social Capital node: Information Flow, Human Capital
Creation, Norms of Reciprocity, Occupational Mobility, Goal Achievement, and Identity
Reinforcement and Recognition. These were primary instrumental forms of social capital identified in the literature as well.
109
Figure 3.7: NVivo example node structure
Additional child nodes can be seen under the child node of Information Flow. These
child nodes include social capital in the form of information flow obtained Through Blue and
Gold Society, Through Faculty and Staff, Through Students, and Through Others. Finally, more specific child notes were used to sort and categorize data by specific individual within the social
110 network, such as Through Associate Director of Alumni Membership, Through Blue and Gold
Society Members, Through Manager of Student Alumni Programs, and Through Belonging to the
Blue and Gold Society.
In other words, Figure 3.7 states that there are various forms of social capital. Some of the forms of social capital are categorized as instrumental forms of social capital. One of those
instrumental forms of social capital is information flow. Information flow, as an instrumental form of social capital, was noted in the research data as being accessible through the Blue and
Gold Society, more specifically through the Associate Director of Alumni Membership, Blue and
Gold Society Members themselves, Manager of Student Alumni Programs, and belonging to the
Blue and Gold Society in general.
Within each of these child nodes, or assigned specifically to each of these child nodes, exists the actual data obtained by the author through the course of the research study. For instance, if the author read through a Blue and Gold Society member semi-structured interview transcript and noted a quote about or reference to information flow accessible through relationships with other Blue and Gold Society members, then that particular quote or reference was placed within that specific container or assigned to that specific child node—nicely organized and easily recallable for future analytical use and for presentation purposes by the author. An example of how data is assigned to specific nodes can be seen in Figure 3.8. Data from participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and cultural artifact review was managed, sorted, coded, and analyzed in this manner throughout the research study (see Figures
3.6-3.8).
111
Figure 3.8: NVivo example of data assigned to a specific node
As mentioned briefly to this point, the author proceeded to conduct two forms of coding and analysis utilizing NVivo and employing these node structures. The first form of data
112 analysis is referred to as deductive analysis. The second form of data analysis is referred to as inductive analysis.
Deductive analysis is the act of organizing data based on predetermined themes, concepts and theories derived from the literature review and research questions (Campbell Galman, 2007).
For example, the author knew from the beginning of the research study that one of the goals of the research study would be to collect data related to social networks and forms of social capital, as these were elements of social capital theory outlined in the literature and included in the study’s research questions. The initial node tree for coding in NVivo 9 for this study can be found in Appendix H. Included in the initial node structure are nodes for, among other things, networks, trust, and forms of social capital. This initial node tree served only as a starting point, and was significantly expanded and refined throughout the process of data analysis.
Nonetheless, it served as an important starting place for the author in the beginning stages of analyzing the data.
Inductive analysis—the act of coding the data based on new themes generated through an examination of the data—was conducted as well (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). This process allows a researcher to discover through analysis that a particular theme or node fits better into a new or emerging theme instead of an existing theme (Heit & Rubinstein, 1994). For example, the author found ample references to information flow as being a form of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members. The author also discovered other forms of social capital not included in the literature or the initial node structure. This resulted in new nodes being added to the initial node structure. This process of inductive analysis enables a researcher to identify new insights not included in the literature; it allows the researcher to take into account ideas that may not have initially been considered.
113 Coding continued deductively and inductively until the author felt confident that all data had been thoroughly considered. This resulted in the final node structure included in Appendix
I. This node structure served as the primary foundation and guide for sorting and analyzing the data obtained through participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and cultural artifact review. This structure also essentially served as the codebook for the research study, meaning that the structure provided a list of all the codes used for analysis along with a detailed description of what each code represents. Codebooks are important because they help ensure the accuracy of coding by a researcher and provide the audience with a thorough description of the codes so as to make the information easily understandable (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999).
The results of this data analysis allowed the author to answer the research questions and organize the study’s findings in an easily recallable and presentable manner for the dissertation write-up and defense. The data management and analysis capabilities of NVivo 9 provided allowed the author to triangulate the data, increase the quality of the interpretations of the data and corroborate different interpretations of the data (Flick, 2000; LeCompte & Schensul, 1999).
These findings pertaining to the research questions will now be presented in Chapter 4.
114 4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of this chapter is to present the overall findings of the research study. The findings were obtained through a thorough analysis of the data obtained from participant observation, semi-structured interviews and cultural artifact review. In particular, this chapter will present findings to answer the study’s nine research questions. Findings will be presented and elaborated on in a very descriptive manner, in the form of figures, tables, paraphrases and direct quotations. In other words:
Qualitative research reporting [such as that which is included in this chapter] tends to be based mainly on description and quotations that support or illustrate the study results. Charts and diagrams showing the relationships among identified topics, categories, and patterns are also useful in presenting the results of a study. The logic and description of the interpretations linked to qualitative charts and diagrams are important aspects of qualitative research reporting. (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006, p.522)
In addition to presenting the research study’s findings in this chapter, key discussion points will be included and intertwined throughout in an attempt to interpret findings, draw conclusions and connect the findings back to the literature review included in Chapter 2.
This chapter will first revisit the research study’s primary sample, the Blue and Gold
Society (see Section 4.1). The purpose of returning to the study’s sample is to describe in greater detail the Blue and Gold Society members’ characteristics relevant to the research study now that the author has had the opportunity to intimately spend approximately 16 weeks with the student organization and interview them and others about them. Participant observation and interactions through interviews with a study’s participants allow researchers to relate overall characteristics
115 of a group to the audience and portray them against a cultural backdrop, something not always
possible for the researcher to have knowledge of prior to conducting an ethnographic study of
this sort (Sunstein & Chiseri-Strater, 2007). Thus, the Blue and Gold Society members will be
revisited and further described in this chapter.
Second, this chapter will present the findings in answer to the study’s research questions.
Findings for the first set of research questions, questions 1A, 1B, 1C and 1D, focus on the social
networks undergraduate student organization members (Blue and Gold Society members)
develop as a result of being in a student organization (the Blue and Gold Society) and the
processes through which those relationships develop (see Section 4.2). Findings for the second
set of research questions, questions 2A and 2B, focus on the forms of capital embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members (Blue and Gold Society members) (see Section 4.3). Findings for the third set of research questions focuses on the role that trust plays in student organization members (Blue and Gold Society members) acquiring social capital embedded in their social networks and the processes through which that trust is developed (see Section 4.4).
4.1 BLUE AND GOLD SOCIETY MEMBERS
As previously noted in the methodology chapter, the primary sample for the research study is the
Blue and Gold Society, a 37-person student affairs affiliated undergraduate student organization at the University of Pittsburgh. The mission of The Blue and Gold Society is to strengthen the
University of Pittsburgh through student-alumni relationships. Selection into the Blue and Gold
Society is based on a combination of a written application, letters of recommendation and
116 personal interviews. Students are formally inducted in the Blue and Gold Society during a
special induction ceremony in the Chancellor’s Office each fall semester, after they have
completed the application and interview process during the previous spring semester. The
number of students in The Blue and Gold Society each year varies from approximately 35-45
undergraduate students, based on need and desire to maintain a diverse group of members
(diversity factors include ethnicity, special interests, areas of academic study, areas of
extracurricular activities, gender, etc.). Blue and Gold Society members typically remain
members of the organization until they graduate or until they decide to leave the group. Serving
in the Blue and Gold Society is not a paid position. Rather, members volunteer their time to
meet weekly as a group, host University of Pittsburgh related events, and interact with students,
faculty, staff and alumni (History of The Blue and Gold Society, 2004).
Throughout the course of the research study, a number of other details were discovered
and gathered about the Blue and Gold Society members. Through the process of conducting
semi-structured interviews with the Blue and Gold Society members and coding the members’
answers, the author discovered that the Blue and Gold Society members often described
themselves. The purpose of including the self-described characteristics of the Blue and Gold
Society members in the results chapter is to further enrich the description of the research study’s sample for the audience. Although the author did not ask the Blue and Gold Society members to describe themselves during the interviews, the author noticed the ways in which they described themselves and coded their self-descriptions accordingly.
Similarly, as the author interviewed those faculty, staff, alumni and other individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom Blue and Gold Society members come into contact, the author discovered that these individuals also described Blue and Gold Society
117 members, even though the individuals were not asked to describe the characteristics of Blue and
Gold Society members. These descriptions were coded as well and will be included to enrich the description of the research study’s sample for the audience.
Finally, a number of Blue and Gold Society member characteristics were also ascertained through participant observation and cultural artifact review. As the author coded and analyzed the data obtained through participant observation, many instances were uncovered where the
Blue and Gold Society members described themselves and/or others with knowledge of and/or who have had direct interactions with Blue and Gold Society members in the past described Blue and Gold Society members. To an extent as well, cultural artifacts revealed some characteristics of Blue and Gold Society members too.
The following node structure outlines the two primary themes identified by the author through inductive analysis, along with a description of each theme (see Figure 4.1). The parent
node for this node structure is Blue and Gold Society Characteristics. The primary child nodes
in the node structure are Self-Described and Described by Others.
Figure 4.1: Characteristics of Blue and Gold Society members
Figure 4.2 lists the secondary child nodes of the Self-Described child node as recorded
and coded by the author. In total, 14 themes or child nodes pertaining to how Blue and Gold
118 Society members describe themselves were identified through semi-structured interviews, participant observation and cultural artifact review.
Figure 4.2: Blue and Gold Society members: self-described characteristics
Figure 4.3 similarly lists the secondary child nodes of the Described by Others child node
as recorded and coded by the author. In total, 16 themes or child nodes pertaining to how others
describe Blue and Gold Society members were identified through semi-structured interviews,
participant observation and cultural artifact review.
119
Figure 4.3: Blue and Gold Society members: characteristics described by others
Table 4.1 depicts all 16 characteristics of Blue and Gold Society members, both self- described by the members themselves and those described by others, across the various data collection methods. The purpose of Table 4.1 is to illustrate which data collection method identified which characteristic for the purposes of data triangulation. Also, Table 4.1 highlights which data collection methods where most effective in identifying the characteristics of Blue and
Gold Society members. A signifies when a specific characteristic was identified through a particular data collection method. Table 4.1 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific
120 characteristic was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that a specific characteristic was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to the characteristics of Blue and Gold Society members will now be elaborated on qualitatively. Sections 4.1.1 – 4.1.7 each group together somewhat similar Blue and Gold Society member characteristics and present the findings for each group of similar characteristics.
Table 4.1: Blue and Gold Society members – characteristics by data collection method
Description of Blue and Gold Society Members As Described As Described by As Described by As Described by by Other Means Blue and Gold Others the Author
Society Members
Data collected Data collected Data collected Data collected through through through semi- through semi- participant cultural structured structured observation artifacts interviews interviews
Committed/Fulfill Assignments Devotion to University Diverse Elite and Prestigious Group Engaged and Involved Family- or Friend-Like Good Character Happy Helpful Leaders Description Privileged Respected Support Network Trustworthy University Representatives Well Connected Well Known
121 4.1.1 Blue and Gold Society members – committed, devoted, and engaged
Blue and Gold Society members are individuals who keep their commitment to others and fulfill
their assignments associated with the Blue and Gold Society. They describe themselves as being
“committed” (M1-3B1), “reliable” (M13-3C2), and “hardworking” (M26-4). One member stated of the group that “they never back down from a commitment” (M33-3C1). During an
information session to recruit new members, Blue and Gold Society members put together a
PowerPoint slideshow that included photographs of themselves to illustrate the extent to which
they fulfill a number of assignments in various settings and capacities throughout the University.
The Office of Alumni Relations staff person interviewed as a part of the research study similarly
declared that Blue and Gold Society members “have good follow-through” when it comes to
getting things done (I2-3B2). The alumnus interviewed also said of Blue and Gold Society
members that it is as if “they are trained to fulfill assignments” (I1-3C2).
Along with being committed, Blue and Gold Society members claim that they are
devoted to the University of Pittsburgh, meaning that they take pride in their association with the
University. One male member of the student organization said that “being a Blue and Gold
Society member isn’t something you do to put on your resume. You do it because you genuinely
love Pitt and service” (M14-3C2). Another female member similarly noted that “Blue and Gold
Society members have a totally different mindset. We commit to represent the University, not
just ourselves” (M6-4). In fact, the application to become a member of the Blue and Gold
Society includes the following statement: “It is our mission as sons and daughters of the
University of Pittsburgh to safeguard the traditions of our alma mater and to foster a sense of pride and spirit within the Pitt community.” One student and non-member of the Blue and Gold
Society interviewed who is a member of a sorority on campus proclaimed that Blue and Gold
122 Society members “have a lot of pride in the University” (I4-1B/1C), while the staff person
interviewed similarly noted that Blue and Gold Society members “all have a positive attitude
about the University” (I6-3C1).
In terms of being lively and involved, Blue and Gold Society members tend to believe
that they are actively engaged in the Blue and Gold Society, as well as in various campus
activities and in other student organizations to which they belong. During their new member
recruitment session, one Blue and Gold Society member (M26) stated that the Society is looking
for new members who are “outgoing people” like themselves and who will take advantage of
opportunities for “community service” throughout the University. During one of the semi-
structured interviews, a Blue and Gold Society member mentioned that practically all members
are “involved in doing some really big things personally” (M10-1A), while another stated that
“each member of the Blue and Gold Society is very active and involved in the Pitt community”
(M37-2B). From another perspective, the current Student Government Board president asserted
that “no other student organization offers such a diversity of involvement among its members”
(I8-2A). The member of the Board of Trustees interviewed during the research study said of
Blue and Gold Society members that “they are motivated” students, which is something that sets them apart from other students in other student organizations on campus (I3-3C1).
4.1.2 Blue and Gold Society members – family-like and support network
A number of Blue and Gold Society members said that they are very family-like and/or friendly-
like with each other. “We are very close,” said one member (M17-2A). We have “close friend
relationships” with each other, said another member (M22-1B). “Being a Blue and Gold Society
member, you have new best friends, new great friends,” asserted yet another member of the
123 Society (M23-1B). During the new member recruitment session, the author observed one Blue and Gold Society member (M19) promise, “we are a family and would welcome you in as family.” When interviewed, the Manager of Student Alumni Programs said of the Blue and Gold
Society that “they know there will be a closeness and an extensive group there for them” and that
“there really is a sense of community” among the group (I5-1D). The author also observed that there were never really any cliques or sub-groups among them; they regularly greeted each other with hugs.
Not only is the Blue and Gold Society family-like, but they also serve as a support network for Blue and Gold Society members according to Blue and Gold Society members themselves as well as others with knowledge of the student organization. “The Blue and Gold
Society gives me a good support system” mentioned one member during an interview session
(M33-2B). Another member similarly noted that “there is definitely a support network when you’re in the Blue and Gold Society” (M10-2B). “We can go to each other about anything” and
“we have the ability to support each other,” stated a newly inducted Blue and Gold Society in his sophomore year at the University (M23-1B).
4.1.3 Blue and Gold Society members – diverse, elite, and of good character
Blue and Gold Society members are diverse in terms of their interests, talents, ethnicity, gender, participation in extracurricular activities, academic major, and so forth. One African American member said that “there is a diversity aspect of being in the Blue and Gold Society. I tend to do a lot with only other African Americans, so it’s nice to be around people not solely focused on
African American issues” (M11-2B). Another Blue and Gold Society member similarly noted during an interview that “everyone is so diverse within the organization” (M26-4). Also when
124 interviewed, the president of the Student Government Board insightfully said, “Every member brings something new to the table when they join. One I know is involved with the Pitt Band.
One is heavily involved in Greek Life” (I8-4). During a review of photographs of Blue and Gold
Society members at a luncheon to honor alumni faculty and staff at the University, the author noted a particular photograph that was quite telling in terms of diversity. The photograph was of eight Blue and Gold Society members sitting at a table prior to the start of the luncheon and program. Of the eight members, two were African American, some were male, some were female, one was a football player, one was a member of the Pitt band, one’s appearance was very clean cut, one’s appearance was not so clean-cut with longer untrimmed hair on his head and face, and so forth.
Along with being diverse, Blue and Gold Society members acknowledge that they are elite students on campus, meaning that they are a select group of students who are superior in some way or another to non-Blue and Gold Society members. For example, two members of the student organization said, respectively, that Blue and Gold Society members are “an elite group of students” (M16-4) who are “part of a prestigious organization” (M8-1D). Said another Blue and Gold Society member:
Being a Blue and Gold Society member has a lot of perks. The status you have as a Blue and Gold Society member and the way other students see your status as a Blue and Gold Society member sparks interest in others, wanting to know about me and be friends with me. I find that people are genuinely interested in me because of my status as a Blue and Gold Society member. (M24-4)
Others also see Blue and Gold Society members as being elite. The alumnus interviewed during the research study said that “Blue and Gold Society members are definitely bright, competitive students” (I1-3B2). A member of the Board of Trustees further explained that Blue and Gold
Society members “go through multiple filters to get where they are today and to get into the Blue
125 and Gold Society” (I3-3C1). The author regularly recorded in field notes how professional Blue
and Gold Society members are and how qualified they are to lead such a unique student
organization on campus.
Besides being diverse and elite, Blue and Gold Society members also claim that they are
individuals of good character and who are genuinely good people with good habits, virtues and morals. Blue and Gold Society members said of themselves that they are “considerate of others” and they embody the trait of honesty (M10-3C1). A staff person and a member of the Board of
Trustees also said that Blue and Gold Society members are “very honest” (I6-3A) and “have
good character” (I3-3C2), respectively. The author recorded during one observation session
when Blue and Gold Society members were making thank-you calls to alumni who recently
renewed their Alumni Association membership that “they are very polite” when speaking and
interacting with others.
4.1.4 Blue and Gold Society members – well connected, well known, and privileged
Although Blue and Gold Society members never referred to themselves in interviews as well
connected or being known by a number of influential and helpful people, others who were
interviewed claimed otherwise. The Student Government Board president said of Blue and Gold
Society members that “they have a lot of ties with other students and alumni” (I8-2A). The
Board of Trustees member further explained:
They have the very best possible connections for job opportunities. They have a leg up on everybody because of who they are and because they are BGs. Their connectedness almost guarantees them multiple job offers when they graduate. (I3-2A)
126 Not only are they well connected, but one Blue and Gold Society member also claimed that they
are well known by faculty, staff, students, and alumni of the University. “Most know who we
are,” stated one Blue and Gold Society member (M17-3C2).
Aside from being well know and well connected, Blue and Gold Society members see
themselves and are seen by others as privileged, or in other words having special benefits as a
result of their association with the Blue and Gold Society. One member stated that “being in the
Blue and Gold Society has a lot of perks” (M24-4), while another said that “being a Blue and
Gold Society member helps you meet high ranking university officials, Alumni Relations staff, and others” (M25-1D). The Board of Trustees member confirmed this by further saying that
Blue and Gold Society members “have a leg up on everybody because of who they are and because they are Blue and Gold Society members” (I3-2A).
4.1.5 Blue and Gold Society members – trustworthy and helpful
Blue and Gold Society members view themselves as trustworthy. Others seem to have confidence in them and can rely on them. Referring to being trustworthy, one member of the student organization said of fellow Society members that “you know they’ll be trustworthy”
(M14-3C1). Another noted that “within the Blue and Gold Society, no one would make any empty promises” (M30-3A). The staff member who works in the Graduate School of Business and regularly interacts with both the Blue and Gold Society and alumni said, “knowing that you can trust them to say the right things around alumni is invaluable” (I6-3A). The author also observed and noted in a new member recruitment session and in numerous weekly meetings that
Blue and Gold Society members seem to trust each other and are trusted by others.
127 Along with being trustworthy, various means identified Blue and Gold Society members
as helpful, meaning that they help each other and others around them with various tasks. Blue
and Gold Society members did not express this view of themselves, but others did. For instance,
a photograph taken during the Springtime Community Service Project depicts a Blue and Gold
Society member voluntarily helping a maintenance staff person and another student plant flowers
around the Student Union. Another photograph shows Blue and Gold Society members
volunteering at Graduation Central, a one-stop graduation preparation event designed to help graduating students pick up their caps and gowns and register for other alumni services.
4.1.6 Blue and Gold Society members – leaders and University representatives
In terms of leadership, Blue and Gold Society members note about themselves that they regularly
lead and direct others. “I consider them all leaders,” one member of the Blue and Gold Society
said about his counterparts in the student organization (M22-1A). Gleaned from reviewing the
PowerPoint presentation from their New Member Recruitment Session, Blue and Gold Society members claim that it is their job to take the lead in helping to “shape and promote Pitt traditions.” Also noted in the speech notes of one Blue and Gold Society member (M22) who
spoke at the New Member Induction Ceremony, Blue and Gold Society members are “chosen to
be the canvas of this institution and it is up to each and every one of us to paint the picture
depicting the greatness and excellence this University represents.”
Blue and Gold Society members also state of themselves that their job is to “represent the
University” (M1-3C2). From the same induction speech notes referenced in the previous
paragraph, the speaking Blue and Gold Society member (M22) referred to the Society as “the
face of this University.” The alumnus interviewed in the research study said that “Blue and Gold
128 Society members have a specific mission, to be ambassadors for the University” (I1-3A). A photograph taken at Pitt Day in Harrisburg, an annual day trip to the state capital involving
University students, faculty, staff, alumni, donors and others to rally support from the state for the University of Pittsburgh and higher education, depicts the Chancellor, prominent state government leaders and Blue and Gold Society members posing for a picture as the face of the
University visiting the state capital that day. Another photograph shows the Vice President of the United States speaking at the University; the students sitting on the stage behind him for his speech were Blue and Gold Society members.
4.1.7 Blue and Gold Society members – respected and happy
Respected and happy are not necessarily two synonymous characteristics but are nonetheless prominent descriptions of members of the Blue and Gold Society. Blue and Gold Society members claim that they are “a respectful group of people,” and that they are admired because of the qualities, capabilities, and achievements (M22-1A). In terms of how others view Blue and
Gold Society members, one member believes that “most know who Blue and Gold Society members are and they treat us with extra respect” (M17-3B1). The staff person interviewed said,
“I always think of them first when I need help with an event we are doing” (I6-1D). The author also observed and recorded how much students and alumni respect Blue and Gold Society members during events they hosted and through paying close attention to their interactions with others.
It is clear that Blue and Gold Society members have a number of unique and beneficial characteristics that help them to stand out among other students. Aside from these qualities though, Blue and Gold Society members are simply happy individuals. The author recorded
129 during an early morning weekly meeting that “no one appears to be unhappy to be here at such an early hour of the morning.” During a service project toward the end of the semester when students in general tend to be concerned about final projects, finals and the close of another semester, Blue and Gold Society members are seen in photographs taking time out of their day to plant flowers and clean up the campus. In two photographs, in fact, Society members are seen smiling and appear to be very happy as they perform community service while taking time out of their busy lives as students to beautify the University campus.
4.1.8 Blue and Gold Society members’ characteristics – points for discussion
Although other University of Pittsburgh student organization members were not studied as a comparison group to Blue and Gold Society members in this research study, it is clear, based on the data presented in Section 4.1.1 – 4.1.7, that Blue and Gold Society members are exceptional students at the University who have many quality attributes and unique privileges; they carry out a number of weighty responsibilities as members of the Blue and Society. Additionally, Blue and Gold Society members go through an application and interview process in order to become members of the student organization. These attributes of Blue and Gold Society members, among the many others discussed in Section 4.1.1 – 4.1.7, may differ from other student organization members at the University of Pittsburgh and could impact how a researcher might study social networks and social capital accumulation among them.
Looking briefly, for example, at the University of Pittsburgh’s Breakdancing Club, it is clear that all students interested in urban style dancing are welcome to be a part of the student organization and there is no application or interview process, which differs from the Blue and
Gold Society (Breakdancing Club, n.d.). Looking briefly at another student organization, the
130 Heinz Chapel Choir, their website states that an audition is necessary for membership (Heinz
Chapel Choir, n.d.), which is in line with the Blue and Gold Society’s application process. The
Heinz Chapel Choir student organization also makes note that they strive to maintain the highest quality in their performances and also in how they carry themselves throughout the University community. Blue and Gold Society members strive to do the same as it relates to carrying out their responsibilities to a high level among those who are a part of the University community.
The aforementioned Breakdancing Club, on the other hand, makes no mention pertaining to any particular membership requirements or the importance of living up to certain standards or commitment-keeping. One major attribute of Blue and Gold Society members is that they are trustworthy and they are known for fulfilling their responsibilities and keeping their commitments.
There are hundreds of student organizations at the University of Pittsburgh to which one could compare the Blue and Gold Society and its members, which may be a suggestion for a future comparative research study that looks at social capital creation among other types of student organization members. As previously stated, social capital is the beneficial resources that are embedded in the relationship a person has with another individual. Knowing the particular characteristics of different student organization members could impact the way in which a researcher might study social capital among them. For instance, knowing that Blue and
Gold Society members are very active and engaged throughout all aspects of the University community might help a researcher to know that not only should Blue and Gold Society members be a sample for a research study on social capital, but also alumni, faculty, staff and others through the University community. The same might be said about a research study of social capital among the Heinz Chapel Choir, who also interact frequently with the University
131 community and hold themselves to a high standard among members of the community. The
social networks that a research might study would potentially be similar, pertaining to the Blue
and Gold Society and the Heinz Chapel Choir. In contrast though, knowing that members of the
Breakdance Club are possibly more laid back and are not regularly involved in interacting with
the University community would mean that a research might be looking at the social networks
Breakdance Club members have with urban dancers at other nearby universities or other dancers
in the community.
Knowing the differences in the characteristics among different student organizations
might also affect the types of social capital studied in a particular research study. Whereas a
study of Blue and Gold Society members or Heinz Chapel Choir members might look at social
capital in the form of professional networking opportunities that members of these groups have
with university alumni, a study of social capital among Breakdance Club members might look at
the emotional support fellow members and fellow urban dancers in the community make
available to one another since the group is so unique, tightknit and less bridging in terms of the
individuals who make up their social network. Therefore, knowing the characteristics of Blue
and Gold Society members and what distinguishes them from other student organization
members at the University of Pittsburgh plays a role in studying Society members’ social networks and the potential forms of social capital available to them.
4.2 CONCERNING SOCIAL NETWORKS
The purpose of this section is to present the findings for the first set of research questions
concerning Blue and Gold Society members and their social networks, namely research
132 questions 1A, 1B and 1C. This section also presents the findings related to the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks develop, namely research question 1D.
Each research question will be reintroduced one-by-one. The findings for these research questions will then be presented and elaborated on qualitatively. Points for discussion will be included in an attempt to interpret findings, draw conclusions and connect the findings back to the literature review included in Chapter 2.
4.2.1 Findings: Blue and Gold Society members – social network composition
Social capital exists within a social network of individuals (Lin, 2008). The kinds of individuals within a person’s social network can vary and may take on several forms, such as a family member, a friend, or a co-worker (Bourdieu, 1986; Putnam, 2000). Table 4.2 reintroduces research question 1A, which seeks to identify in a broad sense the individuals within Blue and
Gold Society members’ social networks. The table includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in Blue and
Gold Society members’ social networks. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. As was previously done in
Chapter 3, a corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question being asked.
133 Table 4.2: Research question 1A – Blue and Gold Society members and their social networks
Element of Social Capital Semi-Structured Interview, Participant Observation, Research Question Based on Literature and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Questions Review
Concerning Social Networks
1A. Specifically as a result of Asked of Blue and being a member of The Blue Gold Society and Gold Society, what Necessary condition for Members individuals make up your access to embedded social network? resources (Putnam, 2000; 1A. What individuals Bourdieu, 1986) make up an Asked of 1A. How would you describe your undergraduate Individuals in Take on various forms (i.e. relationship with current student organization Blue and Gold family, Sunday school members of the Blue and member’s social Society Member’s class, regulars who play Gold Society? network? Social Network poker together) (Lin, 2008; Asked by author 1A. What individuals make up a Putnam, 2000) during participant Blue and Gold Society observation and member’s social network? cultural artifact review
Research question 1A inquires about what individuals in general make up a Blue and
Gold Society member’s social network as a result of his or her membership in the student organization. Collectively, semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members, semi-structured interviews with individuals that make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks, participant observation and cultural artifact review identified 30 individuals that in one form or another collectively make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks as a result of them being members of the Blue and Gold Society. These 30 individuals are listed in alphabetical order in Table 4.3. The individuals range from alumni of the University of
Pittsburgh to the Vice Provost and Dean of Students of the University. Four categories were utilized to group similar individuals together for ease of reference. This categorization will be maintained throughout the findings chapter for consistency.
134 Table 4.3: Individuals and a description of the individuals who make up the social network of Blue and Gold Society members
Individual in Social Network Description of Individual
Blue and Gold Society Staff, students, and others specifically linked to the Blue and Gold Society
Associate Director of Alumni Alumni Relations staff person; serves as a secondary advisor for the Blue Membership and Gold Society. Blue and Gold Society Members - Members of the Blue and Gold Society - no reference to specific General members. Blue and Gold Society Members - Members of the Blue and Gold Society - reference to specific members. Specific Blue and Gold Society Member's Parents of Blue and Gold Society members. Parents Manager of Student Alumni Programs Alumni Relations staff person; serves primary advisor for Blue and Gold Society. Faculty and Staff Faculty and staff at the University of Pittsburgh Alumni Relations Staff Those who work for the Office of Alumni Relations at the University of Pittsburgh. Athletic Department Staff Athletic Department Staff at the University of Pittsburgh. Athletic Director Athletic Director at the University of Pittsburgh. Chancellor Chancellor of the University of Pittsburgh. Deans Deans at the University of Pittsburgh. Director of Student Life Director of Student Life at the University of Pittsburgh. Executive Level Staff Vice and Associate Vice Chancellors at the University of Pittsburgh. Faculty Faculty at the University of Pittsburgh. Staff - General Staff in general at the University of Pittsburgh. Vice Provost and Dean of Students Vice Provost and Dean of Students at the University of Pittsburgh. Students Students at the University of Pittsburgh Greek Life Students Students involved with fraternity and sorority life. Residence Hall Assistants Residence Hall Assistants at the University of Pittsburgh. Student Athletes Student Athletes at the University of Pittsburgh. Student Government Board Members Members of the Student Government Board at the University of Pittsburgh. Student Organization Members Members of Student Organizations at the University of Pittsburgh. Students - General Students at the University of Pittsburgh - no specific reference. Students Outside Job Students outside Blue and Gold Society member's job. Students Outside Major Students outside of Blue and Gold Society member's major. Other Alumni, donors, trustees, government officials, and others Alumni Graduates from the University of Pittsburgh. Alumni Association President Volunteer President of the Pittsburgh Alumni Association. Board of Trustees Members of the Board of Trustees at the University of Pittsburgh. Donors Donors to the University of Pittsburgh. Government Officials State and federal government officials. Local Business Owners Local business owners around campus. Potential Employers Someone who might be a potential employer.
135 Table 4.3 essentially answers research question 1A: What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social network? To elaborate, in answer to this question one Blue and Gold Society member stated that through being a Blue and Gold Society member, “there are different levels of relationships – professional, associate, academic, student.
Blue and Gold Society members touch a portion of all of those” (M3-4). Another member noted,
“if I hadn’t joined the Blue and Gold Society, I wouldn’t have been able to meet so many people” (M23-1A). Thinking back to his first experience as a member of the Society and meeting alumni, University staff and a person with a contact in the School of Dental Medicine to which he hoped to someday apply, one Blue and Gold Society member captivatingly exclaimed,
“immediately I realized that I was going to meet a lot of people as a Blue and Gold Society member” (M24-2A). The author confirmed the plethora of individuals that make up Blue and
Gold Society members’ social networks while observing a public session of the University’s
Board of Trustees meeting, at which many Blue and Gold Society members were present:
Some of the Blue and Gold Society members are sitting in the front row with the Chancellor’s senior staff. They are sitting with the Athletic Director, Vice Chancellor for Governmental Relations, Vice Chancellor for the Medical and Health Sciences Foundation, and a donor who recently made a $2M gift who will be recognized during the meeting and who will have a building named after them at one of the regional campuses. They [Blue and Gold Society members] really are surrounded by some of the most important and elite people in attendance, in addition to all the trustees in attendance. They aren’t just sitting near them. They are interacting with them too.
Cultural artifacts revealed with whom Blue and Gold Society members have the opportunity to meet as well. An invitation sent to Blue and Gold Society members and other special guests included the following solicitation to meet and interact with the Chancellor of the University of
Pittsburgh:
136 You are cordially invited to join the Pitt Alumni Association Thursday, April 19, 2012 4:00 p.m. Office of the Chancellor
Chancellor [name omitted] Will induct new members of the 2012-2013 Blue and Gold Society And Salute Blue and Gold Society Seniors
Opportunities to meet new people and develop a social network as a result of being a member of the Blue and Gold Society are plentiful, and are visible through the various data collection methods employed in this research study.
More detailed information about Blue and Gold Society members’ social network members and members’ relationships with them will be further explained in the findings for research questions 1B and 1C, as these questions inquire specifically about the strength and type of relationships Blue and Gold Society members have with those individuals within their social networks (see section 4.2.2). Section 4.2.3 will then describe the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with those individuals within their social networks. Before moving on to the findings for questions 1B and 1C though, Figure 4.4 illustrates how the author gathered, recorded and organized the data in NVivo 9 as it relates to
Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks.
137
Figure 4.4: NVivo – individuals in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks
After collecting data for research questions 1A, 1B and 1C through semi-structured interviews, participant observation and cultural artifact review, the author thematically organized
138 the data utilizing NVivo 9. In the hierarchical node structure in Figure 4.4, the primary parent
node is Social Network. Under that parent node, there are child nodes for different relationship
types, which will be discussed in the next section, such as Strong – Bonding Relationships.
Then, within the theme of Strong – Bonding Relationships, additional child nodes for category of individual exist, such as Students. Finally, within the node of Students, additional nodes exist for specific types of students, such as Greek Life Students. Through this process the author inductively analyzed and thematically organized the data and findings. For the purposes of answering research question 1A, all the individuals that make up Blue and Gold Society member’s social networks, regardless of relationship type (i.e. strong – bonding relationships, weak – bridging relationships), were identified and included in one complete list in Table 4.3.
Sections 4.2.2 will now present the findings for research questions 1B and 1C pertaining to
relationship strength among Blue and Gold Society members and those individuals who make up
their social networks.
4.2.2 Blue and Gold Society members – type/strength of social network
Research question 1A simply identified all of the individuals that collectively make up Blue and
Gold Society member’s social networks. Research questions 1B and 1C more specifically make
at attempt to decipher which individuals within the networks of Blue and Gold Society members
are stronger, bonding type relationships that can provide access to bonding social capital, and
which ones are weaker, bridging type relationships that can provide access to bridging social
capital.
As a point of review, social capital accumulated through networks that are inward
looking and that links individuals who are similar in fundamental respects is referred to as
139 bonding social capital (Putnam & Feldstein, 2003). Likewise, social capital accumulated through networks that are outward looking, that consist of weak ties, and that build a bridge from one’s own immediate social network to another is referred to as bridging social capital (Halpern,
2005; Lin, 2001). Table 4.4 reintroduces research questions 1B and 1C to identify these stronger, bonding type relationships, and weaker, bridging type relationships. The table includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in a Blue and Gold Society member’s social network. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question being asked.
Table 4.4: Research questions 1B and 1C – Blue and Gold Society members’ bonding and bridging social capital networks
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Capital Based on Question Literature Review
Concerning Social Networks
1B. Which of these relationships would
you describe as strong, family or Asked of Blue and 1B. Which individuals close friend type relationships? Bonding social Gold Society provide access to 1C. Which of these relationships would capital—a result of Members an undergraduate you describe as weak relationships closed, inward student or “acquaintances”? looking, exclusive organization social networks member’s bonding Asked of 1B./1C. Please describe the strength (Halpern, 2005; social capital? Individuals in Blue and/or closeness of your Putnam & Feldstein, and Gold Society relationship with current 2003)
Member’s Social members of the Blue and Gold 1C. Which individuals Network Society. Bridging social provide access to capital—a result of an undergraduate 1B. Which individual’s provide access open, outward looking, student Asked by author to a Blue and Gold Society inclusive social organization during participant member’s bonding social capital? networks (Halpern, member’s bridging observation and 2005; Lin, 2001) social capital? cultural artifact 1C. Which individual’s provide access review to a Blue and Gold Society member’s bridging social capital? 140 In order to efficiently present the findings for research questions 1B and 1C, the following tables, Tables 4.5-4.8, have been developed and provided to depict which relationships were identified as being strong (bonding) and which relationships were identified as being weak
(bridging). If the relationship closeness and strength were unable to be determined, the relationship is labeled as unknown. Generally speaking, the author was able to determine relationship closeness and strength during semi-structured interviews. However, when conducting participant observation and cultural artifact review, most of the time the relationship strength was recorded as unknown as it would have primarily been guesswork and speculation for the author to gauge relationship strength simply by looking at a photograph or by observing a
Blue and Gold Society member briefly interacting with another individual. Each of the four tables represents a different category of individuals, previously described in Table 4.3 as Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff, Students and Other.
Another purpose of Tables 4.5-4.8 is to illustrate which data collect method identified which relationship and its corresponding relationship strength. The tables highlight which data collection methods where most effective in identifying certain relationships and particular relationship strengths. Additionally, displaying the findings in this manner aids in data triangulation. A signifies when a specific relationship and its relationship strength was collected from a particular data collection method.
The tables are a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the tables do not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific relationship and its relationship strength were recorded. Rather, the tables denote that a specific relationship and its relationship strength were recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to Blue and Gold Society members and the strength of
141 their relationships with others in their social networks will subsequently be elaborated on qualitatively following the inclusion of each table.
4.2.2.1 Blue and Gold Society
The first category of relationships to be considered will be Blue and Gold Society, previously defined as Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with staff, students and others specifically linked to the Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.3). Table 4.5 lists the individuals that make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks pertaining to this category, the relationship strength and the data collection method used to identify the relationship and relationship strength.
Table 4.5: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with individuals linked to the Blue and Gold Society by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Members’ Social Network – Blue and Gold Society Category As Described As Described As Described by Blue and by Others As Described by Other Gold Society by the Author Means Strength/ Members Data collected Closeness of through semi- Data collected Data collected Relationship Data collected structured through through through semi- interviews participant cultural structured observation artifacts interviews Strong Associate Director of Weak Alumni Membership Unknown
Strong Blue and Gold Society Weak Member’s Parents Unknown Strong Blue and Gold Society Weak Members - General Unknown Strong Blue and Gold Society Weak
Blue and Gold Society Members - Specific Unknown Strong Manager of Student Weak Alumni Programs Unknown
142 As can be seen in Table 4.5, the data collection method that identified the majority of the
relationship strength between Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals directly
linked to the Blue and Gold Society was semi-structured interviews with the Blue and Gold
Society members themselves. The non-Blue and Gold Society members interviewed did not
make much reference to Blue and Gold Society members and their relationship strength with
other individuals directly linked to the Blue and Gold Society. Also, and as previously
mentioned, the author was able to identify a number of social network relationships between
Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals directly linked to the Blue and Gold
Society through participant observation and cultural artifact review, but was only able to identify
to a very limited extent the relationship strength between the two due to the nature of the data
collection methods.
First, to elaborate more specifically, Table 4.5 notes the strong, bonding relationships that
Blue and Gold Society members have with other individuals specifically linked to the Blue and
Gold Society in answer to research question 1B: Which individuals provide access to an
undergraduate student organization member’s bonding social capital? Most Blue and Gold
Society members have close relationships with Blue and Gold Society members in general.
Relationships with Blue and Gold Society members “are typically stronger relationships,”
offered one Blue and Gold Society member when asked to comment on his strength of relationship with fellow Society members (M21-1B). Another member of the student organization similarly stated, “I would say that Blue and Gold relationships are strong. When together, I would describe us as strong, like family” (M25-1B). “Blue and Gold Society members have become some of my closest friends,” mentioned another Society member during an interview session (M4-1A). The author, who as previously mentioned spent approximately 16
143 weeks with the student organization, recorded the following in field notes during a weekly all-
member meeting:
There seem to be no cliques among them. They engage in both small talk and serious talk with each other. They are talking about casual things, such as, where one can find the best coffee and so forth. They are greeting each other and asking each other how they are doing. They are genuinely interested in each other and each other’s lives. They hug when they greet each other. They high five when they greet each other. They seem like a close-knit group.
Beyond speaking about their strength of relationship with fellow members in general
terms, some Blue and Gold Society members also noted that they are close with only some
specific fellow Blue and Gold Society members, but not with all of them. “I’m good friends
with a small number of Blue and Gold Society members” (M12-1C), explained one member of
the student organization, while another member noted, “I’ve become really good friends with a
couple Blue and Gold Society members” (M15-1B). The author noted through participant observation that he had developed closer relationships with some Blue and Gold Society members than others:
I have had multiple chance encounters with a particular Blue and Gold Society member recently. I see her on average of twice a week, just by chance walking around campus and walking through other buildings on campus. I feel like these reoccurring chance meetings are allowing us to become closer friends. Closer than I have become with other members I’ve met and interviewed. Although I feel close with Blue and Gold Society members in general, I also recognize that some of my relationships with them are stronger than others.
Obtained from a cultural artifact was another witness of the closeness between specific Blue and
Gold Society members. In reviewing the notes of a particular Blue and Gold Society member who was assigned to formally welcome new and current Society members during the New
Member Induction Ceremony held in the University’s Chancellor’s Office, the author observed an interesting statement from the speaking member’s (M21) typed notes: “To the graduating seniors, I can honestly say I’ve become close with every single one of you,” which further
144 demonstrates that some Blue and Gold Society members have close relationships with specific
fellow members of the Society.
Blue and Gold Society members are also close with the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs, a staff person in the Office of Alumni Relations who also functions as the student
advisor for the Blue and Gold Society. Members of the Blue and Gold Society describe the
Manager as their mother away from home in a sense. A number of members noted of their
advisor that she is “like a great mother to me” (M22-1A), “a mother for us” (M4-1A), “like my second mom” (M18-1B), and “like a mother figure to me” (M5-1B). The Manager of Student
Alumni Programs, when interviewed as a part of the research study, confirmed the close
relationship she has with Blue and Gold Society members: “It’s close. They see me as a second
mom. They are comfortable with me” (I5-1B).
The Associate Director of Alumni Membership, also a staff person in the Office of
Alumni Relations and a secondary advisor to the student organization, also has a strong relationship with Blue and Gold Society members. “She gave out her cell phone and her door is always open,” referenced one Blue and Gold Society member when asked about her relationship with the Associate Director (M1-1B). She is someone “I’d introduce my family to,” similarly claimed another member (M34-1A).
Conversely, and also noted in Table 4.5, are the weak, bridging relationships that Blue
and Gold Society members have with other individuals specifically linked to the Blue and Gold
Society in answer to research question 1C: Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate
student organization member’s bridging social capital? A few Blue and Gold Society members
noted that Blue and Gold Society members in general were part of their social network as a result
of being in the Blue and Gold Society, but those relationships were not necessarily strong and
145 were even considered weak by some members. One member of the student organization explained, “most Blue and Gold Society members are acquaintances, meaning that you don’t see much of them outside Blue and Gold Society related activities” (M15-1C). Another member continued, “I would say that Blue and Gold Society relationships are weak when we are outside of Blue and Gold activities. When outside of Blue and Gold activities, I would describe us as like associates, more of a professional-like relationship” (M25-1C).
Likewise and during the interview process, some Blue and Gold Society members also explained that there were only specific Society members that they were not close with, as opposed to all of the Society members in general. One Blue and Gold Society member said that
“some Blue and Gold Society members are weak relationships” (M20-1C). “Some Blue and
Gold Society members I don’t see outside of meetings,” answered another (M19-1C). Related to weaker relationships existing between some Blue and Gold Society members, the author noted:
Some Blue and Gold Society members keep to themselves when I see them in these early morning meetings and don’t seem to have really close friends within the group. Only a few seem like this. Maybe it is because they are just a little less social or something. One male member in particular, he doesn’t seem to have a particular close friend in the group when I see him every week. Again, this could be due to a number of reasons. To me though, I can see a few in the group that don’t seem to be particularly close with anyone in the Blue and Gold Society.
Not all Blue and Gold Society members described their relationships with the Manager of
Student Alumni Programs and the Associate Director of Alumni Membership as strong either.
Little commentary or explanation was offered during the author’s interview sessions with the
Blue and Gold Society members who claimed to have weaker relationships with the Manager or
Associate Director, but it was mentioned by a handful of members when asked with whom they have weak relationships as it relates to individuals within their social networks.
146 Finally, although it was only mentioned by a single Blue and Gold Society member, it is
still important to note that one member of the group cited Blue and Gold Society members’ parents as a weak relationship within her social network. The particular member claimed twice
throughout the interview that “other Blue and Gold Society members’ parents” are individuals
with whom she has developed weak relationships as a result of being a Blue and Gold Society
member (M26-1A).
Before moving on to the next section pertaining to Blue and Gold Society member
relationships with faculty and staff, there remains to be discussed the category in Table 4.5
pertaining to the unknown strength of relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and
other individuals specifically linked to the Blue and Gold Society. Rather than participant
observation and cultural artifact review being helpful in determining relationship strength among
Blue and Gold Society members and those within their social newtorks, these two data collection
methods proved to be more helpful in simply identifying relationships, or in other words,
providing data as it relates to research question 1A: What individuals make up an undergraduate
student organization member’s social network?
It was clear from participant observation and cultural artifact review that Blue and Gold
Society members in general make up a portion of fellow Blue and Gold Society members’ social
networks. Despite these observations and evidences though, the relationship strength was not
always identifiable. For example, in a photograph reviewed by the author, Blue and Gold
Society members can be seen posing together for pictures while preparing to begin the
Springtime Community Service Project. They appear to be friends and/or acquaintances and a part of each other’s social network, but it is unclear simply from a photograph the extent to which the relationship is strong or weak.
147 Email correspondence from the Manager of Student Alumni Programs to Blue and Gold
Society members, in some cases offering assistance or simply sharing important information, demonstrates that a relationship exists between the Manager and members, but again, this particular cultural artifact was not sufficient enough to determine relationship strength.
Similarly, in terms of the Associate Director for Alumni Membership, the author observed that a relationship existed between the Associate Director and Blue and Gold Society members. As evidenced and observed by the author though, while the Associate Director was in attendance with Society members at the New Member Induction Ceremony, the Associate Director’s attendance and interaction with the members alone was not sufficient enough to determine relationship strength.
As a point of discussion in this section prior to moving on to Section 4.2.2.2, it is interesting that at first thought, one would think that Blue and Gold Society members are close with all fellow members and those other individuals linked to the Blue and Gold Society. This assumption turned out not to be the case though. While at first thought one might think that being a member of student organization does not provide the close relationships necessary for accessing social capital, the literature states otherwise in that both strong and weak relationships provide access to social capital. For example, these weaker relationships between fellow Society members due to a lack of similar characteristics or personal interests amongst each other may actually prove to be beneficial in providing resources across diverse social divisions and providing a more diverse range of resources to Blue and Gold Society members (Field, 2008).
4.2.2.2 Faculty and staff
The second category of relationships to be considered will be Faculty and Staff of the
University of Pittsburgh (see Table 4.6).
148
Table 4.6: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with faculty and staff by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Members’ Social Network – Faculty and Staff Category
As Described As Described As Described by Blue and by Others As Described by Other Gold Society by the Author Means Strength/ Members Closeness of Data collected Relationship Data collected Data collected through Data collected through semi- through semi- participant through structured structured observation cultural interviews interviews artifacts
Strong Alumni Relations Staff Weak Unknown Strong Athletic Director Weak Unknown Strong Athletic Department Weak Staff Unknown Strong Chancellor Weak
Unknown Strong Deans Weak Unknown Strong Director of Student Life Weak
Faculty and Staff and Faculty Unknown Strong Executive Level Staff Weak Unknown Strong Faculty Weak Unknown Strong Staff - General Weak Unknown Strong Vice Provost and Dean Weak of Students Unknown
149 Table 4.6 lists the individuals that make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks
pertaining to this category, the relationship strength and data collection method used to identify
the relationship and relationship strength.
As can be seen again in Table 4.6, the data collection method that identified the majority
of the relationship strength between Blue and Gold Society members and faculty and staff was
semi-structured interviews with the Blue and Gold Society members. The non-Blue and Gold
Society member interviews and cultural artifact review did not account for a large quantity of
references pertaining to Blue and Gold Society members and their relationship strength with
faculty and staff. Also, and as previously mentioned, the author was able to identify a number of
social network relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and faculty and staff
through participant observation, but was only able to identify to a very limited extent the
relationship strength between the two due to the nature of the data collection method.
To begin a discussion of the findings, Table 4.6 lists the strong, bonding relationships
that Blue and Gold Society members have with faculty and staff in answer to research question
1B: Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s
bonding social capital?
A member of the Blue and Gold Society noted that she has a strong relationship with the
Vice Provost and Dean of Students. In fact, the strength of this relationship was explained quite
clearly by this member. She noted about her relationship with the Vice Provost and Dean of
Students that “She has written me letters of recommendation before” (M8-1B). The member continued to explain that the Vice Provost and Dean would not have done such a favor for her if the two of them did not have a such a strong relationship with each other.
150 Strong relationships with the University of Pittsburgh’s Office of Alumni Relations staff
was mentioned quite regularly by Blue and Gold Society members as well. Said one member of
the student organization as she referred to her relationship with Alumni Relations staff in general,
“[we] are definitely a tightknit group” (M23-1B). Another Blue and Gold Society member said
that “Alumni Relations staff are more like family” to him (M28-1B). Fittingly, the author
conducted a semi-structured interview with one Office of Alumni Relations staff person.
Pertaining to the staff person’s relationship strength with Blue and Gold Society members, she agreed that her “relationship with the majority of them is strong and good quality” (I2-1B). The
Alumni Relations staff person continued, “[we] have a positive relationship between each other.”
Turning now to the weaker, bridging relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with faculty and staff, Table 4.6 outlines 10 individuals in answer to research question 1C:
Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s bridging social capital? As opposed to only two bonding relationships in the faculty and staff category, a greater number of bridging relationships exist between Blue and Gold Society members and faculty and staff.
A number of Blue and Gold Society members stated that the Chancellor is a weak, bridging relationship in their social network that has come about as a result of being in the Blue and Gold
Society. In terms of the Chancellor, one member said:
He recognizes my face. I was volunteering at the women’s basketball game on Saturday. He saw me on the sidelines. He came up to me and shook my hand and asked how I was doing. He recognized me as a Blue and Gold Society member. (M10-1A)
Another member noted that although he does not have a strong relationship with the Chancellor,
“if [the Chancellor] saw me on the street, he would recognize me and say hello” (M23-1C). The author, who also participated in various activities alongside Blue and Gold Society members
151 during the course of the research study, had the opportunity to add the Chancellor to his social
network as a bridging relationship while participating in the Blue and Gold Society’s New
Member Induction Ceremony:
Although I have worked at the University for a number of years and have been in attendance at a lot of events where the Chancellor has been in attendance, I have personally never met him. As a result of being a temporary member of the Blue and Gold Society though and participating with them in various activities, I was able to meet the Chancellor for the first time during the New Member Induction Ceremony. We had a nice conversation. It was nice to finally meet him. This is a great example of how being a member of a student organization can provide opportunities for a student to meet new people, even if it is only a brief meeting that produces a weaker, acquaintance type relationship.
The next two categories of individuals included in the list of faculty and staff are
executive level staff, defined as Vice and Associate Vice Chancellors at the University of
Pittsburgh, and the Vice Provost and Dean of Students. Blue and Gold Society members simply
stated that they had opportunities to meet these people, but did not expound on their relationships
with them other than to note that their relationships with these two categories of individuals were
weaker as opposed to stronger.
Faculty, deans and staff each make up the next three categories of individuals with whom
Blue and Gold Society members cited weak, bridging type relationships that have resulted due to
their membership in the Blue and Gold Society. As it relates to faculty, one member noted
during a semi-structured interview that although the relationship is not necessarily strong, he
now “sees [faculty] on a friendly basis, rather than just in a student-faculty relationship” (M5-
1A). Pertaining to deans, two Blue and Gold Society members mentioned that they now have
weak relationships with the deans of their undergraduate majors (M14-1C; M3-1A). The staff person interviewed by the author further explained the bridging relationship he has witnessed
Blue and Gold Society members develop with his school’s dean. “[Blue and Gold Society
152 members] host our events for us. One of them has either hosted or come to multiple events
we’ve had. He has met a number of staff and alumni there, including the dean” (I6-1D). In addition to faculty and deans, members of the Blue and Gold Society are recorded as saying they have had the opportunity to meet “staff in the Dental School” (M24-1A), “high ranking university officials” (M25-1D), “important staff throughout the University” (M7-1A), “staff in the Office of Veterans Services” (M20-1C), and “Office of Institutional Advancement staff”
(M35-1A). Further elaborating on these staff relationships, a particular member of the student organization went on to explain that “I would characterize these types of people as not exactly
‘go-to’ persons, but if I ever needed something from them, I feel confident that I could find their contact information and contact them” (M23-1C). These examples and commentaries highlight the weaker, bridging relationships Society members have with faculty, deans and staff at the
University.
More specifically, Athletic Department staff and the Athletic Director are two other categories of staff that have become bridging relationships within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks. Being in the Blue and Gold Society, said one member, helped her meet the Athletic Director and other Athletic Department staff. “You see them once, they see you again, and they get to know your face and name,” she went on to explain (M8-1A).
Blue and Gold Society members also stated during interview sessions that they have been privileged to meet staff specifically who work in the Office of Alumni Relations. In describing her relationship with Alumni Relations staff, one female member of the student organization elaborated that her “network consists of Alumni staff” (M22-1A). She further explained, “I would describe my relationship with these people as more professional,” rather than closer and more friend-like.
153 The author observed and recorded a number of relationships between faculty and staff and Blue and Gold Society members through participant observation and cultural artifact review.
Rather than speculating as to whether the relationships were bonding or bridging though, the relationships were coded as unknown, as previously noted in Table 4.6 and in answer to research question 1A: What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social
network?
A few examples of these observations and cultural artifacts will be provided herein.
Pertaining to the Chancellor and other staff at the University, the author observed and recorded
while attending the Chancellor’s Faculty and Staff Alumni Luncheon:
One Blue and Gold Society member (M13) is sitting front and center with the Chancellor, a Vice Chancellor, an Associate Athletic Director and other senior level staff of the University. He is engaging in discussion with them, and they do with him as well. This Blue and Gold Society member then is introduced and proceeds to introduce himself and introduce the Chancellor. He has everyone’s attention. The Chancellor then stands and shakes his hand, thanks him for his introduction and proceeds with his remarks. After the program, the Blue and Gold Society member and the Chancellor continue personal one- on-one conversation with each other. The Blue and Gold Society member continues one- on-one conversations with the others previously mentioned at his table too. They seem genuinely interested in him. It seems that this has turned into quite the network and relationship building opportunity for this Blue and Gold Society member. I cannot tell if the relationship is strong or weak among them, but I can definitely tell relationships are being developed and contacts are being made.
On another occasion, while waiting in line with a few Blue and Gold Society members to participate in the Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service activity at the University of Pittsburgh, the author recorded the following:
As I had a lot of time with some of the Blue and Gold Society members also waiting in the line to register, out of curiosity I asked if they knew any of the University staff sitting at the registration table who were in charge of the activity. All four Blue and Gold Society members that I inquired with stated that they knew the gentleman at the table by name, the Director of Student Life and Associate Dean of Students, as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society. I did not get a sense of how well they know him, but I thought it was interesting nonetheless that they all stated that they know him through their association with their student organization, the Blue and Gold Society.
154
Another observation opportunity by the author reveals yet another abundance of individuals that fit into the faculty and staff category with whom Blue and Gold Society members may count toward their ever developing social network. This setting was the University Honors College Luncheon, which received hosting help from a few Blue and Gold Society members. The author observed:
The Blue and Gold Society members are greeting and getting face time with a long list of elite people from the University: the Chancellor’s senior staff; alumni; staff; Alumni Relations staff; donors; Honors College faculty; the Provost; Governmental Relations staff; the Dean of Students.
The list of faculty and staff that Blue and Gold Society members count as members of their social networks is certainly vast and diverse. As a key point of discussion pertaining to this section, it is useful to understand through these findings that most of the relationships Blue and
Gold Society members establish through being in the Blue and Gold Society with individuals in the faculty and staff category are bridging relationships, such as faculty and staff outside of their majors and areas of study. Putnam (1988) acknowledges the benefits of these bridging relationships with faculty and staff, noting for example that Blue and Gold Society members can utilize these relationships to accomplish more open social networking and leverage diverse resources found in outside social networks.
4.2.2.3 Students
The third category of relationships to be considered will be Students, previously defined as students at the University of Pittsburgh (see Table 4.3). Table 4.7 lists the individuals that make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks pertaining to this category, the relationship strength and the data collection method used to identify the relationship and relationship strength.
155 Table 4.7: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with students by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Members’ Social Network – Students Category
As Described As Described As Described by Blue and by Others As Described by Other Gold Society by the Author Means Strength/ Members Closeness of Data collected Relationship Data collected Data collected through Data collected through semi- through semi- participant through structured structured observation cultural interviews interviews artifacts
Strong Greek Life Students Weak Unknown Strong Residence Hall Weak Assistants Unknown Strong Student Athletes Weak Unknown Strong
Student Government Weak Board Members Unknown Strong Student Organization Students Weak Members Unknown Strong Students – General Weak Unknown Strong Students Outside Job Weak Unknown Strong Students Outside Major Weak Unknown
As can be seen in Table 4.7, the data collection method that identified the majority of the relationship strength between Blue and Gold Society members and students was semi-structured interviews with the Blue and Gold Society members. The non-Blue and Gold Society member interviews, participant observation and cultural artifact review did not account for a large amount of references pertaining to Blue and Gold Society members and their relationship strength with
156 students at the University. As previously mentioned, the author was able to identify a few social
network relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and students through participant
observation and cultural artifact review, but was only able to identify to a very limited extent the
relationship strength between the two due to the nature of the data collection methods.
To begin, Table 4.7 lists the strong, bonding relationships that Blue and Gold Society
members have with students in answer to research question 1B: Which individuals provide
access to an undergraduate student organization member’s bonding social capital? Beginning
with Greek Life students, or students who are members of fraternities and sororities at the
University of Pittsburgh, one Blue and Gold Society member (M17) answered during an
interview that he has been able to meet a number of students involved in Greek Life as a result of
being in the Blue and Gold Society and has a strong relationship with them. Asked of another
Blue and Gold Society member by the author during an interview to list those individuals that he has developed strong relationships with through being in the Blue and Gold Society, the member answered that he has met students involved in Greek Life who he would “deem as stronger” friendships as opposed to weaker ones (M26-1B). The author also interviewed a member of a fraternity to query his perspective on the strength of his relationship with Blue and Gold Society members. He said, “I would describe my relationship with Blue and Gold Society members I know as close,” confirming that this particular Greek Life student likewise sees his relationships with Blue and Gold Society members as strong (I4-1B/1C).
Student Government Board members represented another segment of the student population that Blue and Gold Society members claimed to have strong relationships with by virtue of being in the Blue and Gold Society. Said one member of the Society when speaking about his relationship strength with this segment of the student population, “[relationships with]
157 Student Government Board members are strong” (M21-1B). Likewise, the Student Government
Board member interviewed in the research study explained of his strong relationship with Blue and Gold Society members, “I would say it’s pretty strong. I know over half by name” (I8-1A).
Members of other student organizations besides the Student Government Board were also a category of students with whom Blue and Gold Society members said they had a strong relationship. “My relationship with leaders in other student organizations is strong,” claimed one member of the Blue and Gold Society (M26-1B). With over 400 certified student organizations at the University of Pittsburgh, there are ample opportunities for Blue and Gold Society members to interact with and add various student organization members and leaders to their own social networks, as many Blue and Gold Society members noted during the interview process.
Looking now at the weak, bridging relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with students at the University of Pittsburgh, Table 4.7 previously outlined eight individuals in answer to research question 1C: Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s bridging social capital? As opposed to only three bonding relationships, a much greater number of bridging relationships exist between Blue and
Gold Society members and students at the University of Pittsburgh.
For example, one Blue and Gold Society member, who is also a residence hall assistant in one of the housing areas at the University, said that she has been able to meet “residence hall assistants in different residence halls on campus” through other Blue and Gold Society members that she would have never met if it were not for her membership in the Blue and Gold Society
(M9-1D). Before joining the Blue and Gold Society, this member only knew fellow residence hall assistants who worked in the same residence hall as her, but has since had the opportunity to
158 develop informal relationships with residence hall assistance elsewhere throughout the
University, creating bridging relationships.
A number of Blue and Gold Society members also described how being a member of the
Blue and Gold Society has helped them to meet other students outside of their major. Typically
as a student, one would tend to associate only with other students in the same major, which was voiced to the author by many Society members. Through belonging to the Blue and Gold
Society though, one member stated that he has been able to meet other students “outside the
School of Business” (M6-1A). Another member stated during an interview that he has
developed weak relationships with “a lot [of students] outside my major” (M5-1A). The author,
who helped co-host and attended a dinner with another Blue and Gold Society member, an
alumnus and other University of Pittsburgh students, described this opportunity to make weak
acquaintances with other students outside of his primary area of academic study. Said the author
about this experience, “Each of us is from quite different academic backgrounds and areas of
study.”
Blue and Gold Society members also claimed that they have been able to develop weak
relationships with various student athletes at the University. During a semi-structured interview
session, one member of the student organization said he has been able to meet “people on the
women’s basketball team, men’s wrestling team and swimming teams” (M13-1A). These are
students he would not have had the opportunity to meet sans his membership in the Blue and
Gold Society, he explained.
The author observed and recorded a number of relationships between students and Blue
and Gold Society members through participant observation and cultural artifact review. Again,
rather than speculating as to whether the relationships were bonding or bridging though, the
159 relationships were coded as unknown, as noted previously in Table 4.7 and in answer to research
question 1A: What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social
network?
Dinner with 12 Panthers, an evening of various networking dinners for Blue and Gold
Society members and other University of Pittsburgh students hosted by an alumnus at his or her
own home, proved to be a prime opportunity for Blue and Gold Society members to meet
students in general and students outside of a Blue and Gold Society member’s major. Prior to
leaving for the evening’s dinners, each dinner group met to briefly get to know each other. The
author, who attended one of the dinners and met with the dinner group before leaving, observed
and recorded in field notes, “This is a great opportunity to meet other students and students from
other majors.” The author continued to observe that one student in his dinner group was a pre- med student studying biology, one student was studying business, one student was studying psychology, and so forth. Some students were males. Some students were females. There were different races and ethnicities across the students as well. A number of connections between
Blue and Gold Society members and students were made that night.
During the end of the spring semester and as it relates to meeting members of other student organizations, a number of Blue and Gold Society members chose to participate in Relay for Life, a fundraising event for the American Cancer Society. As the author stopped by the
activity, he recorded the following:
I was quickly able to observe that numerous other student organizations were setting up their respective Relay for Life activity areas near the Blue and Gold Society members’ area. Various student organizations were interacting with Blue and Gold Society members, and vice versa. It appeared to be a great opportunity for Blue and Gold Society members to meet and interact with students from other student organizations.
160 Although it was not feasible for the author to determine the exact strength of the relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and other student organization members, it is still beneficial to note that relationships between the two parties manifested themselves at this fundraising event as well as through other means during Blue and Gold Society members’ time spent in the Blue and Gold Society.
Through participant observation, the author was also able to notice and record opportunities for Blue and Gold Society members to meet members of the Student Government
Board. During one early morning weekly Blue and Gold Society meeting, the Student
Government Board president attended and spoke to the student organization. The president provided an update on what the Student Government Board was doing to counter the State budget cuts facing the University. Both before and after the meeting, the president extended personal greetings to many of the Blue and Gold Society members; Blue and Gold Society members likewise went out of their way to interact and talk with the president as well.
One closing point of discussion pertaining to Section 4.2.2.1 and the usefulness of observing that relationships exist but not necessarily knowing the closeness of the relationships is as follows. Of course it is beneficial when one data collection method uncovers a relationship type and strength that other data collection methods were not able to identify. In the case of this research study for instance, even though the author did not identify any new relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and types of students not already identified through other data collection methods, the author was able to confirm at least through observing these unknown strength relationships that relationships do in fact exist between Blue and Gold Society members and Student Government Board members. Knowing that Blue and Gold Society members said in interviews that Student Government Board members are a part of Society
161 members’ social networks is telling, but it is even more telling when the author as well observes
that a relationship exists between Blue and Gold Society members and Student Government
Board members. Perhaps if a similar study were recreated with a slightly different scope of
investigation, the author, having observed that a relationship exists, could then zero in on
relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and Student Government Board
members, and through participant observation, potentially focus in on the strength of the
relationship between these two student organizations.
4.2.2.4 Other individuals
The fourth category of relationships to be considered will be Other Individuals, previously defined as alumni, donors, trustees, government officials and other individuals (see
Table 4.3). Table 4.8 lists the individuals that make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks pertaining to this category, the relationship strength and the data collection method used to identify the relationship and relationship strength.
As can be seen in Table 4.8, the data collection method that identified the majority of the relationship strength between Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals was semi- structured interviews with the Blue and Gold Society members. The non-Blue and Gold Society member interviews and participant observation did not account for a large amount of references pertaining to Blue and Gold Society members and their relationship strength with other individuals. Cultural artifact review only identified one relationship between Blue and Gold
Society members and other individuals. As was the case previously, the author had limited success identifying relationship strength between Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals through participant interviews and cultural artifact review.
162 Table 4.8: Blue and Gold Society members – relationships with other individuals by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Member’s Social Network – Other Individuals
As Described As Described As Described by Blue and by Others As Described by Other Gold Society by the Author Means Strength/ Members Closeness of Data collected Relationship Data collected Data collected through Data collected through semi- through semi- participant through structured structured observation cultural interviews interviews artifacts
Strong Alumni Weak Unknown Strong Alumni Association Weak President Unknown Strong Board of Trustees Weak Unknown Strong Donors Weak
Other Unknown Strong Government Officials Weak Unknown Strong Local Business Owners Weak Unknown Strong Potential Employers Weak Unknown
To begin, Table 4.8 notes the strong, bonding relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with students in answer to research question 1B: Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s bonding social capital? Only a single strong, bonding relationship was identified between Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals not mentioned in the previous categories of Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff and Students. The relationship was with alumni, noted during an interview session with a particular Blue and Gold Society member (M8). The Blue and Gold Society member
163 interviewed stated that as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, she has had the
opportunity to develop a strong relationship with a particular alumnus. She further described the
strength of the relationship as a close friend type relationship, rather than a more casual,
acquaintance type relationship.
Looking now at the weak, bridging relationships that Blue and Gold Society members
have with other individuals not mentioned in the previous three categories, Table 4.8 outlines
five individuals in answer to research question 1C: Which individuals provide access to an
undergraduate student organization member’s bridging social capital? As opposed to only a
single bonding relationship, a much greater number of bridging relationships exist among Blue
and Gold Society members and other individuals.
Also previously described as a strong relationship, semi-structured interviews and participant observation identified that Blue and Gold Society members similarly have weak relationships with University of Pittsburgh alumni. During one interview session, a Blue and
Gold Society member stated that “alumni are the ones that I have the weakest relationships with”
(M1-1C). An alumnus who hosted a Dinner with 12 Panthers in his home similarly stated, “I know the ones who came to dinner at my home. I’d say I have an outsider relationship with them, but I know them more than the typical student I might see on the street” (I1-1A). The author, through participant observation, corroborated both the Blue and Gold Society member’s and the alumnus’ claims that Blue and Gold Society members have the opportunity to develop weak relationships with alumni as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society. During one early morning weekly meeting, the author recorded a Blue and Gold Society member (M13) reporting back about hosting a recent event. This Blue and Gold Society member made a point
164 to mention more than once that he was able to meet various alumni while he was assisting with
hosting the event.
A small number of Blue and Gold Society members mentioned the volunteer Pittsburgh
Alumni Association President as a weak contact within their social network. One member said
that he does not know the President well, but believes if necessary he can “ask him for help, talk to
him about scholarship opportunities, get help academically or professionally” (M3-1B). Another
Society member (M26) also stated that he has had the opportunity to meet the President as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society student organization, but considers the President a weaker relationship rather than a stronger one.
University donors was a type of individual that did not fall into the strong, bonding relationship category, but rather fell into the weak, bridging relationship category. One particular donor and opportunity was noted by a Blue and Gold Society member as the author and the member engaged in an interview session. During the course of the research study, a donor made the largest individual donation to the University of Pittsburgh in its history. The donation totaled approximtely $160 million. This particular Blue and Gold Society member said the he “was able to shake Dietrich’s hand,” which is the name of the donor who publically made the transformational gift to the University (M23-2A).
Blue and Gold Society members also stated during interview sessions that they considered
members of the University’s Board of Trustees as weak relationships within their social networks.
“We’re not that close,” said one Blue and Gold Society member about the trustee he has met while
being a Blue and Gold Society member (M31-1C). Regardless though, the member still counted
the trustee member as a part of his social network that has resulted from being in the Blue and
Gold Society. The author interviewed one trustee during the research study. When asked if he had
165 a weak, bridging type relationship with any Blue and Gold Society members and if so with how
many, the trustee answered, “I’d say [with] about five,” which confirms the claims made by Blue
and Gold Society members that they have opportunities to establish weak relationships with
Trustee members of the University (I3-1C).
In terms of government officials, Blue and Gold Society members had the unique opportunity to personally meet Vice President of the United States Joe Biden. These members also included him as a weak contact that they were able to make during their recent time as Blue and
Gold Society members. This opportunity occurred when the Vice President came to campus to address a small group of students, at which time the Blue and Gold Society members were asked to sit behind Biden on stage during his address and were given the opportunity to meet him upon its conculsion. Said one Blue and Gold Society member, “I met Joe Biden. He had a personal conversation with me. He asked me about my concerns, about the economy. He talked about his children. It made me look at him in a different light” (M29-4). Besides Biden, other Blue and
Gold Society members said they have had the chance to meet and create weak contacts with
“Governor Corbett” (M32-2A) of Pittsburgh, the “Senator of Nebraska and the Senator of
Tennessee” (M32-2A), “local government officials” (M9-1C), and other local legislators as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society.
The author observed and recorded a number of relationships between other individuals and Blue and Gold Society members through participant observation and cultural artifact review.
Again, rather than speculating as to whether the relationships were bonding or bridging though, the relationships were coded as unknown, as outlined previously in Table 4.8 and in answer to research question 1A: What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization
member’s social network?
166 The author observed and identified through cultural artifact review a number of relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals that do not fall into the categories of Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff or students. The author noted that relationships existed with the Alumni Association President, Alumni, Government Officials,
Donors, and Board of Trustees members. Two unique groups of individuals not mentioned thus far and not identified through interviews or participant observation include potential employers and local business owners. During one early morning weekly meeting, a representative from
Teach for America, a non-profit organization that offers a unique opportunity for recent graduates to teach in urban and rural communities in exchange for student loan remission, spoke to the Blue and Gold Society members and developed professional contacts with a number of the
Society members. The author observed many members exchange contact information with the representative, and vice versa.
Another unique weak, bridging relationship identified by the author not previously mentioned by Blue and Gold Society members was local business leaders. Each year, the
University of Pittsburgh’s women’s basketball team hosts an event and basketball game entitled
Pink the Pete, meaning everyone is encouraged to wear the color pink to the Petersen Events
Center for a designated women’s basketball game to show solidary in the fight against cancer. In correlation with this event, Blue and Gold Society members go out into the local community and ask local business owners if they would support the event by allowing members to paint slogans and pink cancer awareness ribbons on their store’s windows. The author recorded in field notes of the great opportunity this was for Blue and Gold Society members to make weak associations with local business owners. Some Blue and Gold Society members talked openly about the fun, casual interactions they had with owners.
167 For discussion purposes, this section on the relationships that Blue and Gold Society
members have with other individuals demonstrates the positive effect that utilizing multiple data
collection methods can have on a research study such as this. For example, were it not for
participant observation and cultural artifact review, and if this research study relied solely on
semi-structured interviews to investigate the social networks of Blue and Gold Society members,
the author would not have been able to identify local business owners and potential employers as
being a part of the social networks of Blue and Gold Society members. As the literature
previously mentioned, it is often difficult to identify and measure social relations as they pertain
to the study of social capital because of the multi-dimensionality of social relationships
(Coleman, 2002) and the need to spend time in the field in order to capture the local individual realities of the sample and population being studied (Woolcock, 2002). In this case, the author
was able to address and overcome these obstacles through the use of ethnographic methods such
as participant observation and cultural artifact review.
4.2.3 Blue and Gold Society members’ social network – development process
Through semi-structured interviews, participant observation and cultural artifact review, the
author identified the various individuals who make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social
networks (see Section 4.2.2). This section will now present the findings pertaining to how the
relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and the many individuals within their
social network develop. As outlined in the literature review, social network development
process as it relates to social capital is referred to as the ways in which relationships are
developed, ranging from rigid, institutionalized means to more random, informal means
(Halpern, 2005).
168 The findings in this section essentially answer research question 1D: Through what processes does an undergraduate student organization member’s social network develop? Semi- structured interviews, participant observation and cultural artifact review were utilized to collect the data to answer this research question. Table 4.9 reintroduces research question 1D and includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in Blue and Gold Society member’s social network. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question being asked.
Table 4.9: Research question 1D – Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Capital Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Based on Literature Question Review
Concerning Social Networks
1D. Through what processes
Asked of Blue and Gold have your relationships
Society Members with these individuals
developed?
1D. Through what The ways in which 1D. Through what processes Asked of Individuals in processes does an relationships are developed, have your relationships Blue and Gold Society undergraduate ranging from rigid, with Blue and Gold Member’s Social student organization institutionalized means to Society members Network member’s social random, informal means developed? network develop? (Halpern, 2005). 1D. Through what processes Asked by author during does a Blue and Gold participant observation Society member’s and cultural artifact social network review develop?
Figure 4.5 illustrates how the author gathered, recorded and organized the data in NVivo
9 as it relates to Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes. After
169 collecting data for research question 1D, the author thematically organized the data utilizing
NVivo 9.
Figure 4.5: Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes node structure
In the hierarchical node structure in Figure 4.5, the primary parent node is Social Network
Development Process. Under that parent node, there are child nodes for different categories or themes of individuals: Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff, Students and Others. Then
170 within the theme or child node of Blue and Gold Society, for example, additional child nodes for the category of individual exist, such as Manager of Student Alumni Programs. Finally, within the node of Manager of Student Alumni Programs, additional nodes exist for each specific development process, such as Weekly Meetings. Through this process the author inductively analyzed and thematically organized the data and findings.
This section is divided into four subsections, one each for the four categories of individuals mentioned thus far, namely Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff, Students and
Others. Similar to the previous section, each subsection here will employ a table to outline the findings as they pertain to the individual in the social network and the processes through which
Blue and Gold Society members developed the relationship with the particular individual. The tables also display the data collection method utilized to collect the data to demonstrate which data collection methods were most effective in identifying certain types of data. Additionally, displaying the findings in this manner results in data triangulation. An attempt was made to identify and include the social network development process for each social network individual identified and listed in Section 4.2. A few cases exist where a development process was not identified and included in this section for a particular social network member. An effort was made to identify and include each relationship and its specific development process in the forthcoming subsections.
4.2.3.1 Social network development process – Blue and Gold Society
As a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with various staff, students and others specifically linked to the Blue and
Gold Society. Table 4.10 lists three of those individuals and the process through which Blue and
Gold Society members developed relationships with them.
171 Table 4.10: Social network development processes with individuals tied to the Blue and Gold Society by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Members Social Network Development Process with Blue and Gold Society Category
Email Retreats Retreats Focused Effort Commonalities Hosting Events Mutual Friends -on- One Interactions Weekly Meetings Weekly Being Help Offered Induction Ceremony Repetitive Interactions Random Circumstance Length of Time Known People People Getting to Know One Collaboration on Projects Collaboration on Induction During Same Year Same Induction During Interactions Outside Blue and Gold Society and Gold Blue Interactions Outside
Associate Director of BGI BGI BGI BGI PO BGI BGI BGI Alumni PO Membership Category Category
Blue and BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI PO PO CA BGI BGI BGI Gold Society PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO Members CA CA
Manager of BGI Student BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI PO OI OI CA OI OI OI OI Alumni PO Blue and Gold Society Programs Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
The left hand column lists the individuals, while the row along the top lists the various development processes. Whenever a particular process is applicable to a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members, interviews with individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social network and cultural artifact review that Blue and
Gold Society members develop relationships with other Blue and Gold Society members through
172 Collaboration on Projects with each other. Table 4.12 is a collective representation of the
findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific
development process was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that a specific development
process was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data
collection methods. More specific findings related to these development processes will now be
elaborated on qualitatively.
First, Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with the Associate Director
of Alumni Membership through eight distinct processes, as noted in Table 4.10). As it relates to
focused effort, one Blue and Gold Society member said, “I look to build relationships on my own
[with the Associate Director of Alumni Membership]” (M10-1D). In terms of getting to know
the Associate Director, another member explained, “Some people know you as a Blue and Gold
Society member, but don’t always know you outside of Blue and Gold Society. It can go a long
way when you learn about others” (M3-2B). Numerous other Blue and Gold Society members stated that they have been able to develop a relationship with the Associate Director “through events we host,” said one member (M31-1D). The author recorded while observing the New
Member Induction Ceremony that “the Associate Director of Alumni Membership was present
and interacted with current and new Blue and Gold Society members.” Speaking about the
Associate Director, one member of the Society stated, “The longer I know them, the closer I feel
to them” (M2-1B). There are also many times when Blue and Gold Society members just “stop
by the Alumni Center, and this provides random and spontaneous time to talk [with the Associate
Director],” a staff person in the Office of Alumni Relations explained (I2-1D). The frequency of
interaction with the Associate Director was also noted by Blue and Gold Society members (M10-
1D; M18-1D) as a means of developing a relationship with her. Finally, the author observed that
173 weekly Wednesday morning meetings served as a great opportunity to develop a relationship with the Associate Director as she was frequently present.
Second, Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with other Blue and Gold
Society members through the various processes noted in Table 4.10. A couple members both noted that “the Blue and Gold Society members I was inducted with” are the ones with whom they have developed better relationships over the years (M1-1D). Another Society member explained that “weekly meetings in the morning are helpful” in developing relationships with fellow members (M3-1D). When asked how she has gone about developing relationships with
Blue and Gold Society members, one member said in terms of collaborating, “we work together on a lot of things” (M15-1B). Relating to length of time known, one member said, “the longer I know a Blue and Gold Society member, the stronger the relationship is” (M2-1B). Another pronounced, “I have developed relationships with Blue and Gold Society members through working events with them” (M11-1A). The author observed and recorded a random circumstance through which he developed a relationship with a fellow Blue and Gold Society member (M23):
I was with my wife at an event hosted by ESPN highlighting our men’s basketball game. I was on the floor with my wife watching. Various students were in the stands on the other side of the court facing me. A Blue and Gold Society member that I had just recently met texted me and asked if my wife and I were enjoying our time at the event as he saw us across from him on the court. We exchanged a couple texts back and forth. This was a chance meeting that I didn’t plan on with this member, but it turned out to be the beginning of a relationship with this member.
Also, “Spending time with Blue and Gold Society members outside of Blue and Gold Society meetings and activities is how these relationships have developed,” one member of the student organization explained (M22-1D). Taking time to get to know Blue and Gold Society members was also noted during a Society member interview: “By welcoming new Blue and Gold Society
174 members and getting to know them helps me grow closer to them” (M4-1D). Similarly, it takes
effort. The following was witnessed by the author while attending the Alumni Faculty and Staff
Luncheon where Blue and Gold Society members were in attendance to help host:
The Blue and Gold Society members that see me make a point to come up to me and say a special hello to me. I feel like I am more than just another guest to them. I really feel like I am starting to become one of their fellow members in the Blue and Gold Society for the time I am conducting this research study.
According to one Blue and Gold Society member, repetitive interactions also help to grow
relationships among Blue and Gold Society members. “We see each other on a weekly basis, at
events, walking home together. It all has a snowball effect,” expounded the member (M14-1A).
Pertaining to one-on-one interactions and the positive effect it has on relationship development
between Blue and Gold Society members, one member explained, “One-on-one interaction with
other Blue and Gold Society members and alumni are more effective. Working in smaller
groups with people allows me to build relationships easier” (M12-1D). The yearly retreat held at
the beginning of each school year and the annual New Member Induction Ceremony were both
noted by Blue and Gold Society members as a means of meeting and growing closer to other
members of the group. Stated one member in relation to role that commonalities play, “I’m
closer to those Blue and Gold Society members that I have more common ground with in
addition to the things we have in common as Blue and Gold Society members” (M28-1C). And finally, the author noted through cultural artifact review that email correspondence between and among Blue and Gold Society members led to relationship development one with another.
Third, Blue and Gold Society members have ample means through which they foster relationships with the Manager of Student Alumni Programs, also referred to as their student organization advisor (see Table 4.10). For instance, many of the members stated that attendance at weekly meetings in which the Manager of Student Alumni Programs is present helps in
175 relationship development. Also according to Blue and Gold Society members, hosting events
where the Manager is present plays a role in relationship development between them. As it
relates to relationship development and taking time to get to know Blue and Gold Society members, the Manager of Student Alumni Programs explained that she has “built a reputation
with them” while she has gotten to know them and they have gotten to know her (I5-1D). It also
takes focused effort, as one Blue and Gold Society member noted about his relationship
development with the Manager. He said of the Manager, “I go out of my way to say hi” when I
see her on the street (M13-1B). When asked by the author how she has developed a relationship
with current Blue and Gold Society members, the Manager of Student Alumni Programs
explained that she is “there to help assist them” and to “help them medically, emotionally” (I5-
1A). The author also observed a great deal of regular email correspondence between the
Manager and Blue and Gold Society members that contributed to relationship development
amongst them. Lastly, through participant observation, the author recorded in his field notes that
the Manager was in attendance at the New Member Induction Ceremony and her attendance at
the activity contributed to her relationship development with both current and new members of
the student organization.
As a point of discussion, it is significant to highlight from the findings in Section 4.2.3.1
that Blue and Gold Society members do not just simply develop relationships with their fellow
Blue and Gold Society members as a result of their mutual membership in this particular student
organization. Blue and Gold Society members who, for example, put forth effort to get to know
and interact with fellow members end up developing relationships with them. What is also
important to note is that Blue and Gold Society members recognize that it takes effort and it does
176 not just happen. Merely joining a student organization does not necessarily lead to social network development.
4.2.3.2 Social network development process – faculty and staff
As a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various faculty and staff of the University of Pittsburgh (see Table 4.11).
Table 4.11: Social network development processes with faculty and staff by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Members’ Social Network Development Process with Faculty and Staff Category
Known Society Society Process Being a Weekly Random Random andGold Meetings Induction Interview Getting to Repetitive ngth of Time Time of ngth Ceremony onProjects Interactions Interactions OutsideBlue KnowPeople Collaboration Circumstance Blue and Gold Gold and Blue Member of the the of Member Focused Effort Focused Hosting Events Hosting Le Alumni BGI BGI BGI BGI PO Relations OI BGI BGI OI PO OI OI BGI OI PO OI Staff PO PO PO Athletic BGI Department BGI PO Staff Athletic BGI BGI Director PO BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Chancellor PO PO BGI PO PO PO PO PO CA CA CA BGI BGI
Category Deans BGI BGI OI OI PO Director of BGI Student BGI BGI PO PO Life Executive BGI PO BGI PO PO Level Staff PO CA PO
Faculty and Staff and Faculty BGI BGI Faculty PO BGI BGI BGI BGI PO BGI BGI BGI BGI Staff – PO BGI OI OI OI OI General CA PO PO PO PO PO CA Vice Provost and BGI BGI BGI BGI Dean of PO PO Students Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
177 Table 4.11 lists ten varieties of faculty and staff and the processes through which Blue and Gold
Society members developed relationships with them. The left hand column lists the individuals,
while the row along the top lists the various development processes. Whenever a particular
process is applicable to a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection
method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue
and Gold Society members, interviews with individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’
social networks and participant observation that Blue and Gold Society members develop
relationships with Office of Alumni Relations Staff through Hosting Events. Table 4.11 is a
collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent
the number of times a specific development process was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that
a specific development process was recorded at least once during the research study through one
or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to these development
processes will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
To begin, Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with Office of Alumni
Relations staff through various means (see Table 4.11). A Blue and Gold Society member
explained that relationships with Alumni Relations staff “just arise from the circumstance you’re
in” (M1-1D). One member also noted that one way in which he goes about developing a relationship with Alumni Relations staff is “through hosting events and interaction through events” (M16-1D). According to the Alumni Relations staff person interviewed, “Managing projects together, joining together to get something done” (I2-1D), or in other words
collaborating on projects, was a catalyst for developing relationships among Alumni Relations
staff and Blue and Gold Society members. Sometimes, relationships develop between Blue and
Gold Society members and Office of Alumni Relations staff through focused effort, as
178 articulated by one member of the student organization: “I make sure I meet all Alumni Relations
staff and know them by name” (M13-1B). Repetitive interactions between Blue and Gold
Society members and Alumni Relations staff also played a role in relationship development. The author attended the University of Pittsburgh’s Board of Trustees meeting and the University
Honors College Luncheon which followed later in the day and recorded in field notes that “Some
Blue and Gold Society members have had multiple opportunities in a single day to interact with
these people,” referring partially to Office of Alumni Relations staff who were in attendance at
both events.
Social networks develop between Blue and Gold Society members and Athletic
Department Staff through hosting events and through repetitive interactions, as previously noted
in Table 4.11. Prior to the Alumni Faculty and Staff Luncheon, the author observed that some
Blue and Gold Society members arrived early to direct various individuals to their seats,
including Athletic Department staff, which turned into an opportunity for members to meet and
talk with Athletic Department staff on a one-on-one basis. As it relates to repetitive interactions,
one Blue and Gold Society member during an interview session commented on his relationship
development with Athletic Department staff by saying that after he initially meets them, “then at
a later time in the future, you see them on the street and say hello to continue to build
relationships [with them]” (M16-1D).
Next, Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development process with the
Director of Student Life will be described. Table 4.11 notes four distinct processes through
which these relationships develop. A member of the student organization said that “through
repetitive interactions” he has been able to build a relationship with the Director of Student Life
(M17-1D). The author observed the following while preparing to participate in the Martin
179 Luther King Jr. Day of Service activity that he attended with a few Blue and Gold Society
members, noting in particular that sometimes Blue and Gold Society members meet staff, such as
the Director of Student Life, simply by the fact that they are members of the Blue and Gold
Society:
As I had a lot of time with them waiting in the line to register, I asked if they knew any of the University Staff sitting at the registration table that were in charge of the activity. All four Blue and Gold Society members that I inquired with stated that they knew the gentleman at the table by name—the Director of Student Life—as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society.
Again, at a subsequent weekly Blue and Gold Society meeting, the author observed one Blue and
Gold Society member (M24) reporting back on the Day of Service activity, stating that a lot of
University staff participated alongside him, such as the Director of Student Life. This
commentary by the Blue and Gold Society member demonstrates also that through interacting
with the Director informally outside of official Blue and Gold Society hosted events
relationships with staff have the opportunity to develop.
Table 4.11 also lists the two methods of relationship development identified during the
research study that Blue and Gold Society members experienced with the University of
Pittsburgh’s Athletic Director. Said one member, by getting her “name and face out there” and
actively taking advantage of opportunities to meet people, she has been able to meet and talk
with University staff, such as the Athletic Director (M8-1D). Another Blue and Gold Society member described his relationship development, although weak, with the Athletic Director as a combination of repetitive interactions, stating that “it’s a snowball effect” as he has had multiple opportunities to meet the Director over the course of his time in the Blue and Gold Society thus far (M8-1A).
180 Blue and Gold Society members have multiple opportunities and means through which to
develop relationships with University of Pittsburgh staff, in general, as outlined in Table 4.11).
Identified through an interview with a non-Blue and Gold Society member, one staff person in the Graduate School of Business who occasionally interacts with Society members outside of formal events and activities said, “I recognize them on campus when I walk past them and say hello” (I6-1A). The staff person continued as it relates to meeting Blue and Gold Society
members through events hosted by Society members, stating simply that “They host events for us” (I6-1A). Through a particular set of cultural artifacts, namely photographs from the
Springtime Community Service Project, the author noted in terms of collaboration on projects that one Blue and Gold Society member (M29) was talking with and working alongside a
University staff person to plant flowers outside the Student Union.
Deans were previously identified as an individual in Blue and Gold Society members’ social network. A list of relationship development processes Blue and Gold Society members engage in with University of Pittsburgh deans is included in Table 4.11. A staff person interviewed during the research study mentioned the following as it relates to both repetitive interactions and hosting events both serving as a means for Blue and Gold Society members to build a relationship with his school’s dean:
They host our events for us. One of them has either hosted or come to multiple events we’ve had. He has met a number of staff and alumni there, including the dean. So this one in particular has hosted events, been invited as a guest to events, attended events as a guest, helped with our student fundraising campaign, and so on. Multiple interactions. (I6-1D)
As it relates to focused effort being necessary to develop a relationship with the Dean of the
School of Education, one Blue and Gold Society member commented during an interview that
181 “Some Blue and Gold Society members stay more detached than others. I look to build relationships on my own. Some Blue and Golds don’t” (M10-1D).
Specifically as it relates to faculty, the research study identified numerous processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with them (see Table
4.11). Speaking of faculty she has met as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society and the importance of interactions outside of the realm of the Blue and Gold Society, one member explained that “The more activities I have with them outside of Blue and Gold Society activities fosters closeness between us” (M5-1B). At one point during the course of the research study, the author observed a couple Blue and Gold Society members (M15; M14) volunteer at a Graduate
School of Business Alumni Awards Reception. As recorded in field notes, the author noted that volunteering to help host the reception proved to be a “great opportunity to meet faculty [for the
Blue and Gold Society members].” Simply being a member of a student organization, such as the Blue and Gold Society, also serves as a means of developing a relationship with faculty as well. Along these same lines, one Blue and Gold Society member said about how she has developed relationships with faculty:
A lot of my teachers and advisors are interested in what we do as Blue and Gold Society members, which has allowed me to get to know more people. The head of my school department found out I was a Blue and Gold and so now I know her. The relationships you make as a Blue and Gold are an added bonus. They see me as a Blue and Gold as being a part of a prestigious group. It opens doors for me. (M11-1A)
The Chancellor was one individual within current Blue and Gold Society members’ social network as well, whose relationship with Blue and Gold Society members has developed through various unique processes (see Table 4.11). One member noted that by random circumstance he has been able to develop a relationship with the Chancellor. Said the Blue and
Gold Society member, “My relationship with the Chancellor has developed as a result of the
182 situation more than anything” (M26-1D). Another Blue and Gold Society member discussed the
importance of getting to know the Chancellor when opportunities to do so arise. “Volunteering
at events where he is and talking with him at these events helps him to get to know me and me to
get to know him” (M23-1D). Similarly, hosting events where the Chancellor is present has
proven to be a successful means of developing a relationship with the Chancellor. One member
related the following instance:
I was volunteering at the women’s basketball game on Saturday. He saw me on the sidelines. He came up to me and shook my hand and asked how I was doing. He recognized me as a Blue and Gold Society member. (M10-1A)
Through cultural artifact review, the author noticed on the Blue and Gold Society new member
application form a section that stated that Blue and Gold Society members will have the
opportunity to host “Chancellor’s Events” where of course the Chancellor is present. The New
Member Induction Ceremony also proved to be a unique opportunity and process through which
Blue and Gold Society members are able to meet and develop a relationship with the Chancellor.
In fact, a member of the Society said that he “met the Chancellor through the Blue and Gold
Induction Ceremony” (M13-1D). The author, a staff member of the University of Pittsburgh for
over five years, also had the chance to meet the Chancellor for the first time at the Ceremony: “I
personally was able to meet the Chancellor for the first time because of my presence there. We had a nice conversation.” Simply by being a Blue and Gold Society member, one has an opportunity to add the Chancellor to his or her social network. One member explained,
“Because I am a Blue and Gold Society member, I get to meet him and interact with him. If I were not a Blue and Gold Society member, this opportunity would not exist for me” (M26-1D).
The research study found that University of Pittsburgh executive level staff were also a
part of Blue and Gold Society members’ social network as a result of being in the Blue and Gold
183 Society, as noted in Table 4.11. While observing the New Member Induction Ceremony, the
author noticed the presence of the “Vice Chancellor for Alumni Relations” and the “Vice
Chancellor for Institutional Advancement.” The author also observed Blue and Gold Society members helping to host the Alumni Faculty and Staff Luncheon, where during the program
Blue and Gold Society members sat at a special table with the University’s Vice Chancellor for
Governmental Relations. In addition to observing Blue and Gold Society members adding relationships with vice chancellors to their social network through the New Member Induction
Ceremony and through hosting events, the author also observed prior to the start of the Board of
Trustees meeting that many Blue and Gold Society members were not just sitting around waiting for the meeting to start. Rather, they were making an effort to interact and talk with members of the Chancellor’s Senior Staff, Vice Chancellor for Governmental Relations, and the Vice
Chancellor for the Medical and Health Sciences Foundation.
Finally, the research study identified numerous mean through which relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and the Vice Provost and Dean of Students developed
(see Table 4.11). When asked during an interview session how he knew the Vice Provost and
Dean of Students, one Blue and Gold Society member explained that he has been able to develop a relationship with her “through hosting events” (M16-1D). The author similarly observed a
couple of Blue and Gold Society members (M12; M28) having the opportunity to “get face time
with a long list of elite people” including the Vice Provost and Dean of Students while helping to
host the University Honors College Luncheon. Another member of the student organization,
when asked about the process through which she has developed a relationship with the Vice
Provost and Dean of Students, explained that in addition to meeting her and seeing her at events,
she has had to “take initiative” and talk to her one-on-one to build the relationship (M8-1D).
184 One member contributed more by explaining that the repetitive opportunities to interact with the
Vice Provost and Dean of Students have helped her relationship with the Vice Provost and Dean develop. Along those same lines and speaking in regards to the Vice Provost and Dean and other staff at the University, this same Blue and Gold Society member said, “You see them once, then you see them again while working events, and then they get to know your face and name” (M8-
1A).
To conclude Section 4.2.3.2 and the findings pertaining to the various social network development processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with University of Pittsburgh faculty and staff, it is worth noting the plethora of processes that it takes for Blue and Gold Society members to actually develop relationships with the many types of faculty and staff. Students in general are around faculty and staff on a regular basis merely as students at the University. Surely, students occasionally, yet unknowingly, walk by the Athletic
Director on the street or see the Vice Provost and Dean of Students conducting a student orientation meeting in which students are in attendance. Students may not always know that the person wearing a suit walking toward them on the street is in fact the Athletic Director, for example. Students may also not ever be placed in a situation to see the Vice Provost and Dean of
Students in a more informal, smaller setting. It appears from the data and findings though that being in a student organization, such as the Blue and Gold Society, acts as a facilitation mechanism to put student organization members in the right place at the right time to interact with faculty and staff at another, more important level—a level that will allow for social network and relationship development. Also, being a member of a student organization helps students to put names and titles to faces through the course having information pointed out to one by another, so that when a student organization member see a gentleman walking down the street on
185 campus wearing a nice suit and it has been previously pointed out to the member that this particular individual is the Athletic Director, the member might possibly acknowledge or introduce himself or herself to this gentleman at that time or at a more appropriate time in the future. Membership in a student organization clearly adds an additional layer of opportunities to meet, learn about and interact with faculty and staff possibly beyond the opportunities afforded to non-student organization members and/or students in general.
4.2.3.3 Social network development process – students
As a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various students throughout the University of Pittsburgh (see Table 4.12).
Table 4.12 lists six categories of these individuals and the many processes through which Blue and Gold Society members developed relationships with them. The left hand column lists the categories of students, while the row along the top lists the various development processes.
Whenever a particular process is applicable to a particular type of student, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members and interviews with individuals within Blue and
Gold Society members’ social networks that Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with Greek Life Students through Interactions outside the Blue and Gold Society.
Table 4.12 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific development process was recorded.
Rather, the table denotes that a specific development process was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to these development processes will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
186 Table 4.12: Social network development processes with students by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Member’s Social Network Development Process with Students Category
People Projects Random Random GoldSociety Repetitive Interactions Interactions Gold Society Gold Circumstance Blue and Gold Gold and Blue Focused Effort Focused Commonalities Hosting Events Hosting Friends Mutual Getting Know to Collaborationon and and Blue Outside BeingBlue the in SocietyMembers Weekly Meetings Weekly
Greek Life BGI BGI OI BGI OI BGI BGI Students OI OI Residence Hall BGI Assistants
BGI Students in BGI BGI OI BGI BGI OI PO BGI PO BGI General PO PO PO CA PO PO
Category CA
Student BGI Athletes Student Students Government BGI OI BGI Board OI PO Members Student BGI Organization PO BGI PO BGI BGI Members CA Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
To begin, Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with Greek Life students through various means. These seven distinct development processes are listed in Table
4.12. Two members of the Blue and Gold Society stated, respectively, that through repetitive interactions, or “through repeated meetings” (M17-1D) and “interacting frequently” (M18-1D) with students, Society members develop relationships with Greek Life students. Merely belonging to the Blue and Gold Society also acted as a facilitating factor for relationship development between members and Greek Life students. When asked by the author how he has
187 met and developed relationships with Greek Life students, one Blue and Gold Society member explained that it was “by virtue of me being a Blue and Gold Society member” (M17-1D).
Although many relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and Greek Life students begin as a result of belonging to the Blue and Gold Society, relationships with Greek Life students continue to develop via interactions outside the Society and its associated functions. A
Greek Life student (I4) interviewed during the course of the research study commented that she tends to initially meet Blue and Gold Society members at activities and events at the University hosted by Blue and Gold Society members, then she has the opportunity to further develop her relationships with these members through other activities and opportunities to interact outside of formal Blue and Gold Society related functions, such as Greek Life and student affairs related activities. One Blue and Gold Society member (M26) said that having mutual friends with other
Blue and Gold Society members also helps to facilitate the development of relationships with
Greek Life students. This same member elaborated:
As for students involved in Greek life, I have found that a number of Blue and Gold Society members are involved in different Greek life organizations. Whereas before I would not have ventured out to meet and hang out with such and such fraternity, for example, I will now because a Blue and Gold Society member in that particular fraternity will help facilitate me getting acquainted with them and I now feel comfortable interacting with them whereas before I didn’t because I didn’t know anyone in the fraternity. Even if you have a slight connection with so and so, when you meet someone that knows so and so, you automatically have a connection with the person because you both know so and so. It’s easier to strike up conversations and meet people like this. (M26-1D)
Having things in common with Greek Life students and engaging in regular collaboration on projects were also both effective means through which Blue and Gold Society members have been able to develop relationships with Greek Life students.
Blue and Gold Society members have the opportunity to meet and develop relationships with residence hall assistants as well (see Table 4.12). Relationships between Blue and Gold
188 Society members and residence hall assistants can be forged through the help of Blue and Gold
Society members. One Blue and Gold Society member explained that “Other Blue and Gold
Society members are residence hall assistants in different residence halls on campus. I never
would have met them and other residence hall assistants unless I had met them as a fellow Blue
and Gold Society member” (M9-1D). This member went on to explain that as a residence hall assistant, she typically would only have the opportunity to meet the other residence hall assistants that work in the same residence hall as her. Fellow Blue and Gold Society members have opened the door for her to meet residence hall assistants in other halls on campus, whether they are also Blue and Gold Society members or are introduced to them through Blue and Gold
Society members.
Although this subsection attempts to present findings related to the process through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with various, specific types of students at the University of Pittsburgh, some of the data obtained ended up referring strictly to students in general. Table 4.12 lists the 10 processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with these non-specific students. Hosting events proved to be an effective means for Blue and Gold Society members to develop relationships with students. In particular, hosting a Dinner with 12 Panthers facilitated opportunities for Blue and Gold Society members to meet and get to know other students. “Through Dinner with 12 Strangers, I met some neat students,” said one member (M25-2A). A student interviewed as a part of the research study concurred, “I met a couple Blue and Gold Society members at the Dinner with 12
Strangers” (I7-1D). Meeting and developing relationships also takes focused effort on the part of
Blue and Gold Society members though. One student explained that students are “willing to talk
to us. You have to take initiative and talk to people though” (M8-1D). Society members’
189 association with the Blue and Gold Society is helpful in meeting other students as well. One member referring to students in general specifically said, “When I speak up and let people know that I am in the Blue and Gold Society, I find that people gravitate toward me” (M24-1D). Blue and Gold Society members also introduce fellow members to their friends. “I am close with one of my Blue and Gold Society friend’s roommates. We go out to dinner and stuff with the Blue and Gold Society member and the roommate” (M15-1A). Meeting and interacting with students more than once serves as a help in relationship development with students in general. Referring to some of the students who have become his friends as a result of being in the Blue and Gold
Society one member said, “I think my friendship with them can grow stronger over time” (M23-
1D). The author was also successful in meeting and developing relationships with students through repetitive interactions with them. The author first met a student at a Dinner with 12
Panthers. Then, toward the end of the semester while attending the New Member Induction
Ceremony, the author again interacted with this same student as he was being inducted into the
Blue and Gold Society. Both the author and the student gravitated toward each other because they had previously met and spent time together before, explained the author in his field notes.
A more specific category of student Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with is student athletes. It is generally through focused effort though that these relationships develop, according to Blue and Gold Society members (see Table 4.12). A Blue and Gold Society member (M13-1B) explained during an interview with the author that he is not passive, but rather goes out of his way and puts forth effort to build relationships with the student athletes that he meets.
As the Blue and Gold Society is a student organization on campus, it is natural for members to regularly interact and develop relationships with other student organization
190 members. Table 4.12 lists the five processes identified through the research study that help Blue
and Gold Society members develop relationships with other student organization members.
When asked how he goes about developing relationships with members of other student
organizations, one Blue and Gold Society member answered, “through hosting events” (M9-1D).
Another member similarly noted that through hosting events throughout the University “You get
to meet other students in other student groups” (M32-2A). A number of Blue and Gold Society
members cited that they are also members of other student organizations on campus. Thus,
knowing Blue and Gold Society members helps fellow members of the Society get to know
members of other student organizations around campus.
A lot of relationships happen through reaching out to other student organizations through Blue and Gold Society members. Many Blue and Gold Society members are members in other student organizations, so they help you connect with them and form partnerships with them. (M19-1D)
In fact, the author noted that he was invited by a Blue and Gold Society member (M23) to go and work out with him as a guest of his with another student organization of which this Blue and
Gold Society member was a member. A few Blue and Gold Society members also explained that student organization members in general have common attributes, which commonalities naturally help them to gravitate toward each other. Responding specifically to a question regarding relationship development with other student organization members, one Blue and Gold
Society member explained, “Our relationships are based on common interests in being leaders and sharing insights with each other. We now stay in touch with each other and talk to each other now” (M26-1D). Another Blue and Gold Society member similarly continued in response to a question about relationship development processes with other student organization members:
The people I have met are well connected people with leadership attributes. When you surround yourself with people like that, you become like one of them. Goal driven people drive you. They drive me. As Blue and Gold Society members, we connect with
191 these kinds of people because we understand each other, we get each other, it’s like a kinship we have. Because we relate to each other on so many levels. (M25-1D)
Meeting other student organization members is not always sufficient for a relationship to develop
though. Relationship development may also entail repetitive interactions with them. One Blue
and Gold Society member explained:
If I were not a Blue and Gold Society member, this opportunity would not exist for me. My relationships with other student organization leaders have developed through me attending leadership summits with them. Once I met them, I continued to stay in contact with them. (M26-1D)
The last category of students with whom Blue and Gold Society members develop
relationships is Student Government Board members. The three processes through which Blue
and Gold Society member develop relationships with them are detailed in Table 4.12. Blue and
Gold Society members have the opportunity to develop relationships with Student Government
Board members through the events Blue and Gold Society members host. A Blue and Gold
Society member said he has met Student Government Board members “through hosting events”
(M9-1D). The Student Government Board President similarly claimed, “I've met some of them
at events they were hosting” (I8-1D). Fellow Blue and Gold Society members also act as a
means for Society members to develop relationships with Student Government Board members.
A few Blue and Gold Society members explained that a few fellow Society members are also
members of the Student Government Board. One Blue and Gold Society member particularly noted, “I have met a lot of Student Government Board people because there are Student
Government Board people in the Blue and Gold Society, so I’ve met a lot through them” (M21-
1A). Attending weekly meetings also helps Blue and Gold Society members to meet and develop relationships with Student Government Board members. The author met the Student
Government Board President (I8), who was also in attendance to make an announcement to Blue
192 and Gold Society members, while attending an early morning weekly meeting of the Blue and
Gold Society. The same Student Government Board President interviewed during the course of the research study provided additional evidence to the author’s claim as it relates to weekly
Society meetings being a means of meeting Student Government Board members. “I’ve met some by visiting their early morning meetings,” stated the President (I8-1D).
Before moving on to Section 4.2.3.4 and as a point of discussion pertaining to this section on Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes with students, it is constructive to reflect back for a moment on one of the previously reviewed empirical studies outlined in the literature review (see Section 2.3). The social capital study conducted by Harper
(2008) engaged the study’s sample of high achieving male undergraduate college students pertaining to their social networks consisting of key network individuals throughout the community, such as the university president, faculty, staff and community leaders. Although the study effectively identified the social networks and the social capital these students are able to leverage through their social networks consisting of people like the university president, faculty, staff and community leaders, the study does not take into account the so-called non-key network individuals to these students throughout the university and community, such as fellow students.
Conversely, the research study conducted by the author reported herein includes Blue and Gold
Society members and their social networks with fellow students, which in Section 4.3 will prove to be beneficial as the research study describes the quantity and quality of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society students through their bonding and bridging relationships with fellow students. Whereas the study conducted by Harper (2008) might be limited in its findings by not including fellow students as social network members of the sample, this study includes fellow students and also describes Society members’ social network development processes with them.
193 Seen as an advantage in this research study rather than a limitation, looking at fellow students provides a more holistic insight into an undergraduate student organization member’s more complete and all-inclusive social network, not just a social network consisting of select key individuals.
4.2.3.4 Social network development process – others
As a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various individuals besides those linked to the Blue and Gold Society, faculty and staff, and students of the University of Pittsburgh (see Table 4.13).
Table 4.13: Social network development processes with other individuals by data collection method
Blue and Gold Society Member’s Social Network Development Process with Other Individuals
Events -on- One People People Society Projects Projects Random Induction Repetitive Repetitive Ceremony Interactions Interactions Interactions One Giving Tours Circumstance New Member Blue and Gold Focused Effort Commonalities Hosting Mutual Friends Getting to Know Getting to Know Collaboration on Collaboration on and Gold Society Being in the Blue in Blue Being the Weekly Meetings Weekly Interactions Outside Interactions Outside
BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI OI OI OI BGI BGI OI BGI PO OI OI PO BGI PO Alumni PO PO PO OI PO PO PO PO PO CA CA CA CA CA Alumni BGI BGI CA Association PO PO
President BGI Board of OI BGI OI BGI OI PO OI PO OI PO PO Trustees PO BGI Donors PO PO PO CA BGI
Other IndividualsOther Government CA PO BGI Officials CA Local Business PO Leaders Potential PO Employer BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
194 Table 4.13 lists seven of these individuals and the process through which Blue and Gold Society members developed relationships with them. The left hand column lists the individuals, while the row along the top lists the various development processes. Whenever a particular process is applicable to a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members, interviews with individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social network, and participant observation that Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with
Alumni through One-on-One Interactions.
To begin, collaborating on projects, such as service projects, allows Blue and Gold
Society members to develop relationships with alumni. During a weekly early morning meeting that the author attended, the author noted that Blue and Gold Society members were brainstorming ways to meet and interact with alumni. Blue and Gold Society members discussed publicizing an upcoming joint community service project to which they could potentially, and ultimately did, invite alumni of the University to participate in a campus beautification project.
Interacting one-on-one was also an effective process through which Blue and Gold Society members developed relationships with alumni. One Blue and Gold Society member explained her preference for working with alumni individually:
When we work together in small groups is when I shine the brightest. Small group work has helped me develop relationships better. The same goes for with alumni. I interact with alumni better in small groups. (M11-1D)
Hosting events serves as another means through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with alumni. “We host a lot of events. Meeting alumni has become a benefit and made meeting alumni easier,” claimed one Blue and Gold Society member (M12-1A). Another member similarly stated, “There have been a variety of events I have worked at through the Blue
195 and Gold Society that have allowed me to connect with alumni and network” (M37-2A). One cultural artifact, the new member application, revealed that Blue and Gold Society members have the opportunity to host numerous events which result in opportunities for “Alumni
Interaction.” Taking the time to get to know alumni and identifying underlying commonalities with alumni helps Blue and Gold Society members development relationships with them. The member of the Board of Trustees interviewed for the research study, who is also an alumnus of the University, confirmed this claim.
Each year, there are three or four that you get attracted to. Something sparks a connection between you and them. Once you’re attracted to a few, or a few are attracted to you, that attractiveness allows you to become connected with them. There are some Blue and Gold Society members that don’t take advantage of this opportunity though. During my interactions with them, I find their niche interest, like medicine, and I go from there. (I3-2A)
As it relates to commonalities between alumni and Blue and Gold Society members, a member of the student organization continued to explain that “interacting with alumni who have the same interests as me helps [relationships to develop]” (M11-1D). Similar to commonalities and getting to know people, it also requires focused effort on behalf of Blue and Gold Society members for relationships to develop between Blue and Gold Society members and alumni. One member said in terms of developing relationships with alumni:
It really just depends on how much you want to get to know people. It really matters what you want to get out of it. Alumni and other people you meet are receptive, you just have to do your part. (M35-1D)
Although Blue and Gold Society members meet alumni through many formal Blue and Gold
Society related activities, interactions outside of the Blue and Gold Society help in the development of relationships with alumni as well. For example, one member of the student organization said that “Relationships with alumni in general and Alumni Relations staff develop the same way, first through formal gatherings and then through informal gatherings outside of
196 the scope of being a Blue and Gold Society member” (M27-1D). Occasionally, Blue and Gold
Society members will provide tours to alumni upon request. This also serves as an effective
means of developing relationships with alumni. In fact, one member described the outcome of
giving alumni campus tours in her own words:
I spent this morning with alumni giving them a tour of campus and talking with them. We would recognize each other later and would be willing to help each other out if we needed it. You usually recognize alumni like this later. You seem to have a bond because of how you met. (M7-1B)
Some Blue and Gold Society members consider the President of the Pittsburgh Alumni
Association to be a member of their social network. Relationships with the President develop in three primary ways, as can be seen previously in Table 4.13. As it relates to focused effort, one
Blue and Gold Society member with a relationship with the Alumni Association President explained that “It happens when you’re more proactive. You get out what you put in. Even if you have a good relationship with someone, you have to do more” (M3-2A). During a public session of the Board of Trustees meeting, the President showed a PowerPoint presentation that was put together by two Blue and Gold Society members. At the conclusion of the presentation, the President had these two members (M25; M33) come up and stand with him while he finished his remarks. The relationship between the President and the Blue and Gold Society members was evident and it was clear that their relationship between each other was strengthened as a result of them collaborating on this project together.
Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with Board of Trustees members through various means as well (see Table 4.13). As it relates to repetitive interactions, the member of the Board interviewed during the course of the research study explained his experience developing relationships with Blue and Gold Society members:
197 I live in California. I make it back to Pittsburgh four to six times a year for Board of Trustees meetings, Institutional Advancement Committee meetings and so forth. These are events that I typically run into Blue and Gold Society members at. (I3-1A)
As it relates to collaboration on projects with Blue and Gold Society members, the Trustee continued:
When I’m here on campus, it is connected to Pitt work. I’m here for things like Chancellor’s Weekend, Distinguished Alumni Fellows, to meet with donors, deans, Alumni Relations staff, I am always assisting Alumni Relations staff with things. When I assisted with the recent Alumni Relations Strategic Planning Committee, Blue and Golds were also on the Committee. I was with them for four, four hour sessions. (I3-1D)
The author attended a public session of the Board of Trustees meeting and noted in field notes that the Blue and Gold Society members in attendance were putting forth a great deal of effort to meet and talk with Trustee members.
At the conclusion of the Board meeting, most public guests left their seats and made their way to the exit. Not the Blue and Gold Society members though. They all seemed to stick around, making conversation with Trustee members as if they were genuinely trying to develop relationships with them.
University donors were another type of individual within the category of other individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society members developed relationships (see Table
4.13). As it relates to hosting events, one Blue and Gold Society member (M9-1D) said that he was able to shake the hand of the largest individual donor in the University’s history while hosting Homecoming events. Identified through a cultural artifact, namely a Blue and Gold
Society members New Member Induction Ceremony Speaking Notes, another member (M2) hosting the same Homecoming event noted that he had the opportunity of “escorting [the largest donor in the University’s history] onto Heinz Field during intermission of a football game.”
Occasionally, merely being a member of the Blue and Gold Society acted as a means for Blue and Gold Society members to develop relationships with donors. At the New Member Induction
Ceremony while one Society member was speaking to the group in attendance, the author
198 observed the member (M2) state that “being in the Blue and Gold Society has afforded him the
chance to meet alumni, donors, the Chancellor, staff, legislatures and many others.”
Blue and Gold Society members have opportunities to develop relationships with local, state and federal government officials as well, and do so through the four processes noted in
Table 4.13. For instance, as it relates to giving tours as a means of developing relationships with government officials, one member said, “I’ve given tours to the Senator of Nebraska and the
Senator of Tennessee” (M33-1A). Blue and Gold Society members were called upon to help host a speaking event that featured Vice President of the United States, Joe Biden. A member noted that “talking with Vice President Joe Biden” occurred as a result of being called upon to help out with this special event on campus (M2-1D). Photographs of the event reviewed by the author showed the Vice President taking time in a private room after the speaking event talking with each Blue and Gold Society member on an individual, one-on-one basis. Student
Government Board members helped Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with
government officials as well. The Student Government Board President (I8), as observed by the
author, visited the Society’s weekly meeting to invite Blue and Gold Society members to
accompany the Board members to the state capital to personally talk with legislatures about
budget cuts affecting the University of Pittsburgh, which many members took the opportunity to
attend.
Opportunities exist for Blue and Gold Society members to develop relationships with
potential employers through one means in particular, namely by attending weekly meetings (see
Table 4.13). The author observed:
Today, a Teach for American representative visited the meeting. She invited all interested Blue and Gold Society members to fill out an information card. The representative also explained the benefits of becoming a part of the Teach for American
199 program and how Blue and Gold Society members could use the opportunity to build their resume and repay their student loans.
Noted in Table 4.13, opportunities also exist for Blue and Gold Society members to foster relationships with local business leaders through hosting events. During a weekly Society meeting, a number of Blue and Gold Society members reported back on a recent opportunity they had to help host as event called Pink the Pete, a University of Pittsburgh basketball game in the on campus arena designated to help raise awareness for breast cancer. Part of hosting the event involved painting the windows of local businesses on campus with pink cancer awareness ribbons. While reporting back on the opportunity to help out with this event, one member (I33) of the student organization explained that she and other members were able to meet local business owners as they offered to paint pink ribbons and other cancer awareness slogans related to the upcoming special basketball game on the business owners’ windows and glass doors.
Before concluding this subsection on the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with other individuals, a particular discussion item is worth pointing out. The three measures of social networks/social capital detailed in the literature review (see Section 2.1.8), namely the name generator, position generator and resource generator, are each able to accomplish the goal of identifying social network members and measuring social capital resources. These three generators though do not take the extra step to identify the processes through which relationships are developed with social network members.
In this subsection, for example, the aforementioned generators might be able to identify alumni as a segment of Blue and Gold Society members’ social network, but none of the generators detail the different means, opportunities and/or avenues for relationships to develop between
Blue and Gold Society members and alumni. This is troublesome because it does not do much of a service to students who are in an environment to meet and interact with faculty but do not
200 know specifically through what processes relationships can be developed with alumni. In the
same breath, it does not do much of a service to university administrators, for example, who are
interested in providing avenues for students to develop relationships with alumni. The research
study being reported herein not only uses various data collection methods to identify social
network members, the study also documents the social network development processes that exist,
providing a greater understanding of social networks and social capital accumulation as it relates
to undergraduate student organization members.
4.3 FORMS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL
The purpose of this section is to present the findings in answer to the second set of research
questions concerning Blue and Gold Society members and the various forms of social capital
they are able to acquire as a result of being members of a student organization. Social capital,
was previously defined as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to
possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual
acquaintance and recognition – or in other words, to membership in a group” (Bourdieu, 1986, p.21). Section 4.2 discussed in great detail the various relationships Blue and Gold Society members are able to develop as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society along with the many processes through which those relationships develop. Section 4.3 will now discuss the resources that are linked to the relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with
others. Research question 2A will be reintroduced and the findings pertaining to that research
question will be presented in Section 4.3.1. Research question 2B will then be reintroduced and
the findings pertaining to that research question will be presented in Section 4.3.2.
201 4.3.1 Instrumental forms of social capital
As a review, instrumental forms of social capital are characterized as those resources whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual gain something or get ahead (Lin,
2001). The six forms of instrumental social capital, as identified in the literature, review are: information flow; human capital creation; norms of reciprocity; occupational mobility; goal achievement; and educational attainment. Research question 2A (see Table 4.14) investigates the instrumental forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members.
Table 4.14: Research question 2A – Blue and Gold Society members and their instrumental social capital
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Capital Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Based on Literature Question Review
Concerning Social Networks 2A. Describe the benefits or resources that are available to you as a result of the Asked of Blue and relationships you have formed Resources embedded in Gold Society Members as a member of The Blue and social networks that are Gold Society that help you to available for use by 2A. What instrumental gain something or get ahead in network members forms of social life. (Putnam, 2000; capital are 2A. Describe the benefits or Bourdieu, 1986; embedded in the resources available to current Coleman, 1988; Lin & Asked of Individuals social network of Blue and Gold Society Erikson, 2008) in Blue and Gold an undergraduate members as a result of your Society Member’s student relationship with them that Aim and/or desired Social Network organization might help them gain outcome is ultimately to member? something or get ahead in life. help an individual gain something or get ahead Asked by author 2A. What instrumental forms of (Lin, 2001) during participant social capital are embedded in observation and the social networks of Blue cultural artifact review and Gold Society members?
202 Table 4.14 reintroduces research question 2A and includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in Blue and
Gold Society member’s social networks. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question.
As previously discussed in the Methodology chapter (see Section 3.8), both deductive and inductive analysis were used to analyze and arrange the data for research question 2A into a hierarchical node structure, as seen in Figure 4.6. The highest node in the structure is Forms of
Social Capital. The first two child nodes in the hierarchy are Instrumental Forms of Social
Capital and Other Instrumental Forms of Social Capital. The former houses data and additional child nodes according to deductive analysis and the themes derived from the literature review
(Campbell Galman, 2007). The later houses data and additional child nodes according to inductive analysis and the new themes generated through an examination of the data (LeCompte
& Schensul, 1999). The node tree also organizes the data in a manner that incorporates through which social network member each form of social capital is accessible by Blue and Gold Society members. Figure 40 also serves the purpose of defining the various nodes or codes used to organize and analyze the data.
203 Free Tangible/Material Items
Figure 4.6: NVivo – Instrumental forms of social capital
Table 4.15 lists the six deductively identified instrumental forms of social capital along the top of the table. The table also lists the four categories of individuals and the specific
204 individuals through which the six instrumental forms of social capital were accessible by Blue
and Gold Society members as a result of the relationships they have developed as members of
the Blue and Gold Society. These relationships were previously defined in Section 4.2. The
processes through which the relationships have developed were previously described in Section
4.3. Whenever a particular form of social capital is accessible through a relationship with a
particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the
data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members
that information flow, occupational mobility and educational attainment are accessible through
the Associate Director of Alumni Membership. Then, through participant observation the author
noted that educational attainment is accessible through the Associate Director of Alumni
Membership. Table 4.15 illustrates which data collection method identified which instrumental form of social capital for the purposes of data triangulation. Also, Table 4.15 highlights which
data collection methods where most effective in identifying the various instrumental forms of
social capital. Table 4.15 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table
does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific instrumental form of social
capital was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that a specific instrumental form of social capital
was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection
methods. More specific findings related to the instrumental forms of social capital accessible by
Blue and Gold Society members will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
205 Table 4.15 – Instrumental forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method
Instrumental Forms of Social Capital
Goal Flow Creation Mobility Norms of Attainment Reciprocity Educational Information Occupational Achievement Human Capital Associate Director of Alumni BGI PO BGI BGI Membership
Belonging to the Blue and Gold Society PO PO BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Blue and Gold Society Members PO CA CA PO PO PO CA PO Society BGI
Blue and Gold Blue BGI BGI BGI Manager of Student Alumni Programs OI PO PO CA CA OI CA BGI BGI BGI BGI Alumni Relations Staff BGI PO CA OI OI BGI Athletic Department Staff
PO Athletic Director Chancellor BGI PO BGI Deans BGI PO Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff PO Faculty Faculty and Staff Faculty PO BGI BGI BGI BGI Staff – General PO OI PO OI PO OI Vice Provost and Dean of Students BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Alumni OI PO OI PO PO OI PO OI PO OI CA CA CA
Alumni Association President BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Board of Trustees PO OI OI OI OI Others Donors Government Officials Local Business Leaders Potential Employer Greek Life Students OI Residence Hall Assistants
BGI Students in General OI PO OI OI CA Student Athletes Students Student Government Board Members BGI OI Student Organization Members BGI PO Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
206 4.3.1.1 Information flow
Information flow, or the movement of details and facts about opportunities and choices between individuals that would otherwise not be available without the existence of a social network (Lin, 2001; Coleman, 1988), was accessible by Blue and Gold Society members through individuals associated with the Blue and Gold Society, faculty and staff, students and other individuals. A Blue and Gold Society member stated about the student organization’s weekly meetings and the information exchanged through fellow members, “We get a lot of insights and information when we do announcements at the end of our weekly meetings. These announcements allow you to benefit and others to benefit from the valuable information shared”
(M34-2A). As is relates to information flow obtained through having a relationship with the
Manager of Student Alumni Programs, another member noted during an interview that she “was able to find out about and apply to a scholarship through the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs” (M33-1D). The author, who is also a student and staff person at the University of
Pittsburgh, experienced first-hand how beneficial it can be to be a member of a student organization such as the Blue and Gold Society as it relates to information flow. At one point during the spring semester, the Chancellor held a State Budget Update meeting that was more or less open to the public. The author noted:
Blue and Gold Society members were informed about the opportunity to attend this event, not host it. I was informed of this event by a Blue and Gold Society member. Although I am a student and employee here at the University, I was not informed of this opportunity to hear the Chancellor speak regarding the newly proposed State budget cuts. The audience was also informed that there will be a question and answer session with the Chancellor at the conclusion of his remarks. This is an example of inside information I received because of the network I have with Blue and Gold Society members.
The next category of individuals to be considered is faculty and staff (see Table 4.15).
Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with various kinds of faculty and staff provide
207 opportunities for Blue and Gold Society members to partake of information flow as well, although only to a relatively small extent. One Blue and Gold Society member commented positively about her beneficial relationship with the Vice Provost and Dean of Students pertaining to information flow. The Leadership Summit referenced in the following quote is an opportunity for students to develop leadership skills, which is another form of social capital in and of itself that would not have been available to this Blue and Gold Society member without the beneficial resource of information flow embedded in her relationship with the Vice Provost and Dean of Students:
For some reason, I have noticed over the past few years that there is always a Blue and Gold Society member that is in the Hesselbein Global Academy Leadership Summit. I don’t feel like this opportunity is advertised to all students, although it is available to all students. I’m not sure if this is intention or not, but it seems to be an opportunity not publicized to all students. Because I was a Blue and Gold Society member I was told about the opportunity to apply I think. Certain people know about certain things. (M25- 2A)
Other students proved to be a valuable source of information flow as well for Blue and
Gold Society members, as previously noted in Table 4.15. As previously noted in Section 4.2,
Blue and Gold Society members stated that they have opportunities to meet various students across the University. Pertaining to students in other student organizations, for example, one
Blue and Gold Society member explained that “Leaders in other student organizations keep you knowledgeable about things going on throughout the University” (M26-2A). One Greek Life student who knows many Blue and Gold Society members and who was interviewed as a part of the research study provided the following commentary that supports the Blue and Gold Society member’s above statement in reference to information flow:
I can be a resource to them. I know a lot about the University. I know a lot about the University’s history, which classes to take. They can ask me about these things. I’m very involved with community service so if they ever have questions about that they can ask me about that. I know a lot of faculty and staff, some Residence Life staff. (I4-2A)
208
The fourth category, other individuals, includes a small number of instances where
information flow is embedded in the relationships Blue and Gold Society members have with
various other individuals as well (see Table 4.15). University of Pittsburgh Alumni and Board of
Trustees members, for instance, provide social capital in the form of information flow to Blue and Gold Society members. “Alumni provide good information,” said one female member of the
Blue and Gold Society (M12-1A). Another female member speaking about the benefits of her relationships with alumni stated, “They give you a lot of information” (M7-2A). The author attended Dinner with 12 Panthers, student-alumni networking dinners co-hosted by Blue and
Gold Society members in the homes of various alumni. During the dinner, the author observed and recorded:
We are learning new things about each other, new things about each other’s cultures, home cities, hobbies, sports, career aspirations, and so forth. There is a great deal of information being shared by the alumnus with us and amongst all of us with each other.
Referring now back to the literature review and as a point of discussion, most of the relationships cited in this section that provide information flow are weaker, bridging relationships rather than stronger, bonding relationships. These weaker, bridging relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and the various individuals cited in this section, such as staff and alumni, happen to still be valuable because they allow the exchange of unique, tactic knowledge as opposed to more routine information routinely available within stronger, bonding relationships Blue and Gold Society members have with the fellow members and others closely tied to the Society (Field, 2008). In other words, rather than just being privy to valuable information related specifically to the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have access to other valuable information that they otherwise would not have access to as a result of their social networks comprised of many weaker, bridging type relationships.
209 4.3.1.2 Human capital creation
The relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have the opportunity to build with
social network members as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society facilitate human
capital creation, or the acquisition of talents, knowledge, and skills through education and
training that increase a person’s useful outputs over time (Becker, 1975). Beginning first with
those individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks who are associated
with the Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.15), one Society member explained that he has
opportunities to “gain knowledge [through having relationships with fellow Blue and Gold
Society members]” (M23-2A). Another member continued to explain how relationships with
fellow members translate into him learning about opportunities for human capital creation:
“There are many coaching and leadership opportunities, because I am a Blue and Gold Society
member” (M29-1A). While reviewing a cultural artifact, namely one Blue and Gold Society member’s (M21) speaking notes from the New Member Induction Ceremony, the author noticed the following sentence relating in context to the plethora of individuals with whom Blue and
Gold Society members come into contact: “New members, happy to welcome you to the family and we’ll all be excited to see what you make of this opportunity. I use the word opportunity because that’s what it is. An opportunity to learn.” Another member of the Blue and Gold
Society stated that the Manager of Student Alumni Programs has helped her to learn “time management” skills (M4-3C1). Sitting with a group of Blue and Gold Society members during a planning session for an upcoming service project in a nearby park, the author observed the
Associate Director of Alumni Membership “coaching the group on what questions to ask park
conservancy staff” to obtain necessary information to successfully carry out the project.
210 Relationships with faculty and staff also allow Blue and Gold Society members to
accumulate social capital in the form of human capital creation, although to a relatively small
extent (see Table 4.15). For example, one member of the student organization cited his bridging
relationship with the Chancellor, and how this relationship provides him with “direct access to
leadership and decision makers to learn from” (M10-2A). Another Blue and Gold Society
member, citing the help of staff in the Office of Alumni Relations, explained that these staff
“help me to be more qualified for various opportunities,” such as future jobs and internships
(M2-2A). Developing leadership skills, decision making skills and work skills are considered
valuable forms of human capital that contribute to an individual’s productively in various aspects
of his or her life (Coleman, 1988).
Relationships with fellow students, namely students in general, also provide Blue and
Gold Society members with opportunities to create human capital (see Table 4.15). A student
and non-member of the Blue and Gold Society interviewed during the course of the research
study explained the training and knowledge he can contribute to Blue and Gold Society
members: “I’m pretty experienced with applying for grants and scholarships. I have my own
nonprofit that teaches kids to find and apply for grants and scholarships. I could teach Blue and
Gold Society members if they needed help” (I7-2A).
Other individuals besides those associated with the Blue and Gold Society, faculty and
staff and students also provide opportunities for human capital creation as a result of Blue and
Gold Society members’ relationships with them (see Table 4.15). One Blue and Gold Society member explained in regards to one alumnus he met that helped him learn skills related to becoming a doctor, “I got to know the doctor who hosted Dinner with 12 Panthers last year. I contacted him later and was able to shadow him” (M15-1A). A member of the Board of Trustees
211 interviewed by the author in order to identify his perspective of the beneficial relationship he has
with Blue and Gold Society members relayed the following:
Blue and Gold Society members live in a generation of collaborators. We can help teach them the art of collaboration. They see us work as Board of Trustee members. They see us many times like this, working with other people. We train them in life skills and listening skills. They observe this in us too. This leads to better leadership skills for them. They get to see us in business meetings and how these are conducted. They get to see us and how decisions are made and consensus is made. They can go practice these in their own field. (I3-2A)
As a closing discussion point for this subsection, this example shared by the Board of Trustees
member along with the other instances cited in this section parallel that which is explained in the
social capital literature, explicitly that social capital in the form of human capital imparted
through relationships can be a beneficial factor of production for Blue and Gold Society
members because it helps an individual to achieve certain ends that without it would not be
possible (Paldam & Svendsen, 2004).
4.3.1.3 Norms of reciprocity
Norms of reciprocity, the mutual exchange of favors or obligations between two
individuals (Bourdieu, 1986; Putnam, 2000), existed as a form of social capital between Blue and
Gold Society members and others within their social networks. Beginning with those individuals
linked to the Blue and Gold Society, it is clear that mutual help and favors are prevalent between and among Blue and Gold Society members (see Table 4.15). “I’ve asked them for help and they’ve asked me for help,” said one member of fellow Blue and Gold Society members (M15-
3B2). “Blue and Gold Society members strengthen each other,” explained another member as it relates to reciprocal favors done for one another (M26-2B). The same Society member continued, “Blue and Gold Society members initially strengthen each other out of obligation as a fellow Blue and Gold Society member, but then we begin to strengthen each other outside of this
212 obligation” (M26-2B). “You benefit each other. It’s a reciprocal thing,” remarked another Blue
and Gold Society member as it relates to his beneficial relationship with other Blue and Gold
Society members (M7-2B).
Blue and Gold Society members also are able to take advantage of norms of reciprocity as it relates to those faculty and staff that are a part of their social networks, specifically with staff that Society members have relationships with in the Office of Alumni Relations, as previously noted in Table 4.15. One member mentioned during an interview session that “Blue
and Gold Society members and Alumni Relations staff are definitely a tightknit group. We can
to go to each other about anything,” meaning that Society members and Alumni Relations staff
regularly perform tasks and favors on behalf on one another by virtue of their relationship with
one another (M23-1B).
As far as relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have made with other
students, such as students in other student organizations on campus and students involved with
the Student Government Board, norms of reciprocity manifested itself through various ways (see
Table 4.15). As the author observed Blue and Gold Society members work with students in
other student organizations during Relay for Life, a fundraiser for the American Cancer Society,
the author recorded that “There was a sense of mutual support” as Blue and Gold Society members and other student organization members walked together to raise money and awareness in the fight against cancer. The Student Government Board president also shared his perspective as it relates to the norms of reciprocity shared between himself and Blue and Gold Society
members that he knows:
Because they knew me, and I know them, we are able to lend them our resources when necessary and they have lent us their resources and members when necessary. We utilize and take advantage of each other’s ideas and members for staffing. (I8-2A)
213 Other individuals, such as University of Pittsburgh alumni and Board of Trustees members also were found to provide and receive reciprocal benefits as a result of mutual relationships established with Blue and Gold Society members (see Table 4.15). During an
interview with a Board of Trustees member, a category of individuals that Blue and Gold Society
members reference as a part of their social network, the Trustee member explained how his
relationship with Blue and Gold Society members promotes social capital in the form of norms
of reciprocity:
Sometimes they formally ask you to become a lifelong mentor, or help with getting them access to someone who can help them in the way they need help. You become their lifeline when the big decisions need to be made. You stay with them as long as they need me. It’s two-way. One day they might need me. One day I might need them. I love them. I share in their successes and in the down times as well. (I3-2A)
In regards to norms of reciprocity as a result of his relationship with various alumni, one Blue
and Gold Society member commented, “I hope to give back someday like they are giving to me.
I want to reciprocate it for others” (M18-4). In other words, this Blue and Gold Society member
hopes to help students when he becomes an alumnus in similar ways that alumni provide support
to him at this time.
The data presented pertaining to the norms of reciprocity or the mutual exchange of
benefits among Blue and Gold Society members and their social networks demonstrates the
number of credit slips that they possess, or in other words, the amount of this form of social
capital that they possess. The more built-in favors and credits that Blue and Gold Society
members have obtained through providing favors and help to others, essentially means the more
help Society members are able to call upon in times of need (Wellman & Frank, 2004).
214 4.3.1.4 Occupational mobility
Occupational mobility, referred to in the literature as a form of social capital that assists an individual with career development, job attainment and/or career networking (Coleman,
1988), was identified during the research study to exist within the relationships Blue and Gold
Society members have with others in their social networks (see Table 4.15). Blue and Gold
Society members, for example, provide occupational mobility to their fellow Society members.
Speaking about his fellow Blue and Gold Society members, one member explained, “I can talk with them about non-Blue and Gold Society related matters to find out about internships, job opportunities” (M5-2A). During one weekly meeting, the author observed that “One Blue and
Gold Society member (M31) announced an internship opportunity in the Department of
Athletics, and to contact him if interested.” Blue and Gold Society members’ relationship with the Manager of Student Alumni Programs also proved to be a positive as it relates to acquiring the form of social capital referred to as occupational mobility. One member said, “You can get letters of recommendation [for a job application] from the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs” (M14-2A). The Manager, during a portion of her interview session, further commented that she provides them with job related “letters of recommendation” (I5-2A). She said “one of the biggest things I usually do for them” is to “help them identify jobs” (I5-2A).
“Through the Manager of Student Alumni Programs,” further explained one Blue and Gold
Society member, “I’ve met tons of alumni and heard tons of great stories about alumni, what they’re doing today. It’s very valuable for future jobs and guidance” (M4-2A). Occupational mobility as a form of social capital also manifested itself between Blue and Gold Society members and the Associate Director of Alumni Membership. Stated one member, “I talk with
215 the Associate Director of Alumni Membership about what she does so that I can learn about her
profession and her career path” (M13-2A).
Next, some faculty and staff were noted as being a category of individuals within Blue
and Gold Society members’ social network that provided occupational mobility (see Table 4.15).
A particular dean at the University of Pittsburgh proved to be an immense help to a Blue and
Gold Society student who was able to build a relationship with him.
The dean of the business school. I’ve met him several times through hosting events as a Blue and Gold Society member. He found out my interest in international business. He told me he was going to Brazil to meet with some people. I set up a meeting with him, and told him my desire to work internationally, especially in Brazil. He said he would mention to any employers he meets in Brazil that he knows me and will help me network with them to find a job there when I graduate. He said he'd help me. (M10-1A)
Another member of the Society mentioned the occupational mobility that he was able to accumulate through knowing staff in the Office of Alumni Relations. He said, “One Alumni
Association staff person came to one of our meetings once and said that she likes to help students find jobs, and if we ever need help after graduation finding a job to let her know” (M26-2A).
Many Blue and Gold Society members also pointed to their relationship with staff in general at
the University of Pittsburgh as a valuable resource for acquiring occupational mobility. The
author, also a staff person at the University of Pittsburgh and who had the opportunity to develop
relationships with various Blue and Gold Society members, was approached in this capacity as a
staff person by a particular Blue and Gold Society member (M19) and recorded the following:
One particular Blue and Gold Society member interested in jobs in higher education approached me and asked what I do and who I might recommend her speaking with if she wanted to learn more. I told her what I do in the field of university development and alumni relations. She mentioned that she met a staff person in my office at a Black History Month event she was hosting recently. I provided her with additional background about this person and offered names of other helpful individuals she might want to consider meeting with. I offered to connect her with these people and she agreed to take me up on my offer.
216 The author later recorded the result of this relationship and social capital he was able to impart as
it relates to occupational mobility:
The same Blue and Gold Society member that asked me for career advice and for information about what my office does stopped by my office to talk to me about the progress she has made recently networking with people around my office and securing an internship in the Donor Relations department. She seems excited and eager to talk about it with me. Her networking has paid off. She took advantage of meeting a staff person that I connected her with from my office, and now it has led to an internship in my office.
Other individuals, such as alumni, trustees and the Pittsburgh Alumni Association
President, also provide opportunities for occupational mobility in their relationships with Blue and Gold Society members (see Table 4.15). Said one member of the Blue and Gold Society,
“[a] benefit of meeting alumni is the advice you can receive for applying to jobs” (M3-2A).
Another member further elaborated pertaining to his upcoming responsibility of co-hosting a
dinner with an alumnus, “At the upcoming Dinner with 12 Panthers, I am paired up with an alum
who got their MBA from Pitt. I hope to use him as a resource to find out more about career
opportunities and leads and advice” (M17-2A). “Alumni can help you look for a job,” another
member similarly shared (M31-2A). One more member said about the alumni with whom he has
been able to develop relationships, “I have given my resume to Alumni. This helps expand my
opportunities to find a job” (M35-2A). As a result of relationships with Board of Trustee
members, Blue and Gold Society members also experienced social capital acquisition in the form
of occupational mobility. A Blue and Gold Society member interested in the banking industry
said, “One, a University trustee, found out I was a Blue and Gold Society member. I reached out
to him. He put me in contact with another trustee with connections to PNC bank, which got me
an internship” (M18-1A). The Board of Trustees member interviewed as a part of the research study confirmed his role in providing Blue and Gold Society members with occupational mobility.
217 I help them with their careers. Blue and Gold Society members are really the best of the best at Pitt. I know a lot of people looking for good interns. They have the very best possible connections for job opportunities. They have a leg up on everybody because of who they are and because they are Blue and Gold Society members. Their connectedness almost guarantees them multiple job offers when they graduate. (I3-1D)
The other individual highlighted in this category, the Alumni Association President, also provides occupational mobility to Blue and Gold Society members with whom he has relationships. A Blue and Gold Society member explained he can “get help academically and professionally in terms of career guidance and finding internships” (M3-2A).
The examples in this section on occupational mobility align well with claims in the literature on social capital. First, as Lin (2001) explained, because an individual belongs to a particular social network, he or she may have a ‘leg up’ on the competition because they are associated directly or indirectly with a well-respected or positively-influential social status, as
Blue and Gold Society members are according to alumni and Board of Trustees members. Also, although not specifically tracked in this research study as far as it relates to distinguishing social capital in bonding versus bridging relationships, most of the relationships in this section tend to appear to be weaker, bonding relationship ties, which according to the literature prove to be more beneficial in career mobility because they open up opportunities not readily available within their stronger ties among family and close friends (Burt, 2001; Erikson, 1996; Halpern, 2005; Lin,
2001). It is also important to note pertaining to this subsection that no data found that Blue and
Gold Society members acquire occupational mobility through their relationships with any types of students at the University of Pittsburgh.
4.3.1.5 Goal achievement
As a point of reference, goal achievement as a form of social capital is defined as those resources and relationships that make possible the achievement of certain ends by an individual
218 that in their absence would not be possible (Coleman, 1988). Stated another way, relationships can prove helpful as conduits for assistance that facilitates the achievement of an individual’s goals and aspirations (Putnam, 2000). Related specifically to this research study, Blue and Gold
Society members receive various forms of assistance as a result of the relationships they have established with others that lead to goal achievement. The first category or relationships reviewed herein is Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.15). Pertaining to fellow Blue and Gold
Society members, one member cited, “My relationships with Blue and Gold Society members has helped me in many ways. They frequently do favors for me. For example, when I ran for office on the Student Government Board, they helped me campaign” (M27-2A). During a New
Member Recruitment Session, the author witnessed one Blue and Gold Society member (M19) explaining to students considering applying to join the student organization, “We meet weekly because it’s a venue to leverage Blue and Gold Society members’ resources to accomplish our own interests and purposes for the good of all our personal interests.”
Through faculty and staff, Blue and Gold Society members are also able to leverage help to achieve their goals, as noted in Table 4.15. One member who has developed a relationship with staff in the Athletic Department as a result of being a Blue and Gold Society member said that “Athletics staff have helped me with an outreach project” (M21-2A). The author also recorded the plethora of faculty and staff acquaintances and relationships that are at the disposal of Blue and Gold Society members to help them accomplish goals. The following was noted during the Alumni Faculty and Staff Luncheon by the author:
There are lots of influential and well-connected people here. If I were a Blue and Gold Society member and needed some kind of information, or a contact for graduate school, or help finding an internship or scholarship, I could definitely use this venue and the individuals in attendance as a means and opportunity to accomplish some very specific goals.
219 Blue and Gold Society members are also able to leverage help to accomplish goals
through their relationships with fellow students (see Table 4.15). One instance was noted during
an interview with the Student Government Board president (IA). The president said that he and
other officers frequently collaborate with Blue and Gold Society members to help them complete
projects and plan activities for the wider University community.
Finally, social capital in the form of goal accomplishment is also embedded in the
relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with alumni of the University of
Pittsburgh, although specific instances were not noted involving other individuals typically
included in this category, such as Board of Trustees members (see Table 4.15). Observed during
the New Member Recruitment Session, the author recorded the following statement by a Blue
and Gold Society member (M27) speaking to those in attendance:
[Blue and Gold Society members] get to meet a lot of cool alumni with the same interests as you do. You have a lot of influence and power to affect others. You can use your membership in the Blue and Gold Society and the people you meet as leverage or a resource to accomplish other interests you have in life.
In conclusion and as it relates to goal accomplishment as a form of social capital, the
evidence cited in this section parallels Putnam’s (2000) notion that social relations can act as
conduits for assistance that facilitates the achievement of an individual’s goals and aspirations, in
this case Blue and Gold Society members. The examples provided are varied, but each instance
demonstrates how goal achievement can occur through relationships as a result of leveraging
resources embedded between and among individuals. The measurability of goal achievement
proved to be somewhat ambiguous at times and difficult to distinguish from other instrumental
forms of social capital. For example, it could be a Blue and Gold Society member’s goal to develop leadership skills, which could easily fit into the category of goal achievement as a form of social capital. This example could also be considered human capital creation, in that human
220 capital creation is the acquisition of talents, knowledge and skills through education and training that increase a person’s useful outputs over time (Becker, 1975). The concept of social capital is inherently abstract and requires subjective interpretation in its translation into operational measures though (Narayan & Cassidy, 2001), which the author paid close attention to using various data collection methods, including ethnographic methods, in order to capture local individual realities of Blue and Gold Society members and goal achievement as a form of social capital (Woolcock, 2002).
4.3.1.6 Education attainment
The final instrumental form of social capital identified during the course of the research study is education attainment, commonly defined in the literature as an individual’s persistence in school, improved test scores and/or the pursuit of post-secondary education as a byproduct of social relationships (Putnam, 2000; Halpern, 2005). Beginning again with instances involving those linked to the Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.15), one Blue and Gold Society member said of fellow Blue and Gold Society members that they are available to “help me with my homework” (M16-2A). A member explained another benefit by saying that “The Blue and Gold
Society members I know in the School of Business help me choose classes they’ve taken before”
(M4-2A). Relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and the Manager of Student
Alumni Programs positively affect Society members and their progress through school. Another member explained, “The Manager of Student Alumni Programs wrote me a letter of recommendation to get into my School of Education program” (M12-2A). Another member similarly claimed, “I was able to find out about and apply to a scholarship through the Manager of Student Alumni Programs” (M33-1D). From the perspective of the Manager who was interviewed by the author, the Manager expounded, “I help guide them through scholarship
221 applications” and “help them identify jobs and scholarships. Those are some of the biggest things I usually do for them” (I5-2A). She continued, “They are all working to put themselves through school. They have loans. I try to do the best I can to get them to the next level of their life” (15-3A).
Relationships with faculty and staff also serve as a resource to Blue and Gold Society students as it relates to education attainment as a form of social capital (see Table 4.15). Staff in the Office of Alumni Relations “have helped me find out about and apply for scholarships,” said one member of the student organization (M21-2A). Relationships with staff in general at the
University are helpful as well. Explained the staff member interviewed during the research study, “Another Blue and Gold Society member at the same dinner later told me that she was inspired to go and get a master’s degree at another university based on the advice and information my wife and I gave her” (I6-2A). One Blue and Gold Society member noted her relationship with the Vice Provost and Dean of Students pertaining to education attainment as a form of social capital by saying that “She has written me letters of recommendation before [for school]” (M8-1B).
Blue and Gold Society member’s relationships with alumni, trustees, and the Pittsburgh
Alumni Association President were all effective relationships in producing education attainment for Society members (see Table 4.15). One Blue and Gold Society member related the following story:
For example, the first event I ever did as a Blue and Gold Society member I met a lot of alumni. I got a business card from one of them who works in the Dental School here. I later contacted this alumnus to get information about going to dental school someday and was able to meet with admissions staff with his help. (M24-2A)
The member of the Board of Trustees also relayed an insightful story:
222 Letters of recommendation for schooling is a benefit. We are successful people. When we get to know them as a student, we learn about what they’re studying, what fraternities they are in. I can write them a letter of recommendation that others can’t. I can say in the letter that I know him, know him as a person. I know what makes him tick. I can write about them like a father would write about his son. I’ve written 20 plus letters for Blue and Gold Society members, and out of the ones I’ve written, 15 to 20 of them turned out successful. Because I really take the time to get to know them, I have a depth of knowledge about them that I can use in letters for them. (I3-2A)
Finally, a Blue and Gold Society member relayed the following story about how he has been able to leverage help as it relates to education attainment as a result of his relationship with the
Pittsburgh Alumni Association President:
I gave a speech at a fall Alumni Association board meeting. The president of the Alumni Association is an orthopedic surgeon. He said that I could shadow him to build up my resume and that he’d write a letter of recommendation for me to help me get into medical school. Now, he knows me for dual reasons, because I am a pre-med student and because I am a Blue and Gold Society member. (M26-2A)
This section plainly demonstrates the importance of Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with various people as it relates to education attainment. Putnam (2000) and
Halpern (2005) explain that relationships between individuals can assist a person with both persistence and the pursuit of advanced education. The examples provided as evidence in this section strengthen the claims provided by both of the aforementioned theorists and witness of the benefits available to Blue and Gold Society members pertaining to succeeding in life from an educational standpoint. In other words, educational attainment can be obtained through the resources embedded in the relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with those individuals within their social networks.
223 4.3.2 Other instrumental forms of social capital
As previously described, instrumental forms of social capital are characterized as those resources whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual gain something or get ahead (Lin, 2001). The literature on social capital typically identifies six primary forms of instrumental social capital. The findings related to these six forms were presented in Section
4.3.1. Through inductive analysis though, or the through the identification of new themes as a
result of examining the data (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999), the author identified five additional
forms of instrumental social capital that will now be presented.
Table 4.16 lists these other five inductively identified instrumental forms of social capital
along the top of the table. The table also lists the four categories of individuals and the specific
individuals through which the five other instrumental forms of social capital were accessible by
Blue and Gold Society members as a result of the relationships they have developed as members
of the Blue and Gold Society. These relationships were previously defined in Section 4.2. The
processes through which the relationships have developed were previously described in Section
4.3. Whenever a particular form of social capital is accessible through a relationship with a
particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the
data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members
that meeting new people and obtaining general help are accessible through the Assistant Director
of Alumni Membership. Then, through participant observation the author noted that
experiencing unique opportunities is accessible through the Associate Director of Alumni
Membership.
224 Table 4.16: Other instrumental forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method
Instrumental Forms of Social Capital
Tangible/ People Unique Unique MeetNew Mentoring General Help Opportunities Free MaterialItems Associate Director of Alumni BGI PO BGI Membership
Belonging to the Blue and Gold BGI PO BGI PO BGI PO
Society CA CA CA BGI PO Society Blue and Gold Society Members BGI PO BGI PO BGI PO CA
Blue and Gold Gold and Blue BGI OI Manager of Student Alumni Programs OI PO PO CA BGI OI PO Alumni Relations Staff BGI OI BGI PO OI BGI BGI OI Athletic Department Staff
Athletic Director Chancellor PO Deans Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff BGI
Faculty and Staff and Faculty Faculty Staff – General BGI OI OI BGI OI PO OI Vice Provost and Dean of Students BGI OI Alumni BGI OI BGI OI OI PO
Alumni Association President PO Board of Trustees OI OI OI Donors Others Government Officials Local Business Leaders Potential Employer Greek Life Students OI OI
Residence Hall Assistants Students in General Student Athletes Students Student Government Board Members BGI OI Student Organization Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
225 Table 4.16 illustrates which data collection method identified which instrumental form of social
capital for the purposes of data triangulation. Also, Table 4.16 highlights which data collection
methods where most effective in identifying the other instrumental forms of social capital. Table
4.16 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific other instrumental form of social capital was recorded.
Rather, the table denotes that a specific other instrumental form of social capital was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to the other instrumental forms of social capital accessible by Blue and
Gold Society members will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
4.3.2.1 Meet new people
Blue and Gold Society members have an opportunity to meet many new people as a result of the relationships they build while in the Blue and Gold Society. In other words, because of the relationships that Blue and Gold Society members make with others, Blue and Gold
Society members are able to meet even more people by being introduced to others outside their social network by individuals within their social network. Although not typically listed independently as a form of instrumental social capital in the literature, the author noticed the quantity and quality of data gathered pertaining to meeting new people and created a separate child node in which to house the data.
The first category of people within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks who help Blue and Gold Society members meet new people is people with ties to the Blue and Gold
Society, namely fellow Blue and Gold Society members, the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs, and the Associate Director of Alumni Membership (see Table 4.16). As it pertains to meeting new people, one Blue and Gold Society member explained:
226 My relationship with Blue and Gold Society members has helped me in many ways. For example, when I ran for office on the Student Government Board, they helped me campaign and introduced me to other people and students who could help me campaign more effectively. (M27-2A)
Another member discussed how fellow Blue and Gold Society members have helped him to meet others: “You get to meet a diverse group of people. People I would have never interacted with, which makes me a more diverse person. Everyone knows someone else on campus. It’s like a big web” (M18-2A). The author experienced this form of instrumental social capital first hand
on numerous occasions. On one occasion, the author recorded:
One Blue and Gold Society member (M23) told me today that I could come by his house some Friday night to play cards with him and some other friends of his. He explained to me that he does this every Friday night and always invites new people over so everyone can meet new people. This is certainly a chance for me to meet new people through Blue and Gold Society members.
Knowing the Manager of Student Alumni Programs can also be a help in meeting new people.
The Manager explained while being interviewed that “I am there to help assist them with
references” and “I always try to help them make good connections with people” (I5-1A). A member of the student organization echoed this same claim about both the Manager and the
Associate Director for Alumni Membership by explaining:
The Manager of Student Alumni Programs and Associate Director of Alumni Membership have extensive networks throughout the University, and I know them, they know me, they end up knowing others with my same interests and can connect me to other similar people. (M1-2A)
The result of meeting faculty and staff as a Blue and Gold Society member leads to meeting other people as well (see Table 4.16). While interviewing a staff member, the author learned in the staff members own words that “We connect them to various business alumni. I’ve connected one with alumni in Brazil. He wants to work in Brazil after he graduates, so I was able to help him make connections with alumni there” (I6-2A). Knowing staff in the Office of
227 Alumni Relations is helpful for Blue and Gold Society members as well. Said one Blue and
Gold Society member, “I feel like I could go to Alumni Relations staff and ask them if they know any alumni in a particular part of the country that could help me with such and such” (16-
2A).
Other individuals besides those discussed thus far help Blue and Gold Society members meet new people also, as previously noted in Table 4.16. Knowing members of the University’s
Board of Trustees is a great example of this form of instrumental social capital. Said simply by the member of the Board interviewed during the course of the research study, “I try to help them meet people” (I3-1D).
In concluding this subsection, it is helpful to reflect back on the social capital literature is
Chapter 2. As previously mentioned at the beginning of this section, other forms of instrumental forms of social capital that are those forms that are typically not mentioned in the social capital literature. The act of meeting new people and having social network members is an integral element of the theory of social capital (Lin, 2008). Without a social network, a person cannot access social capital. What the social capital literature does not consider though is that meeting new people through individuals already in one’s social network can be considered its own form of social capital. In other words, as a result of the relationship that a Blue and Gold Society member has established with a University staff person through being a member of the Blue and
Gold Society, for example, the resource embedded in that particular relationship between the
Blue and Gold Society member and the staff person is the opportunity for the staff person to introduce the Blue and Gold Society member to other individuals. Therefore, meeting new people can be the foundation to a social network and to social capital theory, but the evidence in
228 this subsection also demonstrates how meeting new people can also be a form on instrumental
social capital.
4.3.2.2 Mentoring
Mentoring, or the benefit of receiving coaching or counsel from someone, proved to be a
unique form of instrumental social capital. The first category of individuals where this is present
is with Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.16). As a result of knowing the Manager of Student
Alumni Programs, for example, Blue and Gold Society members receive mentoring. Said the
Manager pertaining to this resource for members, “I serve as a mentor for them. I try to give
them life lessons” (I5-2B). The author witnessed this first hand during one of the Society’s
weekly early morning meetings and recorded in field notes that “Blue and Gold Society members
are seeking and receiving advice from the Manager of Student Alumni Programs.” As it relates to mentoring received from fellow members of the student organization, one female Blue and
Gold Society member said that “The other female Blue and Gold Society members are an example to me” and provide a form of mentorship (M28-2B).
Faculty and staff whom Blue and Gold Society members are able to include in their
social networks also provide them with opportunities to be mentored (see Table 4.15). One
member said, “I have sought and received advice from higher-ups at the University” (M23-2A).
Another member said that within her social network, “staff provide adult mentoring” (M7-2A).
The Office of Alumni Relations staff person during an interview session provided additional insight as it pertains to the mentoring Blue and Gold Society members are able to receive from
Alumni Relations staff.
I’m a mentor to them I think. They can feel comfortable with me and feel the ability to come to me for help or to talk to me about things to get my perspective or to ask for
229 personal advice. I think I can help them see their talents and different sides of themselves. (I2-2A)
Others, such as alumni, also provide Blue and Gold Society members with mentorship
(see Table 4.16). “You get a lot of mentor relationships [through alumni],” stated one member
(M34-2A). “[Alumni] are good examples and role models. When I think about what I want to
do in the future, it shows me what I can do with my life in the future,” stated another member
(M28-2A). Board of Trustees also serve as mentors for those Blue and Gold Society members
who count them as part of their social network.
I have a passion for mentoring young people, especially Pitt students, so naturally I interact with Blue and Gold Society students when I see them in person and stay in touch with them as they reach out to me or as I reach out to them. I actively mentor five former Blue and Gold Society members. I get to see them outside of the classroom, I help them see me and other successful men and women in various careers. They get to observe me and others like me. Then comes the personal relationship that either I make with them or I help them facilitate with others. Sometimes they formally ask you to become a lifelong mentor, or help with getting them access to someone who can help them in the way they need help. You become their lifeline when the big decisions need to be made. (I3-1A)
As a discussion point at the conclusion of this subsection, it is helpful continue to further clarify mentoring as an additional form of instrumental form of social capital. The social capital literature defines forms of social capital as the resources that accrue to an individual by virtue of belonging to a social network. Many of these resources are by default pegged into existing, commonly discussed forms of instrumental social capital. For instance, the types of opportunities for Blue and Gold Society members to receive mentoring as described in this subsection could have been effortlessly placed by default into the form of social capital educational attainment or occupational mobility, for example. The evidence herein suggests though that receiving mentoring through social network relationships might also be considered its own form of instrumental social capital, which is a result of the type and breadth of inductive analysis and effort incorporated into this research study.
230 4.3.2.3 Free tangible/material items
This subsection encompasses the free tangible/material items available to Blue and Gold
Society members through the relationships they have developed as a result of being members in
the Blue and Gold Society. The first instance of this identified during the research study was
free food. The second instance of this identified during the research study was free tickets to
athletic events. The former will be elaborated on first, while the latter will be elaborated on
second.
College students typically do not turn down free food. A number of Blue and Gold
Society members cited complimentary meals as a result or benefit of the many relationships they
make as members of the Blue and Gold Society, which ultimately became a separate theme or
child node during the data analysis period. The social network members through which Blue and
Gold Society members noted having the resource of free tangible/material items such as free
food were previously listed in Table 4.16.
Beginning with the category of Blue and Gold Society, one member said that her
relationship with fellow Blue and Gold Society members often led to “free meals” as a result of
the informational free food opportunities they shared with one another (M7-2A). The author
observed during a weekly meeting one Blue and Gold Society member (M15) informing other
members about a “free event to come and try Indian food.” Additionally, the Manager of
Student Alumni Programs (I5) also frequently told students about opportunities for free food that
Blue and Gold Society students would not otherwise know about.
Relationships with faculty and staff also occasionally result in complimentary food for
Blue and Gold Society members as well (see Table 4.16). While interviewing the staff person employed in the University’s School of Business, the staff person noted that when he invites
231 Blue and Gold Society members to help host an event, the staff person also assures them that he will “feed them well” after the other guests have an opportunity to get their food and begin eating (I6-2A).
Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with alumni also result in opportunities for free food. During an interview with one member, the Blue and Gold Society member said,
“Alumni take you to free lunches” (M35-2A). As an additional example, another Blue and Gold
Society member (M19) gave a tour to an alumnus that was in town visiting for the weekend. The author recorded the following during a weekly Blue and Gold Society member meeting as the particular member reported on his experience giving the tour.
This past weekend, one Blue and Gold Society had the opportunity to meet an alumnus and give him a tour of the University. The Blue and Gold Society member shared how after the tour, the alumnus invited her to dinner with him and another University staff person. This member said the restaurant he took her to “was a very nice restaurant.”
In conclusion, free food may be a fairly unique other form of instrumental social capital.
This form of social capital is definitely not typically included in the discussion of social capital theory. Thinking about the idea of free food as a resource embedded in relationships might be valuable to consider though because just as education attainment and occupational mobility are essential to sustaining one’s life as it relates to being marketable in the work force and finding a good job, respectively, so too might access to free food be a form of social capital consider as food is so essential to sustaining one’s life.
Although not frequently noted, free tickets to University of Pittsburgh athletic events also turned out to be a free tangible/material benefit to Blue and Gold Society members as a result of their relationships with others (see Table 4.16). One member, when asked to describe a resource that is available to him as a result of the relationships he has been able to develop as a member of the Blue and Gold Society, explained that staff in the Office of Alumni Relations occasionally
232 offer him “free basketball tickets” (M10-2A). The author also observed on a few occasions that
the Manager of Student Alumni Programs (I5) informed Blue and Gold Society students of
opportunities to attend Pitt athletic events free of charge.
As a discussion point related to this subjection, access to free athletic tickets as another
form of instrumental social capital identified through inductive analysis is most likely a resource
that is not necessarily essential to sustaining one’s life or getting ahead. It might be considered a
form of other instrumental social capital though because many people consider the opportunity to go to an athletic event for free to be a nice perk or resource of having a relationship with someone. Instrumental forms of social capital are those relationships where beneficial resources exist that help a person gain something (Lin, 2001). Gaining free tickets to an athletic event is a way of gaining something through knowing someone, which is the essence of instrumental social capital.
4.3.2.4 General help
Most forms of instrumental social capital entail getting help with something in one form or another, such as getting help finding a job (occupational mobility) or getting help with school
(education attainment). Blue and Gold Society members also frequently referred to the general, non-specific help they receive from individuals within their respective social networks. This theme also became its own child node during the analysis portion of this research study.
Beginning with the relationships with fellow Blue and Gold Society members (see Table 4.16), one member said, “If I needed something I could ask them for help” (M28-2B). Another member explained in reference to fellow Blue and Gold Society members, “They are as helpful as friends are” (M35-2B). On another occasion, the author observed an instance when numerous
Blue and Gold Society members offered to help a fellow member (M22).
233 Today during a weekly Blue and Gold Society meeting, a female Blue and Gold Society member announced that there is a blood drive in the student union today. She then went on to explain that she would like to give blood but that she does not meet the 100 pound weight requirement in order to give blood. She then asks if any Blue and Gold Society members might want to go in her place. Somewhat surprisingly to me, one member volunteered to do so. It was a kind of a neat thing for me to witness. They truly do help each other in so many ways.
As it relates to the Manager of Student Alumni Programs, one Blue and Gold Society member shared, “I’d call the Manager of Student Alumni Programs second only to my parents if I needed something” (M32-2B). Another member said in reference to both the Manager and the Associate
Director of Alumni Membership that “I can stop by their offices for help” (M15-1A).
Faculty and staff relationships also proved helpful for Blue and Gold Society members to secure random acts of help (see Table 4.16). When interviewed by the author and asked what resources he is able to provide Blue and Gold Society members with whom he has a relationship, a staff member explained, “I ended up helping to get one Blue and Gold Society member extra tickets for graduation when he asked for his family” (I6-2A). Also as it relation to staff, one
Blue and Gold Society member said, “I feel comfortable going to Alumni Relations staff” to “ask for help” (M16-2A).
Students at the University of Pittsburgh also provide help as a form of instrumental social capital to those Blue and Gold Society members whom they know (see Table 4.16). For example, a student involved in Greek Life at the University who was interviewed during the course of the research study said that “If Blue and Gold Society members ever need any help,
I’m a good person for them to know and I can help them” (I4-2B). A member of the Blue and
Gold Society stated during an interview that a Student Government Board member “offered help and expressed general concern [for her]” on numerous occasions (M21-2B).
234 Other individuals provide various general help as well to those Blue and Gold Society
members with whom they have developed relationships (see Table 4.16). Pertaining to the
category of other individuals, the Board of Trustees member interviewed for the research study
shared a very specific experience related to the kind of help he offered a Blue and Gold Society
member in the past. This instance of instrumental social capital is unique in nature and fits best
within this category of general help as it does not fit into any of the other more specific themes
incorporated into the research study.
One came to me a year into my relationship with them. He asked if he could confide in me. He shared his defining moment with me. His parents divorced. There was abuse at home. He was thrown out at a young age. Cops were involved. He was very embarrassed by it all. His father punished him by taking away his financial supply. He asked me how to cope. I talked through with him how to do it all. I even taught him how to reconcile his relationship with his father. This is true trust on both of our parts. He didn’t tell anyone but me. I never told anyone. Six months later, we worked together to apply for student loans, school, his relationship with his dad improved, his mom and sister are doing better. He was mad at his dad. I helped him deal with this. (I3-3B1)
As a point of discussion and to conclude this subsection, getting help is certainly a
general term when compared to the other forms of instrumental social capital introduced in
section 4.3.2, such as meeting new people and free tangible/material items. The purpose of
including this theme and child node in the analytical node structure though is to capture the general forms of help Blue and Gold Society members’ partake of as a result of their relationship with others that do not fit into any of the other forms of instrumental social capital included in section 4.3.2, but are nonetheless worthy of mention as findings in this research study. For example, the quote offered above by the Board of Trustees member is very poignant and insightful, yet it just did not fit into any of the other themes. Rather than discarding and/or not including this data in the dissertation write-up, the author found enough references to general help to create a separate node for the references.
235 4.3.2.5 Unique opportunities
Blue and Gold Society members, as it relates to instrumental forms of social capital,
experience a number of unique opportunities that allow them to take advantage of very specific help or resources from individuals within their social networks that do not fit into any of the
instrumental forms of social capital themes mentioned thus far (see Table 4.16). Speaking
specifically about his relationships with fellow Blue and Gold Society members, one member
said that “The diversity of the Blue and Gold Society opens up doors to diverse opportunities”
(M8-2A). One member explained how he has been “invited to tailgates by some of the Blue and
Gold Society members’ parents” in the past (M24-2A). As a result of knowing the Associate
Director of Alumni Membership, the author observed the Associate Director during a weekly
meeting say to Blue and Gold Society members, “If you want to be in the Alumni Association
publication that will be mailed out to all alumni, contact me.” Resources and benefits such as
these are made possible through relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have made as
a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society. Although the opportunities are
unique in nature, it is important to include them in the findings to demonstrate the holistic
approach the author employed throughout the data collection and analysis phases of the study.
Through relationships with faculty and staff, Blue and Gold Society members are also
able to realize a number of unique instrumental social capital benefits that do not necessarily fit
into any of the other more clearly defined forms of instrumental social capital (see Table 4.16).
For example, one staff member recalled a time when Blue and Gold Society members helped to
host an event for the Business School. The staff person said, “The ones that hosted our recent
alumni awards program received a free pad folio. We treat them well” (I6-2A). One member
made reference to Office of Alumni Relations staff and the help they are to her: “The entire
236 Alumni Relations office is a resource. I can use it as study space, faxing, to ask general questions, get information” (M15-2A). Another Blue and Gold Society member recounted a unique benefit that was provided to her in the form of being invited to a special event as a result of the relationship she was able to develop with an executive level staff person at the University.
I got to talk with the Vice Chancellor for University Marketing and Communications. After I met him, I set up a meeting with him. You never know who you might meet. You have to make the most of the opportunity. He invited me to come back to his second event later in the month as a guest, not as a Blue and Gold Society member working the event. (M8-1A)
To close this subsection and provide some discussion, the theme of unique opportunities was created for a purpose similar to the purpose for creating a theme for general help (see
Section 4.3.2.5). Blue and Gold Society members have access to a number of unique opportunities by virtue of the relationships they have developed through being in the Blue and
Gold Society that do not necessarily fit into any of the other deductively or inductively identified themes in this research study, yet the data pertaining to these unique opportunities was too insightful to simply discard and not find a way to include in the findings and discussion portion of this dissertation write-up. The unique opportunities described herein, as Field (2008) pointed out, arise as a by-product of an individual’s engagement in a social network, which in this case applies to Blue and Gold Society members and their vast social network described in Section 4.2.
4.3.3 Expressive forms of social capital
As a review, expressive forms of social capital are characterized as those resources whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual maintain one’s own current resources
(Coleman, 1988; Lin, 2001). The two forms of expressive social capital, as identified in the literature review, are identity reinforcement and sanctions. Research question 2B seeks to
237 identify the expressive forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members.
Table 4.17 reintroduces research question 2B and includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in Blue and
Gold Society member’s social networks. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question.
Table 4.17: Research question 2A – Blue and Gold Society members and their expressive social capital
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Capital Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Based on Literature Question Review
Concerning Social Networks 2B. Describe the support you receive as a result of the relationships Asked of Blue and you have developed as a Gold Society member of the Blue and Gold Members Society that help you to Resources embedded in maintain the resources that you social networks that are 2B. What expressive already have. available for use by forms of social 2B. Describe the support available to network members (Putnam, capital are Asked of current Blue and Gold Society 2000; Bourdieu, 1986; embedded in the Individuals in Blue members as a result of your Coleman, 1988; Lin & social network of and Gold Society relationship with them that Erikson, 2008) an undergraduate Member’s Social might help them to maintain student Network the resources they already Aim and/or desired organization have. outcome is ultimately to member? help an individual maintain Asked by author 2B. What expressive forms of social current resources (Lin, during participant capital are embedded in the 2001) observation and social network of Blue and cultural artifact Gold Society members? review
As previously discussed in the Methodology chapter, both deductive and inductive analysis were used to analyze and arrange the data for research question 2B into a hierarchical node structure, as seen in Figure 4.7.
238
Figure 4.7: Expressive forms of social capital
The highest node in the structure is Forms of Social Capital. The first two child nodes in the hierarchy are Expressive Forms of Social Capital and Other Expressive Forms of Social Capital.
The former houses data and additional child nodes according to deductive analysis and the themes derived from the literature review (Campbell Galman, 2007). The later houses data and additional child nodes according to inductive analysis and the new themes generated through an examination of the data (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999). The node tree also organizes the data in
239 a manner that incorporates through which social network member each form of social capital is accessible by Blue and Gold Society members. Figure 4.7 also serves the purpose of defining the various nodes or codes used to organize and analyze the data.
Table 4.18 lists the two deductively identified expressive forms of social capital along the top of the table.
Table 4.18: Expressive forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method
Expressive Forms of Social Capital Identity Reinforcement Sanctions
Associate Director of Alumni Membership BGI Belonging to the Blue and Gold Society PO
Gold Gold Blue and Gold Society Members BGI PO BGI PO Society Blue and Manager of Student Alumni Programs BGI Alumni Relations Staff BGI Athletic Department Staff
Athletic Director Chancellor BGI PO Deans Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff
Faculty and Staff and Faculty Faculty Staff – General BGI Vice Provost and Dean of Students Alumni BGI Alumni Association President PO Board of Trustees Donors
Others Government Officials Local Business Leaders Potential Employer Greek Life Students
Residence Hall Assistants Students in General Student Athletes Students Student Government Board Members Student Organization Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
240 The table also lists the four categories of individuals and the specific individuals through which
the two expressive forms of social capital were accessible by Blue and Gold Society members as
a result of the relationships they have developed as members of the Blue and Gold Society.
These relationships were previously defined in Section 4.2. The processes through which the
relationships have developed were previously described in Section 4.3. Whenever a particular
form of social capital is accessible through a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the
data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through
interviews with Blue and Gold Society members that identity enforcement and sanctions are
accessible through fellow Blue and Gold Society members. Then, through participant observation the author noted that identity enforcement and sanctions are accessible through
fellow Blue and Gold Society members. Table 4.18 illustrates which data collection method
identified which expressive form of social capital for the purposes of data triangulation. Also,
Table 4.18 highlights which data collection methods where most effective in identifying the
expressive forms of social capital. Table 4.18 is a collective representation of the findings,
meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific expressive
form of social capital was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that a specific expressive form of
social capital was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the
data collection methods. More specific findings related to the expressive forms of social capital
accessible by Blue and Gold Society members will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
4.3.3.1 Identity recognition
The manner in which an individual’s identity is reinforced and/or recognized by virtue of
belonging to a given social network is often referred to as identify recognition in the social
capital literature (Lin, 2001; Bourdieu, 1986). As a point of reference as it relates to the identify
241 of Blue and Gold Society members, Section 4.1 described Blue and Gold Society members’ self- described views of themselves as well as the views of Blue and Gold Society members as described by others. In short, Blue and Gold Society members are elite, prestigious, accomplished, actively engaged student representatives of the University of Pittsburgh. With that simple description in mind, the first category to consider as it relates to identity recognition is Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.18).
One Blue and Gold Society member spoke at length during an interview about an experience he had with identify recognition as a result of fellow Blue and Gold Society members within his social network. As an intern for American Eagle clothing company, he talked about how he won a national marketing competition against other interns in the company. When Blue and Gold Society members were informed that he won the competition he explained that he “got a lot of public recognition from them,” meaning fellow Blue and Gold Society members, which helped him feel like he really accomplished something and was seen as an accomplished person
(M10-2B). Blue and Gold Society members both described themselves and were described by others as being privileged, having special benefits as a result of their association with Blue and
Gold Society members (see Section 4.2). The author observed an example of this during a weekly Blue and Gold Society member meeting. One Friday during the semester, the Governor of Pennsylvania visited the University to speak to faculty, staff and students. Seating at this event was limited and security was at a high level, meaning that all guests were subject to security screening of some sort. The Manager of Student Alumni Programs (I5) explained though that if Blue and Gold Society members wore their Blue and Gold Society uniforms, they would have an easier time bypassing the security and get into the event a little easier. This is an example of Blue and Gold Society members having their privileged status confirmed as a result
242 of simply being members of a privileged social network. Blue and Gold Society members also described themselves as leaders, a mutual support for each other, and engaged and involved (see
Section 4.2). As it relates to identity recognition as a form of social capital embedded in social networks, one Blue and Gold Society member talked about how knowing that other members of the Blue and Gold Society have these same characteristics as him comforts and encourages him.
“We are a very cohesive group,” he said (M34-2B). “Blue and Gold Society members are not only involved but we are all leaders in different student organizations too. This is very reinforcing and positive for us,” he continued (M34-2B).
The relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with University of Pittsburgh faculty and staff help provide identity recognition for members of the Society, as previously noted in Table 4.18. Again, reflecting back on the characteristics of Blue and Gold Society members in Section 4.2, many members described themselves as having a sense of pride for and devotion to the University. Members also said they were well known on campus and act as representatives of the University. One student explained how his Blue and Gold Society social network with staff confirmed these characteristics or these identities for him.
Meeting and knowing the Chancellor helps you get a greater sense of pride for the University and makes you feel like something sets you apart among other students when you get to talk with him. This puts things in perspective. It makes you think about what you have to contribute to others and what others have to contribute to you. It puts you in a place where you can facilitate things in your own life and in other’s lives. (M23-2A)
This instance coincides with a remark included in the literature review, that “Social ties, and their acknowledged relationships to the individual, may be conceived by the organization or its agents as certification of the individual’s social credentials” (Lin, 2001, p.20).
As a point of discussion while concluding this subsection, it is worth noting that identity recognition, a deductively identified form of expressive social capital, is somewhat less prevalent
243 as an embedded resource in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks than some of the other instrumental forms of social capital. One possible reason for this difference could be due to measurement difficulty, which tends to be a general concern when attempting to research and measure social capital in general due to the inherently abstract concepts that make up social capital theory (Narayan & Cassidy, 2001). The ethnography tool of observation was helpful as it helped the author observe identity recognition when such a theme was less acknowledged through interviews and the review of cultural artifacts. Despite the various data collection tools employed in this research study though, identity recognition nonetheless proved to be a difficult form of expressive social capital to measure due to its vagueness and intangibleness as a construct of social capital theory.
4.3.3.2 Sanctions
Sanctions, an expressive form of social capital according to the literature, is the formal and informal laws or rules of conduct that govern and/or reaffirm the limits or capabilities of a social network, and may provide benefits to an individual (Bourdieu, 1986; Halpern, 2005;
Putnam, 2000). Blue and Gold Society members experience sanctions as a form of social capital through their relationships with individuals who have ties to the Blue and Gold Society (see
Table 4.18). Blue and Gold Society members commented often during interviews about how they self-monitor each other’s actions and non-actions as a result of genuine concern for one another but also as a way to ensure that their Blue and Gold Society social network maintains its identity and positive reputation. One member said, “I have come to expect that they will be there for me. You also come to expect it, because as Blue and Gold Society members we have rules that help govern what we do” (M22-3C1). Another member continued, “When we get goofy at times, we self-monitor each other and help each other get back in-line” (M23-1D). One member
244 provided this example by explaining that “If they notice me late to a meeting, they text me and
ask if I’m okay and if I’m coming. Things they don’t have to do but choose to do” (M29-3C1).
As it relates to the Manager of Student Alumni Programs, an often cited individual within Blue
and Gold Society members’ social networks, one Society member said that “Expectations from
our leaders and staff inspire us and keep us on track” (M7-2B).
Others outside of the Blue and Gold Society who have a relationship with Blue and Gold
Society members, such as staff at the University of Pittsburgh, help to sanction and govern Blue
and Gold Society members (see Table 4.18). The impetus for staff to do this is because they know the caliber of students who make up the Blue and Gold Society and are also aware of the expectations they and others throughout the University place on Blue and Gold Society members. One Blue and Gold Society member confirmed this act of sanctioning. She said, “As a Blue and Gold Society member, [staff] expect you to be diligent and committed to whatever we’re involved in” (M11-1D). She explained that this expectation helps her strive to be the best
Blue and Gold Society member she can be.
As a discussion point, the theme of sanctions was a difficult form of social capital to identify as an embedded resource among Blue and Gold Society members and their social networks. In order to measure sanctions, a researcher must look closely to identify formal and informal laws or rules of conduct that govern and/or reaffirm the limits of a social network. The act of measuring an expressive form of social capital such as sanctions does not carry along with it a set of key indicators or quantifying characteristics (Durlauf, 2002), and is thus quite intangible to measure and observe for a researcher. Nonetheless, a few valuable and insightful instances of sanctions were identified as the author utilized various data collection methods in an
245 attempt to explain and interpret the perspectives and behaviors of Blue and Gold Society members, which is a key trait of ethnographic methods (LeCompte & Schensul, 2010).
4.3.4 Other forms of expressive social capital
As previously described, expressive forms of social capital are characterized as those resources whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual maintain one’s own current resources (Coleman, 1988; Lin, 2001). The literature on social capital typically identifies two primary forms of expressive social capital. The findings related to these two forms were presented in Section 4.3.3. Through inductive analysis though, or the through the identification of new themes as a result of examining the data (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999), the author identified four additional forms of expressive social capital that will now be presented. These forms include comfort, general support, friendship or family-like feeling and connectedness to the University.
Table 4.19 lists these other four inductively identified expressing forms of social capital along the top of the table. The table also lists the four categories of individuals and the specific individuals through which the four other expressive forms of social capital were accessible by
Blue and Gold Society members as a result of the relationships they have developed as members of the Blue and Gold Society. These relationships were previously defined in Section 4.2. The processes through which the relationships have developed were previously described in Section
4.3. Whenever a particular form of social capital is accessible through a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data.
246 Table 4.19 Other expressive forms of social capital available to Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method
Other Forms of Expressive Social Capital
like like - s to the the to s Feeling General Support Comfort University Family Friendship or or Friendship Connectednes
Associate Director of Alumni BGI BGI Membership Belonging to the Blue and Gold
Society
Blue and Blue and Gold Society Members BGI PO BGI PO BGI PO BGI Gold Society Gold Manager of Student Alumni Programs BGI PO BGI OI BGI OI PO Alumni Relations Staff BGI OI Athletic Department Staff
Athletic Director Chancellor Deans Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff
Faculty and Staff and Faculty Faculty Staff – General BGI Vice Provost and Dean of Students BGI OI Alumni PO
Alumni Association President BGI BGI Board of Trustees OI OI Donors Others Government Officials Local Business Leaders Potential Employer Greek Life Students OI OI
Residence Hall Assistants Students in General Student Athletes Students Student Government Board Members BGI Student Organization Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
247 For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members that receiving comfort, receiving general support, feeling friendship or family-like feelings and feeling a connectedness to the University come through relationships with fellow Blue and Gold
Society members. Then, through participant observation the author noted that receiving comfort, receiving general support and feeling friendship or family-like feelings is accessible through fellow Blue and Gold Society members. Table 4.19 illustrates which data collection method identified which other expressive form of social capital for the purposes of data triangulation.
Also, Table 4.19 highlights which data collection methods where most effective in identifying the other forms of expressive social capital. Table 4.19 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific other form of expressive social capital was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that a specific other form of expressive social capital was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to the other forms of expressive social capital accessible by Blue and Gold Society members will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
4.3.4.1 Comfort
For the purposes of this theme, the term comfort is defined as consolation extended in times of trial. As opposed to instrumental forms of social capital that help an individual get ahead or gain something in life, comfort more closely resembles an expressive form as it seeks to help and individual persevere through a particular situation in their life. The relationships that
Blue and Gold Society members have with fellow Society members provide examples of this comfort as a distinct form of expressive social capital (see Table 4.19).
248 One member explained pertaining to relationships with fellow Society members,
“Knowing people care about you and think highly of you is comforting. A lot of people don’t
have a chance to have this support from their non-peers and non-family” (M25-2B). While one
member was faced with a trial during her time as a Blue and Gold Society member she said, “At
one point, I had to take a medical leave of absence from school. The Blue and Gold Society
members checked in to see how I was doing” (M22-2B). “Blue and Gold Society members
wouldn’t ever throw you under the bus,” said yet another member (M4-2B). “They’d help bear
you up” in times of trial, he continued (M4-2B). As it relates to comfort embedded in
relationships between Blue and Gold Society members and the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs, the Manager claimed during an interview that she is there to “help them medically,
emotionally” (I5-1A). Blue and Gold Society members confirmed the existence of this benefit of
comfort in their relationship with the Manager of Student Alumni Programs as well as with the
Associate Director of Alumni Membership. Referring to the comfort embedded in relationships
with both of them, one Blue and Gold Society member explained that the “Manager of Student
Alumni Programs and Associate Director of Alumni Membership are like a mother for us” and extend comfort like any mother would (M4-1A).
Relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with other students provide comfort as well, as previously noted in Table 4.19. The author, while interviewing a student involved in Greek Life as a fraternity member, learned first-hand the extent to which the opportunity for Blue and Gold Society members to acquire comfort exists as a result of their relationship with students at the University of Pittsburgh. When asked to describe the support available to current Blue and Gold Society members as a result of his relationship with them that
249 might help them to maintain the resources they already have, the fraternity member who is also a residence hall assistant on campus said:
Of course. Since I am a residence assistant, I am trained to support other students socially, while they’re away from home, if they are in need of counseling or direction. If a Blue and Gold Society members ever need any help, I’m a good person for them to know and I can help them. (I4-2B)
Aside from those individuals linked to the Blue and Gold Society and other students at the University, other individuals provide comfort through their relationship with Blue and Gold
Society members as well (see Table 4.19). Board of Trustees members are one example of this.
Explained one Board of Trustees member about a Blue and Gold Society member with whom he had a relationship that approached him for help during his parents’ divorce, “he asked me how to cope” (I3-3B1). This Board of Trustees member went on to describe how he comforted the
Society member and “helped him deal with this,” pertaining to his parents’ divorce and extending a hand of comfort to him through this difficult trial in his life (I3-3B1).
Fellow Blue and Gold Society members, as well as those individuals tied to the Blue and
Gold Society, appear to provide comfort as a form of expressive social capital more than students, faculty and staff and other individuals. A possible reason for this could be that comfort embedded in social network relationships exists more prominently with social network members who are closer, bonding type relationships rather than less close, bridging type relationships.
Although this research study did not necessarily link the various forms of social capital to specific bonding and/or bridging relationships of Blue and Gold Society members, it may be fair to assume that since Blue and Gold Society members tend to have bonding relationships with fellow Society members and those with ties to the Blue and Gold Society, then comfort embedded in those relationships is more likely to exist than with faculty and staff, or in other words more bridging type relationships.
250 4.3.4.2 General support
General support, another inductively identified expressive form of social capital, is referred to as support that helps an individual endure or persevere. As opposed to helping someone cope, general support refers more to encouragement to help someone through a trial, which was evidenced through Blue and Gold Society members having relationships with those individuals linked to the Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.19). Simply stated, one Blue and
Gold Society member said, “If I need support or guidance, I can count on Blue and Gold Society members to help” (M16-2B). Another member continued:
Blue and Gold Society members strengthen each other. Blue and Gold Society members initially strengthen each other out of obligation as a fellow Blue and Gold Society member, but then we begin to strengthen each other outside of this obligation. I have found that I try to strengthen other Blue and Gold Society members that have similar aspirations as me, like the other ones interested in molecular biology like me. (M26-2B)
Having a relationship with the Manager of Student Alumni Programs also provides general support. Said one Society member, “You definitely get support from the Manager of Student
Alumni Programs. She didn’t just give me a letter of recommendation when I asked her for one.
She built me up, she encouraged me” (M34-2B). Another member provided a great example of receiving support from the Manager of Student Alumni Programs as well:
She puts your needs first. She tells me to put my family first. One time it was my mom’s 60th birthday and there was a mandatory Blue and Gold Society meeting I was supposed to be at. She told me that family always comes first, and let me go be with my mom for her birthday, didn’t make me feel bad about missing the event. (M12-1A)
Referring to both the Manager and Associate Director for Alumni Membership, one Blue and
Gold Society member explained, “If you ever need something they tell you they’re there for you”
(M7-1B).
Continuing with the theme of general support, Blue and Gold Society members also experience general support as a result of their relationships with faculty and staff (see Table
251 4.19). Pertaining to Office of Alumni Relations staff specifically, a Blue and Gold Society member said during an interview that “Alumni Relations staff lend me support” (M21-2B).
Another member similarly said, “Alumni Relations staff are there for me” (M14-2B). When
interviewed by the author, one staff person who works in the Office of Alumni Relations was
quoted as saying, “I’m very encouraging to them in their in- and off-campus endeavors. I can
serve as a reference or moral support for them in many aspects of their lives” (I2-2B). Staff in
general also provide general support to Blue and Gold Society members. “I know if I needed
something,” said one Blue and Gold Society member, “I could email administrators across
campus for help” (M8-2A).
As it relates to Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with students (see Table
4.19) and first, namely Student Government Board members, one Blue and Gold Society
member explained that through “Student Government Board members, I have gotten to know
other strong leaders who have given me support” (M21-2B). Aside from Student Government
Board members, one student involved in Greek Life (I4) at the University of Pittsburgh who
knows some Blue and Gold Society members said that he is always available to lend a hand and
provide encouragement to Blue and Gold Society members if they ever need it.
Finally, as it relates to other individuals Blue and Gold Society members count as people
in their social network as a result of their membership in the Society (see Table 4.19), the
President of the Pittsburgh Alumni Association was mentioned as providing general support to
members of the student organization. A member of the student organization who found himself
in need of assistance during a trial claimed, “I can go to the Alumni Association President’s
office for help or email him for help” (M3-2A). One Blue and Gold Society member said as a
result of his relationship with Alumni, “There is always a feeling that if you need help, there will
252 be someone there willing to help you” (M10-2B). Members of the Board of Trustees who have
relationships with Blue and Gold Society members are available to provide support as well. Said
the Trustee interviewed during the research study, “I take time to ask how they are doing and
offer help” (I3-1D).
4.3.4.3 Friendship or family-like feeling
The findings presented in this section pertain to the specific friendship and/or family-like
feelings that exist between Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals with whom
they are able to meet and develop relationships with as a result of being in the Blue and Gold
Society. These specific feelings refer to the comforting, supporting feelings provided within
close friendships and family environments. Individuals with direct association with the Blue and
Gold Society provide these feelings in their relationships with Blue and Gold Society members
(see Table 4.19).
One Blue and Gold Society member stated when asked what benefits he finds in his
relationships with fellow Society members that feelings of “friendship in general” exist (M27-
2B). “There is a cohesive feeling just like a family,” continued another member (M32-2B).
Whenever I am with Blue and Gold Society members, “I know I can come back to that family
feeling,” further elaborated another Blue and Gold Society member (M33-2A). From the perspective of the author, the following was recorded prior to observing an early morning weekly meeting:
Blue and Gold Society members always greet each other with hugs, handshakes, high fives, pats on the back, and always ask each other how they are doing, prior to each weekly meeting I have observed so far. They greet me like this, in such a warm manner, as well. It feels like they are a family. It feels like they are all genuine friends. Having been around them for weeks, I feel like a part of their little family. It is a really neat feeling for me, and it is a really neat thing to watch also.
253 Relationships with the Manager of Student Alumni Programs offer friendship and family feelings
to Blue and Gold Society members too. “She is a mother-type figure,” claimed one Blue and
Gold Society member (M32-2B). The Manager countered this by saying that “They see me as a
second mom” (I5-1B/1C).
Other individuals without ties to the Blue and Gold Society who have relationships with
Blue and Gold Society members provide friendship and/or family-type feelings to members as
well (see Table 4.19). A Blue and Gold Society member referred frequently to his relationship
with the President of the Pittsburgh Alumni Association. He talked often about how friendly his
relationship is with the President. “I can go to the Alumni Association President’s office and
joke with him,” he said as he described the friend-like encounters he has with the President and
the friendship-like feelings that exist between the two of them (M3-2A).
4.3.4.4 Connectedness to the University
Somewhat similar to the friendship and family-like feelings that evolve between Blue and
Gold Society members and those within their social network as a result of the relationships
members are able to make throughout their time in the Blue and Gold Society, feelings and
support in the form of connectedness to the University community arise as well. This particular
theme refers to feeling a sense of connection to the broader campus community. Just as a student
might feel a connectedness to their home neighborhood or community, Blue and Gold Society
members become connected to the campus community as a result of the relationships they are
able to make during their time in the Blue and Gold Society.
Referring again first to the category of Blue and Gold Society (see Table 4.19) and more
specifically relationships with fellow Blue and Gold Society members, one Blue and Gold
Society member said that because of his relationships with fellow members “you can see how
254 everyone is intertwined throughout campus” (M9-2A). Another member similarly commented as
a result of his relationship with his fellow members, “I feel more connected to the University
because of it” (M4-4). “You feel much more connected with campus, much more involved and
knowledgeable about what’s going on” (M30-2A), another Blue and Gold Society member
claimed. During a weekly meeting, the author observed the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs (I5) offer a particular resource to Blue and Gold Society members as a result of her
relationship with them. The author recorded, “The Manager of Student Alumni Programs
mentioned that those sticking around over the summer should let her know, so that she can help
them stay connected throughout the summer and network with others at the University and with
the new Blue and Gold Society members.” Worth noting though is the fact that no other relationships, such as relationships with faculty and staff, students, alumni and so forth, provided evidence to support the claim that Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with those in their social networks create feelings of connectedness to the University as a form of expressive social capital.
4.4 THE ROLE THAT TRUST PLAYS IN ACQUIRING SOCIAL CAPITAL
Thus far the literature and findings presented state that the relationships Blue and Gold Society members make with other individuals as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold
Society (see Section 4.2) provide ample opportunities for Blue and Gold Society members to acquire various forms of social capital (see Sections 4.3). The social capital literature also suggests that the level of trust between two individuals plays a role in the exchange of resources and benefits, or in other words social capital, between and among individuals. Trust, as
255 previously defined in the literature review, refers to the faith or belief one individual has in another to do something based on what is known about his or her disposition, ability and reputation (Fu, 2004). That trust is often centered in an individual’s belief that another individual will perform or behave in a certain way at some future point in time, and vice versa
(Fu, 2004). Trust, as it relates to the concept of social capital, indicates an individual’s willingness to be open to another individual to both provide resources to the individual and receive resources from the individual (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998).
The purpose of this section is to present the findings in answer to the third set of research questions concerning Blue and Gold Society members and the role that trust plays in their accumulation of social capital. Research question 3A will be reintroduced and findings pertaining to that research question will be presented in Section 4.4.1. Research questions 3B1 and 3B2 will be reintroduced and findings pertaining to those research questions will be presented in Section 4.4.2. Research questions 3C1 and 3C2 will be reintroduced and findings pertaining to those research questions will be presented in Section 4.4.3. The findings in Section
4.4 as a whole were identified through inductive analysis. While the literature on social capital and trust is prevalent, specific themes and examples are not provided as often, due to its measurement and conceptualization difficulties (Putnam, 2005; Luhman, 1988). This study’s research questions related to trust are therefore more exploratory in nature and primarily required the use of inductive analysis, or the identification of new themes generated through an examination of the data (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999), as opposed to the use of deductive analysis, or the utilization of preexisting themes derived from the literature review (Campbell
Galman, 2007).
256 4.4.1 The role that trust plays in social capital
As a brief point of review, a social network where trust exists is able to accomplish much more than a comparable social network where the existence of trust is weaker or does not exist at all, based on the insurance and credit that trust and trustworthiness provide to individuals within the social network (Coleman, 1998). In other words, an individual’s willingness to be open to another individual to both provide resources to the individual and receive resources from the individual is contingent on the level of trust that exists within the relationship (Nahapiet &
Ghoshal, 1998). Research question 3A seeks to identify the overarching role that trust plays in the accumulation of social capital for Blue and Gold Society members. Table 4.20 reintroduces research question 3A and includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of
Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks.
Table 4.20: Research question 3A – the role that trust plays in accessing social capital
Element of Social Capital Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Research Based on Literature Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Question Question Review
Concerning Trust 3A. What role does trust play in the
Asked of Blue and benefits or resources available to
Gold Society Members you as a result of the relationships Enables social you have described thus far? 3A. What role does networks to function 3A. What role does trust play in the trust play in Asked of Individuals more effectively and benefits or resources available to helping an in Blue and Gold accomplish much Blue and Gold Society members undergraduate Society Member’s more than as a result of your relationship student Social Network untrustworthy social with them? organization networks (Coleman, Asked by author member acquire 3A. What role does trust play in 1998; Kawachi, during participant social capital? helping Blue and Gold Society Kennedy & observation and members acquire social capital? Wilkinson, 1999) cultural artifact review
257 It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and
cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is
also included to support the research question.
The data obtained from asking research question 3A was analyzed and arranged into the
following hierarchal node structure (see Figure 4.8). The highest node in the structure is Role of
Trust. The first child node in the hierarchy is Plays a Role, meaning that the data demonstrated that trust plays a role in social capital accumulation. The next four child nodes in the structure are Instrumental Forms of Social Capital, Other Instrumental Forms of Social Capital,
Expressive Forms of Social Capital, and Other Expressive Forms of Social Capital. The nodes for instrumental forms of social capital and expressive forms of social capital house data and additional nodes according to deductive analysis and the themes derived from the literature review. These nodes, if applicable, also parallel the instrumental and expressive forms of social
capital and findings in Sections 4.3.1 and 4.3.3. The nodes for other instrumental forms of social
capital and other expressive forms of social capital house data and additional nodes according to
inductive analysis, and also, if applicable, parallel the other instrumental and expressive forms of
social capital and findings in Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.4. In other words, Figure 4.46 organizes the
data to explain that trust plays a role in the various, specific forms of social capital. The specific
forms of social capital listed in Figure 4.8 are not as numerous as the specific forms of social capital identified and discussed in Section 4.3. The reason for this difference is simply because research question 3A and its corresponding semi-structured research questions prompted Blue and Gold Society members and others within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks to discuss the role of trust in a more broad sense as opposed to a more specific sense. The author
made every attempt to note when trust was mentioned to play a role in the acquisition of a
258 specific form of social capital. Figure 4.8 also serves the purpose of defining the various nodes or codes used to organize and analyze the data.
Figure 4.8: NVivo – role of trust in social capital accumulation node structure
Table 4.21 displays the role that trust plays in social capital accumulation by Blue and
Gold Society members. The rows down the left side of the table list the four categories of social capital discussed to this point throughout the findings section (see Section 4.3) and in the literature review. Within each category are the specific forms of social capital that fit into each
259 category. For example, information flow fits into the category of instrumental forms of social capital.
Table 4.21: The role of trust in social capital accumulation by Blue and Gold Society Members by data collection method
The Role of Trust in Social Capital Accumulation by Blue and Gold Society Members
a Role Plays
Information Flow BGI PO
Goal Achievement BGI OI PO
Capital Occupational Mobility BGI OI PO Instrumental
Forms of Social Forms of Social Education Attainment BGI PO
General Help BGI OI PO Other Other
Forms of Meet New People BGI Instrumental Social Capital Social
None noted Capital e Forms of Social Expressiv
General Support BGI OI PO
Capital Friendship or Family-like Feeling BGI PO Forms of Social Forms of Social Other Expressive Other Expressive
Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
Table 4.21 also notes which data collection method identified when trust plays a role in the accumulation of a specific form of social capital. For example, the data collection method of
260 semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members and with those individuals
within their social network identified that trust plays a role in accessing information flow. Also,
Table 4.21 highlights which data collection methods were most effective in identifying when
trust plays a role in social capital accumulation. Although a diligent effort was made to utilize
cultural artifact review to investigate research question 3A, the author found that this data
collection method was neither feasible nor effective in measuring trust because the method
would require extreme amounts of speculation and conjecture. Table 4.21 is a collective
representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the
number of times a specific instance of the role that trust plays in social capital accumulation was
recorded. Rather, the table denotes that trust was noted at least once during the research study by
one or more of the data collection methods to play a role in the accumulation of a specific form
of social capital by Blue and Gold Society members. More specific findings related to the role
that trust plays in social capital accumulation will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
Before qualitatively elaborating on the detailed instances when trust plays a role in obtaining a specific form of social capital though, a broader, more generic overview of the findings will be provided here first to set the tone and foundation for the more detailed findings
that are forthcoming in sections 4.4.1.1-4.4.1.3. In short, the findings from the research study state that trust does in fact play a role in the relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have with those individuals within their social networks and in accessing the various forms of social capital embedded in those relationships. Members of the Blue and Gold Society made the following claims as it relates to trust: “It plays a huge role” (M16-3A), “It’s definitely correlated” (M1-3A), “It is important” (M14-3A), “100 percent yes it plays a role” (M21-3A), and “It plays a vital role” (M3-3A). To further elaborate, one Blue and Gold Society member
261 explained that “Trust is a huge driving factor. It you aren’t trustworthy you shouldn’t be able to reap the benefits of the relationship” (M18-3A). “The more trust in the relationship,” said another member, “it’s easier for people to vouch for you” (M19-3A). To continue, a member of the Blue and Gold Society said:
Trust plays a huge role. When you trust someone, and when someone trusts you, the benefits and resources in relationships are much easier to take advantage of and call upon. When trust is weaker, the likelihood of accessing those benefits is much less likely, even when you know the benefits exist. (M17-3A)
Those individuals outside the Blue and Gold Society felt similarly that trust plays a role in Blue and Gold Society members’ ability to access social capital. The Office of Alumni Relations staff person interviewed explained that:
Trust is at the forefront of this. It’s the primary reason they are given the benefits they are. If they were not able to be trusted, they wouldn’t be able to tap into the alumni community the way they are able to for help, guidance, networking, so forth. (I2-3A)
The University of Pittsburgh student interviewed during the course of the research study also acknowledged that trust “plays the most important role” in access to social capital (I7-3A). He continued to say that “There are different levels of trust. Trust plays a huge role in what you will offer [to Blue and Gold Society members]” (I7-3A). These broad claims and findings will now be elaborated on more specifically in the forthcoming sections.
Before moving on now to the more specific forms of social capital and as a point of discussion, it is noteworthy to point out at that none of the three primary measures of social capital reviewed herein, namely the Name Generator, Position Generator and Resource
Generator, attempt to measure the trust or the role of trust in relationships as it relates to social networks and social capital accumulation (see Table 2.5). Although other tools exist and are commonly utilized to measure trust in social networks, which were also reviewed herein (see
Section 2.1.9), these tools tend to be only attitudinal in nature and lack the ability to take into
262 account situational context and the ability to link trust to specific forms of social capital. This research study takes a step in the direction of investigating both attitudinal and behavioral measures of trust, looking at trust through a situational context and linking trust to accessing specific forms of social capital. Rather than simply explaining that Blue and Gold Society members believe trust is important, specific behavioral examples of this claim were evidenced through this research study. For example, many Blue and Gold Society members testified that they were able to take advantage of educational attainment as a form of instrumental social capital because they were able to trust in a person to the extent that the Blue and Gold Society member felt confident in asking for and utilizing a letter of recommendation received from the person to successfully apply to a given academic program. As it relates to situational context, this research study investigated specifically the role that trust plays in the acquisition of specific forms of social capital by Blue and Gold Society members as a result of belonging to a specific student organization at a specific type of university in specific instances with specific people in specific settings. Finally, and as it relates to tying trust to specific forms of social capital accumulation, sections 4.4.1.1-4.4.1.3 provide evidence to explain the role that trust plays in acquiring specific forms of social capital through specific individuals. In short, this research study attempts to implement Putnam’s (1995) recommendation to incorporate behavioral instances of trust into the study of social capital and overcome the conceptualization difficulties commonly associated with the measurement of trust as it relates to social capital theory expressed by Putman, 2005 and Luhman, 1988.
Also important to highlight as a point of discussion as it relates to this research study’s findings on trust is that this research study incorporated the study of social networks, forms of social capital and the role that trust plays in the acquisition of social capital, unlike the three
263 research studies overviewed in the literature review of this dissertation write-up whose foci were social capital accumulation in higher education among college students (see Section 2.3). The measurement of social capital was not included in two of the research studies all together
(Harper, 2008; Deo, 2009) and only included to a small extent in one (Daily, Eugene & Prewitt,
2007) (see Table 2.6). This research study accomplished the objective of measuring trust and the role that trust plays in the relationships Blue and Gold Society members develop as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, in addition to investigating the social networks of Blue and
Gold Society members and the forms of social capital available to members of the student organization. The role that trust plays in Blue and Gold Society members’ access to the various forms of social capital will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
4.4.1.1 The role that trust plays in instrumental forms of social capital
As a point of reference, instrumental forms of social capital are those resources embedded in relationships that help an individual gain something or get ahead (Lin, 2001). Six instrumental forms of social capital were previously identified in the literature and through deductive analysis (see Section 4.3.1). This section presents the findings as they relate to the role that trust plays in the acquisition of information flow, goal achievement, occupational mobility and education attainment by Blue and Gold Society members through their social networks. Specific findings were not ascertained for the role that trust plays in the acquisition of human capital and norms of reciprocity.
Information flow is the movement of details and facts about opportunities and choices between individuals that would otherwise not be available without the existence of a social network (Lin, 2001; Coleman, 1988). One Blue and Gold Society member explained that “You have to trust in other people that they will give you accurate information. You have to trust them
264 not to lead you astray” (M1-3A). Another member similarly proclaimed that “Without trust there is no relationship. There is a wall up. There is less effective communication” (M13-3A).
“If you couldn’t trust people, we wouldn’t have been able to share things with each other,” stated yet another Society member (M34-3A).
Trust also plays a role in goal achievement, or those resources and relationships that make possible the achievement of certain ends by an individual that in their absence would not be possible (Coleman, 1988). During one interview with a Blue and Gold Society, the member explained that “Mutual trust has to exist for anything to get done” (M16-3A). Another interview with a Blue and Gold Society member yielded the comment that “We all strive to do a good job, and that makes it easier for us to accomplish things because we have a similar trust level with each other” (M9-3A). The Student Government Board President, during an interview with the author, provided two specific examples of the role that trust plays in his relationship with Blue and Gold Society members and goal achievement as an instrumental form of social capital:
I think trust benefits [Blue and Gold Society members] because if they need something from me, they know I would go balls to the wall for them to provide the support and backing necessary for them to get done what they’re trying to get done. (I8-3A)
It’s a two way street. I wouldn’t be what I am now if it were not for their support. I would not have been able to accomplish what I did this spring on campus without their help. And vice versa, I think they have specifically benefited from knowing me and being able to trust me to help them as well. (I8-3A)
Occupational mobility, referred to in the literature as a form of social capital that assists an individual with career development, job attainment and/or career networking (Coleman,
1988), is assisted by the existence of trust between individuals. A Blue and Gold Society member who is a student in the School of Business shared the following example of the role that trust plays in occupational mobility.
265 For instance, the dean of the business school would not have taken the time to meet with me unless he had known of my accomplishments through other people and being a Blue and Gold Society member and then meeting with me. If he didn’t trust that I wasn’t going to screw things up, he wouldn’t be meeting with me in the first place. He knows that if he sets up an interview for me, he knows I'll follow through with it. (M10-3A)
Another Blue and Gold Society member described her experience meeting and career networking with an alumna within her social network:
I trusted the alumna at the Community College of Allegheny County and her advice. I wouldn’t have considered her advice if I didn’t trust her. I didn’t even really know her well but because I trusted her I listened to her advice. (M12-3A)
No matter how strong or weak the relationship, one Blue and Gold Society member further proclaimed as it relates to occupational mobility as a form of social capital, that, for example,
“The Manager of Student Alumni Programs and Associate Director of Alumni Membership would find it difficult to recommend us to others without first trusting us” (14-3A). From a different perspective, the Board of Trustees member interviewed in the research study explained how trust played a role in helping a Blue and Gold Society member navigate the job market:
I helped another Blue and Gold Society member get a job at PNC bank. He approached me about helping him. I trusted him enough to connect him with another friend of mine, also a Board of Trustees member, and he was able to land a job there eventually. (I3-3B2)
Education attainment is commonly defined in the literature as an individual’s persistence in school, improved test scores and/or the pursuit of post-secondary education as a byproduct of social relationships (Putnam, 2000; Halpern, 2005). One Blue and Gold Society member, speaking about getting help from the Chancellor in the form of a letter of recommendation for graduate school said:
If I asked the Chancellor for a letter of recommendation, the way I’ve represented myself and the University as a Blue and Gold Society member has helped me develop a level of trust that would make him willing to do it for me. (M31-3A)
266 Also referencing obtaining a letter of recommendation for a particular academic program,
another member of the Blue and Gold Society explained that “You can’t ask someone for a letter
of recommendation if you can’t trust them” (M36-3A). Further elaborating, the Greek Life
student interviewed concurred, “In college and in our lives right now, we are making huge life
decisions about jobs, classes to take, getting help with these things just won’t work without a
strong level of trust on both ends” (I4-3A).
4.4.1.2 The role that trust plays in other instrumental forms of social capital
As a point of reference, other instrumental forms of social capital are those resources
embedded in relationships that help an individual gain something or get ahead, that were
identified through inductive analysis and that were not included in the literature review. Five
other instrumental forms of social capital were previously identified through inductive analysis
(see Section 4.3.2). This section presents the findings as they relate to the role that trust plays in the acquisition of general help and meeting new people by Blue and Gold Society members through their social networks. Specific findings were not ascertained for the role that trust plays
in the acquisition of free tangible/material items, mentoring and unique opportunities.
First, the exchange of general help, referred to previously as general help that assists an
individual in gaining something or getting ahead, is more effectively facilitated when trust exists
in a relationship between a Blue and Gold Society member and another individual. “Without
trust,” said one Blue and Gold Society member, “you can’t call someone up and ask for help and
feel confident they’ll help you” (M14-3A). In a relationship, “trust means I can rely more on
people to wish me the best and help me when I need it,” explained another member of the
student organization (M15-3A). In a lengthier, more detailed manner, a Blue and Gold Society
267 member shared the following insight about the role that trust plays in receiving help in general from a social network member:
It plays a vital role. The benefits parallel with how reliable we are. If we establish trust at an early date and my track record is good, if I ask for a favor it will be given to me more smoothly. It appeases people’s minds when they know they can trust me if I ask them for help. They hesitate to help or go extra mile if their trust in me is weak. (M3-3A)
Trust extends to both sides of a relationship as it relates to taking advantage of the general help available through social network relationships. It is important for both the giver and receiver to have trust in one another. “Trust is important because you can know that they have your best interest in mind. If they haven't had a good experience trusting you they'll be less likely to help you with something,” shared one Blue and Gold Society member (M5-3A). The author noted the role that trust plays in asking someone for help as he gradually spent more time with Blue and
Gold Society members throughout the course of the research study.
There are some Blue and Gold Society members that I have had the opportunity to interact with more than others up until this point. I have witnessed these members follow through on commitments and I have seen them step up to help other fellow Blue and Gold Society members and the Manager of Student Alumni Programs. To the extent possible at this point, I feel like I can count them as being a part of my social network. I also feel like I can trust them if I needed help with something. Knowing that I can trust them makes me more willing to ask them for help I think. It makes me more confident in the quality and quantity of help I could receive from them if I asked.
4.4.1.3 The role that trust plays in other expressive forms of social capital
As was previously discussed section 4.3.3, expressive forms of social capital are those forms whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual maintain one’s own current resources (Coleman, 1988; Lin, 2001). Identity reinforcement and sanctions are the two expressive forms of social capital typically discussed in the literature. No findings arose pertaining to the role that trust plays in Blue and Gold Society members’ acquisition of these two expressive forms of social capital though. Alternatively, trust was found to be important as it
268 relates to Blue and Gold Society members and their ability to access general support and
friendship and family-like feelings from those within their social networks, two other expressive forms of social capital originally identified through inductive analysis in section 4.3.4.
General support is defined for the purposes of this research study as a form of support that helps an individual endure or persevere through a trial or difficult task. One Blue and Gold
Society member offered the following commentary:
Trust is huge because anything we want to achieve and goals you have, the bigger goals you have require a stronger support system and more trust. People pushing you to be happy and keep going is the best thing in the world. (M28-3A)
The staff person in the Office of Alumni Relations who was interviewed explained that “If Blue and Gold Society members were not able to be trusted, they wouldn’t be able to tap into the alumni community the way they are able to for support, guidance” (I2-3A).
Access to friendship or family-like feelings through social networks is also tied to the concept of trust as it relates to social capital. “Trust,” explained one Blue and Gold Society member, “helps you cross barriers from just being a professional to being a friend” (M19-3A).
Another member said regarding trust and the role trust plays in the acquisition of friendship or family-like feelings from fellow Blue and Gold Society members that “I trust my family the most but I don’t get to see them every week. Being a part of the Blue and Gold Society lends support synonymous with family support though” (M28-3A). The author recorded the following about the friendship-like feelings he has gained through many of the Blue and Gold Society members now within his social network:
I feel like I can trust Blue and Gold Society members. I consider most of them my friends now to a certain extent. I feel like I could text some of them just as I would another friend and ask them to hang out or ask them for help with something. I have spent a lot of time with Blue and Gold Society members over the course of this research study so far. I think the reason that I feel like they are my friends is because I can trust their sincerity when they say hello to me or ask me how I am doing. I feel like we are
269 friends because they have always kept their word to me and never given me reason to doubt them.
4.4.2 Level of trust that exists in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks
Thus far, Section 4.4.1 presented the findings pertaining to research question 3A, most notably that trust does in fact play a role as Blue and Gold Society members seek to acquire and utilize both instrumental and expressive forms of social capital from those individuals within their social networks. As such, and as the acquisition of social capital is contingent on the level of trust that exists within a relationship between two individuals (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998), research questions 3B1 and 3B2 seek to understand the level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in those individuals within their social networks and the level of trust that those within their social networks have in Blue and Gold Society members, respectively. The relationships under investigation in research questions 3B1 and 3B2 are those relationships that
Blue and Gold Society members have developed as a result of being a member of the Blue and
Gold Society. Again, the relationships that Blue and Gold Society members have developed as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society were investigated through research question 1A and the processes through which those relationships developed were investigated through research question 1D. Findings pertaining to research questions 1A and 1D are included in sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.3, respectively. Section 4.4.2.1 will present findings related to the level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in those individuals within their social networks. Section 4.4.2.2 will then present findings related to the level of trust individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks have in Blue and Gold Society members.
270 4.4.2.1 Level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in members of their social networks
The findings in section 4.4.1 state that the level of trust between Blue and Gold Society members and those individuals within their social networks affects members’ access to various forms of social capital. More specifically pertaining to this section, the level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in others within their social networks influences the confidence that Blue and Gold Society members have in accessing and utilizing the resources embedded in those relationships. The purpose of this section is to present the findings related to the level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in their social network, specifically those with whom they have developed a relationship with as a result of their membership in the Blue and
Gold Society.
Table 4.22 reintroduces research question 3B1 and includes the associated semi- structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in
Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks.
Table 4.22: 3B1 – Level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in others
Element of Social Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Observation, and Research Capital Based on Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Question Question Literature Review Concerning Trust 3B1. How would you describe the level of trust you have in the individuals Asked of Blue and Gold 3B1. What level with whom you have developed Degree to which an Society Members of trust do relationships as a result of being a individual believes undergradu Blue and Gold Society member? that another person ate student Asked of Individuals in 3B1. How would you describe the level of will perform or organizatio Blue and Gold Society trust that Blue and Gold Society behave in a certain n members Member’s Social Network members have in you? way (Nahapiet & have in Asked by author during 3B1. What levels of trust exist among Blue Ghoshal, 1998) their social participant observation and Gold Society members and networks? and cultural artifact those within his or her social review network?
271 Table 4.22 also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question.
The data obtained from asking research question 3B1 was analyzed and arranged into the following hierarchal node structure (see Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.9: NVivo – Blue and Gold Society members’ level of trust in social network members node structure
The highest node in the structure is Blue and Gold Society Members’ Level of Trust in Others.
The first four child nodes in the hierarchy are Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff, Students and Other. These four child nodes serve the purpose of categorizing nodes or themes for data
272 related to the specific categories of individuals whom Blue and Gold Society members trust.
Within each child node exists additional child nodes. For example, within the Blue and Gold
Society child node for staff, students, and others specifically linked to the Blue and Gold Society,
nodes exist for Level of Trust in Associate Director of Alumni Membership, Level of Trust in
Manager of Student Alumni Programs, and Level of Trust in Blue and Gold Society Members.
Then within each of these three child nodes there are child nodes for the level of trust that Blue
and Gold Society members have in these individuals, such as High or Moderate, meaning members have a high/above average level of trust or moderate/average level of trust in the individuals, respectively. Figure 4.9 also serves the purpose of defining the various nodes or codes used to organize and analyze the data.
Table 4.23 lists three levels of trust that Blue and Gold Society members might have in others along the top of the table. The table also lists the four categories of individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships and the specific individuals in whom Blue and Gold Society members trust. These relationships were previously defined in
Section 4.2. The processes through which the relationships have developed were previously described in Section 4.3. Whenever the level of trust that a Blue and Gold Society member has in a particular individual was identified, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold
Society members that members have both a high and moderate level of trust in the Manager of
Student Alumni Programs. It was also discovered through interviews with other individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks that Blue and Gold Society members have a high level of trust in the Manager of Student Alumni Programs.
273 Table 4.23: Level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in social network members by data collection method
Level of Trust Blue and Gold Society Members Have in Social Network Members
Low High Moderate
Associate Director of Alumni Membership BGI BGI Belonging to the Blue and Gold Society
Gold Gold Blue and Gold Society Members BGI Society Blue and Manager of Student Alumni Programs BGI OI BGI Alumni Relations Staff BGI OI BGI Athletic Department Staff
Athletic Director Chancellor BGI BGI Deans BGI Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff
Faculty and Staff and Faculty Faculty BGI Staff – General BGI OI Vice Provost and Dean of Students BGI Alumni BGI OI BGI Alumni Association President Board of Trustees BGI Donors
Others Government Officials Local Business Leaders Potential Employer Greek Life Students BGI
Residence Hall Assistants Students in General BGI BGI Student Athletes Students Student Government Board Members BGI OI Student Organization Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
Table 4.23 illustrates which data collection method identified a particular level of trust in a specific individual for the purposes of data triangulation. Also, Table 4.23 highlights which data collection methods where most effective in identifying the level of trust Blue and Gold Society
274 members have in those individuals within their social networks. Table 4.23 is a collective
representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not quantitatively represent the
number of times a specific level of trust in a particular individual was recorded. Rather, the table
denotes that a specific level of trust in a particular individual was recorded at least once during
the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings
related to the level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in others will now be
elaborated on qualitatively.
Blue and Gold Society members have high levels of trust in various members of their
social networks. For example, in the Blue and Gold Society category of individuals, Blue and
Gold Society members said they have a “very high” (M10-3B1), “pretty high” (M12-3B1),
“relatively high” (M2-3B1), and “extremely high” (M34-3B1) level of trust in the Associate
Director of Alumni Membership. Members also said that they have “a high level of trust” in the
Manager of Student Alumni Programs (M31-3B1). One member of the student organization further elaborated, “I trust the Manager of Student Alumni Programs and Associate Director of
Alumni Membership. I place a lot of trust in them” (M11-3B1). The trust that Blue and Gold
Society members have in their fellow members is high as well. “I pretty much trust Blue and
Gold Society members with my life. All of them are trustworthy people. I have no doubts about
trusting them with anything,” said one Blue and Gold Society member (M10-3B1). Another
added, “If I ask a Blue and Gold Society member to do something, I can completely trust that
they will do it” (M23-3B1).
This high level of trust exists in faculty and staff relationships as well. For example, one
Blue and Gold Society member said in reference to the Chancellor, “I trust the Chancellor. I
know he always wants to do what’s best for the University” (M14-3B1). As another example,
275 one Blue and Gold Society member said of staff in the Office of Alumni Relations, “Personally, I
trust them all 100 percent” (M13-3B1). From a different perspective, a staff person was asked
during an interview how much he thinks that Blue and Gold Society members trust him. The
staff person explained, “I think they trust me enough to approach me if they need help with
something. I follow through on my commitments to them” (I6-3B1).
Blue and Gold Society members also have high levels of trust in the student-student
relationships they make as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society. As it relates to her
trust in students in general, one Blue and Gold Society member said, “It’s high, definitely with
Blue and Gold Society members and also with other students” (M4-3B1). From the perspective of another student, in this case the Student Government Board President, the President said he has a high level of trust in Blue and Gold Society members and their trust in him is “eye level,”
meaning just as high (I8-3B1). A member of a fraternity, who has a high level of trust in Blue
and Gold Society members, offered her perspective of the level of trust Blue and Gold Society
members have in her by saying that “I think it is exactly the same as the trust I have in them” (I4-
3B1).
Blue and Gold Society members stated that they have trust in alumni and the University’s
Board of Trustees. Speaking about alumni, one member of the Blue and Gold Society said the
following:
I trust alumni a lot. I value their opinions. I trust their advice. The trust is not the same level as it is with my actual biological family, but it’s close with some of them. Having trust means there is no barrier in my relationship with them. (M25-3B1)
Asked about the level of trust he has in Board of Trustees members in his social network, a Blue
and Gold Society member answered, “It’s high” (M35-3B1).
276 Moderate or average levels of trust between Blue and Gold Society members and those within their social networks were occasionally mentioned as well. One member said during an interview that he trusts highly “only five or six Blue and Gold Society members,” as opposed to the balance of Blue and Gold Society members that he trusts more moderately (M29-3B1). A student who is not a Blue and Gold Society member who knows a number of Blue and Gold
Society members claims that Blue and Gold Society members trust him to a moderate extent.
“It’s not very high yet,” but he believes the level of trust can grow from just average to above average as Blue and Gold Society members get to know him better (I7-3B1). Describing the moderate level of trust he has in alumni that make up his social network, one Blue and Gold
Society member commented that “The level of trust with alumni is not as strong. Even though the trust with alumni is not as strong as it is with Blue and Gold Society members, it’s definitely not weak. There is definitely trust there” (M1-3B1). Low levels of trust between Blue and
Gold Society members and those within the social networks were not identified during the course of the research study; identified levels of trust were either high or moderate, as has been elaborated on in this subsection.
4.4.2.2 Level of trust members of Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks have in
Blue and Gold Society members
As previously noted, the findings in section 4.4.1 state that the level of trust between Blue and Gold Society members and those individuals within their social networks affects members’ access to various forms of social capital. More specifically pertaining to this section, the level of trust that individuals have in Blue and Gold Society members influences the confidence that individuals have in Blue and Gold Society members as it relates to offering and providing the resources embedded in those relationships. The purpose of this section is to present the findings
277 related to the level of trust that individuals have in Blue and Gold Society members, specifically those with whom they have developed a relationship with as a result of their membership in the
Blue and Gold Society.
Table 4.25 reintroduces research question 3B2 and includes the associated semi- structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in
Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question.
Table 4.24: Research question 3B2 – Level of trust social network members have in Blue and Gold Society members
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Capital Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Based on Literature Question Review Concerning Trust
3B2. How would you describe the Asked of Blue and level of trust that these Gold Society individuals within your Members social network have in you? 3B2. What level of 3B2. How would you describe the Asked of Individuals trust do social Degree to which an level of trust you have in in Blue and Gold network individual believes that current members of the Blue Society Member’s members have another person will perform and Gold Society as a result Social Network in or behave in a certain way of your relationship with undergraduate (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, them? student 1998) Asked by author 3B2. What levels of trust exist organization during participant between Blue and Gold members? observation and Society members and those cultural artifact within their social network? review
The data obtained from asking research question 3B2 was analyzed and arranged into the following hierarchal node structure (see Figure 4.10). The highest node in the structure is Level
278 of Trust in Blue and Gold Society Members. Three child nodes exist under the aforementioned
parent node, housing data pertaining to high, medium and unsure levels of trust. Unlike other sections and other hierarchical node structures presented thus far though, the node structure in
Figure 4.48 does not utilize specific nodes for the different categories of individuals or for specific individuals. This is because the data obtained from asking research question 3B2 resulted in more vague and generalized findings rather than very social network individual specific findings. As usual, Figure 4.48 also serves the purpose of defining the various nodes or codes used to organize and analyze the data.
Figure 4.10: NVivo – Level of trust social network members have in Blue and Gold Society members
Table 4.25 lists three levels of trust that individuals noted having in Blue and Gold
Society members along the top of the table. Whenever the level of trust that a specific social
network member has in Blue and Gold Society members was identified, it is noted accordingly
by the data collection method used to obtain the data. Table 4.25 illustrates which data
collection method identified a particular level of trust in Blue and Gold Society members for the
purposes of data triangulation. Also, Table 4.78 highlights which data collection methods where
most effective in identifying the level of trust social network members have in Blue and Gold
Society members. Table 4.25 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the
279 table does not quantitatively represent the number of times a specific level of trust in Blue and
Gold Society members was recorded. Rather, the table denotes that a specific level of trust in
Blue and Gold Society members was recorded at least once during the research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings related to the level of trust that social network members have in Blue and Gold Society members will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
Table 4.25: Level of trust social network members have in Blue and Gold Society members by data collection method
Level of Trust Social Network Members Have in Blue and Gold Society Members
High Unsure Unsure Moderate
BGI OI BGI BGI PO
Members Social Network
Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
The majority of the findings state that individuals within Blue and Gold Society
members’ social networks have a high level of trust in Blue and Gold Society members. Blue
and Gold Society members tend to describe the level of trust those within their social network
have in them as “high” and/or “very high.” One Blue and Gold Society member explained that
trust in him is “pretty high” (M12-3B2). He continued, “I think I can be trusted to meet my Blue
and Gold Society expectation and live up to our obligations of being in the Blue and Gold
280 Society” (M17-3B2). Another member of the Society claimed that social network members
“trust me to fulfill my assignments” (M19-3B2). “I think there is a lot of trust in me,” pronounced yet another member of the student organization (M21-3B2). Speaking more specifically about members of her social network for whom she hosts events and provides other forms of assistance, one member commented:
They trust me to be responsible, to do what they ask of me, to be mature about it, to go beyond what a student they do not know would do or what a student in another student organization would do. (M7-3B2)
Individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks interviewed during the course of the research study backed up Blue and Gold Society members’ claims of being highly trusted people. The staff person in the Office of Alumni Relations said of Blue and Gold
Society members, “Overall, my trust in them is very high. They have good follow through and are very honest” (I2-3B2). A staff member in the School of Business proclaimed, “I think it is great to put Blue and Gold Society members in front of our alumni. I always think of them first when I need help with an event we are doing” (I6-1D). A bold statement was provided by the
Student Government Board President regarding the trust he has in Blue and Gold Society members.
I don’t typically rely on people to do things for me, but out of the people I trust on campus, which is about five, three are Blue and Gold Society members. I’m not just saying that because you’re interviewing me. I can always count on them to help me out. It’s a high level of trust. (I8-3B2)
The Manager of Student Alumni Programs, Greek Life student, student, Board of Trustees member and alumnus interviewed each also claimed to have a high level of trust in Blue and
Gold Society members. “High” (I5-3B2), “strong trust” (I4-3B2), “high level of trust” (I7-3B2),
“true trust” (I3-3B2), and “high level” (I1-3B2) are all descriptions of the level of trust the
281 individuals in the previous sentence claimed to have in Blue and Gold Society members, respectively.
Although cultural artifacts did not prove to be a successful data collection method to measure the trust others have in Blue and Gold Society members, the author was able to utilize participant observation to gain insight into the level of trust others have in Blue and Gold Society members:
Over the course of the approximately 16 weeks that I participated with, interviewed and observed Blue and Gold Society members, I gained a deep trust in each Blue and Gold Society member. Out of the 37 Blue and Gold Society members that I interviewed, only once did one of them not keep their commitment and not show up for a scheduled interview with me. I was so shocked to finally be stood-up for an interview by one of them that I thought to myself that something majorly wrong must have happened for the member to miss their meeting with me. Sure enough, the member became ill and called me shortly after our scheduled meeting time to explain and reschedule.
Through participant observation, the author also observed Blue and Gold Society members hosting events and interacting with others, which produced data in support of the trust social network members place in Blue and Gold Society members:
Blue and Gold Society members always seem to stay in character, meaning that they always represent themselves well, the University well, and the Blue and Gold Society well. Recently I saw a member standing seemingly all by herself along a side street on campus. I knew what she was doing there. She was there to direct alumni of the School of Business to a hard to find location on campus where an event was being held. Alumni looking for the meeting place were few in numbers though. Really, she seemed to just be standing outside not doing much of anything. I never saw her pull out her cell phone though. I never saw her sit down or slouch or begin to look tired or unprofessional. She could have easily taken a break, texted friends, or blown off the assignment all together. She remained true to her commitment though. I thought to myself at that moment that I could really trust her or any of the other Blue and Gold Society members for that matter with pretty much anything. In general, they are just trustworthy people.
When approached by one Blue and Gold Society member (M21) for a contact in a local public school to inquire with about doing a possible service project, the author noted:
I had no problem connecting this Blue and Gold Society member with a friend of mine in an area public school because of the level of trust I have in this particular member. I
282 knew he would not make me look bad or flake out on any potential commitments he might possibly make with my friend.
Another Blue and Gold Society member (M19) stopped by the author’s office to discuss her
desire to learn about the field of fundraising within higher education, which happened to also be
the author’s field of work:
Having a knowledge of what Blue and Gold Society members do and the type of people they are in general from my observations of the them and interactions with them, I feel like I can trust her and recommend for her to meet with some of my colleagues to possibly help her find an internship or opportunity for a part-time job. I do not have any reservations or fears in doing so because of the high level of trust I have in her and in other Blue and Gold Society members in general.
Only one Blue and Gold Society member claimed to be trusted to a moderate or average
extent by those within his social network. This Blue and Gold Society member claimed that
others have a “decent amount of trust in me” and that he can be trusted most of the time to do the
right thing (M26-3B2). Also, only two Blue and Gold Society members disclosed that they are
“not sure” of the level of trust those within their social networks have in them as a result of being members of the Blue and Gold Society (M5-3B2; M29-3B2). No clear indication was provided by either of these two members though other than that they just had not thought much about it before and they were genuinely unsure as to the level of trust others truly have in them.
4.4.3 Processes through which trust is developed
Section 4.4.1 presented findings related to the role that trust plays in the various forms of social capital Blue and Gold Society members are able to accumulate as a result of the relationships they have made by being a part of the Blue and Gold Society. In more or less words, the findings in Section 4.4.1 state that trust does in fact play a role in accumulating social capital.
Section 4.4.2 presented findings on the level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in
283 those individuals who make up their social network and the level of trust their social network
members have in Blue and Gold Society members. Simply stated, Blue and Gold Society
members for the most part have a high level of trust in those who make up their social network
and those who make up their social network have a high level of trust in Blue and Gold Society
members. If trust, as it relates to the concept of social capital, indicates an individual’s willingness to be open to another individual to both provide resources to an individual and
receive resources from an individual (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998), it is important to understand
how trust, specifically among Blue and Gold Society members and the individuals within their
social network, is developed.
The purpose of this section is to present the findings as they relate to the processes
through which trust is developed between and among Blue and Gold Society members and those
within their social networks and vice versa, in answer to research questions 3C1 and 3C2.
Research question 3C1 will be reintroduced and findings pertaining to that research question will
be presented in Section 4.4.3.1. Likewise, research question 3C2 will be reintroduced and
findings pertaining to that research question will be presented in Section 4.4.3.2.
4.4.3.1 Blue and Gold Society members’ processes for developing trust in social network
members
The findings in this section essentially describe the processes through which Blue and
Gold Society members develop trust in others. Semi-structured interviews, participant
observation and cultural artifact review were utilized to collect the data to answer this research
question. Table 4.26 reintroduces research question 3C1 and includes the associated semi-
structured interview questions asked of Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in
Blue and Gold Society member’s social network. It also includes the guiding question utilized
284 by the author during participant observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social capital theory is also included to support the research question being asked.
Table 4.26: Research question 3C1 – processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in social network members
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Capital Based on Question Literature Review Concerning Social Networks 3C1. Through what processes have Asked of Blue and you developed trust in the Gold Society individuals in your social Members network (see 3B1)? Asked of 3C1. Through what processes Developed as an 3C1. Through what processes have Individuals in do undergraduate individual learns about Blue and Gold Society Blue and Gold student organization another person’s members developed trust in Society Member’s members develop trust disposition, ability and you? Social Network in social network reputation (Fu, 2004) Asked by author members? 3C1. Through what processes do during participant Blue and Gold Society observation and members develop trust in cultural artifact social network members? review
Figure 4.11 illustrates how the author gathered, recorded and organized the data in NVivo
9 as it relates to the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in others. After collecting data for research question 3C1, the author thematically organized the data utilizing NVivo 9. In the hierarchical node structure in Figure 4.11, the primary parent node is Trust Development Process. Under that parent node, there is a child node specifically for the
Process for Trusting Others. Then within the theme or child node of Process for Trusting
Others, there are four additional child nodes for the four primary categories of individuals with whom Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships and trust: Trusting Blue and Gold
Society, Trusting Faculty and Staff, Trusting Students and Trusting Others. Finally, within the 285 node of Trusting Blue and Gold Society, for example, additional nodes exist for each specific individual, such as Associate Director of Alumni Membership. Through this process the author inductively analyzed and thematically organized the data and findings.
Figure 4.11: NVivo – Blue and Gold Society member development of trust in social network members node structure
This section is divided into four subsections, one each for the four categories of individuals mentioned thus far, namely Blue and Gold Society, Faculty and Staff, Students and
Others. Each subsection here will employ a table to outline the findings as they pertain to the
286 individual in the social network and the process through which Blue and Gold Society members
developed trust with the particular individual. The tables also display the data collection method
utilized to collect the data to demonstrate which data collection methods where most effective in
identifying certain types of data. Additionally, displaying the findings in this manner results in
data triangulation. An attempt was made to identify and include the trust development process for each social network individual previously identified and listed in Section 4.2. Cases exist though where a trust development process was not identified and included in this section. An effort was made however to identify and include each relationship and its specific trust development process in the forthcoming subsections.
First, as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various staff, students, and others specifically linked to the Blue and
Gold Society. Table 4.27 lists three of those individuals and the process through which Blue and
Gold Society members developed trust in them. The left hand column lists the individuals, while the row along the top lists the various trust development processes. Whenever a particular process is applicable to a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members, interviews with individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social network, and cultural artifact review that Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with other Blue and Gold Society members through collaborating on projects with each other. Following Table 4.27, the findings will be elaborated on qualitatively.
287 Table 4.27: Blue and Gold Society member trust in Blue and Gold Society – trust development processes
Blue and Gold Society Member Trust in Blue and Gold Society – Trust Development Processes
Sincere and Confidentiality Confidentiality Commonalities Willingness to Help to Willingness Reputation and Status Repetitive Interactions Length of Time Known Received Previous Help Received Previous General Concern for them General Concern Haven’t Jeopardized Trust Haven’t Jeopardized Personal Accomplishments Being Trusted by them First by Trusted Being Others Getting to Know Them Know to Others Getting Others Being Genuine Genuine Others Being Dependable and Keep Commitments Interacting Outside Blue and Gold Society and Gold Blue Interacting Outside
Associate
Director of Alumni BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Membership Blue and Gold BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Society PO PO Members Manager of Student BGI BGI BGI BGI Blue and Gold Society BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Alumni OI OI OI OI Programs Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in individuals with specific ties to the Blue and Gold Society through various processes, as can be seen in Table 4.27. Trust in the Associate
Director of Alumni Membership is developed in nine distinct ways. Speaking about the
Associate Director and repetitive interactions, one member explained that “Over time, I’ve learned who I can trust more than others based on the more frequent contact with people” (M32-
3B2). Another member provided an example of how he has been able to develop trust in the
Associate Director of Alumni Membership through receiving previous help. “When I have emailed or called on the phone, she responds with real answers and in a timely manner, instead
288 of putting it off” (M35-3C1). Speaking about both the Manager of Student Alumni Programs and the Associate Director of Alumni Membership as it relates to being genuine, one Blue and
Gold Society member explained, “I trust the Manager of Student Alumni Programs and
Associate Director of Alumni Membership. I place a lot of trust in them. They are genuine.
They know about you. It’s not a dictatorship with them” (M11-3B1). Referring again to the
Manager and Associate Director and the theme of never jeopardizing trust, one Blue and Gold
Society member said, “I trust them. They haven’t done anything for me to not trust them” (M12-
3B1). Length of time known is also important as it relates to Blue and Gold Society members’ development of trust in the Associate Director. “The more time and more semesters I’ve spend with people” (M15-3B1), explained one member about the Associate Director, “the more I’ve been able to develop trust in them and rapport with them” (M15-3C1).
Speaking specifically now about fellow Blue and Gold Society members and the process for developing trust in them, the findings show trust is developed through 15 different methods
(see Table 4.27). Repetitive interactions with fellow members was one process for developing trust mentioned by Blue and Gold Society members. For instance, one member said in relation to other Blue and Gold Society members, “I have more trust in those I do Blue and Gold Society activities with as opposed to those I don’t normally do Blue and Gold Society activities with”
(M24-3C1). Another member continued, stating that “We learn things about each other by hosting events with each other. The more we interact with each other builds trust” (M34-3C2).
Another reason Blue and Gold Society members trust fellow members is because fellow members have trusted them first. Making this point during an interview session, a Blue and Gold
Society member said that “Blue and Gold Society members give you a certain level of trust, then you start to trust them even more” (M1-3B1). Blue and Gold Society members, and the length of
289 time they know fellow Society members, helps to develop trust. One member of the student organization explained:
Some of them have introduced me to their families, and some have allowed me to get to know them on a more personal basis. There is a correlation between how well and long you know a person and the level of trust you can then have in them. (M27-3C1)
Fellow Blue and Gold Society members often show general concern for the welfare of Blue and
Gold Society members, which also showed to be a process through which members develop trust in fellow members. When asked how he has come to trust fellow Blue and Gold Society members one member answered, “The fact that I know they’re looking out for me, and that they care about me and my goals and aspirations” (M10-3C1). A common response when asked why
Blue and Gold Society members trust other fellow members was the idea that fellow members have not done anything to jeopardize the trust one member has in another. “I trust them,” said one member about his fellow members (M12-3B1). She continued, “They haven’t done anything for me to not trust them” (M12-3B1). Another member also said about fellow members, “They haven’t given me any reason to doubt them or not trust them” (M29-3B1). The length of time one Blue and Gold Society member knows another member helps to develop trust.
“The Blue and Gold Society members and other people I know best are the ones I trust the most,” claimed one member of the Society (M8-3B1). Blue and Gold Society members also develop trust in their fellow members by observing their personal accomplishments. A member of the student organization provided the following example of this:
I see Blue and Gold Society members every day. I see people who are better than me. Their example, their grades, their level of involvement in things, it makes me proud to know them and makes me trust them. (M31-3C1)
Developing trust in fellow Blue and Gold Society members is observed as fellow members maintain confidentiality. For instance, one Blue and Gold Society member said, “If I had
290 something to tell someone, I would first tell my family, then my fraternity brothers, then Blue
and Gold Society members. I could tell them anything and I know they’d keep it confidential”
(M34-3B1). Said another Blue and Gold Society member pertaining to confidentiality:
I often tell things to Blue and Gold Society members that I normally wouldn’t tell others. Blue and Gold Society members will keep confidential information you give them that others would not keep confidential. I would rather ask a Blue and Gold Society member for a favor because I can trust them more than non-Blue and Gold Society members. (M24-3B1)
Receiving previous help from fellow Blue and Gold Society members helps build trust in
members as well (see Table 4.27). “With Blue and Gold Society members, when I’ve asked
them for help or to swap me for an event or to hang out or to talk, they are there for me. This
makes me trust them,” explained one member (M16-3C1). Blue and Gold Society members trust fellow members because they are dependable and consistently keep their commitments to each other and other people. One member said, “I gain trust in them when they complete Blue and
Gold Society related tasks” (M21-3B1). Also referring to fellow Blue and Gold Society members, one member said, “When they are dependable it helps you have trust in them” (M2-
3B1). Interacting with fellow Blue and Gold Society members outside of the typical Blue and
Gold Society activities helps trust to develop. “You feel a closer level of trust when you pair knowing them as a Blue and Gold Society member and knowing them outside of Blue and Gold
Society activities; another level of trust starts to develop,” elaborated one member of the Society.
Lastly, having things in common with fellow Blue and Gold Society members increases the level of trust that exists (M5-3C1). One member explained during an interview session:
Even if I don’t know certain Blue and Gold Society members very well, I can trust them because of the fact that they are Blue and Gold Society members. I trust that they will fill in for me. Trust is there between us because we are all in the same boat, we know what each other are going through and we like to help each other. (M12-4)
291 “I trust Blue and Gold Society members because of the commonalities I have with them,” similarly stated another member (M25-3C1).
Blue and Gold Society members also develop trust in the Manager of Student Alumni
Programs through various processes. In total, 12 trust development processes were identified throughout the course of the research study (see Table 4.27). The Manager of Student Alumni
Programs explained to the author that Blue and Gold Society members trust her because she is dependable and keeps her commitments to them. The Manager explained, “I’ve built a reputation with them. I keep my word to them” (I5-3C1). Blue and Gold Society members also cited the impact that repetitive interactions with the Manager of Student Alumni Programs have
on trust development. “Trust wasn’t prevalent in the beginning,” said one member (M26-3C1).
The development of trust in the Manager took place “over time,” the same member explained
(M26-3C1). The Manager often expresses general concern for Blue and Gold Society members, which results in an increase of trust that members have in her. “The Manager of Student Alumni
Programs always checks in on us and lets us know she is there for us,” stated one Blue and Gold
Society member (M17-3C1). Willingness to help also plays a factor in Blue and Gold Society members’ level of trust in the Manager of Student Alumni Programs. “[The] Manager of Student
Alumni Programs says I can come to her for everything,” responded one Blue and Gold Society member when asked why she trusts the Manager (M5-3C1).
Second, as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various faculty and staff at the University of Pittsburgh. Table
4.28 lists seven of those individuals and the process through which Blue and Gold Society members developed trust in them. The left hand column lists the individuals, while the row along the top lists the various trust development processes. Whenever a particular process is
292 applicable to a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members and interviews with individuals within Blue and Gold Society members’ social network that Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with Alumni Relations staff having general concern for Blue and Gold Society members through Alumni Relations staff keeping information confidential. Following Table 4.28, the findings will be elaborated on qualitatively.
Table 4.28: Blue and Gold Society member trust in faculty and staff – trust development processes
Blue and Gold Society Member Trust in Faculty and Staff – Trust Development Processes
them First them Confidentiality Confidentiality Commonalities Reputation and Status Repetitive Interactions Length of Time Known Received Previous Help Received Previous General Concern for them General Concern Haven’t Jeopardized Trust Haven’t Jeopardized Personal Accomplishments Being Trusted by Dependable and Keep Commitments Alumni BGI BGI Relations BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI OI OI OI Staff Chancellor BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Deans BGI Executive BGI BGI Level Staff Faculty BGI Staff in BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI
Faculty Staff and General Vice Provost BGI and Dean of Students Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
293 Beginning with Office of Alumni Relations staff, 10 different trust development
processes were identified throughout the course of the research study (see Table 4.28). Blue and
Gold Society members have things in common with Alumni Relations staff, which inspires increased trust in them. One member explained that “Being from the same university, we share the same ideals, and this makes you trust one another” (M35-3B1). The reputation and status
that Alumni Relations staff hold helps Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in them.
The Alumni Relations staff member interviewed during the research study explained:
My reputation precedes me. Former Blue and Gold Society members communicate their trust in me to new Blue and Gold Society members. I received a card from a new member about what a former Blue and Gold Society member told them about me, saying they were looking forward to working with me. (I2-3C1)
The Alumni Relations staff person also provided commentary as it relates to the role that
showing general concern for Blue and Gold Society members plays in members developing trust in her. The staff person said, “I care about their well-being and it translates into our everyday interactions with each other” (I2-3C1). As it relates to confidentiality and the role it plays in trust development, the staff person continued, “There have been situations where some have had personal issues and called me or talked to me about them. It makes me believe that they have a high level of trust in me” (I2-3B1).
Without exception, Blue and Gold Society members said that they trust the Chancellor.
In fact, five reasons were cited by the members (see Table 4.28). One member explained that because the Chancellor trusts him first, he in turn trusts the Chancellor. “The Chancellor trusts us. If I needed to ask the Chancellor something, I’d feel more comfortable than a normal student. I would trust the Chancellor to consider what I’m saying” (M26-3B1). Members also trust the Chancellor because he expresses general concern for Blue and Gold Society members in general. “I have spoken with the Chancellor before. I was surprised he took so much time to
294 talk with me. I know he cares,” explained one member when asked through what process his trust in the Chancellor has developed over time (M14-3B1). The Chancellor’s reputation and status also plays a role in the trust Blue and Gold Society members have in him. “I trust the
Chancellor. I know he always wants to do what’s best for the University,” explained one Blue and Gold Society member (M14-3B1).
Blue and Gold Society members only rarely commented on the processes through which they develop trust in faculty, executive level staff, deans and the Vice Provost and Dean of
Students (see Table 4.81). One Blue and Gold Society member said he trusts faculty because of their reputation and status: “Faculty I can trust because they're married, have kids, they’re mature and professional” (M5-3B1). Similarly, reputation and status helps Blue and Gold
Society members trust executive level staff as well. One member commented about a Vice
Chancellor (and the Chancellor) with whom he has a relationship as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society:
I haven’t really been in a position to have to trust people like the Chancellor or Vice Chancellor for University Marketing and Communications yet, but I think I could because I know their work in general is for a good cause and the events I’ve hosted for them in the past have been legit, so I don’t have a reason not to trust them. (M9-3B1)
As it relates to trust in the Vice Provost and Dean of Students and the reason for one member’s trust in her, the member explained that she trusts the Vice Provost because the member knows she has general concern her.
The Dean of Students, I feel like she listens to me, remembers facts about our conversation, she pays attention to detail. I would certainly trust her with various issues. She has told me I can come to her if I ever need anything. (M16-3C1)
The last type of faculty and staff that Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in is
University of Pittsburgh staff in general. Eight trust development processes were identified during analysis of the data (see Table 4.81). Speaking of staff in general, a Blue and Gold
295 Society member explained that having things in common with University staff helps establish trust in them. “[Staff] with similar expectations as we do for us, we have trust in. [Staff] with expectations different from ours, we don’t have as much trust in,” claimed one Blue and Gold
Society member (M23-3C1). Some Society members have received help from staff before, which has led to the development of trust in staff. Also, knowing the personal accomplishments of staff helps Blue and Gold Society members to trust them. As it relates to “staff, you have confidence in them because of their experiences and success, so when they give you advice I know I can trust that they know what’s best and are looking out for me” (M7-3B1).
Third, as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various types of students at the University of Pittsburgh in whom they have developed a certain level of trust. Table 4.29 lists four of those individuals and the process through which Blue and Gold Society members developed trust in them.
Table 4.29: Blue and Gold Society member trust in students – trust development processes
Blue and Gold Society Member Trust in Students – Trust Development Processes
nts Help them Trust Keep Status General General Haven’t Personal Received Repetitive Repetitive Interactions Interactions Jeopardized Concern for by them First Commitments Previous Help Being Trusted Good Attitude Good Willingness to to Willingness Accomplishme Reputation and Commonalities Dependable and Greek Life OI OI OI Students Students in OI OI
General Student Government OI BGI Board Students Members Student Organization BGI BGI BGI Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
296 The left hand column lists the individuals, while the row along the top lists the various trust
development processes. Whenever a particular process is applicable to a particular individual, it
is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was
discovered through an interview with a Greek Life student that Blue and Gold Society members
are able to develop trust in this particular Greek Life student through repetitive interactions with
the Greek Life student, through the Greek Life showing forth a good attitude toward Blue and
Gold Society members, and through Greek Life student showing forth a willingness to help Blue
and Gold Society students. The findings will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
Only a small quantity of data was obtained that illustrated the processes through which
Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with students within their social network
as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society. Also and interestingly, the
majority of the data obtained was obtained through interviews with students, as opposed to
interviews with Blue and Gold Society members or other data collection methods. When asked
by the author what she has done for Blue and Gold Society members to trust her, the Greek Life
student included in the research study mentioned three trust development processes. As it relates
to repetitive interactions, the Greek Life student explained, “The experiences we’ve had together
build our relationship with each other and trust in each other” (I4-3C1). Also in response to the
interview question relating to why Blue and Gold Society members trust her, the Greek Life
student answered, “I try to have a good attitude around them” (I4-3C1). The non-specific student interviewed in the research study cited his willingness to help as a process through which
Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in him. When asked about the topic by the author he explained, “I try to help out if they need anything” (I7-3C1). The Student Government Board president also explained that Blue and Gold Society members trust him because members have
297 received help from him in the past. The president said, “I’ve earned their trust because when they ask me to do things for them, I help them. I think I’ve earned their trust” (I8-3B1). Blue and Gold Society members also develop trust in student organization members who are a part of their social networks. One Blue and Gold Society member (M9) said he has received help in the past from student organization members, which has helped the member to trust the student organization members who provided the help. Students organization members who are viewed as dependable by Blue and Gold Society members acts as a catalyst for the development of trust by Society members in students as well. When asked why he trusts students in other student organizations he has met as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, one Blue and Gold
Society member answered that it is “when they follow through on things” and “when they keep their commitments” to him (M9-3C1).
Fourth, as a result of being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members have relationships with various other individuals not mentioned thus far, such as
University donors and alumni. Table 4.30 lists donors and alumni and the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members developed trust in them. The left hand column lists the individuals, while the row along the top lists the various trust development processes. Whenever a particular process is applicable to a particular individual, it is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, it was discovered through interviews with Blue and Gold Society members and interviews with individuals within Blue and Gold
Society members’ social network that Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with Alumni Relations staff having general concern for Blue and Gold Society members through
Alumni Relations staff keeping information confidential. Following Table 4.30, the findings will be elaborated on qualitatively.
298 Table 4.30: Blue and Gold Society member trust in others – trust development processes
Blue and Gold Society Member Trust in Others – Trust Development Processes
Trust Trust
Help Keep Known Haven’t Haven’t for them for Personal them First them Commitments Confidentiality Length of Time Time of Length Dependable and and Dependable General Concern GeneralConcern Being Trusted by by Trusted Being Jeopardized Accomplishments Received Previous Previous Received
Alumni BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Board of Trustees BGI BGI BGI Others Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
Trust in alumni of the University of Pittsburgh is developed through eight different processes (see Table 4.30). One such process is Blue and Gold Society members having things in common with alumni. One member of the student organization explained in relation to trusting alumni, “Being from the same university, we share the same ideals, and this makes you trust one another” (M35-3B1). Trust is also develop by Blue and Gold Society members in alumni because Blue and Gold Society members see alumni as dependable and commitment keepers, as well as through having a knowledge of their personal accomplishments. One Society member provided the following example:
With those professional relationships I have with alumni, I respect their professionalism, integrity, track record. They treat us as a peer. By default, because I am a Blue and Gold Society member and I know professionals trust Blue and Gold Society members, I can trust them. (M25-3C1)
Members of the Society also cited processes such as the concern alumni have for Society members and the length of time members have known alumni, among other processes, as ways through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in alumni.
299 Blue and Gold Society members trust in Board of Trustee members for three distinct
reasons (see Table 4.30). As it relates to the theme of general concern, some Blue and Gold
Society members are able to develop trust in Trustee members because they know Trustee
members are “looking out” for them. Pertaining to commonalities, Blue and Gold Society members share a number of “the same ideals” with Trustees just as they do with alumni, which results in Blue and Gold Society members being able to trust trustees. Also, as explained by one
Blue and Gold Society member (M35), Board of Trustee members can be trusted because this particular Society member, and other Society members for that matter, has received previous
help from Trustee members.
4.4.3.2 Processes through which Blue and Gold Society members gain the trust of others
Section 4.4.3.1 outlined the research study’s findings pertaining to the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in others. The findings in this section,
conversely, essentially describe the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members
gain the trust of others or get others to trust in them. The distinction between Section 4.4.3.1 and
4.4.3.2 is important. Section 4.4.3.1 focused on why Blue and Gold Society members trust
others and how that trust is developed, while this section focuses on why others trust Blue and
Gold Society members and how that trust is developed. Again, trust, as it relates to the concept
of social capital, indicates an individual’s willingness to be open to another individual to both
provide resources to the individual and receive resources from the individual (Nahapiet &
Ghoshal, 1998). Semi-structured interviews, participant observation and cultural artifact review were utilized to collect the data to answer this research question 3C2. Table 4.31 reintroduces research question 3C2 and includes the associated semi-structured interview questions asked of
Blue and Gold Society members and other individuals in Blue and Gold Society members’ social
300 network. It also includes the guiding question utilized by the author during participant
observation and cultural artifact review. A corresponding reference from the literature on social
capital theory is also included to support the research question being asked.
Table 4.31: Research question 3C2 – processes through which social network members develop trust in Blue and Gold Society members
Semi-Structured Interview Question, Participant Element of Social Observation, and Cultural Artifact Review Guiding Research Question Capital Based on Question Literature Review Concerning Social Networks 3C2. Through what processes have Asked of Blue and individuals in your social Gold Society network developed trust in Members you (see 3B2)? 3C. Through what Asked of Developed as an processes do social Individuals in 3C2. Through what processes have individual learns about network members Blue and Gold you developed trust in Blue another person’s develop trust in Society Member’s and Gold Society members? disposition, ability and undergraduate Social Network reputation (Fu, 2004) student organization Asked by author 3C1. Through what processes do members? during participant social network members observation and develop trust in Blue and cultural artifact Gold Society members? review
Figure 4.12 illustrates how the author gathered, recorded and organized the data in NVivo
9 as it relates to the processes through which social network members develop trust in Blue and
Gold Society members. After collecting data for research question 3C2, the author thematically
organized the data utilizing NVivo 9. In the hierarchical node structure in Figure 4.12, the
primary parent node is Trust Development Process. Under that parent node, there are 16 child
nodes that house data for the specific processes through which social network members develop
trust in Blue and Gold Society members, such as Fulfilling Responsibilities and Being
Dependable, meaning that Blue and Gold Society members secure the trust of others in them through fulfilling their responsibilities and being dependable. Through this process the author
301 inductively analyzed and thematically organized the data and findings. Figure 4.12 also serves the purpose of defining the various nodes or codes used to organize and analyze the data.
Figure 4.12: NVivo – Blue and Gold Society members secure trust of social network members node structure
Table 4.32 lists the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members secure the trust of social network members.
302 Table 4.32: Social network member trust in Blue and Gold Society members – trust development process
Social Network Member Trust in Blue and Gold Society Members – Trust Development Processes
Outside Blue Blue Outside Society Confidentiality Confidentiality Commonalities Helping Others Positive Attitude Positive and Gold Society Making an Effort Making an Interview Process Making it through Making through it Supporting Others Good CommunicatorGood Repetitive Interactions and Dependable Being Not Jeopardizing Trust Not Jeopardizing Interacting Being Easy to Work with Work EasyBeing to Developing Relationships Fulfilling Responsibilities Responsibilities Fulfilling Being Genuine and Sincere and Being Genuine Being in the Blue and Gold and in Blue Being the Ways in which Blue and Gold Society BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI BGI Members OI OI BGI OI OI OI OI OI BGI OI OI OI OI PO OI OI Secure PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO Trust of Social Network Members Key: BGI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with Blue and Gold Society members OI – data collected through semi-structured interviews with other individuals PO – data collected by the author through participant observation CA – data collected through cultural artifact review
It is important to note though that the inductively identified processes are listed and described in general and are not specific to individual social network members due to the nature of the data collected and as a result of the analysis of the data. The row along the top lists the processes through which Society members secure the trust of others. Each trust development process that was identified is noted accordingly by the data collection method used to obtain the data. For example, through semi-structured interviews and participant observation, it was identified that
Blue and Gold Society members secure the trust of others in them through repetitive interactions with social network members. Table 4.32 illustrates which data collection method identified each trust development process for the purpose of triangulation. Also, Table 4.32 highlights which data collection methods where most effective in identifying each trust development
303 process. Table 4.32 is a collective representation of the findings, meaning that the table does not
quantitatively represent the number of times a trust development process was recorded. Rather,
the table denotes that a specific trust development process was recorded at least once during the
research study through one or more of the data collection methods. More specific findings
related to the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members secure the trust of others
will now be elaborated on qualitatively.
Blue and Gold Society members gain the trust of social network members through
numerous ways. First, Blue and Gold Society members secure the trust of others through
repetitive interactions. Said one Society member about his social network members in general,
“Repeated interaction with people shows them I can be trusted” (M17-3C2). “The more we interact with each other builds trust,” complementary explained another Blue and Gold Society member in reference to getting social network members to trust in him (M23-3C2). The author recorded in reference to a particular member of the student organization (M23), “I feel like I can trust this Blue and Gold Society member based on my limited but repeated interaction with him in an interview, service project planning meeting and several weekly meetings now.”
Next, Blue and Gold Society members gain the trust of others through helping others (see
Table 4.85). Helping others is a theme that is general in nature and connotes the idea that lending general help to someone helps one secure another’s trust. In order to secure fellow
Society members trust, one Blue and Gold Society member explained that “I always try to help when people need help fulfilling assignments, even when I know that I am too busy to do so”
(M17-3C2). Another Blue and Gold Society member who is also a member of the University’s football team similarly answered when asked by the author how he secures the trust of others,
“I’ve shown I’m willing to participate and help when I can even during football season” (M31-
304 3C2). Specifically as it relates to gaining the trust of the Associate Director of Alumni
Membership through extending a helping hand, a Blue and Gold Society members said:
I volunteer for a lot of things. When the vice president [of the United States] was coming [to speak on campus], I canceled everything I was doing that day to help the Associate Director of Alumni Membership get ready for it so that she didn’t have to set everything up all on her own. I stepped up in that situation. (M36-3B1)
The Student Government Board President explained that he trusts Blue and Gold Society members as a result of members helping him in the past. “I think what builds my trust is if I ask them to do something for me, if that person goes above and beyond,” the President further elaborated (I8-3C2).
Blue and Gold Society members make an effort to secure the trust of individuals within their social network, meaning that Society members actively try to do things in order to secure the trust of others. In others words, becoming trustworthy takes time and effort and is not something that just happens by itself. In order to secure the trust of others, one Blue and Gold
Society members said, “I put a lot of hard work in,” and “the amount of time I put in warrants trust” (M13-3C2). Another member similarly explained why those within the social network he has built up as a member of the Blue and Gold Society trust him. “I put more work into building relationships through this student organization than I do with most anything else I do as a college student, except academics,” the Society member claimed (M35-3B2).
Blue and Gold Society social network members trust Blue and Gold Society members as a result of regular interactions outside Blue and Gold Society activities with Blue and Gold
Society members. One Blue and Gold Society member stated that he gains the trust of fellow
Blue and Gold Society members through interacting “outside of our normal meetings” (M2-
3C2). Another member similarly explained more broadly about his social network members that he has built up trust in himself “by interacting with them and asking about them outside of Blue
305 and Gold Society activities” (M5-3B2). The member of the Board of Trustees described an
experience he had helping a Blue and Gold Society member with some personal struggles the
member was having at home. “One came to me a year into my relationship with them […], he
shared his defining moment with me […], this is true trust on both of our parts, […], we talked a
lot outside the Blue and Gold Society” (I3-3B2). The author also confirmed that he began to
trust a particular Blue and Gold Society member (M23) more than others as a result of his
regular interactions with the member outside of official Blue and Gold Society activities.
This is the same Blue and Gold Society member that I talked with at College Game Day, candidate pictures, via text various times and in other chance meetings. We were assigned to work together on the Spring Service Project. This time I ran into him studying. We talked about school, finals, his goals in life, his newly chosen major. He seems to have really taken a liking to me and opened up to me. We have developed a very genuine relationship. He has opened up to me so I feel like I can open up to him. I’d say there is mutual trust. He asks about my family, kids, etc. I think there is mutual trust because we talk and interact so often with each other outside of my participation in official Blue and Gold Society activities.
Blue and Gold Society members both previously described themselves and were
described by others as being genuine and sincere people (see Section 4.1). Being genuine and
sincere in their relationships with social network members also proved to be a process through
which Blue and Gold Society members secured the trust of those individuals within their social
network. “Trust comes with how vulnerable you are and how you open yourself up to people,”
stated one Society member (M11-3B2). Other members cited that “through being honest and
truthful” (M21-3C2), “showing intimate pride and passion” (M25-3C2), and being “attentive”
(M26-3C2) and “thoughtful” (M26-3C2), Blue and Gold Society members are able to secure the trust of others in them. “After people see what kind of person you are they give you additional responsibilities and assignments to work on other things,” explained another Society member, deducing that striving to come across genuine and sincere helps social network members develop
306 trust in Blue and Gold Society members (M32-1D). When asked through what process social
network members have come to trust him, one Blue and Gold Society member answered, “By
being genuine, honest and truthful when I interact with people” (M35-3C2). The Office of
Alumni Relations staff person interviewed during the course of the research study confirmed the
importance of genuinity and sincerity as a process for developing trust in Blue and Gold Society
members by saying, “They prove to be trustworthy because most of them are genuine and
passionate about being a Blue and Gold Society member and representing the University” (I2-
3C2). The Greek Life student further explained that she trusts Blue and Gold Society members because “They have a strong belief system” (I4-3B1).
The theme of supporting others arose as a process through which Blue and Gold Society become trustworthy to those individuals within their social networks. Supporting others differs from the previously described helping others theme. While helping others refers to actively helping a person accomplish something, supporting others refers to extending encouragement to a person. For example and in answer to the question of how he secures the trust of his social network members, one Blue and Gold Society referring to fellow Society members said, “I support them in their non-Blue and Gold Society member events. I support the other student organizations they are a part of” (M29-3C2). Another Blue and Gold Society member further explained:
I go to their events to support and cheer them on. I went to one Blue and Gold Society member’s step show. I support them in their other endeavors. I support them as a person, not just as a Blue and Gold Society member. I try to help them enjoy their time here at Pitt. (M4-3C2)
As a result of keeping information confidential, Blue and Gold Society members are able to build up social network members’ trust in them. While explaining that fellow Blue and Gold
Society members trust him because he keeps private information to himself, this particular
307 Society members said, “On occasion, Blue and Gold Society members have told me private
family things before” (M34-3B2). Another Blue and Gold Society member similarly noted,
“One Blue and Gold Society member I know trusts me because she tells me a lot of personal things” (M5-3B2).
Another process through which Blue and Gold Society members obtain the trust of others in their social networks is by not jeopardizing trust that already exists. As the author posed the
question to Blue and Gold Society members as to why social network members trust them, one
Blue and Gold Society member answered, “I haven’t done anything for them not to trust me”
(M12-3B2). Another member complimentary proclaimed, “I don’t do a disservice to anybody. I haven’t done anything to lose their trust” (M14-3B2). “I haven’t done anything to lose that
credibility,” stated another member referring to why she believes those within his social network
can trust her (M6-3B1). The Board of Trustees member interviewed as a part of the research
study, when asked why he trusts Blue and Gold Society members, answered that “Out of all the
Blue and Gold Society members I’ve met, only one has ever overpromised and under-delivered,”
meaning that the Trustee member trusts Blue and Gold Society members so long as members do
not do something negative to jeopardize the trust the Trustee member has in them (I3-3C1).
The next theme identified as it relates to Blue and Gold Society members securing the
trust of others is the idea that taking time to develop relationships acts as a catalyst for building
trust. As opposed to making an effort, a similar yet more generalized theme identified and
described earlier in this section referred to simply as the act of trying to develop trust, the theme
of developing relationships refers more specifically to working one-on-one with a social network
members to create a mutual relationship. When asked how he gets fellow Blue and Gold Society
members to trust him, one member answered, “Through the course of meeting people you begin
308 to develop bonds with them” (M10-3C1). Another Blue and Gold Society member said, “I make
it a point to get to know the other Blue and Gold Society members on a personal level” (M37-
3C2).
As previously articulated in Section 3.2, Blue and Gold Society members all go through a rigorous application and interview process before being elected into the Blue and Gold Society.
Along these same lines, data collected through the course of the research study shows that Blue and Gold Society members can be trusted by social network members because all Blue and Gold
Society members go through and pass the same rigid and qualifying interview process. One Blue and Gold Society member explained that the Manager of Student Alumni Programs, Associate
Director of Alumni Membership, other University staff and fellow Blue and Gold Society members present during the interview process trust him because “They selected me to be a part of the organization,” referring to the manner in which those individuals being a part of the selection process also served as a means for him to secure their trust at an early stage in his relationship with them (M30-3C1). The Board of Trustee member interviewed during the research study also referred to the application method as a process through which he is able to trust Blue and Gold Society members. The Trustee said:
They’ve self-selected and they are selected through a rigorous process. They have good character. They go through multiple filters to get where they are today and to get into the Blue and Gold Society. When they are accepted, it’s assumed that they are meant to be great leaders. (I3-3C2)
Blue and Gold Society members also secure the trust of others through being good communicators, meaning that they effectively talk with and convey information to those within their social networks. The alumnus interviewed for the research study said he trusts Blue and
Gold Society members because “They are outspoken and not shy” (I1-3C2). As the author
waited in line with Blue and Gold Society members prior to participating in the Martin Luther
309 King Jr. Day of Service activity, he recorded the following note in his field notes that relates to this topic of trusting Blue and Gold Society members because they are good communicators:
When they left me for a few minutes on two different occasions, they came back both times to find me and relay information to me that they had obtained about their service assignment for the day and other relevant details. At this point, I am beginning to trust them. Their actions are making them trustworthy. Also, as I arrived before they did, one Blue and Gold Society member sent me text messages to assure me that they would arrive soon and meet up with me when they arrived. Although I was there early and all by myself prior to the arrival of other Blue and Gold Society members, this Blue and Gold Society member’s communication with me showed me that I can trust him that he is on his way and that we will all have an exciting assignment for the service activity.
Another Blue and Gold Society member further clarified that “by sharing personal info [with social network members],” social network members know they can trust him (M25-3C2).
The commonalities that Blue and Gold Society members share with social network members allows Society members to garner the trust of others in them. When asked during an interview to elaborate on this claim as it relates to the process through which fellow Blue and
Gold Society members and other social network members develop trust in him, one Blue and
Gold Society member explained:
Because we are in an organization that we interview for and are accepted for, our relationships are somewhat already made for us because of the common goals already in place for us. It makes the organization and relationships better for all of us. It’s like a calculated formula that helps similar people meet each other rather than meeting people cold. We have a basis for the kind of people we are dealing with, rather than a random variety of people we’d happen to meet on the street. (M23-4)
By virtue of simply being in the Blue and Gold Society, Blue and Gold Society members reap the reward of social network members trusting in them, meaning that social network members tend to trust Blue and Gold Society members because Blue and Gold Society members belong to a trustworthy student organization on campus. Explained one member of the student organization, “The Dean of Students and Chancellor trust me by virtue of me being a Blue and
Gold Society member” (M16-3B2). Another Blue and Gold Society member also pointedly said,
310 “Being a Blue and Gold Society member makes people trust me” (M25-3C2). The student
interviewed during the research study similarly claimed as it relates to why he trusts Blue and
Gold Society members, “I know others trust them, so it makes me willing to trust them too” (I7-
3C2). Also as it relates to being worthy or trusted by association, when the author was
approached by a Blue and Gold Society member (M19) for help with job networking, the author
recorded:
Having a knowledge of what the Blue and Gold Society does and the type of people they are in general from my various observations of them and interactions with them, I feel like I can trust her and recommend people for her to meet with.
Just as repetitive interactions was a process through which Blue and Gold Society
members developed trust in social network members, social network members also developed
trust in Blue and Gold Society members through the same process. A particular Blue and Gold
Society member who made this point said, “Repeated interaction with people shows them I can
be trusted” (M17-3C2). Another Blue and Gold Society member continued, “We learn things
about each other by hosting events with each other. The more we interact with each other builds
trust” (M34-3C2). “The amount of time we spend together helps me to trust them and them to
trust me,” a Greek Life student answered when asked why she trusts Blue and Gold Society
members (I4-3C2). The author also found that he was able to develop trust in a particular Blue
and Gold Society member (M19) through frequent interactions with him. “I feel like I can trust this Blue and Gold Society member based on my limited but repeated interactions with him.”
Finally, the positive attitudes that Blue and Gold Society members have act as a catalyst for social network members to gain trust in them. The staff person interviewed as a part of the research study said of Blue and Gold Society members and why he trusts them, “They all have a positive attitude about the University” (I6-3C2). The Greek Life student interviewed also stated
311 that “Their attitudes are positive when I see them doing things for other people. I respect them.”
(I4-3C2). A Blue and Gold Society member, when asked why social network members trust her,
also confirmed in her answer that it is as a result of the “positive attitude” she exhibits on a
regular basis as a member of the Blue and Gold Society (M28-3C2).
4.4.3.3 The role that trust plays in acquiring social capital
Prior to moving on to the conclusion, it is worth bringing forth a few points of discussion as it relates to the findings of the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in others and the processes through which social network members build up trust in
Blue and Gold Society members. This research study not only looked at trust development
processes but also looked at social network development processes (see Section 4.2.3). It is
insightful to compare social network development processes with trust development processes to
ascertain which processes are unique to social network development and trust development,
respectively, and which ones overlap. Table 4.33 overviews the processes for developing social
networks and trust to highlight both unique and similar development processes between the two.
312 Table 4.33: Overview and comparison of social network processes and trust development processes
Type of Development Trust in Trust in Blue Development Process Social Social and Gold Network Network Society Members Members Being a Member of the Blue and Gold Society X X Being Easy to Work with X Being Genuine and Sincere X Being Offered Help X Being Trusted by Them First X Blue and Gold Society Members X Collaboration on Projects X Commonalities X X X Confidentiality X X Dependable/Keep Commitments/Fulfill Responsibilities X X Developing Relationships X Email X Focused Effort X General Concern for Them X Getting to Know People X Giving Tours X Good Attitude X Good Communicator X Haven’t Jeopardized Trust X X Helping Others X Hosting Events X Induction Ceremony X Induction During Same Year X Interactions Outside Blue and Gold Society X X X Interview Process/Making it through Interview Processes X X Length of Time Known X X Making an Effort X Mutual Friends X One-on-One Interactions X Others Being Genuine and Sincere X Others Getting to Know Them X Personal Accomplishments X Positive Attitude Random Circumstance X Received Previous Help X Repetitive Interactions X X X Reputation and Status X Retreats X Supporting Others X Weekly Meetings X Willingness to Help X
313 As included in the table, an X denotes when a particular development process applies to a particular type of development (i.e. social network, trust in social network members and/or trust in Blue and Gold Society members). A bolded, dark shaded box means that a particular development process applied to all three types of development. A bolded, light shaded box means that a particular development process applied to two of the three types of development.
Three development processes apply to all three types of development as it pertains to
Blue and Gold Society members. These three development processes are commonalities, interactions outside the Blue and Gold Society and repetitive interactions. Knowing, for example, that interactions outside of official Blue and Gold Society functions help Blue and
Gold Society members add members to their social network, help Blue and Gold Society members trust in social network members and help social network members build trust in Blue and Gold Society members, illustrates the idea that particular development processes are able to accomplish more outcomes than others. For instance, from the perspective of a student affairs professional who wants to develop programming to help college students in student organizations create social capital, it may be effective and cost efficient for the student affairs professional to develop programming that facilitates opportunities for student organizations to interact with students, faculty, staff and others outside of the student organization’s official functions. For instance, rather than simply developing programming around student organization members giving tours as a means to acquire social capital, which only proved to be a development process for social network development, more effective programming might include activities that pair student organization members with students, faculty, staff and others with similar interests, goals and aspirations (commonalities).
314 The uniqueness of this research study’s approach as it relates to measuring trust
development processes is another insight or discussion point worth addressing. In Section 2.1.9,
the primary measurements of trust pertaining to social capital, namely the European Values
Survey, World Values Survey and General Social Survey, were reviewed. While social capital
related trust measurements such as these three tools do in fact exist, the tools do not typically attempt to measure the processes through which trust is developed among an individual’s social network. These measurement tools only seek to measure the level of trust that exists among social network members. Knowing that trust acts as a fundamental ingredient or lubricant of social relations and social capital (Gambetta, 1988), meaning that trust indicates and increases an individual’s willingness to be open to another individual to both provide resources to the individual and receive resources from the individual (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998), the study of social capital theory could be expanded to incorporate the processes through which trust is developed in order to more holistically understand and articulate social capital theory for the purposes of application and implementation in various walks of life, such as in higher education among college students. While knowing that trust exists among social network members is important to effectively access social capital, having a knowledge of how trust is developed among social network members could prove to be equally important as well to an individual who desires to increase his or her ability to develop trusting relationships for the purposes of accessing social capital resources. This knowledge of how trust is developed as it relates to social capital acquisition might also be able to inform programming development in areas such as higher education among college students, which is of course the focus of this research study.
315 5.0 CONCLUSION
Chapter 4 provided a thorough qualitative analysis and report of the findings for this research
study as it relates to the study’s research questions, which were originally introduced in Section
1.4. First, the purpose of this concluding chapter is to succinctly present the key findings of the
research study to demonstrate that the research questions have been answered. Second, this concluding chapter will validate that the research study’s original purpose has been
accomplished and that the problem statement has been addressed. Third, the role of this
concluding chapter is to present the theoretical contribution that this research makes to social
capital theory and the study of higher education in the creation of social capital. Fourth, the
purpose of this concluding chapter is to present practical suggestions that various stakeholders
and audiences in higher education may wish to consider. Fifth, this concluding chapter will
articulate five recommendations for future research as it relates to social capital theory and its
implications in higher education.
5.1 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS
The data analysis and findings of this research study are vast and informative, and equate to a
very thorough and thoughtful reporting in Chapter 4. The type of qualitative research conducted,
as well as the rich data obtained through various data collection methods, lends itself to an 316 example heavy, narrative report and discussion of the research study’s findings. In order to balance the breadth of the findings contained in Chapter 4 with a more succinct account of the results of this research study, the following key findings sections concisely highlight and summarize the key findings of the research study as it relates to each research question pertaining specifically to Blue and Gold Society members, which was the sample for this research study. Each of the forthcoming key findings sections will restate each research question to demonstrate that the particular research question was in fact answered. Each subsection will also provide a handy table that displays the findings of the research study in their most simple form and provide direct references to the findings in Chapter 4 to which the reader can turn for more articulated, detailed qualitative findings and examples. In short, the research study found that:
• Blue and Gold Society student organization members are able to develop relationships
with 30 different individuals as a result of their membership in the Blue and Gold Society
• Of those relationships, Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with 10 of the
individuals can be considered strong, close, bonding type relationships, while Blue and
Gold Society members relationships with 28 of the individuals can also be considered
weaker, bridging type relationships (depending on the perspective and experience of each
individual Blue and Gold Society member)
• Relationships among Blue and Gold Society members and their social network members
develop through 21 distinct processes
• 11 instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’
social network relationships, while six expressive forms of social capital are embedded in
Blue and Gold Society members’ social network relationships
317 • The existence of trust in relationships plays a positive role in Blue and Gold Society
members ability to acquire and utilizing 18 forms of social capital resources
• Blue and Gold Society members tend to have a high to moderate level of trust in their
social network members, while social network members tend to have a high to moderate
level of trust in Blue and Gold Society members
• Blue and Gold Society members and social network members utilize 16 distinct process
to develop trust in their relationships with each other
5.1.1 Key findings concerning social networks: research questions 1A-1C
Research question 1A asked: What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization
member’s social network? The left-hand column (column 1) in Table 5.1 lists the 30 individuals
who make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks as a result of their membership
in the Blue and Gold Society (see Section 4.2.1 for complete findings). Research question 1B asked: Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s bonding social capital? The middle column (column 2) lists the 10 individuals whose relationships with Blue and Gold Society members can be considered strong, bonding type relationships that produce bonding social capital (see Section 4.2.2 for complete findings).
Research question 1C asked: Which individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization member’s bridging social capital? The right-hand column (column 3) lists the 28 individuals whose relationships with Blue and Gold Society members can be considered weak, bridging type relationships that produce bridging social capital (see Section 4.2.2 for complete findings).
318 Table 5.1: Individuals who make up Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks and strength of relationships
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Research Question 1A – What Research Question 1B – Which Research Question 1C – Which individuals make up an individuals provide access to an individuals provide access to an undergraduate student organization undergraduate student organization undergraduate student organization member’s social network (see member’s bonding social capital member’s bridging social capital Section 4.2.1 for complete (see Section 4.2.2 for complete (see Section 4.2.2 for complete findings)? findings)? findings)? Blue and Gold Society Associate Director of Alumni Associate Director of Alumni Associate Director of Alumni Membership Membership Membership Blue and Gold Society Members - Blue and Gold Society Members - Blue and Gold Society Members - General General General Blue and Gold Society Members - Blue and Gold Society Members - Blue and Gold Society Members - Specific Specific Specific Blue and Gold Society Member's Relationship strength not noted Blue and Gold Society Member's Parents Parents Manager of Student Alumni Manager of Student Alumni Manager of Student Alumni Programs Programs Programs Faculty and Staff Alumni Relations Staff Alumni Relations Staff Alumni Relations Staff Athletic Department Staff Relationship strength not noted Athletic Department Staff Athletic Director Relationship strength not noted Athletic Director Chancellor Relationship strength not noted Chancellor Deans Relationship strength not noted Deans Director of Student Life Relationship strength not noted Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff Relationship strength not noted Executive Level Staff Faculty Relationship strength not noted Faculty Staff - General Relationship strength not noted Staff - General Vice Provost and Dean of Students Vice Provost and Dean of Students Vice Provost and Dean of Students Students Greek Life Students Greek Life Students Greek Life Students Residence Hall Assistants Relationship strength not noted Residence Hall Assistants Student Athletes Relationship strength not noted Student Athletes Student Government Board Student Government Board Student Government Board Members Members Members Student Organization Members Student Organization Members Student Organization Members Students - General Relationship strength not noted Students - General Students Outside Job Relationship strength not noted Students Outside Job Students Outside Major Relationship strength not noted Students Outside Major Other Alumni Alumni Alumni Alumni Association President Relationship strength not noted Alumni Association President Board of Trustees Relationship strength not noted Board of Trustees Donors Relationship strength not noted Donors Government Officials Relationship strength not noted Government Officials Local Business Owners Relationship strength not noted Relationship strength not noted Potential Employers Relationship strength not noted Relationship strength not noted
319 As it pertains to the bonding versus bridging relationships in the middle and right-hand columns, respectively, the individuals listed are not necessarily mutually exclusive to one column and not the other, meaning that depending on the situation and perspective, findings demonstrate that a social network member could fall into more than one category or column for a particular Blue and Gold Society member. In the event that relationship strength was not able to be determined through any of the data collection methods, it is noted in the table accordingly.
5.1.2 Key findings concerning social networks: research question 1D
Research question 1D asked: Through what processes does an undergraduate student organization member’s social network develop? Table 5.2 lists the 21 processes through which
Blue and Gold Society members develop relationships with social network members (see Section
4.2.3 for complete findings). The row along the top of the table lists the processes through which relationships are developed. The column along the left lists the social network categories and individuals with whom relationships were developed. An X within the table notes that a specific development process applies to a specific social network member. In the instance that a social network process was not identified for a specific social network member, then it is so noted in the table accordingly.
320 Table 5.2: Blue and Gold Society members’ social network development processes
Social Network Development Processes
Research Question 1D –
Blue
Through what processes does of the an undergraduate student organization member’s social Year Email Retreats network develop (see Section One Interactions Members Giving Tours Giving on - Focused Effort Commonalities 4.2.3 for complete findings)? Hosting Events Mutual Friends and Gold Society Weekly Meetings Interview Process Being Offered Help Induction Ceremony Induction Blue and Gold Society Blue and Gold Society Repetitive Interactions Random Circumstance Being a Member Induction During Same Same During Induction Length of Time Known Time of Length Getting to Know People One- Collaboration on Projects Interactions Outside
Associate Director of X X X X X X X X Alumni Membership Blue & Gold Soc. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Members (general/specific) Manager of Student
Society Society X X X X X X X X X X X Alumni Programs
Blue and Gold Blue & Gold Soc. None noted Member’s Parents Alumni Relations Staff X X X X X X X X X X X
Athletic Department Staff X X
Athletic Director X X
Chancellor X X X X X X X X
Deans X X X X
Director of Student Life X X X X
Executive Level Staff X X X X X Faculty Staff and Faculty X X X X X X X
Staff – General X X X X X X Vice Provost/Dean of X X X X Students Greek Life Students X X X X X X X
Residence Hall Assistants X
Students in General X X X X X X X X X X
Student Athletes X Student Government Board X X X
Students Members Student Organization X X X X Members Students Outside Job None noted
Students Outside Major None noted
Alumni X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Alumni Association X X X President Board of Trustees X X X X X X X
Donors X X X
Government Officials X X X
Other Individuals Local Business Leaders X
Potential Employers X
321 5.1.3 Key findings concerning forms of social capital: research questions 2A and 2B
Question 2A asked: What instrumental forms of social capital are embedded in the social
network of an undergraduate student organization member? Table 5.3 lists 11 instrumental
forms of social capital embedded in the social networks of Blue and Gold Society members. The
row along the top of Table 5.3 lists the 11 instrumental forms of social capital identified during
the course of the research study. Six forms were deductively identified and originally recognized
during the literature review (see Section 4.3.1 for complete findings). The other five forms were
inductively identified and not originally recognized during the literature review (see Section
4.3.2 for complete findings). The column along the left, arranged by category, lists Blue and
Gold Society members’ social network members. An X within the table notes that a specific instrumental form of social capital is embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’ relationship with a particular individual. In the event that no particular forms of instrumental social capital were embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with a specific individual, it is noted in the table accordingly. In the instance that no forms of instrumental forms of social capital were embedded in a particular relationships, then it is noted in the table accordingly.
322 Table 5.3: Instrumental forms of social capital embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks
Instrumental Forms of Social Capital Other Instrumental Forms of Social – Deductively Identified (see Section Capital – Inductively Identified (see Research Question 2A - What 4.3.1 for complete findings) Section 4.3.2 for complete findings) instrumental forms of social
capital are embedded in the social network of an undergraduate student Tangible/ Goal
organization member? Unique Creation Mobility Norms of of Norms Mentoring Attainment Reciprocity Educational Occupational Achievement General Help Opportunities Free MaterialItems HumanCapital Information Flow MeetNew People Associate Director of X X X X X X X Alumni Membership Belonging to the Blue and X X X X X Gold Society Blue and Gold Society Members (general/ X X X X X X X X X X specific) Manager of Student X X X X X X X X Alumni Programs
Blue and Gold Society Blue and Gold Society None noted Member’s Parents Alumni Relations Staff X X X X X X X X X X Athletic Department Staff X Athletic Director None noted Chancellor X X X X Deans X X Director of Student Life Executive Level Staff X X Faculty X Faculty and Staff and Faculty Staff – General X X X X X X X X X X Vice Provost and Dean of X X X Students Greek Life Students X X X Residence Hall Assistants None noted Students in General X X X X Student Athletes Student Government X X X Board Members Students Student Organization X X Members Students Outside Job None noted Students Outside Major None noted Alumni X X X X X X X X X X Alumni Association X X X X
President Board of Trustees X X X X X X X X Donors None noted Others Government Officials None noted Local Business Leaders None noted Potential Employers None noted
323 Question 2B asked: What expressive forms of social capital are embedded in the social network of an undergraduate student organization member? Table 5.4 lists six expressive forms of social capital embedded in the social networks of Blue and Gold Society members. The row along the top of Table 5.4 lists the six expressive forms of social capital identified during the course of the research study. Two forms were deductively identified and originally recognized during the literature review (see Section 4.3.3 for complete findings). The other four forms were inductively identified and not originally recognized during the literature review (see Section
4.3.4 for complete findings). The column along the left, arranged by category, lists Blue and
Gold Society members’ social network members. An X within the table notes that a specific expressive form of social capital is embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’ relationship with a particular individual. In the event that no particular forms of expressive social capital were embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’ relationships with a specific individual, it is noted in the table accordingly.
324 Table 5.4: Expressive forms of social capital embedded in Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks
Expressive Forms of Social Capital – Other Expressive Forms of Social Capital – Research Question 2B – What Deductively Identified Inductively Identified (see Sections 4.3.4) expressive forms of social (see Sections 4.3.3) capital are embedded in the
social network of an like like undergraduate student -
organization member? tothe Feeling Identity General Support Comfort Sanctions University Family Friendship or or Friendship Reinforcement Connectedness Associate Director of
X X X Alumni Membership Belonging to the Blue and X Gold Society Blue and Gold Society Members (general/ X X X X X X specific) Manager of Student X X X X X Alumni Programs Blue and Gold Society Blue and Gold Society None noted Member’s Parents Alumni Relations Staff X X Athletic Department Staff None noted
Athletic Director None noted Chancellor X Deans None noted Director of Student Life None noted Executive Level Staff None noted Faculty None noted Faculty and Staff and Faculty Staff – General X X Vice Provost and Dean of None noted Students Greek Life Students X X Residence Hall Assistants None noted Students in General None noted
Student Athletes None noted Student Government X Board Members Students Students Student Organization None noted Members Students Outside Job None noted Students Outside Major None noted Alumni X X Alumni Association X X X
President Board of Trustees X X Donors None noted Others Government Officials None noted Local Business Leaders None noted Potential Employers None noted
325 5.1.4 Key findings concerning trust: research questions 3A
Question 3A asked: What role does trust play in helping an undergraduate student organization member acquire social capital? Table 5.5 summarizes the role that trust plays in the acquisition of social capital by Blue and Gold Society members (see Section 4.4.1 for complete findings).
The 18 forms of social capital are listed along the left side of the table. An X in the right-hand column notes when trust plays a role in accessing a particular form of social capital. In the event that trust was not noted as having a particular role in accessing a particular form of social capital, it is noted in the table accordingly.
Table 5.5: Role of trust in social capital accumulation by Blue and Gold Society members
Research Question 3A – What role does trust play in helping an undergraduate student organization member acquire social capital (see Plays Section 4.4.1 for complete findings)? aRole Information Flow X
Human Capital Creation None noted Norms of Reciprocity None noted Goal Achievement X Capital
Instrumental Occupational Mobility X Forms of Social Forms of Social Education Attainment X General Help X
Unique Opportunities None noted Mentoring None noted
Other Other Free Tangible/Material Items None noted Capital
Instrumental Meet New People X Forms of Social Forms of Social Identity Reinforcement None noted
Sanctions None noted Social Capital Forms of General Support X Expressive
Friendship or Family-like Feeling X
Comfort None noted Connectedness to the University None noted Other Other Social Capital Forms of Expressive
326 5.1.5 Key findings concerning trust: research questions 3B1 and 3B2
Question 3B1 asked: What level of trust do undergraduate student organization members have in their social networks? Table 5.6 summarizes the level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in the individuals who make up their social networks (see Section 4.4.2.1 for complete findings).
Table 5.6: Blue and Gold Society members’ level of trust in social network members
Research Question 3B1 – What level of trust do undergraduate student organization members Low have in their social networks (see Section High 4.4.2.1 for complete findings)? Moderate Associate Director of Alumni Membership X X Blue and Gold Society Members’ Parents None noted Blue and Gold Society Members (general Gold Gold X Society Society
Blue and and specific) Manager of Student Alumni Programs X X Alumni Relations Staff X X Athletic Department Staff None noted Athletic Director None noted Chancellor X X Deans X Director of Student Life None noted Executive Level Staff None noted
Faculty Staff and Faculty X Staff – General X Vice Provost and Dean of Students X Greek Life Students X Residence Hall Assistants None noted
Students in General X X Student Athletes None noted Student Government Board Members X Students Student Organization Members None noted Students Outside Job None noted Students Outside Major None noted Alumni X X Alumni Association President None noted
Board of Trustees X Donors None noted
Others Government Officials None noted Local Business Leaders None noted Potential Employers None noted
327 The 18 identified and previously mentioned forms of social capital are listed along the left side
of the table. The row along the top lists the different levels of trust. An X in the right-hand
columns notes the level of trust Blue and Gold Society members have in a particular social
network member. In the event that no particular level of trust was identified for a specific social
network member, it is noted in the table accordingly.
Question 3B2 asked: What level of trust do social network members have in
undergraduate student organization members? Table 5.7 summarizes the level of trust that social
network members have in Blue and Gold Society members (see Section 4.4.2.2 for complete
findings). The row along the top lists the different levels of trust. An X in the right-hand
columns notes the level of trust that social network members in general have in Blue and Gold
Society members in general.
Table 5.7: Social network members’ level of trust in Blue and Gold Society members
Research Question 3B2 – What
level of trust do social network members have in undergraduate
student organization members (see High Unsure
Section 4.4.2.2 for complete Moderate findings)? Social Network Members’ Trust in X X X Blue and Gold Society Members
5.1.6 Key findings concerning trust: research questions 3C1 and 3C2
Research question 3C1 asked: Through what processes do undergraduate student organization
members develop trust in social network members? Table 5.8 lists the 16 processes through
which Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in social network members (see Section
4.4.3.1 for complete findings). 328
Table 5.8: Blue and Gold Society members’ processes for developing trust in social network members
Trust Development Processes
Research Question 3C1 –
Through what processes do
undergraduate student organization members develop trust in social First them Trust Them
network members (see Section Personal and Sincere Commitments Good Attitude Good Confidentiality 4.4.3.1 for complete findings)? Commonalities and Gold Society Accomplishments Willingness to Help to Willingness General Concern for General Concern Haven’t Jeopardized Jeopardized Haven’t Reputation and Status Dependable and Keep Others Being Genuine Genuine Others Being Repetitive Interactions Being Trusted by them by Trusted Being Length of Time Known Others Getting to Know Know to Others Getting Received Previous Help Received Previous Interacting Outside Blue Blue Interacting Outside
Associate Director of Alumni X X X X X X X X X Membership Blue and Gold Society Members X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X (general and specific) Manager of Student Alumni
Society Society X X X X X X X X X X X X Programs
Blue and Gold Blue and Gold Society Member’s None noted Parents Alumni Relations Staff X X X X X X X X X X Athletic Department Staff None noted Athletic Director None noted Chancellor X X X X X Deans X Director of Student Life None noted Executive Level Staff X X
Faculty Staff and Faculty X Staff – General X X X X X X X X Vice Provost and Dean of X Students Greek Life Students X X X Residence Hall Assistants None noted
Students in General X X Student Athletes None noted Student Government Board X X Members Students Student Organization Members X X X Students Outside Major None noted Students Outside Job None noted Alumni X X X X X X X
Alumni Association President Board of Trustees X X X Donors None noted Government Officials None noted Local Business Leaders None noted Other IndividualsOther Potential Employers None noted
329 The row along the top of the table lists the processes through which trust is developed. The column along the left lists the social network categories and individuals in whom Blue and Gold
Society members trust. An X within the table notes that Blue and Gold Society members’ trust in a specific individual developed as a result of a specific trust development process. In the event that no trust development processes were identified for a particular individual, it is noted in the table accordingly.
Research question 3C2 asked: Through what processes do social network members develop trust in undergraduate student organization members? Table 5.9 lists the 16 processes through which social network members develop trust in Blue and Gold Society (see Section
4.4.3.2 for complete findings). The row along the top of the table lists the processes through which trust is developed. An X within the table notes that a specific trust development process applies to social network members developing trust in Blue and Gold Society members.
Table 5.9: Social network members’ processes for developing trust in Blue and Gold Society members
Trust Development Processes
Research Question 3C2 –
Through what processes do
social network members
develop trust in undergraduate student Relationships organization members (see Society
Section 4.4.3.2 for complete Dependable Confidentiality Commonalities HelpingOthers Positive Attitude findings)? Effort an Making Supporting Others Supporting GoodCommunicator RepetitiveInteractions Not Jeopardizing Trust Jeopardizing Not Being Easy toWork with Developing Developing Being Genuine and Sincere and Genuine Being Interacting Outside Blue and Gold Gold and Blue Outside Interacting BeingBlue the GoldSociety and in Making it through Interview Process Interview through it Making FulfillingResponsibilities and Being Ways in which Blue and Gold Society Members Secure X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Trust of Social Network Members
330 5.2 PURPOSE STATEMENT: REVISITED
While it is understood that higher education is an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate human capital, it is not as clearly understood how higher education can be an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate other forms of capital, such as social capital. Just as a college education, or human capital, can increase productivity, so too can social relationships positively affect the productivity of individuals (Putnam, 2000). The consequence of not having an equivalent emphasis on how higher education creates social capital among students potentially implies that higher education may not be explicitly making an effort to promote opportunities for social capital investment; students and researchers may not be aware that higher education can facilitate social capital investment; and students may not understand the application of social capital in their own lives. The following points, based on an analysis of the data and the research findings, demonstrate that this research study accomplished its purpose:
• Higher education is an effective way for an individual to invest in and accumulate
social capital
• As evidence, Blue and Gold Society members, members of a student organization at
the University of Pittsburgh, are able to invest in and accumulate 18 forms of social
capital (see Section 4.3 for complete findings), amongst a social network of 30
individuals (see Section 4.2 for complete findings), as a result of being members in the
Blue and Gold Society
• This research study places sole emphasis on how higher education creates social
capital among students, namely student organization members
331 • The findings of this research study have the capacity to inform institutions of higher
education and other valuable stakeholders
5.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT: REVISITED
In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of investment in social capital, this study will look at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate student participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation through participating in higher education. Student organizations are typically defined as student run groups focused around a wide variety of themes with opportunities to interact with peers, faculty, staff and alumni in areas of mutual interest (Nolfi & Rubin, 2010).
“Education is a series of social settings in which people meet, a valued and attractive form of social status in modern societies, and a powerful way to gain other forms of high status” (Lin &
Erikson, 2008 p.7). Thus, student organizations represent a prime population and social setting in which to study social capital accumulation in the context of higher education, in the hope of informing higher education institutions, students and researchers about the opportunities that exist to accumulate social capital through higher education. The following points, based on an analysis of the data, demonstrate that this research study addressed the aforementioned problem:
• This research study placed sole emphasis on investigating the phenomena of higher
education in the creation of social capital, which is not common among past or recent
studies and discussions pertaining to the outcomes of higher education (see Sections
1.0 and 2.3)
332 • The author spent approximately 16 weeks (1,380 minutes or 23 hours) utilizing
participant observation 28 times (see Table 3.4), conducting 45 interviews (see Tables
3.5-3.6), and reviewing approximately 24 cultural artifacts (see Tables 3.7-3.9) to
explore the opportunities for members of the Blue and Gold Society student
organization to accumulate social capital
• The research study’s findings (see Chapter 4 for complete findings) are rich and highly
informative for institutions of higher education and other stakeholders who wish to
better understand, further consider and/or take advantage of the opportunities that exist
to accumulate social capital through higher education
5.4 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTIONS
The literature review previously provided in Section 2.1 defined and outlined the concept and primarily elements of individual social capital for the purpose of investigating higher education as a source of social capital creation for college students. Social capital theory is based on the three primary themes of social networks, resources embedded in those networks and trustworthy relationships. In short, social capital exists in and as a result of an individual’s trustworthy social networks in the form of resources that provide benefits to the individual immediately or at some point in the future. The author developed a social capital conceptual model for the purposes of this research study, based on a thorough review of the social capital literature (see Figure 2.1), which was used as a guide and lens throughout the development and implementation of this research study.
333
Individuals A and B represent a social network, consisting of either a strong or weak relationship tie; trust between Individuals A and B facilitates access to the
various forms of social capital:
Trust Trust FORMS of 4 Development Social Process Capital
Strong, Exclusive Tie = Bonding Social Capital
Relationship Individual 3 Individual Or Development A Process B
Weak, Inclusive Tie = Bridging Social Capital
Meet New People Information Flow
1 Unique Opportunities Human Capital Creation Other Instru- Instru- Mentoring Norms of Reciprocity mental mental Forms of Forms of Free Tangible/Material Items Occupational Mobility Social Social Capital Capital General Help Education Attainment
Goal Achievement
2 General Support Sanctions Expressive Other Forms of Social Expressive Friendship or Family Feelings Identity Reinforcement Capital Forms of Social Comfort Capital
Connectedness to University
Note: Conceptual model developed by the author of this study based on a review of the literature; items marked 1-4 note original contributions from this research study
Figure 5.1: Conceptualization of individual social capital – revisited
334
This social capital conceptual model will be utilized once again to articulate the theoretical
contributions that this research study makes to social capital theory and the study of higher
education in the creation of social capital (see Figure 5.1).
To briefly review, the conceptual model of individual social capital in Figure 5.1 depicts
two individuals, Individual A and Individual B. Individuals A and B have a relationship with each other, referred to as a Social Network. The Social Network that exists between Individuals
A and B is considered more or less useful in terms of social capital accessibility based on the
Trust or level of mutual expectation and commitment that exists between Individuals A and B.
Depending on the strength and closeness of the relationship that exists between Individuals A and
B, useful resources are embedded in the social network in the form of Bonding Social Capital or
Bridging Social Capital. Various forms of social capital may be embedded in the relationship between Individuals A and B, including: Information Flow; Human Capital Creation; Norms of
Reciprocity; Occupational Mobility; Goal Achievement; Education Attainment; Identity
Reinforcement; and Sanctions. The first six forms of social capital listed are categorized as
Instrumental Social Capital: the last two forms of social capital listed are categorized as
Expressive Social Capital. The theoretical contributions that this research study makes are now also included in Figure 5.1, noted by the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. Each theoretical contribution will now be presented.
The first theoretical contribution that this research study makes is to the element of social capital commonly referred to in the literature as instrumental social capital (see Section 2.1.4), noted in Figure 5.1 by the number 1 and entitled Other Forms of Instrumental Social Capital. In addition to the six forms of instrumental social capital commonly mentioned in the literature, this research study identified five additional forms of instrumental social capital: Meet New People;
335 Unique Opportunities; Mentoring; Free Material/Tangible Items; and General Help. These five
additional forms were identified through inductive analysis and are more thoroughly defined in
Section 4.3.2. The first implication of this contribution is that instrumental forms of social
capital exist outside of the preexisting ones frequently defined in the literature. So long as an
embedded resource exists in a social network between two individuals, in this case a resource
that helps an individual get ahead or accomplish something that in the resource’s presence would not be possible, then the resource should be embraced in theory and concept as an instrumental form of social capital. Embracing other forms of instrumental social capital allows the theory and concept of social capital to be applied to different settings and for diverse purposes. Rather than trying to peg all social network resources into predefined forms or categories of social capital according to the literature, inductive analysis should be incorporated into any research study or analysis to allow for the consideration and inclusion of many more forms of social capital when applicable and as identified, such as those other forms of instrumental social capital incorporated into this research study. Doing so will allow social capital theory to remain open to meaningful contributions by theorists and researchers, while allowing the theory and concept of social capital to be alive and active, rather than dormant and passive.
The second theoretical contribution that this research study makes is to the element of social capital commonly referred to in the literature as expressive social capital (see Section
2.1.4), noted in Figure 5.1 by the number 2 and entitled Other Forms of Expressive Social
Capital. In addition to the two forms of expressive social capital commonly mentioned in the
literature, this research study identified four additional forms of expressive social capital:
Comfort, General Support, Friendship or Family-like Feeling and Connectedness to the
University. These four additional forms were identified through inductive analysis and are more
336 thoroughly defined in Section 4.3.4. Again, the first implication of this contribution is that expressive forms of social capital exist outside of the preexisting ones frequently defined in the literature. So long as an embedded resource exists in a social network between two individuals, in this case a resource that helps an individual maintain an individual’s own current resources, then the resource should be embraced in theory and concept as an expressive form of social capital. Rather than trying to peg all social network resources into predefined forms or categories of social capital according to the literature, inductive analysis should be incorporated into any research study or analysis to allow for the consideration and inclusion of many more forms of social capital when applicable and as identified, such as those other forms of expressive forms of social capital incorporated into this research study. Again, doing so will allow social capital theory to remain open to meaningful contributions by theorists and researchers, while allowing the theory and concept of social capital to be alive and active, rather than dormant and passive.
Theoretical contributions 1 and 2 should also be considered as they pertain specifically to higher education and the phenomena of higher education in the creation of social capital, which was the purpose of this research study. Utilizing the six predefined forms of instrumental social capital is beneficial to the study of higher education in the creation of social capital. In other words, it is helpful to understand through a research study such as this that information flow as a form of social capital is accessible by students who participate in a particular student organization, such as the Blue and Gold Society, as a part of their higher education experience.
If the author had only paid attention to deductive analysis and predefined elements of social capital theory though, the research study would not have inductively identified that students who participate in a particular student organization are also able to meet new people and receive
337 mentoring as additional, unique forms of social capital. Thus, the additional forms of social capital identified through this research study can be applied to future research studies of higher education in the creation of social capital from a general standpoint, or more specifically to other types of student organizations. Also, the realization that numerous other forms of social capital do in fact exist within the realm of higher education will empower other researchers to explore even additional forms of social capital throughout various avenues of higher education as a result of a research study such as this opening the door and providing evidenced stimulus to do so.
The third and fourth theoretical contributions that this research study makes are to process, meaning the processes through which social networks are developed and the processes through which trust is developed in relationships, noted in Figure 5.1 by the number 3 and 4, respectively. Social network development process, although a theory and concept in its own right, is typically not closely entwined in the discussion of social capital theory to the extent that social networks, embedded resources and trust are (see Section 2.1). Although a research study such as this would have been sufficiently informative by simply identifying the social network members of a particular student organization, in this case members of the Blue and Gold Society, the research study is doubly informative as a result of the extra step the author took to identify the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members’ social networks develop and the processes through which Blue and Gold Society members develop trusting relationships with those individuals who make up their social networks. As an example pertaining to social networks, it is insightful to understand that Blue and Gold Society members are able to develop relationships with university alumni through collaborating on projects and through repetitive interactions with them. As an example pertaining to trust, it is insightful to understand that Blue and Gold Society members develop trust in fellow Blue and Gold Society members when fellow
338 members are dependable and keep their commitments to Blue and Gold Society members.
Likewise, as it pertains to trust, it is insightful to understand that Blue and Gold Society members
are able to gain the trust of social network members through showing forth positive attitudes and
being genuine and sincere. Thus, the conceptualization of individual social capital in Figure 5.1
and the theorization of social capital in general and within the realm of higher education
specifically, as a result of this research study, expands to not only include elements of social
capital but also processes of social capital.
In summary, this research study makes theoretical and conceptual contributions to social
capital theory in general and to the phenomena of higher education in the creation of social
capital specifically. New instrumental forms of social capital have been illuminated; new
expressive forms of social capital have been established. Processes for social network and trust
development have been incorporated. These theoretical contributions can be utilized by
theorists, researchers and practitioners alike, which will be elaborated on in Sections 5.6 and 5.7.
Sections 5.6 and 5.7 will, respectively, highlight a number of practical recommendations that
have resulted from this research study as well as a number or suggestions for future research that have resulted from this research study.
5.5 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS
The results from this research study provide a number of implications for institutions that would benefit students and institutions of higher education. Higher education in the creation of social capital is a relatively new concept though, and before a broad brushstroke of programming
development and implementations can occur, a paradigm shift of sorts must first occur to inform
339 and inspire new thinking about the concept of social capital in higher education among higher
education’s stakeholders. As such, the recommendations contained herein serve the purpose of
practical suggestions to stakeholders as well act as a catalyst for a paradigm shift toward thinking
about higher education as an investment in social capital for college students. The audience for
these recommendations is as follows: Student Affairs Professional Associations, Student Affairs
Professionals, the National Survey of Student Engagement, academic journals, and institutional leadership at the college and university level. These practical suggestions will be discussed now, followed by a summary of the recommendations at the end of this section in Table 5.10.
5.5.1 Student affairs professional associations
Student affairs professional associations, such as the American College Personnel Association
(ACPA) and the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators (NASPA), lead the charge in providing professional development opportunities and forums for student affairs professionals to learn how to more effectively meet the needs of students and help students develop to their fullest potential. The primary findings from this research study state that higher education, in particular student organization participation and other avenues of out-of-class programming, provide students with opportunities to develop their social networks and tap in to unique, beneficial resources embedded in those social networks. Thus, the first recommendation as a result of this research study is for student affairs professional associations, such as the
ACPA and the NASPA, to devote the theme of a conference or a series of conferences to the topic of higher education in the creation of social capital. This recommendation also includes the charge for student affairs professional associations to devote calls for papers, session presentations and panel discussions to the topic of social capital. The conferences should focus
340 partly on the theory of social capital in order to provide a solid foundation to which student
affairs professionals can look to inform their practice. The conferences should also focus partly
on the practical implications of social capital theory within student affairs professionals’
respective lines of work. The focus on the practical implications should provide student affairs
professionals with insight as it relates to developing, implementing and assessing out-of-class
and extracurricular activities centered around avenues for students to develop their social
networks and utilize resources embedded in their social networks. Possible session, panel
discussion and paper topics might include: social capital theory as it relates to college students;
programming that facilitates social networking opportunities for college students; types of
individuals that college students should seek to add to their social network; and, helping students make the most out of their participation in student organizations. Trends and new ideas in student affairs practices often originate and become popular as a result of student affairs professionals coming to together and collectively working to improve their professional skills for the benefit of the students they serve. Accordingly, student affairs professional associations can and should play a role in the paradigm shift leading to more focus on higher education as a means of investing in social capital.
5.5.2 Student affairs professionals
Although student affairs professional associations can serve as the catalyst for inspiring a
paradigm shift in higher education as it relates to thinking about social capital accumulation as an outcome of higher education, the practical implementation to facilitate the paradigm shift lies primarily in the hands of student affair professionals themselves. Student affairs professionals, such as directors of student life, directors of residence life, directors of career development and
341 directors of leadership development, fulfill a wide range of responsibilities across colleges and universities. Out-of-class curriculum and/or extracurricular activities typically fall under the purview of student affairs professionals. Therefore, it is recommended that student affairs professionals carry out the following steps:
• Include social capital theory as a topic for instruction and discussion at a future
division-wide retreat and/or planning meeting
• Develop a pilot program(s) to help students meet new people where beneficial
resources might exist (e.g. local employers, alumni, university donors, government
officials, faculty, staff, other students)
• Develop or add to questions to current out-of-class/extracurricular/student satisfaction
assessments and surveys that pertain to: students’ social network development; desired
networking opportunities; desired non-purely academic outcomes of higher education;
perceived/realized non-purely academic outcomes of higher education; comfort level in
developing relationships and trust with social network members; processes through
which students develop relationships with individuals in and around the campus
community; forms of social capital students have access to/would like access to as a
result of their participation in higher education and student affairs programming (i.e.
list various forms of social capital in a format to which students can readily relate); and
so forth
• Provide student affairs professionals with the budgetary means necessary to attend
professional conferences related to the topics of college student development, student
organization management and the outcomes of higher education
342 Over the years, student affairs professionals have learned of and implemented a number of out-
of-class and extracurricular activities to help college students develop holistically and not simply
academically, such as living learning communities, study abroad opportunities and out-of-class curriculum programs, to name a few. Striving to help students invest in social capital through higher education fits well into the purview of student affairs professionals’ line of work and even into existing initiatives currently in place at most colleges and universities. A better understanding of higher education in the creation of social capital can similarly inspire new
programming to be developed by student affairs professionals and implemented in their own
lines of work.
5.5.3 National Survey of Student Engagement
According to a fairly recent article in USA today, national surveys of the outcomes of higher
education, such as the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE), “have developed into
something of a movement” as it relates to how colleges judge success and weakness as it pertains
to helping students get the most out of their college experience (Reynolds, 2010, n.p.). The
article states that over time, the NSSE, by surveying students at over 1,400 colleges and
universities as it relates to their engagement in numerous forms of the higher education
experience, “has helped reframe the national discussion about what matters in college”
(Reynolds, 2010, n.p.). The results of the survey are published and made public on a yearly
basis. To accomplish a paradigm shift in how institutions of higher education and students view
higher education as an investment in social capital, the influence of a national survey that
incorporates questions related to social network development and access to resources in social
network relationships could likewise help reframe the national discussion about what matters in
343 college to include the topic of higher education in the creation of social capital. Currently the
NSSE poses questions to colleges students such as:
• Mark the box that best represents the quality of your relationships with people at your
institution (e.g. other students, faculty members, administrative personnel).
• About how many hours do you spend in a typical 7-day week doing each of the
following (e.g. participating in co-curricular activities such as student organizations,
socializing)?
• To what extent does your institution emphasize each of the following (e.g. encouraging
contact among students from different economic, social, and racial or ethnic
background, attending campus activities, helping you cope with your non-academic
responsibilities)?
• To what extent has your experience at this institution contributed to your knowledge,
skills, and personal development in the following areas (e.g. working effectively with
others)?
Such survey questions already hint at the role that higher education can play in social capital investment and indirectly attempt to measure the phenomena of higher education in the creation of social capital among college students. These survey questions inquire about opportunities to meet other people and utilize resources embedded in those relationships, which are two primary elements of social capital theory. Accordingly, it is recommended that national higher education survey administrators, such as the NSSE, incorporate the theory of social capital into existing survey questions, analysis and reporting in a manner such that institutions of higher education, students, parents of students and others with ties to higher education can readily understand the results and implications of the relationships that can be developed through higher education and
344 the outcomes of developing those relationships. Sample revised or newly developed survey
questions might include:
• To what extent have the relationships you have developed as a student at your current
college or university contributed to you receiving the following (e.g. emotional support,
career guidance and networking, goal achievement)?
• To what extent does your institution provide opportunities for you to meet the following
(e.g. alumni, university donors, local government officials. executive level staff, other
students)?
Movements and paradigm shifts in the outcomes of higher education according to college
students often originate and become popular as a result of national surveys and initiatives such as
the NSSE. As such, the NSSE and other national surveys can influence how institutions of
higher education and students view higher education as a means of investing in social capital.
5.5.4 Academic journals
Currently, social capital related journals exist in the form of the following, to name a few: The
American Journal of Sociology, The British Journal of Sociology, Sociological Inquiry, Social
Networks, Theory and Society and Current Sociology. Likewise, journals for student affairs professionals and other journals devoted to the outcomes of higher education are plentiful as
well: The Review of Higher Education, Journal of College Student Development, College Student
Affairs Journal, Research in Higher Education, and The Journal of Higher Education. To date,
and to the knowledge of the author, a volume of such a journal has not been specifically or solely
devoted to higher education in the creation of social capital. Thus, it is recommended that a
social theory and/or higher education centered academic journal announce a call for papers
345 centered around social capital theory and its implications and practical recommendations for higher education, student affairs professionals, higher education assessments, and students, all with an emphasis on original, empirical research on the topic of social capital and higher education. Suggested topics include:
• Applications of social capital theory in higher education
• Social capital theory as a form of student development theory
• The relationship between social capital development and higher education
• Non-academic related outcomes of higher education
• Social network development outcomes of participating in student organizations
and other out-of-class/extracurricular activities
• The benefits students experience through relationships with college/university
alumni, faculty, staff, donors and other constituents
Any paradigm shifts and implementations of new initiatives to improve the outcomes in higher education and divisions of student affairs, and any assessments developed to measure new and/or different aspects of a college students’ overall experience in and as a result of participating in higher education, are best served when the foundation for the shift, implementation or initiative is directly linked to theory and empirical research. The recommendation for academic journals to issue a call for original, empirical research on the topic of higher education in the creation of social capital as this section suggests would provide such a foundation for institutions, professionals and other assessments and initiatives.
346 5.5.5 Institutional leadership
As a whole, institutions of higher education, meaning all types of colleges and universities, have
the ability to promote higher education as an investment in social capital. In order for this to
realistically occur though, institutions of higher education must first understand and embrace the
idea that students enroll in higher education for purposes other than human capital related
outcomes, meaning degree, skill and knowledge attainment. Students, through participating in other aspects of the higher education such as by joining student organizations, are able to acquire various forms of social capital, such as information flow, occupational mobility, general support
and encouragement, by developing relationships with other students, alumni, staff and
community members. Therefore, for a paradigm shift to occur, the recommendation is that
institutional leadership at the chancellor/president level and provost/vice president level embrace
the following recommendations already presented herein:
• Sign up for the NSSE to be administered at the institution and look for social capital
creation implications in the survey’s results and in benchmarking the institution’s results
with peer- and aspirant-peer institutions’ results
• Encourage student affairs leadership to participate in student affairs professional
associations to improve their skillsets and devote attention to the social capital related
outcomes of current and proposed student affairs related programming
• Become familiar with social capital theory and empirical research pertaining to the non-
academic outcomes and non-human capital related outcomes of higher education at the
institution
347 • Be a leader in higher education and at the forefront of providing opportunities for social
capital development to students
• Be a leader in higher education and at the forefront of advertising the social capital
benefits of attending the institution to future students, parents of future students, donors,
those in government with responsibility for state funding for the institution (for public
institutions) and other stakeholders
Table 5.10: Summary of practical recommendations
Audience Action Points Student Affairs • Devote a conference or series of conferences to the theme of higher education Professional Associations in the creation of social capital (i.e. National Association of • Issue a call for papers, presentations and panel discussions on the topic of Student Personnel social capital theory and its implications for higher education, student affairs Administrators) professionals and college students Student Affairs • Include social capital theory as a topic for instruction and discussion at a future Professionals (i.e. deans of division-wide retreat and/or planning meeting students, directors of student • Develop a pilot program(s) to help students meet new people where beneficial life) resources might exist • Develop/add to current out-of-class/extracurricular/student satisfaction assessments and surveys questions as it pertains to social network development and the benefits of social relationships • Provide student affairs professionals with the budgetary means necessary to attend conferences related to the topic of college student development, student organization management and other related topics National Survey of Student • Incorporate the theory of social capital into existing survey questions, analysis Engagement (i.e. national and reporting in a manner such that institutions of higher education, students, assessments of the outcomes parents of students and others with ties to higher education can readily of higher education) understand the results and implications of the relationships that can be developed through higher education Academic Journals • A social theory and/or higher education centered academic journal announce a (e.g. College Student Affairs call for papers centered around social capital theory and its implications and Journal, Theory and Society) practical recommendations for higher education, student affairs professionals, higher education assessments and students, all with an emphasis on original, empirical research on the topic of social capital and higher education Institutional Leadership • Sign up for the NSSE to be administered at the institution and look for social (i.e. chancellor/ president, capital creation implications provost/vice president) • Encourage student affairs leadership to participate in student affairs professional associations to improve their skillsets and devote attention to the social capital related outcomes of higher education • Become familiar with social capital theory and empirical research related to higher education in the creation of social capital • Be a leader in higher education and at the forefront of providing opportunities for social capital development to students • Be a leader in higher education and at the forefront of advertising the social capital benefits of attending the institution
348 5.6 FUTURE RESEARCH
Literature and research studies pertaining to social capital theory and its application to higher
education and college students is relatively young compared to the literature on human capital
theory and the human capital related outcomes of higher education, such as degree attainment,
skills development and knowledge acquisition. This research study takes a step in the direction of conducting empirical research as it relates to higher education in the creation of social capital.
The following bullet points list recommendations for future research, in light of this research study’s findings that participating in higher education, more specifically being a member of a student organization, helps college students develop their social networks and invest in and leverage numerous forms of social capital embedded in those relationships.
• Replicate this research study utilizing students in other types of student organizations,
such as an a cappella singing club or a rowing club, to investigate the relationships that
result from participating in such other student organizations, and to identify the resources
embedded in those relationships – the purpose of conducting such a research study would
be to confirm and expand the findings of this research study and to understand with
whom non-Blue and Gold Society student organization members are able to develop
relationships, ascertain the different kinds of social capital resources that exist within
those relationships, and understand the processes for developing those relationships
• Replicate this research study utilizing other avenues of college student social network
development within areas of higher education such as intercollegiate athletics, the
classroom or on-campus employment, in order to investigate the relationships that result
from participating in such opportunities and the resources embedded in those
relationships – the purpose of conducting such a research study would be to understand 349 how social capital theory applies to areas and types of social network development other
than participating in student organizations
• Develop an actual social capital student development theory to serve as a companion with
other student development theories such as Astin’s Theory of Involvement, Kohlberg’s
Theory of Moral Development, and Erikson’s theory of Identity Development – the
purpose of developing such a companion development theory and supporting it with
empirical evidence would be to in a sense legitimize the phenomena of higher education
in the creation of social capital and place social capital student development theory in the
same conversation with other student development theories within schools of education,
divisions of student affairs and textbooks/research journals
• Conduct a comparative research study within a single institution to compare relationship
development and access to embedded social capital resources across various types of
student organizations or various types of relationship development opportunities – the
purpose of this type of research study would be to compare which opportunities for social
network development within higher education are more productive/less productive, and
which forms of social capital are embedded in one social network development
opportunity as opposed to another
• Conduct a comparative research study incorporating outside institutions to compare
relationship development and access to embedded social capital resources across various
types of student organizations or various types of relationship development opportunities
– the purpose of this type of research study would be to compare and contrast which
colleges/universities provide more of or certain kinds of social network development
opportunities as opposed to other colleges/universities, and what types of social capital
350 resources are embedded in relationship building opportunities at one college/university as
opposed to another
Social capital theory can serve as an informative foundation for various forms of future research studies pertaining to the outcomes of higher education for college students, as this research study has demonstrated and suggested.
351 APPENDIX A
NOTE TAKING SHEET
The researcher will typically utilize this pre-designed note-taking sheet intended for studies involving ethnographic research. The note-taking sheet both reminds and allows the researcher to record date, time, location, specific research questions to keep in mind, direct observations, researcher impressions, and follow-up questions for future observations. The researcher will digitize these notes on an ongoing basis to prepare for the analysis stage of the study.
352
353 APPENDIX B
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR BLUE AND GOLD SOCIETY
MEMBERS
354 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR BLUE AND GOLD SOCIETY MEMBERS
Concerning Social Networks
1A. Specifically as a result of being a member of the Blue and Gold Society, what individuals make up your social network?
1B. Which of these relationships would you describe as strong, family or close friend type relationships?
1C. Which of these relationships would you describe as weak relationships or “acquaintances”?
1D. Through what processes have your relationships with these individuals developed?
Concerning Forms of Social Capital
2A. Describe the benefits or resources that are available to you as a result of the relationships you have develop as a member of the Blue and Gold Society that help you to gain something or get ahead in life.
2B. Describe the support you receive as a result of the relationships you have developed as a member of the Blue and Gold Society that help you to maintain the resources that you already have.
Concerning Trust
3A. What role does trust play in the benefits or resources available to you as a result of the relationships you have described thus far?
3B1. How would you describe the level of trust you have in the individuals with whom you have developed relationships as a result of being a Blue and Gold Society member?
3B2. How would you describe the level of trust that individuals with whom you have developed relationships have in you?
3C1. Through what processes have you developed trust in the individuals in your social network (see 3B1)?
3C2. Through what processes have individuals in your social network developed trust in you (see 3B2)?
Other
4. What else would you like to share about the Blue and Gold Society not already discussed in this interview?
355 APPENDIX C
SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH WHOM
BLUE AND GOLD SOCIETY MEMBERS REGULARLY COME INTO CONTACT
356 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR INDIVIDUALS WITH WHOM BLUE AND GOLD SOCIETY MEMBERS REGULARLY COME INTO CONTACT
Concerning Social Networks
1A. How would you describe your relationship with current members of the Blue and Gold Society?
1B/1C. Please describe the strength and/or closeness of your relationship with current members of the Blue and Gold Society.
1D. Through what processes have your relationships with Blue and Gold Society members developed?
Concerning Forms of Social Capital
2A. Describe the benefits or resources available to current Blue and Gold Society members as a result of your relationship with them that might help them gain something or get ahead in life.
2B. Describe the support available to current Blue and Gold Society members as a result of your relationship with them that might help them to maintain the resources they already have.
Concerning Trust
3A. What role does trust play in the benefits or resources available to Blue and Gold Society members as a result of your relationship with them?
3B1. How would you describe the level of trust that Blue and Gold Society members have in you?
3B2. How would you describe the level of trust you have in current members of the Blue and Gold Society?
3C1. Through what processes have Blue and Gold Society members developed trust in you?
3C2. Through what processes have you developed trust in Blue and Gold Society members?
Other
4. What else would you like to share about the Blue and Gold Society not already discussed in this interview?
357 APPENDIX D
GATEKEEPER RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
358 Gatekeeper Recruitment Script for The Blue and Gold Society
Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and acquire skills and knowledge—often referred to as human capital. Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking—often referred to as social capital.
In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of social capital investment, this study will look at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation in higher education.
Qualitative research methodology will be used to collect, analyze and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data.
The population for the study is undergraduate students at the University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations. The sample for the study is The Blue and Gold Society.
Ethnography, more specifically participant observation, semi-structured interviews and other field methods, will be utilized to collect the data. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software will be utilized to efficiently manage, organize and analyze data.
Anticipated results will address the following questions:
• What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social network? • What forms of social capital are embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members? • What role does trust play in an undergraduate student organization member’s social networks?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this project, nor are there any direct benefits to you. Your participation is voluntary, and you may withdraw from this project at any time. The observations will be recorded in the form of notes. The interviews will be audio recorded. In order to safeguard the confidentiality of your participation and responses, no reference to your name will be included in the notes, recording or transcription of the data.
Would you be willing to grant me permission to conduct such a study with The Blue and Gold Society?
Here is my contact information if you have any questions:
Jeff Miracle 412-624-2470 [email protected]
359 APPENDIX E
INFORMANT RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
360 Informant Recruitment Script for the Blue and Gold Society
Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and acquire skills and knowledge—often referred to as human capital. Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking—often referred to as social capital.
In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of social capital investment, this study will look at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation in higher education.
Qualitative research methodology will be used to collect, analyze and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data.
The population for the study is undergraduate students at the University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations. The sample for the study is The Blue and Gold Society.
Ethnography, more specifically participant observation, semi-structured interviews and other field methods, will be utilized to collect the data. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software will be utilized to efficiently manage, organize and analyze data.
Anticipated results will address the following questions:
• What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social network? • What forms of social capital are embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members? • What role does trust play in an undergraduate student organization member’s social networks?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this project, nor are there any direct benefits to you. Your participation is voluntary, and you may withdraw from this project at any time. The observations will be recorded in the form of notes. The interviews will be audio recorded. In order to safeguard the confidentiality of your participation and responses, no reference to your name will be included in the notes, recording or transcription of the data.
Would you be willing to be a participant in my study and help initiate a meeting for me with the rest of The Blue and Gold Society?
Here is my contact information if you have any questions:
Jeff Miracle 412-624-2470 [email protected]
361 APPENDIX F
PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
362 Participant Recruitment Script for The Blue and Gold Society
Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and acquire skills and knowledge—often referred to as human capital. Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking—often referred to as social capital.
In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of social capital investment, this study will look at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation in higher education.
Qualitative research methodology will be used to collect, analyze and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data.
The population for the study is undergraduate students at the University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations. The sample for the study is The Blue and Gold Society.
Ethnography, more specifically participant observation, semi-structured interviews and other field methods, will be utilized to collect the data. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software will be utilized to efficiently manage, organize and analyze data.
Anticipated results will address the following questions:
• What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social network? • What forms of social capital are embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members? • What role does trust play in an undergraduate student organization member’s social networks?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this project, nor are there any direct benefits to you. Your participation is voluntary, and you may withdraw from this project at any time. The observations will be recorded in the form of notes. The interviews will be audio recorded. In order to safeguard the confidentiality of your participation and responses, no reference to your name will be included in the notes, recording or transcription of the data.
Would you be willing to be a participant in my study?
Here is my contact information if you have any questions:
Jeff Miracle 412-624-2470 [email protected]
363 APPENDIX G
OTHER PARTICIPANT RECRUITMENT SCRIPT
364 Recruitment Script for Faculty, Staff, Students, Alumni and/or Other Individuals Affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom the Blue and Gold Society Members Come into Contact
Higher education is often credited with being an effective means for an individual to invest in and acquire skills and knowledge—often referred to as human capital. Participating in higher education may also provide an individual with the opportunity to build valuable relationships with individuals that result in access to resources such as information, the mutual exchange of favors, emotional support and career networking—often referred to as social capital.
In response to the lack of emphasis on higher education as a form of social capital investment, this research study will look at one segment of higher education, namely undergraduate participation in student organizations, to explore the potential opportunities for social capital accumulation in higher education.
Qualitative research methodology will be used to collect, analyze and interpret comprehensive narrative and visual data.
The population for the research study is undergraduate students at the University of Pittsburgh who participate in student organizations, and those faculty, staff, students, alumni and other individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom they come into contact. The sample for the research study is the Blue and Gold Society and up to 10 faculty, staff, students, alumni and/or other individuals affiliated with the University of Pittsburgh with whom the Blue and Gold Society members come into contact.
Ethnography, more specifically participant observation, semi-structured interviews and other field methods, will be utilized to collect the data. Computer assisted qualitative data analysis software will be utilized to efficiently manage, organize and analyze data.
Anticipated results will address the following questions:
• What individuals make up an undergraduate student organization member’s social network? • What forms of social capital are embedded in the social networks of undergraduate student organization members? • What role does trust play in an undergraduate student organization member’s social networks?
There are no foreseeable risks associated with this project, nor are there any direct benefits to you. Your participation is voluntary, and you may withdraw from this project at any time. The observations will be recorded in the form of field notes. The interviews will be audio recorded. In order to safeguard the confidentiality of your participation and responses, no reference to your name will be included in the notes, recording or transcription of the data.
Would you be willing to be a participant in my research study?
Here is my contact information if you have any questions:
Jeff Miracle 412-624-2470 [email protected]
365 APPENDIX H
INITIAL NODE TREE
This node tree is based on the concepts of individual social capital identified in the literature and will serve as a starting point for a deductive analysis of the data. These nodes represent an initial way of thinking about the data. Once coding and analysis has begun though, the researcher may collapse or choose not to populate these specific nodes and/or create new ones. New nodes created that are not tied directly to theories and elements in the literature will be developed through an inductive analysis of the data.
• Networks o Types of individuals that make up a network . Inward looking/strong ties (bonding) . Outward looking/weak ties (bridging) o Process for developing networks • Trust o Trust in others o Trust others have in oneself o Role of trust in social capital o Process for developing trust • Forms of social capital o Instrumental . Information flow . Human capital creation . Norms of reciprocity . Occupational mobility . Goal achievement . Education attainment o Expressive . Identity reinforcement . Sanctions
366 APPENDIX I
FINAL CODEBOOK/NODE STRUCTURE
367
368
369
370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385
386 APPENDIX J
PARTICIPANT CODES
387 Semesters as a Blue and Gold Year in Code Individual Type Gender Major Society School Member M1 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Science 4 Junior M2 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Political Science 4 Senior M3 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Psychology 4 Senior M4 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Business 4 Junior M5 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Science 4 Senior M6 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Business 2 Junior M7 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Political Science 6 Senior M8 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Business 4 Senior M9 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Business 4 Junior M10 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 3 Senior M11 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Social Work 2 Junior M12 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Education 4 Junior M13 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Communications 4 Junior M14 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 2 Senior M15 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Science 2 Sophomore M16 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Engineering 2 Junior M17 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 3 Junior M18 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 2 Junior M19 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 4 Senior M20 Blue and Gold Society Member Male History 7 Senior M21 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Pharmacy 4 Senior M22 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Science 6 Senior M23 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Engineering 2 Sophomore M24 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 2 Junior M25 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Business 4 Senior M26 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Science 7 Senior M27 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Engineering 2 Sophomore M28 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Engineering 2 Sophomore M29 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Pharmacy 2 Junior M30 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Engineering 2 Sophomore M31 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Business 2 Senior M32 Blue and Gold Society Member Female Political Science 4 Senior M33 Blue and Gold Society Member Female History 4 Senior M34 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Science 3 Junior M35 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Science 3 Junior M36 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Engineering 2 Junior M37 Blue and Gold Society Member Male Science 4 Senior I1 University of Pittsburgh Alumnus Male I2 Office of Alumni Relations Staff Person Female I3 University Board of Trustees Member Male See Table 3.1 for detailed demographic I4 University Greek Life Student Female description of each of the eight non-Blue and I5 Manager of Student Alumni Programs Female Gold Society members I6 Grad. School of Business Staff Member Male I7 University of Pittsburgh Student Male I8 Student Government Board President Male
388 APPENDIX K
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS
389 Bonding Social Capital: Social capital accumulated through networks that are inward looking and link individuals who are similar in fundamental respects is referred to as bonding social capital (Putnam & Feldstein, 2003).
Bridging Social Capital: Social capital accumulated through weak network ties and casual, infrequent interaction with individuals across diverse social divisions (Tischler, 2010; Putnam, 1988).
Education Attainment: A form of social capital; social resources that contribute to an individual’s persistence in school, improved test scores and/or the pursuit of post-secondary education as a byproduct of social relationships.
Ethnography: A qualitative method that studies “the lived experiences, daily activities, and social context of everyday life from the perspectives of those being studied to gain an understanding of their life world” (Mertens, 2010, p.231).
Expressive Categories of Social Capital: Social capital whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual maintain current resources (Lin, 2001).
Field Methods: A toolkit of various instruments and types of resources available to an ethnographer; the use of (among others) archives, personal letters, diaries, photographs, music and so forth for data collection (Wolcott, 2008).
Forms of Social Capital: The different types or categories of resources and benefits embedded in social networks; a more specific way of referring to the different manifestations of social capital (Bourdieu & Wacquant, 1992), such as information flow, human capital creation, norms of reciprocity, occupational mobility, goal achievement, education attainment, identity reinforcement and sanctions.
Goal Attainment: A form of social capital; social resources that make possible the achievement of certain ends by an individual that in their absence would not be possible.
Higher Education: For the purposes of this study, higher education refers collectively to both colleges and universities in the United States and makes no distinction between the two.
Human Capital: The skills and knowledge acquired by an individual that facilitate productive activity (Coleman, 1988).
Human Capital Creation: A form of social capital; social resources that provides a conduit for the acquisition of talents, knowledge and skills (Coleman, 1988).
Identity Reinforcement and Recognition: A form of social capital; the manner in which an individual’s identity is reinforced and/or recognized by virtue of belonging to a given social network.
390 Individual Social Capital: Refers to how individuals access and use resources for some benefit to the individuals themselves (Lin, 2001); refers to how individuals invest in social relations and how individuals capture available resources within these social relations to produce a personal return.
Information Flow: A form of social capital; social resources in the form of details and facts about opportunities and choices that would otherwise not be available (Lin, 2001).
Instrumental Categories of Social Capital: Social capital whose aim and/or desired outcome is ultimately to help an individual gain something or get ahead (Lin, 2001).
Name Generator: A method used to map an individual’s personal social networks and then describe the characteristics, structure and accessible resources of those networks (Van der Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008).
Norms of Reciprocity: A form of social capital; the mutual exchange of favors or obligations between two or more individuals (Bourdieu, 1986).
Occupational Mobility: A form of social capital; social resources that help an individual in identifying and securing job opportunities.
Participant Observation: The act of becoming involved in the daily life of a culture in addition to observing it (LeCompte & Schensul, 1999).
Position Generator: A method used to count and measure an individual’s access to people— sans name—in hierarchical social positions where resources are likely to exist (Van der Gaag, Snijders & Flap, 2008).
Resource Generator: A method used to survey an individual’s access to a list of useful and specific resources, such as economic resources, support resources, skill resources and so forth (Van der Gaag & Snijders, 2005).
Semi-Structured Interviews: Purposeful interactions in which the researcher is trying to obtain information from a participant during a research study; allows the researcher to ask interview questions as prompted by the flow of the interview (Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2006).
Resources: The valuable and usable tangible and intangible capital, properties or assets available to an individual as a result of a social network.
Sanctions: A form of social capital; formal and informal laws or rules of conduct that govern and/or reaffirm the limits of a social network for the benefit of network members.
Social Network: The relationship, in its various forms and strengths, between two or more individuals. A social network, for example, can take on the form of family, a Sunday school class, regulars who play poker, college roommates, a civic organization, an Internet chat group or an individual’s professional acquaintances recorded in his or her address book (Putnam, 2000).
391
Social Capital: “The aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition—or in other words, to membership in a group” (Bourdieu, 1986, p. 21).
Student Organizations: student run groups focused around a wide variety of themes with opportunities to interact with peers, faculty, staff and alumni in areas of mutual interest (Nolfi & Rubin, 2010).
Trust: The expectation or commitment that arises within a social network as a result of regular, honest and cooperative behavior among its members (Fukuyama, 1996); a significant indicator of the existence of social capital in a social network (Woolcock, 1998).
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