Scottish Social Statistics

2001 Scottish Social Statistics

A Scottish Executive National Statistics Publication SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2001 Scottish Social Statistics

A Scottish Executive National Statistics Publication ii

Contents

Page Chapter 1 – Population, Households and Families 3 Population profile 4 Population change: Scotland 6 Conception and birth 8 International comparisons 9 Geographic distribution - population in Scottish local authorities 10 Marriage and divorce 11 Households 13 References and further reading 15 Contacts 16

Chapter 2 – Housing 17 The housing stock and housebuilding 18 Tenure 20 Housing characteristics 24 Homelessness 28 References and further reading 31 Contacts 32

Chapter 3 – Education and Training 33 Number of school pupils and teachers by school type 34 Mainstream class sizes 36 Gender of teachers 36 Special schools 37 Places for 3 and 4 year olds in pre-school centres 38 Attainment 38 Primary Schools 38 Secondary Schools 39 Information and Communication Technology 43 Attendance and Absence 44 Violence against School Staff 44 Qualifications of school leavers and their destinations 45 Further and Higher Education 46 Tuition Fees 48 Expenditure 49 Reference and Further Reading 50 Contacts 50

Chapter 4 – Labour Market 51 Economic Activity 52 Employment 55 Employment patterns 58 References and further reading 59 Contacts 60 iv

Contents (continued)

Page Chapter 5 – Income, Wealth and Expenditure 61 Income and earnings 62 Benefits and Taxes 65 Poverty 66 Expenditure 67 Savings and financial concerns 67 References and further reading 69 Contacts 70

Chapter 6 – Health and Care 71 Life Expectancy 72 Priority Health Topics 73 Coronary Heart Disease and Cancer 73 Child Health 75 Mental Health of Children and Adolescents 76 Mental Health of Adults 76 Deprivation and Lifestyle Factors 78 Cancer 78 Coronary Heart Disease 79 Child Health 80 Lifestyle 81 General Health 81 Smoking 81 Alcohol Consumption 82 Drug Misuse 83 Diet 84 Physical Activity 85 Changing Patterns of Care 85 Delivery of Acute Care 85 Primary Care and New Drug Therapy 86 Continuing Care for Mental Illness 87 Cancer Survival 87 Reference and Further Reading 88 Contacts 88

Chapter 7 – Crime and Justice 89 Reporting Crime 90 Drugs and Drug Related Crime 93 Domestic Abuse 95 Racially Motivated Crime 95 The Criminal Justice System 96 Scottish Crime Survey 97 Comparison with Police Statistics 98 Public Perceptions of Crime 99 Court Sentencing and the Criminal Justice System 99 The Prison System 101 Attitudes towards the Police 103 Staffing levels 103 References and Further Reading 105 Contacts 106 v

Contents (continued)

Page Chapter 8 – Transport 107 Travel Habits 108 Modes of Transport 113 Social consequences of the change in modes of transport 115 Personal Expenditure on transport 118 Transport Accidents 120 Environmental Impacts of transport 123 Public versus Private Transport 124 References and Further Reading 127 Contacts 128

Chapter 9 – Environment 129 Climate change and the Greenhouse effect 130 The Air 132 The Land 134 Water 135 Energy 137 Waste 139 References and further reading 140 Contacts 141

Chapter 10 – Lifestyles and Social Participation 143 General Attitudes and beliefs 144 Political Attitudes 145 Social participation 148 Lifestyles 153 Entertainment and the media 155 Leisure Activities 160 References and Further Reading 164 Contacts 165

Appendices 167 Appendix 1: Definitions and Terms 168 Appendix 2: Major Data Sources used in Scottish Social Statistics 172 vi 1

Introduction

This new compendium publication Scottish This publication is the starting point for the Social Statistics is aimed at a wide audience development of a series of more detailed and provides a broad picture of ten key social statistics publications. Whilst this social policy areas in Scotland. Using a publication intentionally sets out the broad mixture of text, charts and tables, it will picture across Scotland, the increased allow the reader to gain an informative availability of information over the next overview of some of the main social few years will allow for a series of themed developments and changes that have reports to be produced. Details have yet occurred over the last few years. Scottish to be finalised but areas such as, equality, Social Statistics owes much of its style to the relationship between rural and urban the Office for National Statistics’ publication communities and international comparisons series Social Trends which covers similar are likely to figure in forthcoming editions. areas at a mainly UK level. It can be regarded as a companion publication to Scottish Given the high-level nature of the Economic Statistics, which draws together information contained in this publication, the full range of official economic statistics some users may wish to access more for Scotland. detailed data. In order to facilitate this, at the end of each chapter there is a reference In line with all statistical publications section which contains useful reference produced by the Scottish Executive, websites. In addition contact details for the Scottish Social Statistics is available on the chapter author and key providers of data Internet at www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/sss. are also given. The web version contains some interactive elements including a quiz and it is intended We hope that you find this new publication that over time the web version will be added informative, useful and interesting. to, as more information becomes available. It is not envisaged at this point that Scottish Social Statistics, as a publication, will be produced each year, as much of the data will show little change. However, users will continue to receive a whole range of Rob Wishart statistical data through other bulletins, news releases and publications produced by Chief Statistician the Scottish Executive’s statistician group. Scottish Executive 2 Chapter1

Population Households and Families 4

Scotland is a small country in world family image of a married couple with two population terms, with around 5 million children. Many people live together and inhabitants. While the total population they tend to marry later, if at all. Couples remained stable during the second half of have fewer children. Many marriages end 1 the 20th century, its structure saw many in divorce, though many divorced people changes. Population change has 3 marry again. There are more one-person components – births, deaths and net households, more pensioner households, migration. The birth rate in Scotland has and more single parent households. fallen throughout the century, as it has in many developed counties. People live These changes have significant implications longer, with women generally living longer for all aspects of Scottish life, including the than men. As a result, Scotland’s need for childcare provision, school places, population is ageing. Increases in the housing, leisure and other facilities. numbers of elderly and very elderly people have significant implications for health and social services. The population of working Population Profile age, which provides much of the tax base In 1999, the population of Scotland was to fund services, is falling. just over 5 million: this compared to around 4.4 million in 1900. The population The geographic distribution of the population rose steadily from 1900 to reach 5 million within Scotland is also changing. Fewer in 1939. The Second World War caused a people, particularly young people, live in sharp fall, to 4.7 million in 1945, but the rural areas. The cities, and particularly city population quickly rose again, to 5.2 centres, have lost population, as those who million. The population has been around can move to the ‘leafy suburbs’. 5.1 million since 1983, and is projected to decline slightly, to 5.08 million, in 2016 Fewer households now match the traditional (Chart 1.1).

Chart 1.1: Population by gender, Scotland, 1900-2016 Millions 6

Population (millions) Population 2 projected Males Females 1 To t a l

0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2016 Year Source: General Register Office for Scotland 5

Women outnumber men overall. This is The difference in life expectancy between because on average they live longer (Table men and women was around 6 and a half 1.2). The life expectancy at birth of a years in the mid 1970s, but has since woman born in 1999 was 78.0 years, narrowed to around 5 and a half years. In compared to 72.6 years for a man. Life 1998, life expectancy for the UK as a whole 1 expectancy has risen steadily since the last was around one and a half years higher than quarter of the 19th century. A woman that for Scotland for both men and women. born in 1861-70 had a life expectancy at Many factors affect life expectancy, but diet birth of 43.9 years, and a man 40.3 years. and lifestyle are important influences.

Table 1.2: Life expectancy at birth, by gender and year of birth, Scotland, 1861-1999 Years Year of Birth

1861- 1930- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 1870 1932 1962 1972 1982 1992

Males 40.3 56.0 66.2 67.3 69.1 71.4 72.1 72.0 72.6 72.6 72.6

Females 43.9 59.5 72.0 73.7 75.3 77.1 77.6 77.7 78.0 78.1 78.0

Source: General Register Office for Scotland Note: Different time spans are shown to illustrate the change in life expectancy over the last century

1 In 1991, 62,600 people (1 /2 per cent of structure of the ethnic minority population Scotland’s population) were from an ethnic differed from that of the white population, minority. Of these around a third described with a higher percentage aged 15 and under their ethnic background as Pakistani, one in and a lower percentage of people over six as Indian and one in six as Chinese. The pensionable age (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3: Population by ethnic group and age, Scotland, 1991 Thousands and row percentages Age Persons (thousands) 60/65 & (=100%) Ethnic group 0-4 5-15 16-29 30-59/64 over

White 6142141184,936 Black 11 20 28 37 4 6 Indian 92125414 10 Pakistani/Bangladeshi 12 27 26 33 2 22 Chinese 81830414 10 Other Asian 10 16 26 46 2 5 Other 16 25 25 31 3 9 All 6142141184,999

Source: General Register Office for Scotland 6

Population change – Scotland Deaths have exceeded births in each year since 1995, with a natural decrease of over Population change has 3 components: 5 thousand in 1999 (Chart 1.4). births, deaths and net migration. Natural The third component of population change change is calculated as births minus deaths. 1 is migration. Scotland experienced net out- In 1900, there were over 131 thousand migration (more people left Scotland than births and 82 thousand deaths in Scotland, moved to it) throughout the 1980s, with giving a natural increase in the population the highest net loss of 25 thousand people of over 49 thousand. The annual number between 1987 and 1988. The natural of deaths fell fairly steadily throughout the change between 1987 and 1988 was under century to reach just over 60 thousand in 5 thousand. During the first half of the 1999. By contrast, the annual number of 1990s, more people moved to Scotland births has varied considerably, declining than left, with net in-migration of nearly 10 gradually to 1916, falling sharply in 1917 thousand between 1993 and 1994. The and 1918 (First World War) and then majority of migration takes place between peaking at around 136,500 in 1920, Scotland and other countries of the UK, immediately after the War. Births fell after but there can be significant short-term that, to around 88 thousand a year in the variations. For example, 12,500 of the net late 1930s. The Second World War period out-migration of 17,500 between 1982 and showed a similar pattern to that of the 1983 was to countries outwith the UK. First World War, though with a less marked post-War peak. Births then fell again, In 1999, data from the Scottish Social before increasing to over 100 thousand a Attitudes Survey showed that 86 per cent year in the ‘baby boom’ of the early 1960s. of people living in Scotland had been born The next ten years saw a marked decline, in Scotland, and 9 per cent in England. to 62 thousand in 1977. A slight increase in Nearly 67 per cent had not lived outside the early 1980s was followed by a gradual Scotland for a longer period than one year decline to 55 thousand in 1999. and just under 88 per cent had at least one parent who was born in Scotland.

Chart 1.4: Birth and deaths, Scotland, 1900-1999 Numbers Numbers 160

140 Total Births Total Deaths 120

100

Births and deaths (000s) 40

0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 Year Source: General Register Office for Scotland 7

Chart 1.5 shows the age and sex structure Chart 1.6 shows the projected population of the Scottish population in 1998, the year for 2016. By then, the sixties ‘baby boomers’ on which the most recent projections are will be in their early 50’s. Over 22 per cent based. The peaks around 50 and the 30s of the population is projected to be over correspond to the increase in births after 1998 pensionable ages, with just over 16 1 the Second World War and the ‘baby boom’ per cent aged under 15. After 2010, the of the 1960s. In 1999, 18 per cent of the pensionable age for women starts to change, population was over pensionable age (60 for so that by 2020, it will be 65 for both men women, 65 for men) and 18.5 per cent was and women. The number of people aged aged under 15. The population projection over 80 is projected to increase to 237 shows what the population would look like thousand, compared to 180 thousand in in future if current trends, for example, in 1999, and the number aged over 90 to 40 births and mortality, continue. thousand, compared to 24 thousand in 1999.

Chart 1.5: Population1 by age and sex, Scotland, 1998 Thousands 90 80

70 Males Females

50 Age 40

30 20

10 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Population (000s) Source: General Register Office for Scotland Note 1: Excludes population aged 90 and over.

Chart 1.6: Projected population1 (1998 based) by age and sex, Scotland, 2016 Thousands 90 80

70 Males Females

50 Age 40

10 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Population (000s) Source: General Register Office for Scotland Note 1: Excludes population aged 90 and over. 8

Conception and birth During the 20th century, there has been a Analyses of fertility usually look at women general reduction in family size, with fewer in the main childbearing ages of 15 to 44 large families with many children. The though of course, some younger and older increased availability of reliable contraceptive women also become mothers (Chart 1.7). methods, in particular, oral contraceptives 1 for women (‘the pill’), has allowed couples The fertility rates for women aged 20 to to plan their families. Oral contraceptive 24 and 25 to 29 fell fairly steadily (apart use declined during the 1990s, following from a small rise in the late 1970s) between various concerns about its long-term 1961 and 1999. In 1960, there were 179 effects on women’s health, in particular, live births per 1,000 women aged 20 to 24 the increased risk of thrombosis. Use of and 187 births per 1,000 women aged 25 the sheath, promoted in Government to 29. By 1999, the rates were 61 and 90 advertising as a protection against infection respectively. Fertility rates for women aged from AIDS, has increased. 30 to 34 also fell between 1960 (114 births per 1,000 women in the age group) and The 1967 Abortion Act allowed the 1976 (58 births per 1,000 women) but termination of pregnancy under certain have since increased, to 81 births per conditions. The number of abortions for 1,000 women in 1999. Fertility rates for women of all ages in Scotland was over 12 women aged 35 to 39 have followed a thousand in 1999. In almost half of these similar pattern. Women are having fewer cases, the mother was aged between 20 children. The total fertility rate (the number and 29. of children that would be born to a woman if current patterns of fertility persisted In 1999, there were just over 55 thousand throughout her childbearing life) fell from births in Scotland, the lowest level since 2.53 in 1971 to 1.51 in 1999. The figure civil registration began in 1855. This included which would result in the long-term 738 pairs of twins and 12 sets of triplets. replacement of the population (i.e. no decline Boys outnumber girls at birth – of every in population numbers) is commonly 100 births, 51 are boys. The most popular assumed to be 2.1 for developed countries. name for a boy in 2000 was Jack and for a girl, Chloe. 41 per cent of live births were These changes reflect a variety of to unmarried parents, but over 60 per cent developments over the period. People are of these were jointly registered by parents marrying later. Improvements in maternity living at the same address. care have reduced the health risks to women who have their children later in In 1999, 45 per cent of live births were to life. As women become more active in the mothers aged over 30 and 15 per cent to labour market, they increasingly plan their mothers aged over 35, compared to 28 childbearing to meet the demands of their and 7 per cent, respectively, in 1989. career. 9

Chart 1.7: Fertility rates by age of mother, Scotland, 1960-1999 Live births per 1,000 women in the age group Live births per 1,000 women in the age group 250 15-19 20-24 1 200 25-29 30-34 35-39

150

100

50 Live births per 1,000 women in the age group 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year

Source: General Register Office for Scotland

International comparisons The patterns of women living longer than of its population aged under 15 and only 9 men, falling birth rates and an ageing per cent aged 65 to 79 – for all other EU population are seen in many developed countries, the percentages were around 18 countries. In 1998, Scotland’s population per cent and 12 per cent. The US had was comparable in size to those of Finland figures (for 1997) similar to those of Eire. and Denmark and had a similar age All EU countries had higher life expectancies structure. Life expectancies were also than Scotland for women and only Portugal similar in Denmark, while those for Finland was lower than Scotland for men were around 2 years higher. Within the (Table 1.8). EU, Eire was unusual in having 23 per cent 10

Table 1.8: Population summary, Scotland and other countries, 1998 Numbers and rates

Male life Female Life Persons aged Persons aged Live Births 1 expectancy expectancy under 15 as 65-79 as outside marriages Population at birth at birth % of total % of total as % of (Millions) (Years) (Years) population population all births

Scotland 5.1 72.6 78.1 19 12 39 EU 376.4 74.1 80.5 17 12 24 Austria 8.1 74.2 80.5 17 12 29 Belgium 10.2 73.8 80.5 18 13 15 Denmark 5.3 73.1 78.2 18 11 46 Eire 3.8 73.3 78.7 23 9 27 Finland 5.2 73.3 80.3 19 11 37 France 59.2 74.2 82.1 19 12 39 Germany 82.2 73.7 80.0 16 12 18 Greece 10.5 75.1 81.4 16 13 3 Italy 57.7 74.9 81.3 15 13 8 Luxembourg 0.4 73.5 79.6 19 11 17 Netherlands 15.9 74.7 80.3 18 10 19 Portugal 10.0 71.4 78.7 17 12 20 Spain 39.4 74.4 81.6 16 13 11 Sweden 8.9 76.7 81.8 19 13 54 UK 59.6 74.3 79.5 19 12 37

US 278.4 72.8 79.5 221 101 32 Japan 126.7 76.8 83.2 151 121 n/a

Sources: General Register Office for Scotland, Eurostat, United Nations Note 1: 1997 figures

Geographic distribution – population in Scottish local authorities While the population of Scotland as a whole local authorities from just over 13 per cent changed only slightly between 1991 and in West Lothian to nearly 22 per cent in 1999, the geographic distribution within the Scottish Borders (Chart 1.9). This has country changed considerably. Over that considerable implications for the provision period, all of the cities apart from Edinburgh of services, as, for example, the elderly make showed a reduction in their populations, greater use of health and care services. from both natural decrease and out- migration, while the neighbouring areas The percentage of the population aged under such as Aberdeenshire, showed increases 15 varied from just over 16 per cent in in population. In some areas, such as Perth Edinburgh to just over 21 per cent in Shetland and Kinross, in-migration exceeded the (Chart 1.10). A relatively young population natural decrease in the population. impacts on a different range of services, particularly education. Generally speaking, The proportion of people over pensionable the island and rural areas had relatively age in 1999 varied widely across Scotland’s high percentages of people of pensionable 11 age. Exceptions were Orkney and Shetland, members of the population move out of where the employment opportunities in the area for employment or education. the oil industry may have been an influence Older people may move from urban areas in encouraging younger people to stay in, to enjoy a more relaxed lifestyle in the move to or return to the area. countryside when they retire. While most 1 people live close to where they work, the Migration of population can result from a development of new kinds of employment variety of causes. For example, in Argyll such as call centres, can increase and Bute, and Eilean Siar, younger opportunities in relatively remote areas.

Chart 1.9: Population of pensionable age, Chart 1.10: Population aged under 15, by local authority, 1999 by local authority, 1999 Percentages Percentages

Less than 17% Less than 17% 17% under 18% 17% under 18% 18% under 19% 18% under 19% 19% under 20% 19% under 20% More than 20% More than 20%

Marriage and divorce The number of marriages taking place in in 1940. In 1999, four in ten marriages were Scotland has fallen from over 43 thousand civil ceremonies, compared to three in ten in 1970 to under 30 thousand in 1999. in 1970. The number and percentage of These figures are for all marriages, Church of Scotland and Roman Catholic regardless of the usual residence of the marriages has declined. Around one in 3 parties involved. In more than a quarter of marriages took place in the Church of the marriages registered in 1999, neither Scotland in 1999, compared to nearly half the bride nor the groom was resident in in 1970. The proportion of marriages Scotland. Many, but not all, of these took which were civil marriages has also fallen, place at Gretna. largely because of an increase in other religious marriages, of which a significant Civil marriages were introduced in Scotland proportion were carried out at Gretna. 12

The average age at first marriage has been the divorce. This period is extended to 5 increasing in recent years: in 1999, men years non-cohabitation if they do not were on average just over 30 while agree. Other grounds for divorce are women were on average just over 28. In adultery and the behaviour of the spouse. 1 1971-80 men were on average just over 24 and women on average 22 and a half when In 1999, non-cohabitation was the most they first married. The average age for frequent ground for divorce (71 per cent), divorced people re-marrying has also followed by behaviour (22 per cent) and increased, from nearly 37 in 1971-80 to adultery (6 per cent). This compared to 39 over 42 in 1999 for men and from 34 in per cent, 42 per cent and 17 per cent 1971-80 to nearly 40 in 1999 for women. respectively in 1981. Nearly 70 per cent of couples whose ground for divorce was In 1999, there were just over 12 thousand non-cohabitation divorced after 2 years divorces, compared to over 4 and a half with consent. thousand in 1970. The 1999 figure was equivalent to one divorce for every 2 first In 1999, almost all people under the age of marriages, compared to 2 divorces for 20 were single (98 per cent of males and every 17 first marriages in 1970. Around 95 per cent of females). Most of the rest one in ten of those marrying was widowed were co-habiting, rather than being married. or divorced in 1970: by 1999, this had The percentage who were single or never increased to around 1 in 3. married fell steadily for each five year age band, to slightly over one in 20 for women In legal terms the Divorce (Scotland) Act aged 45 and over and a similar level for 1976 introduced a single ground for divorce men aged 50 and over. More than one in – irretrievable breakdown of marriage, five men aged 25 to 29 were co-habiting, with more detailed reasons described as as were nearly one in six women in that age ‘proofs’. The terminology ‘grounds for group. By the age of thirty, around three divorce’ is commonly used for these reasons. fifths of men and women were married Non-cohabiting couples can divorce after 2 (Chart 1.11). years separation if both partners agree to

Chart 1.11: Marital status by age and gender, Scotland, 1999 Percentages Single/Never Married Cohabiting Married Widowed Divorced Separated 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 16-19 100% 50 0 50 100% Males Females Source: Scottish Executive, Scottish Household Survey 13

Households In 1901, the population was nearly 4.5 markedly, from 20 per cent of households million living in 927 thousand households, in 1971 to under 15 per cent in 1999. equivalent to 4.8 people per household. By There were increases in the percentages of 1 1999, the population had reached 5.1 single adult households (6 per cent in 1971 million with 2.2 million households, to nearly 15 per cent in 1999), single equivalent to 2.3 people per household. pensioner households (over 12 per cent in Not all of the population lives in private 1971 and over 15 per cent in 1999) and households, but excluding the relatively lone parent households (one adult of under small numbers living in communal pensionable age with one or more children), establishments from the population figure from under 2 per cent in 1971 to nearly 6 would affect the numbers per household per cent in 1999. These changes reflect only slightly. In 1971, nearly 20 per cent of more young people leaving their parental households were large families (2 adults home to set up their own household under pensionable age and 3 or more before marrying, increases in the age at children), compared to under 8 per cent in which people marry, increasing numbers of 1999. Small families (2 adults of pensionable divorces and the ageing of the population age and 1 or 2 children) had declined less (Table 1.12).

Table 1.12: Households by type, Scotland, 1971-1999 Thousands and Percentages 1971 1981 1991 1999

Single Adult 6.0 7.2 12.9 14.8 Single Pensioner 12.4 14.8 15.7 15.7 Small Adult 13.7 14.3 16.9 29.51 Older Smaller 14.0 14.1 14.0 Large Adult 12.7 14.1 11.7 10.3 Lone Parent 1.5 2.3 4.9 5.8 Small Family 20.2 18.5 14.7 25.31 Large Family 19.5 14.8 7.8 Number of households 1,681 1,786 2,020 2,187 (thousands) (= 100%)

Source: General Register Office for Scotland, Scottish Executive, Scottish Household Survey 1999 Note 1: In 1991, figures for “Small Adult” and “Older Smaller” are combined and “Small Family” and “Large Family” are combined 14

Men tend to leave the parental home later The number of households is projected to than women. In 1999, 46 per cent of men increase further, to over 2.4 million, by aged 20 to 24 were living with their 2012. The largest increase is projected in parents, in comparison with 40 per cent of the numbers of households consisting of 1 women in that same age group. Women one man (from under 290 thousand in tend to be younger than men when they 1998 to 413 thousand in 2012, an increase marry, so this difference is not surprising. of 42 per cent). Households of 2 adults Only 7 per cent of men aged 30 to 34 without children will increase slightly, were still living with their parents. accounting for around 30 per cent of households in both 1998 and 2012, while Households where the highest income the number of households with 2 or more householder was from an ethnic minority adults and one or more children will fall, were more likely to be large families (over from 457 thousand in 1998 to 302 20 per cent compared to under 8 per cent thousand in 2012 (Table 1.13). of all households) and less likely to be single pensioner households (4 per cent compared to nearly 16 per cent of all households).

Table 1.13: Projected households (1998 based), by household type, Scotland, 1998-2012 Thousands Household type 1998 1999 2000 2004 2008 2012

1 person: male 289.9 298.5 307.3 342.4 378.2 413.0 1 person: female 400.9 407.2 414.0 444.1 476.7 511.4 1 adult, 1 child 71.2 73.5 75.8 84.5 92.6 99.2 1 adult, 2 or more children 69.2 71.0 72.7 78.1 82.9 88.1 2 or more adults, 1 or more children 456.7 447.6 438.9 395.3 348.3 301.9 2 adults 643.7 650.0 656.7 692.5 731.1 770.3 3 or more adults 238.4 238.7 239.3 242.6 246.0 245.9 All 2169.9 2186.5 2204.6 2279.5 2355.9 2429.8

Source: Scottish Executive Note: Projected numbers, based on the 1998 household estimate. 15

References and further reading

1999 Annual Report of the Registrar General for Scotland, General Register Office for Scotland http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/grosweb/grosweb.nsf/pages/99annrep 1

Scotland’s People: Results from the 1999 Scottish Household Survey, Volume 1, Annual Report, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/shs/docs/rep99-v1.pdf

Eurostat Yearbook Data 1988 – 1998, Eurostat http://europa.eu.int/comm/eurostat/

United Nations Statistics Division http://www.un.org/Depts/unsd/

1998 Based Household Projections for Scotland, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00019-00.asp

Mid Year Household Estimates for Scotland, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc13/he98-00.asp

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, National Centre for Social Research http://www.natcen.ac.uk/units/scotland/index.htm 16

Contacts

Telephone contact points for further information relating to Chapter 1, Population, 1 Households and Families: Scottish Executive Chapter Author Neil Bowie 0131 244 0324 [email protected]

Housing Statistics Deborah Pegg 0131 244 7235 [email protected]

General Register Office for Scotland Population Statistics Garnett Compton 0131 314 4298 [email protected]

National Centre for Social Research Kerstin Hinds 0131 557 5494 [email protected] Chapter2

Housing 18

Housing The private rented sector has undergone significant changes. Concerns about the Food and shelter are necessities of life: behaviour of landlords resulted in affordable housing for everyone has been a Government legislation to provide priority for successive Governments, protection for tenants, for example, from whose policies have had major effects on eviction or rent increases. Landlords found housing over the last century. themselves unable to make a profit from renting and withdrew from the market. Immediately after the Second World War, However, young people still often first 2 local councils, new town development enter the housing market by renting corporations and Scottish Special housing privately, before buying their own property. associations undertook major programmes of house building: these continued until the Improving housing has been a major strand mid-1960s. Slums were demolished and of programmes for area re-renewal, with people moved to new towns and new the emphasis increasingly on providing housing estates in the suburbs. A high choice, rather than centralised solutions. proportion of the available housing was in public ownership, with most people renting However, some people still find themselves a home from the council. Increasingly, homeless and begging on the streets. however, people wanted to own their homes, and by the 1990s private house The housing stock and builders provided most new housing. house building In 1981, the Government introduced Most Scottish housing is of quite recent legislation which allowed tenants of public construction – over a third of dwellings sector organisations to buy their home, were built in the last 30 years, and around often at substantial discounts. This lead to two-thirds since the end of the Second increasing levels of owner-occupation in World War in 1945. Less than a quarter of Scotland. dwellings were built before 1919. This reflects the pattern of house building Social rented housing is also provided by during the 20th century. Different types of locally managed housing associations. Since properties tend to belong to particular the 1980s, housing associations have become time periods. Flats of all kinds are a the major providers of new housing for particular feature of the Scottish housing social renting. They have also taken over scene and nearly two fifths of the stock is stock transferred from local authorities and flats. The tenement is a traditional and Scottish Homes. Housing associations may distinctively Scottish housing form: more specialise in providing housing for particular than a third of tenements were built client groups, such as the elderly or the before 1919, as were around a quarter of disabled. detached houses. More than half the stock of four-in-a-block flats dates from the Compared to other countries, the UK has 1919-1945 period, while high-rise buildings high levels of home ownership: some are from the 1945-1982 period. In recent commentators argue this has adverse years, there has been a move away from effects on labour market mobility, semi-detached and terraced houses to particularly when major differentials in detached houses which has resulted in house prices arise between areas, as has almost a quarter of detached houses having happened in the South East of England. been built since 1982 (Table 2.1). 19

Table 2.1 Dwelling stock: by age 1996 Column percentages

Construction Detached Semi- Terraced Tenements Four-in-a- Flat in Tower/ Total Date Houses Detached Houses Block Converted Slab Dwellings Houses Building

Pre-1919 27 12 12 37 11 88 1 21 1919-1944 11 17 7 10 52 7 0 15 1945-1964 11 34 38 26 25 3 42 28 2 1965-1982 28 24 36 17 5 2 51 24 Post-1982 23 13 7 10 6 1 6 12

No of dwellings 367 450 500 487 223 39 56 2,123 (Thousands, = 100%)

Source: Scottish Homes, Scottish House Condition Survey 1996

Demand for housing has risen in response particular types of housing, for example, to changes in household formation (see suitable for wheelchair users, or affordable chapter 1). In the past, people usually lived housing. In rural areas, properties may be in their parental home until they married bought as second or holiday homes at prices and started their own family. By the end of which local people are unable to afford. the 20th century, young people expected to have their own home. The numbers of Since 1920, there have been great variations households, in particular, one person both in the levels of new house building households, had increased greatly. and the agencies doing the building. Between 1919 and 1939 Scottish councils New housing was usually built on ‘greenfield’ built approximately 230 thousand dwellings, sites: this can lead to the ‘doughnut’ effect, over twice as many as the private sector. where few people live in the centres of towns and cities, and the affluent increasingly After the Second World War, the number move to the ‘leafy suburbs’. In recent years of dwellings built by public authorities – central and local government have sought, local councils, the Scottish Special Housing through the land planning system to Association and the New Town control how land is used, specifically by Development Corporations, was even encouraging the re-use of ‘brownfield’ sites higher, with over 650 thousand homes built for housing (see also Chapter 9, The in the following 25 or so years. This was Environment). over 5 times the number built by private house builders. By contrast, by the end of While the total number of dwellings the 1990s, total new building was averaging approximately matches the total number of 22 thousand dwellings a year. Of these households, households can still have dwellings, the private sector built 17 problems finding a suitable home. In some thousand to 18,500 for owner-occupation, areas, overall demand for housing may housing associations generally built exceed supply, for example, if the between 3 thousand and 3,500, mainly for population is increasing because of social renting and the public sector built in-migration. There may also be a lack of around 750 for rent (Chart 2.2). 20

Chart 2.2: Housebuilding: dwellings completed, by sector, 1949 to 1999 Thousands 50 45 Housing Association 40 Public Sector 35 Private Sector 2 30 25 20 Thousands 15 10 5 0 1949 1952 1955 1958 1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 Year Source: Scottish Executive

Tenure At the start of the 20th century, most landlord functions of the Scottish Special people living in Scotland rented a dwelling Housing Association in 1989. Thus by from a private landlord. By 1970, most 1999, nearly two thirds of Scotland’s 2.3 were tenants of local authorities, while by million dwellings were owner occupied, a the end of the century, the majority owned quarter were rented from public their own home. The first of these changes authorities, one in twenty were rented reflected the building programmes from housing associations and one in undertaken by public authorities. The fifteen from private landlords (Chart 2.3). second was brought about in part by the increase in house building by the private sector. Even so, by 1970, only just over 30 per cent of those living in Scotland owned their own home.

The major factor in the increase in owner-occupation in the last quarter of the century was the introduction of the Right to Buy for public sector tenants. Those years also saw a new social landlord, the housing association, beginning to build housing for rent. In the 1990s, housing associations also acquired large blocks of stock transferred from local authorities and Scottish Homes, which took over the 21

Chart 2.3: Housing stock: by tenure, 1981-1999 ThousaThousandsnds 2500 Rented LA, New Towns, Scottish Homes Rented Housing Association Rented privately Owner Occupied

2000

1500 2

Thousands 1000

500

0 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 Year

Source: Scottish Executive

Part 1 of the Tenants Rights etc (Scotland) introduction of the legislation), and to Act 1980 gave most tenants of public other individuals. Sales peaked in 1989, authorities (at that time, local authorities, when nearly 40 thousand properties were the Scottish Special Housing Association sold. Various modifications of the original and the New Town Development legislation have extended the possibility of Corporations) the right to buy their home ownership to an increasing range of homes. The legislation also required the tenants. landlords to offer discounts on the market value of properties sold under the scheme. As well as selling properties to individual Between 1981 and 1999, over 450 tenants, public landlords also transferred thousand dwellings owned by social rented blocks of housing to housing associations. sector landlords were sold, of which over 378 thousand were sold to sitting tenants, predominantly under the Right to Buy legislation (Chart 2.4).

The Right to Buy position of housing association tenants is more complex. Social landlords could also opt to sell properties to sitting tenants on a voluntary basis, where they did not have the Right to Buy (this included some sales prior to the 22

Chart 2.4: Sales of public sector dwellings: by sector 1979-1999

ThousandsThousands 45

40 Scottish Homes other Scottish Homes Sitting Tenants 35 Local Authority other 30 Local Authority Sitting Tenants

2 25

20 Thousands 15

0 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive In July 2000, the Scottish Executive set out Compared to other countries in the EU, its plans for a new Housing Bill in the the UK has high levels of home ownership consultation document, Better Homes for (Chart 2.5). In 1996, three fifths of Scotland’s Communities. These included households in the European Union as a encouraging local authorities to develop an whole owned their own home. The highest enhanced strategic role in relation to levels of home ownership were in Spain housing in their areas and to transfer and Ireland, where more than four fifths of around 560 thousand houses they currently households were owner occupiers. The own and manage to new community based UK was above the EU average, with two landlords through the New Housing thirds of households being home owners, Partnerships initiative. Around two-thirds while Scotland was just below it. Around of Scotland’s local authorities are currently half of households in France, Denmark, undertaking feasibility work and option Netherlands and Austria own their home, appraisal on the future ownership of part while only in Germany are home-owning or all of their stock. Transfers are not households in the minority. compulsory and will be subject to the consent of tenants’ approval, through a These cross-country variations may reflect, majority voting in favour in a secret ballot. for example, different cultural norms for The Executive also proposes a new single leaving the parental home and establishing tenancy for all tenants of social landlords, a separate household and government so that they all have the same rights and policy on intervention in the housing market obligations, and extending the Right to Buy to more (though not all) tenants of housing associations. 23

Owner occupation is the tenure of choice There are some indications that non-white of most Scots – only one in ten says that, households are less likely to own their given a free choice, they would choose to home outright and more likely to rent rent accommodation rather than buy. privately, but the sample of non-white However, around a quarter of those renting households in the Scottish Household from social landlords say they would choose Survey is small, and these results should be to rent (Scottish Social Attitudes Survey treated with caution. data).

There is little variation by tenure in the 2 length of time households have been at their current address, except for those renting privately, who tend to stay for shorter periods. 1999 data from the Scottish Household Survey show that around one in 5 households have lived in their present home for 2 years or less: this increased to two thirds of those renting privately. Not surprisingly, those who owned their home outright tended to have been living there longer – nearly half had lived there 20 years or more, compared to around one in five of all households.

Chart 2.5: Owner occupied dwellings: EU comparison 1996 Percentages Scotland Austria EU Average Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden UK 020406080100 Percentages

Source: Scottish Executive 24

Housing characteristics Around a third of households in Scotland House dwellers are fairly evenly split live in a flat or maisonette – ranging from between terraced, semi-detached and traditional tenements in the centre of detached properties. Single adults, single historic towns and cities such as Edinburgh, parents and single pensioners are more to the four-in-a-blocks of the 1920s and likely to live in a flat. Single parents and 1930s, high-rise buildings of more recent single pensioners often live in estates, properties converted from large accommodation provided by the social 2 houses, which are too large for today’s rented sector, which has few houses. smaller households, and commercial Families, large adult and smaller older properties which are no longer in business households are more likely to live in use, for example, in Glasgow and Leith. detached houses (Chart 2.6).

Chart 2.6: Households: by property type and household type, 1999

Detached house Semi-detached house Terraced house Flat/maisonette All households Single pensioner Older smaller Large adult Large family Small family Single parent Small adult Single adult

0 20406080100% Source: Scottish Executive, Scottish Household Survey

A significant proportion of the Scottish the repair bill. Some 21 thousand occupied housing stock remains in poor condition, houses (approximately 1 per cent of the although the nature of house condition stock) were assessed as being below the problems has changed over the past 20 statutory tolerable standard (BTS) but 39 years. Lack of basic amenities such as a per cent had one or more elements in urgent bath and WC, is now rare. Today the disrepair. Approximately 87 per cent of major problems concern dampness and BTS dwellings identified in the survey were condensation and disrepair, especially in in the private sector (disproportionately in the public and private rented sectors. the private rented sector) and over 70 per cent were built before 1919. Although 70 The 1996 Scottish House Condition Survey per cent of BTS dwellings were in urban provided comprehensive information about areas, rural areas had a disproportionately the condition of the stock and the costs of large share of the total. 25

A quarter of all dwellings in Scotland were April 2001 and will be completed within affected by dampness or condensation, five years. Around 40 thousand pensioners although only 4 per cent were found to who are owner-occupiers or rent in the have both and the degree of dampness and private sector, 85 thousand council tenants condensation varied greatly across the and 16 thousand housing association tenants stock. The proportion of dwellings affected (around a third of whom are pensioners) by dampness or condensation was highest are expected to benefit. The average cost in the public and private rented sectors. of improvement is estimated at £2,500 of which £2,000 is for the system and £500 The energy efficiency of much of the stock for insulation and advice. If those benefiting 2 was poor, although there were variations from the scheme continued to heat their across Scotland. On average, rural homes to the same level, it would save dwellings, especially those built before them an average of £550 a year on their 1919, were less energy efficient than urban heating bills, typically halving their fuel costs. dwellings. More than 90 per cent of all dwellings did not meet the current building Most households are satisfied with the regulations for thermal energy efficiency neighbourhood in which they live – nine and although 80 per cent of dwellings did out of ten rated it as very or fairly good in have some degree of loft insulation only 12 1999. However, families in council flats had per cent of these conformed to the 1991 considerably less favourable views of their building regulation standard. This means neighbourhood – 26 per cent rated it as that houses are expensive to heat, especially poor or very poor (Table 2.7). in more northerly and remote areas. However, a large number of households Respondents were also asked what, if cannot afford to spend as much as they anything, they particularly liked or disliked need to keep warm and it is clear that about their neighbourhood. Overall, there is a significant problem of fuel people tended to be more positive than poverty among Scotland’s families. negative about their area – only 6 per cent of adults said there was nothing they The Scottish Executive initiative, the “warm particularly liked, while 46 per cent said deal”, offers grants of up to £500 to those there was nothing they particularly disliked. receiving certain social security benefits, The most commonly mentioned ‘likes’ such as income support, to make their were that the area was ‘quiet/peaceful’ homes more energy efficient. The scheme (mentioned by 56 per cent of adults) and includes cavity wall insulation, loft insulation, that the respondent had ‘good neighbours’ draught proofing, hot and cold tank and pipe (35 per cent). The most commonly insulation, energy advice and up to four mentioned ‘dislikes’ were ‘young people Energy Efficient lightbulbs. Grants of up to hanging about’ (12 per cent) and vandalism about £80 are available for those aged 60 or (8 per cent). Nearly a quarter of those over not in receipt of a qualifying benefit. living in council flats mentioned ‘young people hanging about’ as a dislike, with In September 2000, the Scottish Executive similar percentages for ‘drug abuse’ and announced a new scheme to install central ‘vandalism’. Country dwellers were more heating and insulation and offer energy likely than other groups to mention ‘poor advice for all council homes and all private public transport’ as a dislike – 16 per cent homes where the householder is a did so, compared to 5 per cent overall. pensioner. The programme will start in 26

Table 2.7: Rating of Neighbourhood as a place to live by MOSAIC Group, 1999 Percentages Mosaic Group1 Very Good Fairly Good Fairly Poor Very Poor High Income Areas 74 24 1 1 Middle Income Owners 61 36 2 1 Low Income Owners 56 38 3 2 Better-off Council 38 52 7 3 2 Disadvantaged Council Estates 41 48 7 4 Families in Council Flats 23 50 13 13 Renting Singles 39 45 9 7 Singles and Flats 47 44 5 3 Country Dwellers 68 28 3 1 Institutional Areas 54 41 2 3

All2 50 41 5 3 Source: Scottish Executive, Scottish Household Survey 1999 Note 1: See Appendix 1: Definitions and Terms. Note 2: Excludes those expressing no opinion.

House prices are lower in Scotland than in The mix-adjusted price is somewhat lower the UK as a whole. These comparisons use than a simple average price taken from the mix-adjusted house prices. Very few houses same sample. This is because the figure is are exactly alike. Comparing the simple the price for an average house, not the averages of the prices of all the houses sold average price of a house. in various time periods could reflect changes in the kinds of properties sold In 1999, the Scottish mix-adjusted house rather than changes in the prices of price was £72,100, around three quarters of particular types of property. For example, the UK figure. The differential in house an increase in the proportion of flats and prices between Scotland and the UK was small houses could produce a fall in the greater in 1989, when the Scottish figure simple average price (as flats tend to be was around two thirds of that for the UK. cheaper), although the price of every Between 1993 and 1997, there was less property in the sample might actually have difference, but the gap has now started to increased. A ‘mix-adjusted’ index is not widen again (Chart 2.8). affected by such changes because the relative weight given to each characteristic of a property is fixed. 27

Chart 2.8: Mix Adjusted House Prices at the Mortgage Completion State (All Houses), Scotland and the UK, 1989-1999 £100,000 £90,000 £80,000 £70,000 £60,000 2 £50,000 £40,000 £30,000 Scotland £20,000 UK £10,000 £0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions, Council of Mortgage Lenders

Home ownership is not without risk – if payments, to borrowers in difficulty. house prices rise rapidly and then fall, Between 1993 and 1999, the number of owners can find themselves in a position of mortgages in Scotland increased from 805 ‘negative equity’, where the sale price does thousand to over 1 million. The number of not cover their outstanding mortgage. If possessions (this includes properties mortgage holders fail to keep up their surrendered voluntarily) rose from 2.4 mortgage payments, the mortgage lender thousand to 3.1 thousand, representing can re-possess their home. As an increasingly around 0.3 per cent of mortgages in both diverse range of people in Scotland years. This represents 1 for every 3,300 or became home-owners in the 1980s, some so mortgages. By contrast, the numbers of commentators expressed concerns about mortgages in the UK as a whole changed levels of home re-possessions. This very little between 1993 and 1999, and the encouraged mortgage lenders to review possession rate fell from 0.58 per cent in their practices and to offer advice and 1993 to 0.27 per cent in 1999 (Table 2.9). support, including re-scheduling of 28

Table 2.9: Mortgage possessions: Scotland and UK, 1993-1999 Thousands and percentages Scotland UK Year Number of Number of Possession Number of Number of Possession mortages possessions1 rate(%) mortgages possessions1 rate (%)

1993 805 2.4 0.30 10,137 58.5 0.58 1994 852 1.8 0.21 10,410 49.2 0.47 2 1995 847 1.8 0.21 10,521 49.4 0.47 1996 903 2.2 0.24 10,637 42.6 0.40 1997 949 2.6 0.27 10,738 32.8 0.31 1998 989 2.9 0.29 10,821 33.8 0.31 1999 1,013 3.1 0.31 10,981 30.0 0.27

Source: Council of Mortgage Lenders 1. Includes properties surrendered voluntarily. There are slight changes in the coverage of the series caused by additional institutions joining the Council of Mortgage Lenders

Homelessness People who are homeless can apply to Local authorities do not have records of their local authority for assistance under people who are homeless but do not seek the homeless legislation. Some people may assistance from them. This might include, be literally ‘roofless’. Most people for example, people who are not aware experiencing homelessness are in the that they can seek help, or who do not larger towns and cities but it is also an want to do so, or who consider that doing increasing problem in some rural areas. so is pointless because the local authority will not be able to provide appropriate There are no reliable national figures for support. This may apply to single people the number of people who are literally who are generally seen as low priority. roofless in Scotland, although some local authorities have carried out local The numbers of applications increased assessments, including street counts. One steadily from around 25 thousand in of the Scottish Executive’s priorities in its 1988-89 to a peak of 43 thousand in 1993-94. Social Justice initiative is to ensure that no In each of the following 3 years the number young person has to sleep rough. of applications was around 41 thousand. In 1997-98 a 5 per cent increase took the Local authorities do keep records of the figure to 43,100. The 1998-99 figure saw a number of households who apply for further 6 per cent increase to 45,700, the assistance under the homelessness highest number of annual applications yet legislation, although relatively few of these recorded, and some 85 per cent more are actually roofless. The number of than in 1988-89. applications is not the same as the number of homeless households, as households The council has to assess whether the may apply more than once during a year. applicant is homeless or potentially 29 homeless, and if so, whether the council assessed the household as being household has a priority need for homeless or potentially homeless has more accommodation because than doubled, from 15,800 in 1988-89 to • it contains dependent children, 34,200 in 1999-99. However, the number • a member of the household is pregnant, assessed as in priority need increased less • a member of the household is markedly. vulnerable because of old age, physical disability, mental illness or handicap, or other special reasons, • it is a single young person under 21 who 2 is looked after by a local authority (formerly “in care”) at school leaving age or later, • the household is homeless in an emergency (e.g. fire or flood). The numbers of applications where the

Chart 2.10: Homelessness applications, 1988-89 to 1998-99

50 45 40 35 30 25

Thousands 20 15 10 Number of applications Assessed as homeless or potentially homeless 5 Assessed as homeless or potentially homeless and in priority need 0 1988 - 89 1989 - 90 1990 - 91 1991 - 92 1992 - 93 1993 - 94 1994 - 95 1995 - 96 1996 - 97 1997 - 98 1998 - 99 1999-2000 Year

Source: Scottish Executive 1.The increase in applications between 1989-90 and 1990-91 is likely to have been overstated because of under-recording in earlier years 30

In 1998-99, around two thirds of applicant Local authorities may arrange for households households which the council assessed as to stay in temporary accommodation while being homeless or potentially homeless the household is being assessed and were one person households: however, accommodation sought for them. In some one person households represented only cases, temporary (or short stay, as it is two fifths of those in priority need. sometimes referred to) accommodation is also arranged following such an assessment. More than a third of all applicants in One of the aims of the Social Justice strategy 1998-99 stated that the immediate reason is to reduce the numbers in temporary 2 for loss/ threatened loss of accommodation accommodation, which stood at over 4,300 was that friends or relatives were no at 31 March 1999. longer able or willing to accommodate them, while nearly a quarter gave a dispute with a spouse or cohabitee as the reason. Action by the landlord was often the reason for loss of accommodation in some rural areas such as Eilean Siar and Perth and Kinross. 31

References and further reading

Housing Statistics Quarterly Bulletins, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/people.htm

Operation of the Homeless Persons Legislation in Scotland 1988-89 to 1998-99: National and Local Authority Analyses, Scottish Executive, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00018-00.asp

Scotland’s People: Results from the 1999 Scottish Household Survey, Volume 1, Annual Report 2 Scottish Executive, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/shs/docs/rep99-v1.pdf

Scottish House Condition Survey, 1996 and 1999, Scottish Homes

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, National Centre for Social Research

Investing in Modernisation An Agenda For Scotland’s Housing, Scottish Office, 1999 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library/documents-w7/hgp-00.htm

Better Homes for Scotland’s Communities The Executive’s proposals for the Housing Bill, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/consultations/housing/bhsc-11.asp

Social Justice – Annual Report Scotland 2000, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjm-00.asp

Social Justice – A Scotland Where Everyone Matters – Indicators of Progress:definitions, data, baseline and trends information, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjip-00.asp

Research Paper 00/13 Homelessness, Scottish Parliament Information Centre http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/whats_happening/research/pdf_res_papers/rp00-13.pdf

Research Paper 00/20 The Housing Bill: the Right to Buy, Scottish Parliament Information Centre http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/whats_happening/research/pdf_res_papers/rp00-20.pdf

Research Paper 98/13 Housing Stock Transfers, Scottish Parliament Information http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/whats_happening/research/pdf_res_papers/rp99-13.pdf 32

Contacts

Telephone contact points for further information relating to Chapter 2, Housing:

Scottish Executive Chapter Author Catriona McKay 0131 244 0324 2 [email protected]

Housing Statistics Deborah Pegg 0131 244 7235 [email protected]

Scottish Homes 0131 313 0044

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey Kerstin Hinds 0131 557 5494 [email protected] Chapter3 Education and Training 34

With the first university in Scotland producing In an increasingly complex society the need graduates almost 600 years ago, there has for individuals to receive training and always been a keen understanding of the education throughout their life is important need for and place in Scottish society, of not only from an employment perspective education. As society has evolved the but also so that people can fully participate requirement for a highly educated and in technological advances and take highly trained population has increased and advantage of developments in provision of never more so than over the last couple of services, access to information and decades. Tied in with the need to produce decision making. Focus on education and an increasingly skilled workforce has been training is therefore not restricted to one the commitment to develop a truly age-group or one set of needs, but involves inclusive educational system. This has been pre-school, primary school, secondary taken forward by building on the provision school, special needs, further education, of free compulsory schooling for children higher education and adult learning. It is 3 aged 5 to 16 together with more recent also important that the country produces initiatives on improving access to pre- suitable and sufficient educators and has school facilities, widening opportunities for appropriate learning environments. students and developing life long learning opportunities for adult learners.

Number of school pupils and teachers by school type In 1872, the Education (Scotland) Act funded schools in which just under 755 established the responsibility of parents to thousand children are being taught by 49 see that all children between the ages of 5 thousand teachers – full time equivalent. and 13 receieved education, although major The vast majority of Scotland’s children – expansion of secondary education did not over 96 per cent – attend publicly funded take place until the first decade of the 20th schools and Chart 3.1 shows the changes in century when around 200 new schools pupil numbers over the last 30 years in were founded. As of September 1999, in these schools. Also included are the current Scotland there are just under 2,900 publicly projections for pupil numbers up to 2010.

Chart 3.1 School pupils by type of school (publicly funded), 1970-2010 700

600 Primary Secondary Special 500 projections 400

300

200 Number of pupils (000s) 100

0 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Year Source: Scottish Executive Notes: Excludes adults attending day centres 35

Over the thirty years since 1970, the number Edinburgh, Glasgow and Perth and Kinross of school age pupils in publicly funded had between them almost 60 per cent of schools has fallen by 200 thousand from Scotland’s independent secondary schools just over 950 thousand pupils in 1970. and 55 per cent of the independent Since 1970 the only significant increase in primary schools. Other areas such as East pupil numbers occurred in 1972/73 as a Ayrshire, North Ayrshire, North result of the increase in the school-leaving Lanarkshire and West Lothian had no age. In 1999, there were the same number independent primary or secondary schools. of pupils in secondary schools as there were in 1970 when the school leaving age Over the last 30 years the number of was two years lower. teachers has fluctuated significantly (see Chart 3.2.) During the 1970s the number In 1999, there were just under 12 thousand of teachers – measured as full time pupils attending independent primary equivalents – increased by 20 per cent in schools and just under 18 thousand primary schools and by over 40 per cent in 3 attending independent secondary schools. secondary schools, however by 1999 the Independent schools are not located evenly number of teachers was at similar levels to across Scotland. In 1999, Aberdeen City, the early 1970s.

Chart 3.2 Teacher numbers by school type (publicly funded), 1970-1999

15 Primary

Teachers (000s) Teachers 10 Secondary Special 5

0 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive Notes: Excludes adults attending day centres

Much research has been carried out over research that suggests that within primary this time on the relationship between class schools (especially P1 to P3) a class size of size and learning with the current thinking between 20 and 25 pupils produces the being that mainstream classes with below best learning environment. 30 pupils are the ideal. There is also some 36

Mainstream class sizes The class maximum for primary school was There has been a clear decrease in the until recently set at 33 pupils for single number of P1-P3 pupils being taught in stage classes and 25 pupils for composite classes of over 30 children. In 1997 nearly stage classes. The Government has set a 24 per cent of pupils this age (36 thousand single stage target of a maximum of 30 pupils) were in classes of over 30 children. pupils in Primary level 1, Primary level 2 and Primary level 3 for August 2001.

Table 3.3 Size of single stage P1-P3 classes (publicly funded), 1999 1999 3 Class Classes Pupils size Number Percentage Number Percentage

0-15 143 2.5 1,678 1.2 16-20 681 12.0 12,654 8.8 21-25 1,928 34.0 44,693 31.3 26-30 2,309 40.7 64,368 45.0 31-33 572 10.1 18,353 12.8 33+ 34 0.6 1,244 0.9 All 5,667 100.0 142,990 100.0

Source: Scottish Executive Notes: Includes a small number of classes taught by two teachers Figures for publicly funded primary schools

Table 3.3 shows that in 1999 just under 14 seen as equally important (each of these per cent of pupils (under 20 thousand was seen as the most important way to pupils) in stages P1-P3 were being taught improve secondary education by one in in classes with more than 30 pupils and five of those interviewed). that three quarters of P1-P3 pupils were being taught in classes of 21-30 pupils. Gender of teachers The issue of class size is seen as a key factor in improving attainment. The Scottish Whilst the number of teachers in primary Social Attitudes Survey in 1999 found that and secondary schools has remained fairly one third of those interviewed considered constant over the last 10 years, there has that the most useful factor for improving been a change in the ratio of male to the education in primary schools was female teachers. In 1992, 7.8 per cent of smaller class sizes. Class size was also primary school teachers were male seen as an important factor in improving compared with 6.8 per cent in 1999. In pupil attainment in secondary school, secondary schools in 1992, 48 per cent of although the survey suggests that more teachers were female compared with 53.8 resources for buildings and books were per cent in 1999. 37

Figures for September 1999 show that whilst teaching profession has also changed. 93 per cent of primary school teachers Across all sectors of education the average were female, only 78 per cent of primary age of teachers has increased. Chart 3.4 headteachers were female. Indeed of the shows that in secondary schools there has 1,553 male primary teachers, almost one been an increase in older teachers, which third were headteachers whilst 70 per cent may be partly explained by the change in of female primary teachers were in an the attitude of central and local unpromoted grade. In secondary schools governments to early retirement which is 54 per cent of teachers were female, but significantly less attractive now than it was there were almost 8 times as many male in the past. headteachers as there were female ones, with over one half of female teachers In the early 1990s the percentage of working in an unpromoted grade. primary school teachers who were aged 40 or more was 61 per cent and by the end of Over the 1990s the age distribution of the the 1990s this had risen to 70 per cent. 3 Chart 3.4: Age distribution of teachers in Secondary Schools (publicly funded), 1992 and 1998 30 Male 1992 25 Female 1992 Male 1998 Female 1998 20

15 Percentage 10

0 under 25 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55+ Age range Source: Scottish Executive The pattern is similar in secondary schools vision, or may alternatively attend a school where in 1992, 62 per cent of teachers which provides for children with a range of were aged 40 or more, but in 1998 this special needs. figure had risen to 71 per cent. The vast majority, almost 90 per cent, of children attend publicly funded special Special Schools schools. However only a small number of Not all children attend mainstream these pupils attend residential centres schools. Across Scotland there are over 9 whereas 70 per cent of pupils attending thousand children – just over 1 per cent of independent special schools are residential the school population – who attend a range students. of special schools on either a residential or Chart 3.5 shows the type of attendance for day basis. Pupils may attend a school for a pupils attending special schools in specific impairment such as hearing or September 1999. 38

Chart 3.5: Pupils in Special Schools, 1999 has committed itself through the Childcare Strategy to ensuring that all children will have access to quality care and early Residential - Female Residential - Male 2% learning before school. Part of this 8% commitment is to provide high quality, free, part-time early education for children from the age of 3 until they start primary school. Day - Female 31% Day - Male 59% The most recent figures available, are for June 2000 and record that 98 thousand, 3 and 4 year olds were attending nursery or pre-school. These figures indicate that 97 per cent of 4 years olds and 68 per cent of 3 Source: Scottish Executive 3 year olds, who are eligible, attend nursery or pre-school. The picture has remained fairly constant over recent years. The number of boys attending special schools is almost double the number of girls and in the independent Attainment sector the boys outnumber the girls 4 to 1. Over the last 10 years there has been an ever increasing focus on examination Not all children with special needs attend attainment at all levels of schooling. In special schools. There is a continuing Scotland targets have been set for the commitment to include where possible population as a whole, for specific age children with special needs within groups, for specific examinations and for mainstream schools either in the regular sub-groups of the student population. classes or in special units attached to the school. These children may attend some As well as the focus on school age pupils, or all of their lessons in special units and younger college and university students attached to the mainstream school. In there has been a drive to encourage all 1998 there were just under 11,500 pupils members of society to see continued with special educational needs spending all education as an important part of of their time in mainstream classes, in developing and maintaining skills for their 1999 this figure had risen to over 12 own personal development and in order to thousand. In secondary schools the meet the demands of the workplace. equivalent figures were just over 7,400 in 1998 and just under 9 thousand in 1999. Primary Schools

Places for 3 and 4 year olds Within publicly funded primary schools a in pre-school centres series of internally assessed tests are carried out throughout the year. Children The need to make available affordable and take National Tests when their teacher high quality childcare services to support considers they have reached the required the development of children and to help standard, rather than at a fixed age or parents balance work and family life has stage, as in England and Wales. Through become an increasingly important issue this approach the National Tests act as a over the last few years. The Government teaching aid and measurement of progress. 39

Chart 3.6 shows the levels of attainment as defined as level A in P3, level B in P4, level of June 1998, 1999 and 2000. The chart C in P6 and level D in P7. The long-term shows that in June 2000, 76 per cent of national benchmark for pupils in primary pupils attained the minimum national test school is that 80 per cent of all primary level for their age in reading, compared school pupils should be achieving the with 66 per cent in writing and 77 per cent minimum age level targets appropriate to in maths. The minimum levels have been their stage across the three subject areas.

Chart 3.6: Percentage of Primary School Pupils reaching minimum levels, 1998-2000

100 90 Reading Writing Maths 80 70 3 60 50 40 30 20

Percentage of P3, P4, P6 and P7 roll Percentage 10 0 1998 1999 2000 Year Source: Scottish Executive

Secondary Schools Unlike England and Wales, schools in the Students in secondary schools sit a range of public sector in Scotland do not use official National Tests and examinations depending entrance examinations to select those on their stage and abilities. In the first two primary school students entering years of secondary school (S1 and S2) secondary schools. However there are students continue with National Tests. clear links between the socio-economic status of the local population and the Chart 3.7 shows the levels attained in June attainment results at the local school. 1998, 1999 and 2000 for reading, writing There is also some anecdotal evidence that and maths. The long-term target is that 75 some more affluent parents may be per cent of pupils in S2 should achieve specifically moving house to ensure the level E in these three subjects. placing of their child in a particular school. Results from the 1999 Scottish Social Attitudes Survey indicate that around one third of people think that attainment in primary school should influence the secondary school that a child attends. 40

Chart 3.7: Percentage of S2 pupils attaining level E, 1998-2000 60

Reading Writing Maths 50

20 Percentage of S2 roll Percentage

3 10

0 1998 1999 2000 Year Source: Scottish Executive

Traditional examinations in secondary the percentage of S4 pupils attaining 5 or schools have taken place when pupils are more Standard Grades at credit level (1-2) aged between 15 and 18. Chart 3.8 shows in the years 1993 to 1999.

Chart 3.8: Percentage of S4 pupils who attained 5+ Standard Grates at credit level (1-2), 1993-1999

30 Percentage of S4 Percentage

20 Publicly Funded Independent All 10

0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive 41

It is clear that over the period 1993 to much better than boys, and some schools 1999 there was a consistent and significant in areas of socio-economic deprivation are increase in the percentage of S4 pupils finding it difficult to match the improvements attaining 5 or more Standard Grades at being made in other areas. In addition to credit level 1-2 across both sectors of focused funding initiatives, targets for schools – state and independent. This attainment in each publicly funded school improvement is also visible across the have been set and the Scottish Government’s range of Standard Grade awards. The Social Justice initiative has set out a attainment at Higher Grade in S5 over this Milestone with the aim of improving the period has however remained relatively performance of the lowest attaining pupils. static, with the percentage of S4 pupils who go on to achieve 3 or more Higher Much discussion has taken place over the Grades at A-C in S5 remaining at around differing performances at all levels of girls 22 per cent over recent years, and rising to and boys. Table 3.9 shows the patterns in 23 per cent in 1999. Standard Grade in S4 and Higher Grade 3 attainment in S5 since 1995, as a percentage The performance of pupils across Scotland of the relevant S4 roll. is not improving uniformly. Girls are doing

Table 3.9: Attainment by gender – percentage of S4 roll 1995-99: All secondary schools Year Standard Grades in Stage 4 Higher Grades in Stage 5

5 or more 3 or more 5 or more

@ 1-2 @ 1-4 @ 1-6 @ A-C @ A-C

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

1995 23 32 67 74 88 90 18 23 6 7 1996 23 33 68 76 88 90 17 23 6 7 1997 26 36 69 78 88 91 17 23 6 7 1998 28 38 70 79 88 91 19 26 7 8 1999 28 39 72 80 90 92 20 26 8 9

Source: Scottish Executive

It is clear that girls are outperforming boys most popular subjects at Standard Grade in all 5 measures of attainment and that and Higher Grade in June 1999, as a whilst there has been a general percentage of presentations. The marked improvement across the board, the gap difference in attainment at Standard Grade between males and females has not between females and males is not so decreased. Table 3.10 shows the awards evident at Higher Grade. achieved by males and females in the 5 42

Table 3.10: Attainment by gender – percentage of presentations June 1999: All secondary schools Standard Level (1-2) Level (1-4) Level (1-6) Grade: S4 Males Females Males Females Males Females

English 33 49 91 96 97 98 Maths 30 34 68 71 97 97 French 26 43 70 83 93 95 Chemistry 56 61 90 92 98 99 Geography 40 48 78 82 98 98

Higher Grade A Grade B Grade C 3 Grade: S5 Males Females Males Females Males Females

English 17 21 23 26 32 30 Maths 20 18 25 28 25 29 Chemistry 24 21 26 26 25 28 Physics 24 31 23 29 22 21 Biology 17 17 23 24 25 27

Source: Scottish Qualifications Authority Scottish Executive

As well as the difference in examination computer studies, physical education and attainment between males and females craft design are predominately subjects there is also a marked difference in the taken by males, whereas females are more subjects taken at Standard Grade and likely to take biology and office and Higher Grade. Table 3.11 shows the 10 information studies. At Higher Grade most popular courses for presentation at approximately one in four boys take Standard and Higher Grade by pupils in S4 physics compared with one in ten girls, and S5 in 1999. At Standard Grade, with computing studies is not in the top ten the exception of maths, English and French subjects for females, and there are no which are generally the most popular languages in the top ten subjects for males. subjects, it would appear that physics, 43

Table 3.11: Top 10 Standard and Higher Grade subjects, by gender of pupils: 1999 All Secondary Schools Standard Grades in S4 Higher Grades in S5 Subject % of S4 Subject % of S4 Subject % of S5 Subject % of S5 Males Females Males Females

Maths 96 Maths 97 English 39 English 52 English 95 English 96 Maths 30 Maths 27 French 58 French 64 Physics 23 Biology 18 Physics 42 Biology 52 Chemistry 17 Chemistry 15 Geography 42 Office & 43 Geography 11 Art & Design 14 Information Studies 3 Computing 38 Chemistry 38 Computing 10 History 11 Studies Studies Physical 38 Art & Design 38 Biology 9 French 9 Education Chemistry 35 History 38 History 8 Modern Studies 9 Craft & Design 34 French (Writing) 35 Art & Design 8 Physics 9 History 31 Geography 31 Craft & Design 6 Secretarial 9 Studies Source: Scottish Executive Note: Subject presentations as percentage of relevant school roll. Information and Communication Technology A key and gradual development over the computers depending on whether a pupil is last two decades has been the introduction in a secondary or primary school. The of computers into schools. Initially when table also highlights the fact that in 1999 they were introduced they were confined few teachers and even fewer pupils had an to computer studies classrooms, but e-mail address at school. The Government increasingly computers are an important Excellence Fund initiative is devoting tool in all areas of the curriculum and money to this issue and it is expected that across all types of school. Table 3.12 shows the latest figures for September 2000 will that there are clear differences in access to show significant increases.

Table 3.12: Access to computer and e-mail addresses in schools (publicly funded: Sept 1999) School Type Primary Secondary Special

Pupil: Computer ratio 28 9 7 For schools with internet e-mail facilities: Percentage of teachers with an e.mail address 8116 Percentage of pupils with an e.mail address 072

Source: Scottish Executive Note: The pupil : computer ratio is based on the number of modern computers – defined as those computers less than 4 years old. 44

Attendance and Absence One of the major issues currently affecting the drive to minimise absence, bullying and education in Scotland is the level of other types of bad behaviour are vital to a absenteeism in schools and the subsequent better education for all. An area of interest affect it has on pupil learning and educational and concern are the incidents of violence attainment. Across the country the level of against staff shown in Table 3.13. As with absence recorded in 1999/00 varied quite all data of this type inconsistencies in significantly from virtually zero in some recording and collecting incidents exist, primary schools to around 100 half days however based on the reporting by absence per pupil in the worst affected schools, 200 incidents were serious enough secondary schools. to have necessitated the police being notified. Recently there has been some indication 3 that the levels of absence are beginning to The information also suggests that the vast fall. After a high in the school year 1995/96 majority of the 3 thousand incidents of 46 half days absence per secondary pupil involved a current pupil, nearly 90 per and 22 half days absence per primary cent, however 7 per cent of them involved pupils, the most recent figures are 41 and a parent. Whilst a similar number of 19 half days respectively. incidents were recorded in primary, secondary and special schools, the number involving the police in special schools was Violence against School Staff less than half the number in secondary and primary schools – perhaps indicating a less Good discipline is essential to creating a serious nature of the incidents or a greater purposeful educational environment. The reluctance on behalf of the special schools encouragement of achievement and having to formally report the incidents to the high expectations for all pupils, tied in with police.

Table 3.13: Incidents of violence against local authority school staff (1999-00)

School Type Total number of Number in which the incidents reported police were notified

Pre-school centres 35 5

Primary Schools 1,099 78

Secondary Schools 900 82

Special Schools 1,049 35

All 3,083 200

Source: Scottish Executive 45

Qualifications of school leavers and their destinations The level of educational attainment of Since the late 1980s to the end of the leavers from the Scottish school system has 1990s the percentage of leavers with 3 or increased over time with more pupils more Higher Grades increased from 24 achieving higher levels of attainment each per cent to 30 per cent. It is clear that year. The reasons for this increase are pupils are staying on longer at school, multiple, but include the requirement by achieving higher attainment levels and employers for increasingly highly educated deciding to continue their education after and flexible staff. Over the last three school in much larger numbers than has decades there has been a significant change ever been the case in the past. in the destination of pupils after compulsory education. The destinations of pupils who left school in the years 1992-93 to 1999-00 are shown Since the late 1980s the change in the in Chart 3.14. Over this period the 3 qualifications of school leavers has been percentages of school leavers entering full- quite marked. At the end of the 1980s, 12 time further or higher education have per cent of leavers had no Scottish increased. Whilst the percentage of leavers Certificate of Education (SCE) qualifications. taking up training has significantly This compares with under 7 per cent of decreased over the period, it should be school leavers at the end of the 1990s who noted that school leavers entering had no SCE qualifications. In 1999, 3 per employment may also be participating in cent of school leavers had not achieved training through the Skillseekers either SCE or National Certificate modules. programme.

Chart 3.14: Leaver desinations from publicly funded schools (June 1993, 1996 and 2000) 35

30 June-93 June-96 25 June-00 20

10 Percentage of school leavers Percentage 5

0 Higher Education (F/T) Further Education (F/T) Training Employment Other Known Destination Unknown Leavers Destination

Source: Scottish Executive 46

In the 1960s many pupils left school at the percentage of 16 to 21 year olds who earliest opportunity to start work, often as were in full or part time education apprentices. Some continued their increased from 42 per cent to 64 per cent. education in vocational further education Chart 3.15 shows the participation rates of colleges. In the 1990s, many stay on to fifth 16-21 year olds in full or part time and sixth year to gain better qualifications. education. In fact, over the past decade, the

Table 3.15: Participation in full or part time education of 16-21 year olds, 1988-89 to 1998-99 Year Age 1988-89 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99

3 16-21 42 52 56 61 63 64 16 75 80 87 91 93 94 17 63 67 71 73 74 75 18 41 53 56 61 62 63 19 32 45 49 55 55 59 20 27 40 42 47 49 50 21 21 33 36 38 41 44

Source: Scottish Executive

Further and Higher Education The main providers of further education in the 20 higher education institutions in Scotland are the 47 further education Scotland. They consist of 14 Universities colleges which offer a wide range of and 6 other institutions. There are close courses at non-advanced and advanced links between higher and further education level. The courses are mainly vocational in institutions with many establishments nature and cater for both full-time and offering both types of qualification. part-time students through a very wide range of curricula. Chart 3.16 shows the number of higher education students in Scotland since the The main providers of higher education are school year 1988/89. 47

Chart 3.16: Students in Higher Education, 1988-89 to 1998-99 160 Total Male 140 Total Female Full time Male 120 Full Time Female Part time Male 100 Part time Female 80

60 Students (000s) 40

20 3 0 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 Year Source: Scottish Executive and SHEFC

Over the last decade there has been a last couple of years, around 16 per cent of significant increase – over 100 per cent – students who start degree courses at a in the number of students in higher particular institution are expected to obtain education. Over this period there has also no award nor transfer to another been a change in the type of student in establishment. higher education. In 1988/89, 58 per cent of students were male, and 68 per cent of The pattern in further education is students were full time. In 1998/99, 46 per different. Chart 3.17 shows the numbers of cent were male and 64 per cent were full full time and part time students since time. However whilst there are more 1994/95 (prior information is not on a students, figures also show that over the consistent basis).

Chart 3.17: Students in Further Education, 1994-95 to 1998-99

350 Full Time 300 Part Time 250

200

150 Students (000s) 100

0 94/95 95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 Year Source: Scottish Executive and SHEFC 48

Whilst there has been a significant increase Tuition Fees in further education student numbers – 65 per cent – over the period 1994/95 to One of the major issues surrounding higher 1998/99 this increase has been almost and further education in Scotland is the entirely due to the increase in part time payment of tuition fees. In 1999 the Scottish students. Information on the gender of Parliament set up an independent students is only available for 1998/99 and committee of inquiry into student finance this shows that 56 per cent of further under Andrew Cubie. The Committee’s education students are female and that 90 remit was to review the student support per cent of further education students are mechanisms of Scottish students, to promote on part time courses. the widening of access and participation and to make proposals for changes. Perhaps not surprisingly, the types of The Committee’s report was published in courses taken by further and higher December 1999, containing 3 education students differ significantly. In recommendations stretching across all 1999 around 16 per cent of students in aspects of the higher and further education further education were taking information support mechanisms. technology courses with around 15 per cent taking family and personal care The Scottish Executive agreed the courses and 10 per cent taking business following. and office studies. However in higher To be implemented by autumn 2000 education in 1999, 23 per cent of students were taking business administration, with • The abolition of tuition fees for all around 40 per cent of students taking one Scottish and EU domiciled full-time of allied medicine (nursing etc), engineering, students. social studies or multidisciplinary studies. • An additional £3m per annum in support of FE students’ childcare costs. Within higher education the large increase in student numbers has not been equally To be implemented by autumn 2001 spread across the subject topics. Some areas • A commitment to take steps to align the such as allied medicine have increased further education student support dramatically due to administrative changes scheme with the higher education (nursing qualifications since 1995 have support scheme. been included in higher education not • Additional Access payments of up to further education), but other areas such as £2,000 targeted at higher education engineering whilst maintaining the same students from low income families. number of students over the last decade • Introduction of a Graduate Endowment has actually seen a fall from 16 per cent of scheme for higher education students, all students taking engineering to under 10 to help fund additional maintenance for per cent of all students. It is interesting to higher education students from note that in 1988, 23 per cent of higher currently under-represented groups. education students took business Groups exempt from Endowment administration courses which is the same repayment include mature students, percentage as in 1999. lone parents, disabled students and HND/HNC students.

The current position is that Scottish students and EU students – excluding those from England, Wales and Northern 49

Ireland – attending Scottish establishments and Information and Communication do not pay tuition fees, however Scottish Technology developments. The local students taking up courses in another part authorities however receive the vast of the UK will be assessed to make a majority of educational funding through the contribution as was previously the case. Grant Allocated Expenditure (GAE) Agreement. Funding is also made directly The 1999 Scottish Social Attitudes Survey from central government to the Scottish indicated that 42 per cent of people Higher Education and Further Education thought that all students attending higher Funding Councils (SHEFC, SFEFC). education should get their tuition fees paid by the government and a further 50 per In 1998-99 the GAE was £ 2,436.8 million cent thought that tuition fees should be and for 2000-01 this has risen to £ 2,718.2 paid for some students depending on their million – an increase of 11.5 per cent. circumstances. Looking at the central government spending, the budget outwith those areas 3 The same survey also revealed that around covered by the GAE is planned to rise one quarter of the people interviewed felt from £ 61.0 million in 1998-99 to £ 96.4 that university students should expect to million during 2001-2 – an increase of take out loans to help cover living costs, almost 60 per cent – with the majority of whereas just over 60 per cent felt that this increase being accounted for by university students should not be expected spending on pupil support. to take out a loan for this reason. Table 3.18 outlines the current and planned spending on Further and Higher Expenditure Education. The distinction between Higher and Further education colleges is blurred, Government spending on education takes with 30 per cent of HE students taking various forms. There is the direct funding their courses at FE colleges. Combining the by central government in a number of FE and HE funding the planned spending in areas including grant aided special schools, 2001-2 is £ 1,035.7 million compared with HMI of Schools, assisted places scheme the spend in 1998-99 of £ 823.4 million.

Table 3.18: Spending on Higher and Further Education, 1998-99 to 2001-2 Funding £m in 1998-99 £m in 1999-00 £m in 2000-01 £m in 2001-02 (out turn) (estimate) (plans) (plans)

Student Awards Agency 348.8 308.7 305.1 300.2 for Scotland

Scottish Higher Education 531.9 601.8 609.4 641.6 Funding Council

Scottish Futher Education 291.5 329.1 358.1 394.1 Funding Council

Careers Guidance 24.7 24.0 23.8 23.8

Source: Annual Expenditure Report: Scottish Executive 50

References and further reading

Social Justice Annual Report 2000, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjm-00.asp Social Justice Indicators of Progress, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjip-00.asp Summary Results of the School Census, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/news/2000/11/se2809.asp Raising Standards and Setting Targets, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc08/stss-00.htm Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, National Centre for Social Research http://www.natcen.ac.uk 3 The Annual Expenditure Report of the Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc14/iiy-00.asp National Dossier 1999 : Education and Training in Scotland http://www.eurydice.org/Eurybase/Application/frameset.asp?country=SC&language=VO Scottish Further Education Funding Council http://www.sfefc.ac.uk/infact/ Scottish Higher Education Funding Council http://www.shefc.ac.uk/ Destination of Leavers from Scottish Schools : Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00048-00.asp

Contacts Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 3, Education : Scottish Executive Chapter author 0131 244 7310 Pete Whitehouse [email protected] School Census and primary school 0131 244 0323 qualifications [email protected] Adam Krawczyk Secondary school Qualifications 0131 244 0303 Wilma Schofield [email protected] Absence and violence against staff 0131 244 0322 Dave Sorenson [email protected]

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey Kerstin Hinds 0131 557 5494 [email protected] Labour Market Chapter4 52

Work is a major part of life for most This chapter provides a short overview of people living in Scotland. Young people the labour market from a social under the school leaving age of 16 are not perspective: Scottish Economic Statistics usually included in labour market analyses, provides further information. though they may have some paid work, such as the traditional 'paper round', or in shops. There are concerns that paid work Economic Activity amongst school children and students is increasing, with possible adverse effects on In Spring 2000, 2.5 million people aged 16 their educational attainment. or over were either in a job or seeking work (economically active). The economic Most people enter the world of work after activity rate is the percentage of people in they finish their education. The an age group who are economically active. Government provides support schemes, The economic activity rate for people aged such as the New Deals, to help people 16 and over was 62.5 per cent. Few people who want to work but are unable to find a over retirement age (60 for women and 65 job. These packages typically include for men) are economically active (61 financial support, (through the benefit or thousand or around 1 in 14 in Spring 2000). tax systems), training and other help (for For the population of working age (16 to 4 example for those with caring 59 for women and 16 to 64 for men), the responsibilities). economic activity rate was 77.9 per cent (Table 4.1). Men are more likely to be Various groups, such as women, people economically active than women. from ethnic minorities and those with disabilities, still suffer disadvantage in the In Spring 2000, 698 thousand people of labour market. working age were economically inactive (want work but are not actively looking for The Scottish Executive's Social Justice it or are unavailable for work). Of these, strategy includes several targets to narrow 474 thousand (around two-thirds) did not the gaps between these groups and the want a job. The main reasons given for not 'mainstream' labour market. seeking work were long-term illness (80 thousand people, or 40 per cent of those Many people no longer work 9 to 5, 5 days wanting a job), looking after the home or a week: alternatives such as flexible family (56 thousand people, mostly women) working hours and term-time working and studying (27 thousand people). allow them to balance work and home commitments. Some job-share. New communications technologies offer the prospect of working from home, rather than going to the office. However, the UK's long hours culture can be a major cause of stress for workers, and high-profile cases of harassment and bullying in the workplace regularly feature in the media. 53

Table 4.1 Economic activity of people of working age: by gender, Spring 2000 Thousand and percentages Male Female All Number % Number % Number % All economically active 1,356 82.9 1,106 72.5 2,461 77.9 In employment 1,232 75.3 1,040 68.2 2,272 71.9 Full-time 1,136 69.5 589 38.7 1,726 54.6 Part-time 96 5.8 450 29.5 546 17.3 ILO Unemployed 124 7.6 66 4.3 190 6.0 Inactive 280 17.1 419 27.5 698 22.1 Total 1,635 100.0 1,524 100.0 3,160 100.0

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey

Economic activity rates vary by age – young paper on Training for Work for the long- people, many of whom are still continuing term unemployed included a proposal that their education, are less likely to be those over 50 would be offered early entry 4 economically active, as are those over 50 to the programme, which provides support (Table 4.2). People in the 50-59/64 age for skills development for those who wish group often have difficulty returning to to return to work. work for example, if they have been sick or made redundant. In April 2000, The UK For all ages, women's economic activity Government introduced the New Deal for rates are lower than those for men, though the over 50s. This is a voluntary scheme, the difference is small for those aged 16- available to people who are economically 17. One factor which affects women's inactive or unemployed, when they or their ability to take up employment is their partner have been on benefits for more than family responsibilities, both for children six months. In Scotland, the consultation and more generally as carers.

Table 4.2 Economic activity rates of people of working age: by gender and age, Spring 2000 Percentages Male Female All All of working age 82.9 72.5 77.9 16-17 58.4 57.0 57.7 18-24 82.0 69.3 75.7 25-34 91.7 77.1 84.5 35-49 90.6 79.6 85.0 50-59/64 69.3 59.8 65.2

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey 54

The future structure of the labour market Women whose youngest child is aged under will be affected by overall changes in the age 5 are less likely to be economically active distribution of the population, discussed in than women with no children or those chapter 1. In particular, by 2016, the numbers with older children (Table 4.3). The overall in the age group from 45 to 60/65 will rise in women's economic activity rates in have increased, while those aged 16-44 will recent years reflects increases in the rates have fallen. In 2016, over 40 per cent of for women whose youngest child was aged the population of working age is projected under five, which have risen from 53 per to be aged 45 and over, compared to 32 per cent in 1993 to 60 per cent in 1999, while cent in 1991 and 34 per cent in 2000. those for other women changed very little.

Table 4.3 Economic activity rates of working age women: by age of youngest child, 1993 and 1999 Percentages 1993 1999 No children 75 73 4 Youngest child aged under 5 53 60 6-10 70 72 over 10 76 77

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey

Other groups, such as disabled people and Because of the small numbers of the those from ethnic minorities, also have Scottish population who come from ethnic different experiences of the labour market. minorities, it is not possible to produce a similarly detailed analysis of their labour Just over half of disabled people of working market status from the sources currently age (those with a health problem lasting available. The economic activity rate for over a year) were economically active in non-white men was slightly lower than that 1999, compared to over three quarters of for all men in 1999 (72 per cent compared all people of working age. There was less to 81 per cent), while the rate for women difference in economic activity rates between from an ethnic minority was markedly disabled men and women than in the lower than that for white women (36 per general population. The pattern of working cent compared to 72 per cent). was similar to that of all people - most men worked full-time, while almost half of women worked part-time (Table 4.4). 55

Table 4.4 Economic activity of disabled people of working age: by gender, 1999 Percentages Male Female All All economically active 55.5 51.4 53.6 In employment1 48.0 46.6 47.4 Full-time 43.1 26.3 35.3 Part-time 4.8 20.2 11.9 ILO Unemployed 7.6 4.7 6.3 Inactive 44.5 48.6 46.4 Population of working age 419 359 779 (thousands) (=100%)

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey Note 1: Includes a small number of persons for whom it is not known whether employment is full or part time.

4 Employment

In Spring 2000, 2.3 million people of working Nearly half of the Scottish workforce were age in Scotland were in employment. women. However, while most men worked 'In employment' includes employees, the full-time, only 55 per cent of women did self-employed, people on government (Chart 4.5). Two thirds of those who were employment and training schemes and working part-time did not want a full-time those working unpaid in family businesses. job. The majority of people in employment were employees (2.1 million). There were The employment rate is the percentage of also 208 thousand self-employed and 18 people in an age group who are in thousand on government employment and employment. The employment rate for the training schemes. population of working age has remained fairly steady at around 70 per cent during The number of self-employed people the 1990s. increased quite rapidly in the second half of the 1980s, from 166 thousand in 1984 to 222 thousand in 1998. The rate of increase slowed substantially thereafter, with numbers reaching a peak of 234 thousand in 1998, before decreasing in 1999 and 2000. Levels of self-employment are lower in Scotland than in the rest of the UK. 56

Chart 4.5 People in employment: During the second half of the 1990s by gender and mode of women's participation in the labour market working, Spring 2000 continued to increase, though less markedly than in the earlier part of the decade and in the 1980s (Chart 4.6). In June 1999, 68.5 per cent of women of working age were in employment, compared to 65.8 per cent in 1995, 62.8 per cent in 1989 and 54.2 per cent in 1984. The employment rate for men (74.4 per cent in June 1999) remains higher than that for women, though the gap has narrowed considerably – in 1960, 96.5 per cent of men of working men full-time 48% age were in employment, compared to men part-time 5% 44.7 per cent of women. women full-time 26% women part-time 21% 4 Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey Chart 4.6 Population of working age: employment rates by gender, June

100

40 Percentages 30

0 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 All Male Female

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey

Women still experience difficulty breaking men, while 75 per cent of clerical and into senior levels at work – nearly 70 per secretarial workers are women, as are 70 cent of managers and administrators are per cent of those in sales occupations. 57

Chart 4.7 Population of working age: employment by occupation and gender, Spring 2000 Percentages Male Female Managers & administrators

Professional

Associated prof & tech

Clerical & secretarial

Craft & related

Personal & protective

Sales

Plant & machine operatives

Other inc not known

All employees

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 4 Percentages

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey

Employment rates vary widely between Chart 4.8 Population of working age: different areas in Scotland. Chart 4.8 looks employment rates by local at employment rates for the population of authority, 1998 working age in unitary authorities at Spring 1998. The lowest rate was in Glasgow Employment rate (%) 16-59/64 (57.0 per cent) and the highest Shetland under 70.0% (83.3 per cent). There are considerable 70.0%, under 72.5% variations even within authorities, such as 72.5%, under 75.0% wards. Only a rough measure of the 75.0%, under 77.5% unemployment rate is available for these areas as wards generally contain around, or 77.5% and over fewer than, 5 thousand households. Some wards have rates that suggest they are at, or approaching, full employment, whereas some have rates many times higher than the Scotland average. Fifty wards in Scotland had unemployment rates twice the Scotland average in both 1989 and in 1999. Almost half of these were in Glasgow. The remainder are spread across Scotland, but tend to be in larger towns and cities.

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey 58

Employment patterns Table 4.9 Average hours worked1 per week by full-time Compared to the rest of the EU, full-time employees: by gender, workers in the UK work on average the EU comparison, 1998 longest hours per week, with Scottish Hours figures very similar to those for the UK Male Female overall (Table 4.9). For example, in 1998, male full-time employees in Scotland Scotland 45.4 39.9 worked an average of 45.4 hours a week in EU average2 41.3 39.0 their main job, while females worked on average 39.9 hours. The EU averages were Austria 40.2 39.8 41.3 hours for males and 39.0 for females. Belgium 39.1 37.5 After the UK (45.7), the highest hours for Denmark 39.3 37.7 males were for Portugal (42.1) and the lowest for Belgium (39.1). For females, the Finland 40.1 38.2 UK was again the highest (40.7), followed France 40.3 38.7 by Sweden (40.0), with the lowest Italy (36.3). Germany 40.4 39.3 Greece 41.7 39.3 4 The Working Time Regulations, which Italy 39.7 36.3 became law in the UK in October 1998, require employers to ensure that workers Luxembourg 40.3 37.4 do not work more than an average of 48 Netherlands 39.2 38.5 hours per week. However, the employee Portugal 42.1 39.6 can agree to work longer. In 1999, around 1 in 6 workers in Scotland worked more Spain 41.2 39.6 than 48 hours a week: this rose to 1 in 4 Sweden 40.2 40.0 of non-whites. United Kingdom 45.7 40.7

At Spring 2000, 166 thousand people had a Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey temporary job: of these, 64 thousand could Note 1: Excludes main breaks but includes regularly worked not find a permanent job and 42 thousand paid and unpaid overtime. did not want a permanent job. 2: Average calculated with 1997 data for Irish Republic.

In 1999, nearly one in five Scottish employees worked some kind of flexible working pattern. This increased to one in four amongst women workers. Overall, the most common form of flexible working was flexible working hours ('flexi-time'), worked by almost one in ten full-time workers and one in twenty part-time workers. Term time working was more common amongst part-time women workers. 59

Table 4.10 Employees with flexible working patterns: by gender, 1999 Percentages Male Female All Full-time Flexi-time 7.9 13.1 9.8 Annualized hours contract 3.6 4.1 3.8 Term time working * 4.3 2.1 Four and a half day week * * 1.9 Any flexible pattern(1) 15.7 24.2 18.8 Part-time Flexi-time 5.9 5.1 5.2 Term time working 3.6 7.3 6.7

Source: Office for National Statistics, Labour Force Survey Note 1: Includes people on other full-time flexible working patterns.

References and further reading 4

Scottish Economic Statistics, Scottish Executive www.scotland.gov.uk/stats

Scottish Economic Report: July 2000, Scottish Executive www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/economics/ser-00.asp

Labour Force Survey Quarterly Bulletin, Office for National Statistics www.statistics.gov.uk/nsbase/themes/labour_market/default.asp

Developing Skills and Employability: Training for the long-term unemployed, Scottish Executive www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc09/dset-00.asp

Social Justice – Annual Report Scotland 2000, Scottish Executive www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjm-00.asp

Social Justice – Indicators of Progress, Scottish Executive www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjip-00.asp 60

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 4, Labour Market

Scottish Executive Chapter Author Catriona McKay 0131 244 0310 [email protected]

Labour Market Statistics Roger Halliday 0141 242 5451 [email protected]

Office for National Statistics Labour market statistics helpline 020 7533 6094 email [email protected]

4 Income, Wealth and Expenditure

Chapter5 62

Income, Wealth and Expenditure Scottish Economic Statistics provides further information, for example, on trends For most people (and households), their on household income from the national main source of income is the pay they get and regional accounts. from work. Those not in work (such as the unemployed, elderly, and people who are Income and Earnings unable to work) depend, to a greater or lesser extent, on a wide range of social Information on household income is security benefits. In the past, the tax and collected directly in several of the large benefit regimes resulted in some Government surveys. The next analysis low-income families being caught in the uses benefit units, rather than households, ‘poverty trap’, where an increase in earned as the unit of analysis, but these can be income resulted in a loss of benefit, which regarded as roughly similar, though some left them no better or worse off overall. households consist of more than one The Government is now moving to a more benefit unit. In 1998/99, for all kinds of integrated tax-benefit system, with the units, around two thirds of income came introduction of, for example, working from wages and salaries. This proportion families tax credit. was higher for units consisting of a single male or female without children, and Our consumer-orientated society offers couples (with or without children), all of many opportunities to spend. The first which derived three quarters or more of priorities are food and shelter. As we grow their income from wages and salaries. more affluent, an increasing proportion of Not surprisingly, around three quarters of our income is spent on non-necessities, pensioners’ incomes came from state and 5 such as leisure pursuits and travel, to the other pensions, with most of the extent that people who cannot afford remainder from investments and social these can now be regarded as ‘deprived’. security disability and other benefits. Credit, in its many forms, allows us to Pensioners derived a higher proportion of borrow to acquire expensive capital items. their income from investments than other However, used unwisely, it can lead to a units but had a greater dependence on deepening spiral of debt and bankruptcy. social security disability benefits. Around Lack of access to traditional financial three fifths of single parents’ income came services, such as banks and credit, may from benefits, with only one third from force the socially excluded into wages and salaries (Table 5.1). high-interest forms of borrowing and further financial difficulties.

Many people put part of their income into savings, in an ever-increasing range of bank and building society accounts, many of which offer tax or other incentives. Internet banking is a recent development. People also invest in pensions and private health care and in stocks and shares. For many, their most significant asset will be the house in which they live.

This chapter provides a short overview of these issues from a social perspective: 63

Table 5.1: Components of gross weekly benefit unit income by family status (1), Scotland, 1998/9 Percentage of gross weekly benefit unit income, £

Source of Income

State Gross Retire- benefit ment unit Self Pension Social Other income Wages employ- plus Security Social (=100%) and ment Invest- Income Other disability Security Other (£ per Family Status salaries income ments Support Pensions benefits Benefits Sources week)

Pensioner Couple 4 584134531290 Single male pensioner 1 21144268 8 _180 Single female pensioner 2 – 6 48 21 8 14 1 160 Couple with children 77 1510–151610 Couple without children 75 7317421510 Single with children 31 1–014577200 Single male without children 75 5201485200 Single female without children 77 2102386190 All benefit units 64 8377472330 5

Source: Department of Social Security, Family Resources Survey Note 1: The small sample size for Scotland means that there is a high margin of error in estimates of income level for specific groups; comparisons between groups should therefore be treated with caution.

The distribution of income is not varied than that for Great Britain with symmetrical – it has a long ‘tail’ of people fewer people with very high or very low with high household incomes, while most household incomes. Scotland had a higher people are in a smaller range of lower percentage of people with household household incomes. Chart 5.2 compares incomes between £100 and £450 per week the income distributions in Scotland and and a lower percentage with household Great Britain, for 1996/97 to 1998/99. The incomes of £450 a week or more. income distribution for Scotland was less 64

Chart 5.2: Individuals in households, by equivalised net household income after housing costs, Scotland and GB, 1996/7-1998/99 combined

20 18 Scotland 16 GB 14 12 10 8 % of individuals 6 4 2 0 < 100- 150- 200- 250- 300- 350- 400- 450- 500- 550- 600- 650- 700- 750- 800- 850- 900- 950- 1000 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 + Equivalised Net Household Income After Housing Costs (£/week at Jan 1998 prices) Source: Department of Social Security, Households below average income (HBAI)

Income from employment (earnings) is the Chart 5.3: Average gross weekly earnings 5 most important component of household of full-time workers on adult rates, by income. Within Scotland, average earnings, local authority, Scotland, April 2000 as opposed to incomes vary, being higher in the cities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Unknown Glasgow, and lower in rural areas such as Under £340 £340 but under £365 Highland. Differences in average earnings £365 but under £390 reflect differences in the types of work £390 and over available in particular areas, as well as differences between areas in wages for the same kind of work (Chart 5.3).

Weekly earnings are lower in Scotland than in Great Britain as a whole and the gap is widening. In 1975, men in Scotland earned an average £60.30, 99 per cent of the GB figure. In 2000, they earned an average of £423, 93 per cent of the GB average. Figures for women showed similar differences. However, earnings differences between men and women were narrowing. In 1975, the average earnings of women in Scotland were 60 per cent of those of men, while by 2000, this had increased to 75 per cent (Chart 5.4).

Source: Office for National Statistics, New Earnings Survey 65

Chart 5.4: Average weekly earnings by gender, Scotland and Great Britain, 1975-2000

500 450 400 350 300 250 200

Average earnings (£) Average 150 Scotland Men 100 Scotland Women GB Men 50 GB Women 0 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 Year Source: Office for National Statistics, New Earnings Survey

Benefits and Taxes Chart 5.5: Percentage of the population of In May 2000, there were 567,200 working age claiming a key Social Security 5 claimants of working age in Scotland in benefit by Local Authority, Scotland, May 2000 receipt of one or more key social security Under 10% benefits (Jobseeker’s Allowance, Incapacity 10%, under 15% Benefit, Severe Disablement Allowance, 15%, under 20% 20%, under 25% Disability Living Allowance), 18 per cent of 25% and over the population of working age. Of these, 114 thousand were unemployed, 351 thousand were disabled and just over 80 thousand single parents. In Glasgow, three in ten of the population of working age were in receipt of one or more key benefits (106 thousand claimants), while less than one in ten were in Aberdeenshire (Chart 5.5).

At August 2000, 108 thousand households were receiving working families tax credit and 2,400 disabled persons tax credit.

Source: Department of Social Security 66

Poverty The traditional way of measuring poverty living. To do this, income is adjusted to has been to concentrate on relative or allow for the differing numbers of people absolute income. While low income is in the household – a young single person clearly a key element of poverty, there is will enjoy a higher potential standard of an increasing awareness that exclusion living than a couple with children with the from services, lack of access to facilities same disposable income. It concentrates and lack of opportunity are also significant on the lower part of the income elements of poverty. Increasingly, distribution. Thresholds are defined Governments talk of social exclusion, relative to median, rather than mean, rather than just low income or income – this reflects an agreement unemployment, and focus on developing reached in the European Union in 1998 on and implementing policies to address the the presentation of such statistics. whole issue of poverty. In 1998/9, more than one in five individuals One widely used analysis is that of in Scotland lived in a household with an Households Below Average Income: this income below 0.6 of the Great Britain provides estimates of personal disposable median income. This increased to more income and attempts to use these to than half for single parents with children measure people’s potential standard of (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6: Percentage of individuals below various thresholds of GB median equivalised income 5 by family type (including self-employed, after housing costs) Scotland and GB, 1998/9 (1, 2) Percentages Scotland Great Britain Percentage of each group with income Percentage of each group with income below proportion of the median below proportion of the median Below Below Below Below Below Below Below Below Family Type 0.5 0.6 0.7 median 0.5 0.6 0.7 median

Pensioner couple 10 (22) 36 64 (12) 23 34 58 Single pensioner (10) (31) 42 64 (12) (33) 44 65 Couple with children 13 19 25 47 (16) (22) (30) (52) Couple without children 9 11 15 30 9 11 15 28 Single with children 46 55 65 90 (41) (59) 69 87 Single without children 17 25 30 (49) (16) 22 26 43 All family types 15 22 29 50 16 24 31 50

Source: Department of Social Security, Households Below Average Income (HBAI) Note 1: Estimates in brackets () are particularly uncertain due to small sample sizes. 2. Household income is equivalised to take account of the number of individuals living in the household 67

Expenditure Table 5.7: Average weekly household expenditure, Scotland, 1996/97-1998/9 In the latter part of the 1990s, total average average weekly household expenditure was just £s and percentages over £300. Around a fifth of this was spent on food and non-alcoholic drinks: this £% increased to more than a quarter if Total 305.70 100 alcoholic drink and tobacco were also included. Almost a further fifth was spent Housing (net) 43.50 14 on housing and fuel. Travel (motoring, fares Fuel and power 13.60 4 and other travel costs) accounted for a Food and non-alcoholic drinks 57.80 19 sixth and leisure goods and services a Alcoholic drinks 13.70 4 similar proportion (Table 5.7). Tobacco 8.10 3 Clothing and footwear 19.90 7 Household goods 24.30 8 Household services 15.40 5 Motoring expenditure 43.10 14 Fares and other travel costs 7.40 2 Personal goods and services 10.10 3 Leisure goods 15.50 5 Leisure services 32.50 11 Miscellaneous 0.80 0

Source: Office for National Statistics, Family Expenditure Survey 5

Savings and financial concerns Information on savings is collected in the One in seven households did not have a Scottish Household Survey. However, 6 bank or building society account: this rose per cent of respondents refused to answer to one in three for single parent whether or not they had any savings, and households. of those who said they did have savings or investments 26 per cent refused to specify Overall, one in eight respondents said they the amount. Bearing this in mind, in 1999, had worried about money almost all the slightly more than half of all households time in the last few weeks: one in three had some form of savings or investments. single parents did. By contrast, older Small adult and older smaller households smaller and single pensioner households were most likely to have savings or were least likely to worry about money. investments (around two thirds). However, only one in five single parent households did (Table 5.8). 68

Table 5.8: Financial issues, by household type, Scotland, 1999 Percentages

Have Have a bank or Worried about money Never worried Household savings or building society almost all the time in about money in type investments account the last few weeks the last few weeks

Single adult 44 80 18 30 Small adult 63 92 10 41 SIngle parent 19 68 34 11 Small family 57 93 12 29 Large family 49 88 17 26 Large adult 57 90 12 39 Older smaller 63 88 5 54 Single pensioner 53 79 6 51

All household types 54 86 12 38

Source: Scottish Executive, Scottish Household Survey 1999

5 69

References and further reading

Scottish Economic Statistics, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats

Regional Household Sector Income, Office for National Statistics http://www.statistics.gov.uk/pdfdir/reg1100.pdf

Client Group Analysis Quarterly bulletin on the population of working age on key benefits May 2000, Department of Social Security http://www.dss.gov.uk/asd/asd1/cga-wa.pdf

Household Below Average Income 1994/5 to 1998/9, Department of Social Security http://www.dss.gov.uk/publications/dss/2000/hbai/index.htm

Scotland’s People: Results from the 1999 Scottish Household Survey, Volume 1, Annual Report, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/shs/docs/rep99-v1.pdf 5 Social Justice – Annual Report Scotland 2000, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjm-00.asp

Social Justice – Indicators of Progress, Scottish Executive, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjip-00.asp 70

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 5, Income, Wealth and Expenditure:

Scottish Executive Chapter Author Catriona McKay 0131 244 0310 [email protected]

Office of the Chief Economic Adviser Julie Goodall 0131 244 3004 [email protected]

Labour Market Statistics Roger Halliday 0141 242 5451 [email protected]

Office for National Statistics General public enquiries 020 7533 5888 [email protected]

Department of Social Security 5 Client Group Analysis Stuart Grant 0191 225 6048 [email protected]

Households Below Average Income 020 7962 8232 [email protected] Health

Chapter6 72

The health of an individual may be influenced of the total Scottish workforce were by a wide range of factors such as current employed by NHSScotland. socio-economic circumstances, environmental factors, genetics, lifestyle Over time there have been considerable choices and health related behaviours. improvements in many important areas of The provision and quality of health services health care provision. However, there is available to individuals have an important often quite a difference between the most part to play in concert with the services affluent and the most deprived in our provided by other organisations, to society, both in the incidence of illness and improve the wider public health. disease and the subsequent recovery rates. Many of the lifestyle factors that impact on The provision of health care and related health, such as smoking, substance misuse, services through the NHSScotland was and drinking to excess vary considerably over £5 billion in 1999-00, almost a thousand across that spectrum. This chapter explores pounds for every man, woman and child, some of the key long term health trends. and in September 1999 around 6 per cent

Life Expectancy

Life expectancy is a key indicator of the infant mortality rate (the number of deaths health of a population. A male child born in of infants aged one or less per 1 thousand 1999 could expect to live to almost 73 live births) since 1971. There has been a years of age, and a female child born at the dramatic fall in infant mortality over this same time could expect to live to 78 years period. The trend in the infant mortality of age. Chapter 1 on Population contains rate has been downwards since the start of more information on life expectancy. the 20th century with sharp declines being associated with better nutrition, improved A decrease in infant mortality has living conditions, better obstetric care, contributed to the improvement in life immunisation and improved medical and 6 expectancy at birth. Chart 6.1 shows the surgical treatments.

Chart 6.1: Infant Mortality, 1971-99

Deaths per 1,000 live births 5

0 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: General Register Office for Scotland 73

Priority Health Topics Topics have included healthy eating, smoking cessation, cutting down on excessive The priorities for the NHSScotland reflect alcohol consumption and increasing major issues that affect the health of the physical exercise. Of all deaths among population. These include cancer, coronary under 75 year olds in 1999, roughly one heart disease, child health and mental health. third died from cancer and one fifth from heart disease. Coronary Heart Disease and Chart 6.2 shows the mortality rates, Cancer among under 75 year olds, per 100 In Scotland the most common causes of thousand population from cancer and heart death are cancers and heart disease. disease over the period 1986 to 1999. There have been a number of high profile These figures have been age standardised campaigns and initiatives to encourage the to take account of any changes in the age public to reduce their risk from these. distribution of the population over time – to show a like for like comparison.

Chart 6.2: Mortality rates under 75 year olds: 1986-99 250

200

150

100 6 Cancer 50 Coronary Heart Disease Mortality Rates per 100,000 population Mortality Rates

0 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: General Register Office for Scotland Note: The mortality rates for under 75 year olds are age standardised Death rates for heart disease and cancer the under 75 year olds, particularly for heart are improving, with the mortality rates for disease, mortality rates in Scotland tend to coronary heart disease, among under 75 be significantly higher than in other year olds, having almost halved since 1986. industrial countries. The mortality rates for The mortality rate for cancer fell by 12 per coronary heart disease are four times higher cent over this period. in Scotland than in France. For cancer, mortality rates are above those in other industrialised countries, however While the mortality rates from cancer and incomplete population coverage of cancer heart disease have seen a decline among statistics make comparisons difficult. 74

The mortality rate for coronary heart 95 the highest numbers of cases were seen disease differs by gender, with women for cancer of the lung (includes trachea and having a much lower mortality rate than bronchus), large bowel and prostate in men men. In 1986 the mortality rate among and breast, lung and large bowel in women under 75 year olds from heart disease was which during 1991-95 accounted for 52 274.5 per 100 thousand men and 131.2 per cent of all cancers. The variation per 100 thousand women. In 1999 the between men and women is clearly shown corresponding rates were 162.4 for men in Chart 6.3 giving the 10 most frequently and 73.1 for women. diagnosed cancers by gender in 1997. The most common cancer diagnosed for The mortality and incidence rates for men, lung cancer, is over 40 per cent higher cancer differ between men and women in men than for women. and type of cancer. Over the period 1991-

Chart 6.3: Ten most frequently diagnosed cancers by gender: 1997

Breast Lung Large Bowel Ovary Corpus Uteri Stomach Female Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma Malignant Melanoma of skin Bladder Cervix uteri 6 Lung Prostate Large Bowel Bladder Head and Neck Stomach Oesosphagus Male Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma Kidney Leukaemias 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 Number of registrations

Source: ISD Scotland 75

Child Health

A priority for the NHSScotland is the care it after their second birthday, and so are not and treatment of children. Health from immunised within the target age. Recent conception is important, for example analysis of MMR suggests that uptake might maternal smoking during pregnancy is be considered to have plateaued by 24 clearly related to the early delivery of infants months. The drop in uptake of MMR may of low birth weight. In 1998, the percentage be as a result of concerns among parents of mothers smoking at the time of booking over alleged side effects of the vaccine. (first consultation with GP regarding pregnancy) was 28 per cent. This has Immunisation programs have had a remained fairly consistent over the last five significant effect on the levels of certain years. The likelihood of the mother smoking diseases. The MMR vaccine introduced in varies considerably with age, with those the mid 1980s and the whooping cough under 24 years old about twice as likely to vaccine introduced in the 1950s are smoke as older women. Smoking around examples of national vaccination programs infants is known to increase the chances of that have brought about notable changes in sudden infant death syndrome and passive levels of disease. For measles, mumps, smoking is an important contributor to rubella and whooping cough in children childhood respiratory infections. under 15 years old there have been significant falls in the number of confirmed Immunisation has a major role to play in the notifications. Between 1989 and 1999, fight against childhood diseases. A 95 per cases of measles fell 87 per cent to 399 cent target uptake rate among children by cases, mumps fell by 95 per cent and the age of two is set for each of the six rubella by 92 per cent. Reported cases of immunisation programmes: diphtheria; whooping cough fell by 72 per cent to 174 tetanus; whooping cough; polio; haemophilus cases over the same period. influenza b; and measles, mumps and rubella (MMR). If uptake for a given The sexual health of teenagers is also a programme falls considerably below the public health issue. Teenage pregnancy is 6 target then the risk of an epidemic significantly more common amongst increases. With the exception of MMR, the disadvantaged youngsters from poor uptake of these vaccinations has remained backgrounds. Children of teenage parents fairly consistent over the later part of the are more likely to grow up in poverty and 1990s at around 97 per cent. disadvantage and are more likely to become teenage parents themselves. The Over this period uptake of MMR has been teenage pregnancy rate in Scotland is one below the 95 per cent target – falling to a of the highest in Western Europe. In most low of 91 per cent in June 1999 before rising other Western European countries, back to 93 per cent in June 2000 where it concerted action has improved matters appears to have stabilised. The lower levels over time. Chart 6.4 shows the long term of uptake of MMR are thought to be due in trend in Scotland since 1985. The rate at part to the fact that MMR is administered in 1985 (three year average) was 6.6 the second year of life rather than the first pregnancies per 1 thousand girls aged three months as is the case for other 13-15 and by the early 1990s this had risen programmes. As a result some children to 8.7 per 1 thousand girls, at which level it may have the MMR immunisation but have seems to have remained over the 1990s. 76

Chart 6.4: Teenage pregnancy rate: (conceptions), 1985-98

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 Rate per 1,000 Rate 3 2 1 0 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Year

Source: ISD Scotland Note: The information has been averaged over three years in order to help identify any trend in the data

Mental Health of Children and Adolescents

A 1999 Office for National Statistics study cent. These figures doubled effectively for showed that, for 5 to 10 year olds 10 per children living with lone parents, where no cent of boys and 6 per cent of girls had a parent had worked, where the household 6 mental disorder. In 11 to 15 year olds the income was low and in areas of marked proportions were 13 per cent and 10 per social deprivation.

Mental Health of Adults About half of those with mental health problems in the community seek help from the health service. Around 90 per cent of those with mental health conditions that present for treatment are treated by a GP. Chart 6.5 shows the top ten reasons for visiting a GP and the consultation rates per one thousand population. 77

Chart 6.5: Ten most common reasons for visiting GP: 1999

Upper Respiratory Tract Infection (exc. sore throat) Depression Hypertension Back Problems Lower Respiratory Tract Infection Anxiety Sore Throat Arthralgia Eczema / Dermatitis Itch / Rash

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Consultation rate per 1,000 population

Source: ISD Scotland Note: Data based on 43 General Practices

If the consultation rates for depression and people aged over 15 and is significantly anxiety conditions are taken together they higher in women, than in men, from age 15 give a combined consultation rate of 240 throughout the life span. The estimated per 1 thousand population in 1999 making prevalence is more than twice as high in them the most common reason for visiting women aged 15-64 compared to men. a GP. Chart 6.6 shows the estimated However, these comparisons should be prevalence for depressive illness by age treated with some caution as they are based 6 group and gender – excluding postnatal on GP consultations, and it is possible that depression. women may be more willing to consult their GPs than men. Post natal depression The estimated prevalence of depressive affects one in six women after childbirth – illness, as treated by GPs, is much higher in more in areas of social deprivation. 78

Chart 6.6: Depressive illness: Annual prevalence by gender and age: 1999

120

Males 100 Females

20 Prevalance rate per 1,000 population Prevalance

0 0 - 4 5 - 14 15 - 24 25 - 44 45 - 64 65 - 74 75 - 84 85+

Source: ISD Scotland Note: Data based on 43 General Practices

Deprivation and Lifestyle Factors Cancer

The health of an individual is linked to a For many cancers, incidence and mortality range of factors including age, gender, tend to be higher and survival tends to be inherited factors as well as deprivation and lower for people who live in the more 6 life style choices. Mortality rates for cancer, deprived areas. Chart 6.7 shows the coronary heart disease, and child health mortality rates per 100 thousand population issues like smoking during pregnancy and for cancer for persons aged less than 75 teenage pregnancies all show variations by years by deprivation category and gender. deprivation category, where generally Mortality rates for women show a people in more deprived areas have relatively slight increase across deprivation, poorer health. The variation in each of with the most deprived area showing the these aspects by deprivation (using the highest rates. For men the relationship Carstairs and Morris Index as the measure between deprivation and mortality rates of deprivation) combines with a range of for cancer appears more marked, with lifestyle factors to impact on health – those in the least deprived categories inequalities in health related to deprivation having the lowest mortality rates. are observed across a wide range of diseases. 79

Chart 6.7: Cancer mortality rates under 75 year olds: Deprivation and gender: 1999

300

250

200

150 Mortality rates 100

0 Depcat 1 Depcat 2 Depcat 3 Depcat 4 Depcat 5 Depcat 6 Depcat 7 Depcat 1 Depcat 2 Depcat 3 Depcat 4 Depcat 5 Depcat 6 Depcat 7 (most (most (most (most affluent) Males deprived) affluent) Females deprived)

Source: ISD Scotland Note 1: The mortality rate is per 100 thousand people aged 75 and under. 2: Depcat is the Carstairs and Morris Index of Deprivation.

The relationship between deprivation and among the 20 per cent living in the most mortality, incidence and survival rates for deprived areas in Scotland. The incidence cancer differs by type of cancer. Analysis and mortality rates for lung cancer are over the period 1991-95 shows that the much higher in the more deprived areas, survival rate from cancer of the lung, the with less people in the most affluent areas most common cancer among men and being diagnosed with lung cancer and those 6 second most common in women, is poorer diagnosed having higher survival rates.

Coronary Heart Disease

It is also clear that mortality from coronary area was less than half that of the most heart disease varies considerably by deprived area. It is also clear that the deprivation groups and by gender. Chart 6.8 mortality rate for men was consistently shows that in 1999 the mortality rate for more than twice that of women across the both men and women in the least deprived deprivation spectrum. 80

Chart 6.8: Coronary heart disease mortality rates, under 75 year olds: deprivation and gender: 1999

300

250

200

150 Mortality rates 100

Source: ISD Scotland Note 1: The mortality rate is per 100 thousand people aged 75 and under. 2: Depcat is the Carstairs and Morris Index of Deprivation.

Child Health

The percentage of women reporting affluent. Chart 6.9 shows the teenage smoking at the first consultation with their pregnancy rate for girls aged 13 to 15 years, 6 GP regarding pregnancy, is much higher in per thousand by deprivation. The rate in the the most deprived areas – almost 50 per most deprived area is over six times higher cent of pregnant women smoked in the than in the least deprived area. Also of most deprived area whereas just under 10 interest is the relationship between the per cent smoked in the least deprived areas. outcome of pregnancies for girls aged 13 and 15 and deprivation, with 4 out of 5 conceptions being aborted in the least There is a higher teenage pregnancy rate in deprived area, compared to under a third the more deprived areas than in the more in the most deprived area. 81

Chart 6.9: Teenage Pregnancy Rates, for ages 13-15, by deprivation: 1998-99

2 Rate per 1,000 population of 13 to 15 year olds Rate 0 1 - Least Deprived 2 3 4 5 6 7 - Most Deprived Deprivation category

Source: ISD Scotland

Lifestyle The way people live their lives has a great influence on their health. There are clear Most information on lifestyle factors that and established links between the levels of may influence health are obtained through smoking, drinking, exercise, drug abuse surveys. The main sources considered here and eating habits and poor health for all are the Scottish Health Survey, the Scottish age groups. Household Survey and the Scottish Crime 6 Survey. Smoking General Health The smoking behaviour of the population is of particular interest from a public health An indicator of general health; how people perspective because of the clear implications feel about their own health; is collected it has for current and future levels of health. through surveys. This type of information is Around one third of working age adults still not solely related to people’s actual health, smoke cigarettes and it is estimated that but incorporates a series of attitudinal currently around 12 per cent of children factors. Information collected through the aged between 12 and 15 smoke. Apart Scottish Household Survey during 1999 from the adverse physical effects, early showed that whilst 66 per cent of 16-24 year smoking is a risk factor for subsequent olds considered themselves to be in good earlier and more problematic alcohol use, health, only 29 per cent of those aged 75 and for more serious substance misuse. plus thought that they were in good health. Chart 6.10 shows the pattern in adults When looked at by neighbourhood types, smoking in 1995 and 1998. 61 per cent of people in high income areas considered themselves to be in good health, compared with only 45 per cent of those people living in disadvantaged council estates. 82

Chart 6.10: Smoking levels by age: 1995 and 1998

40 1995 1995 35 1998 1998 30

10 Percentage of age group Percentage

0 16 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65 - 74 16 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65 - 74 Male Female

Source: Scottish Health Survey: Scottish Executive Note: Data for 65-74 year olds not available for 1995

The Scottish Household Survey indicates Over the years there have been a variety that the percentage of men aged 16 to 64 of initiatives to stop children smoking that smoke has increased slightly from 34 ranging from the banning of advertisements per cent in 1995 to 36 per cent in 1998, on TV and in youth magazines to specific with the biggest increase occurring amongst health warnings aimed at younger people. men under 45 years of age. For women The level of smoking amongst secondary 6 the percentage that smoke has fallen from school pupils in 1982 is roughly similar to 36 per cent in 1995 to 33 per cent in 1998. the current levels, 12 per cent in 1998. In all age groups except 16-24 year olds Amongst these regular smokers around the percentage of women that smoke fell three quarters said that they would find it between 1995 and 1998. difficult to give up smoking altogether.

Alcohol Consumption

Results from the Scottish Health Survey in consumption is difficult to collect through 1995 and 1998 show a slight increase from surveys and may underestimate 33 per cent in 1995 to 34 per cent in 1998 consumption. Chart 6.11 shows the in the number of men aged 16 to 64 drinking percentages of men and women by age more than the recommended weekly level group, who recorded that they drank more of alcohol (21 units) and a slight increase than the recommended weekly limit – 21 from 13 to 15 per cent of women drinking units for men and 14 units for women. more than the recommended 14 units of The results show that younger men and alcohol per week. It is recognised that women were drinking more in 1998 than accurate information on the level of alcohol in 1995. 83

Chart 6.11: Those drinking more than the recommended limit, 1995 and 1998

50 1995 1995 1998 1998 40

Percentage of age group Percentage 10

0 16 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65 - 74 16 - 24 25 - 34 35 - 44 45 - 54 55 - 64 65 - 74 Male Female

Source: Scottish Health Survey: Scottish Executive Note: Data for 65-74 year olds not available for 1995 In 1998, it was estimated that 19 per cent this age group who drink, consumption of children aged between 12 and 15 in amongst boys was on average 12.8 units in Scotland said that they had had an alcoholic a week, compared to 7.8 units for girls of drink in the last seven days. Of those of the same age.

Drug Misuse Accurate information on illegal drug misuse gender with higher levels of drug use for 6 is by its very nature difficult to collect. men than women across all ages groups Information is traditionally collected through and higher levels in the younger age groups crime surveys, forensic pathology and for both men and women. Table 6.12 social surveys. The 1996 Scottish Crime shows the reported drug use of men and Survey showed a considerable difference in women aged between 16-59 in 1996. the levels of reported drug use by age and

Table 6.12: Reported drug misuse ‘in last 12 months’– adults aged 16-59, 1996 Age group Males (%) Females (%) 16-19 26 20 20-24 37 21 25-29 15 11 30-39 12 4 40-59 21

Source: 1996 Scottish Crime Survey 84

The General Register Office for Scotland girls who self reported that they had ever reported that the number of deaths involving used drugs. The most common drug used drugs had risen from 276 in 1998 to 340 in by pupils aged 12-15 was cannabis with 16 1999. Almost half these deaths in 1999 per cent of pupils of this age group having involved heroin and 40 per cent involved used this drug. 5 per cent of this age group diazepam. had used stimulants with 4 per cent using psychedelic drugs and 4 per cent using Estimation for children in Scottish schools glue. The level of drug taking amongst 12 shows that in 1998, roughly 70 per cent of year olds was relatively small with 3 per boys and girls aged 15 had been offered cent using cannabis, but amongst 15 year drugs, against 1 in 5 pupils aged 12. Chart olds over one third had used cannabis and 6.13 shows the percentage of boys and 1 in 8 had used stimulants.

Chart 6.13: Percentage children aged 12-15 who had ever used drugs, 1998

40 Male 35 Female 30

20 15 Percentage of age group Percentage 10 6 5 0 12 13 14 15 Age in years Source: Smoking, drinking and drug use amongst teenagers in 1998: ONS

Diet

Links between health and diet are well once a day or more, with 26 per cent of documented. Diet is the second most men and 32 per cent of women reporting important factor in preventable ill health in eating cooked green vegetables at least Scotland behind only smoking. In the 1998 daily in 1998 compared to 26 per cent of Scottish Health Survey, 45 per cent of men men and 30 per of women in 1995. and 58 per cent of women reported eating The report also showed that consumption fresh fruit at least daily – compared to 39 of healthy food was more prevalent among per cent and 52 per cent respectively in those people classified in social classes 1995. There has been little change in the I and II than it was among those in classes consumption of cooked green vegetables IV and V. 85

Physical Activity most days. Among girls in the 14-15 age group (the least active), one third did at The health of an individual is linked to least one hour of physical activity on most levels of physical activity. The 1998 days. Twice this proportion of boys in this Scottish Health Survey revealed that 41 age group participated in physical activities per cent of males and 30 per cent of to this extent. females between the ages of 16 and 64 years old undertook at least 30 minutes moderate or more strenuous activity five Changing Patterns of Care or more days per week. An increase for In all sectors of health there have been both males and females compared with the considerable changes in the patterns of 1995 survey where 32 per cent of males health care delivery over the past few and 22 per cent of females undertook this decades, together with advances in medicine. level physical activity a week. This section looks at some of the long term changes in service delivery and In 1998, for children aged between 2 and treatment in acute care, mental illness, 15 years old the survey showed that 92 drugs for heart disease and cancer survival. per cent of boys and 88 per cent of girls participated in some physical activity on five or more days in the week before the interview. However, overall participation Delivery of Acute Care rates declined with age among both boys Every year in Scotland there are around and girls, with the decline steeper among 1.2 million episodes of acute care, including girls. From the age of 12, girls were much operations and exploratory procedures. less likely than boys to have participated in Chart 6.14 shows the steady growth in the physical activities for at least 30 minutes on number of episodes since 1980.

Chart 6.14: Inpatient and Daycase Activity: 1980-2000

900,000 6

800,000

700,000

600,000

500,000

Episodes 400,000

300,000

200,000 inpatients day cases 100,000

0 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Financial year end

Source: ISD Scotland Note: The decline in activity during 1982-83 was due to industrial activity resulting in under submission of records 86

For certain medical procedures (like hernias of elective (or non-urgent) patients treated and varicose veins), and depending on the as day cases has risen steadily from just circumstances of the individual, it is over 10 per cent in 1980 to over 60 per considered good practice to treat the patient cent in the year 2000. For those who are as a day case. This means they are admitted, admitted to the wards as inpatients, the treated and discharged in the same day. average length of stay over that period has Over the past twenty years, the percentage dropped from around 9 days to around 5. Primary Care and New Drug Therapy The majority of peoples’ contact with the Development of new drugs has had a large NHSScotland is in primary care through impact on primary care. One example of visiting their GP – with Scottish GPs having this is lipid lowering drugs, which lower around 16 million consultations with patients blood cholesterol. A particular group per annum. This excludes other contacts with (called statins) are often used to treat the primary healthcare team for example patients with coronary heart disease. District Nurses and Practice Nurses. On Although they are of value, patients need average, people in Scotland consult their GP to be selected with care and drug 3 times per year – although consultation treatment should be targeted at those with rates vary by age and gender with those the highest risk. It is essential that other aged 65 and over consulting their GP over risk factors, such as diet, smoking and 4 times per annum. Between the ages of alcohol consumption be considered in 15 and 44 females rates of attendance are conjunction with drug therapy. Chart 6.15 almost double the rates for males. Over the shows that there has been a considerable past decade the number of prescription increase in the volume of statins prescribed items has increased from 44.4 million to per head of population in Scotland, 60.9 million in 1990-00. especially since 1995.

Chart 6.15: Trend in Volume of Statins prescribed per Head of Population 6 (measured in defined daily dose): Financial Year, 1992-93 to 1999-2000 9

4 Statins per head 3

0 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 Year

Source: ISD Scotland 87

Continuing Care for cancer are now living longer. For many Mental Illness cancers today, over 50 per cent of patients are alive five years after diagnosis. As seen earlier, the majority of mental health problems are treated by GPs. There are wide variations in survival rates However, for those with continuing care depending on the cancer diagnosed. Over needs – such as those with acute mental the period 1991-95, survival rate at five illness, or learning disabilities, or the elderly years after diagnosis was under 4 per cent – the past decade has also seen a major for cancer of the pancreas, but over 90 per shift from largely hospital provision to care cent for cancer of the testis. The largest in the community. For example ten years increases in survival were seen for ago there were over 8 thousand general malignant melanoma of the skin, cancer of psychiatry beds, compared with just under the testis, cancer of the bladder in males 4 thousand today. Over the period there and cancer of the corpus uteri and breast have been increasing numbers of community in females. In addition, stomach and psychiatric nursing staff. In 1999 there oesophageal cancer, with comparatively were around 600 community psychiatric poor survival, have shown considerable staff, and Health Boards reported around proportional increases over time. 840 thousand contacts between patients and members of their community The survival rates for men and women are psychiatric teams. different for a range of cancers. Chart 6.16 shows that over the period 1971-75 and Cancer Survival 1991-95 the directly standardised relative The past three decades have also seen survival at 5 years for all cancers (excluding improvements in cancer survival rates. non-melanoma skin cancer) has improved Survival has increased for the majority of from 21.3 per cent to 33.9 percent for cancers over the last 20 to 25 years, which men, and from 34.4 per cent to 45.2 per means that many people diagnosed with cent for women.

Chart 6.16: Trends in Cancer Survival Rates by Gender, 1971-75 to 1991-95 6 50 45 Males 40 Females 35 30 25 20 15

Relative survival (%) at five years Relative 10 5 0 1971-75 1976-80 1981-85 1986-90 1991-95 Year diagnosed Source: ISD Scotland Note: All cancers excluding non-melanoma skin cancer 88

Most of the improvements in survival cancer and prostate cancer. Improvements reflect advances in treatment, although in survival over time have been gradual earlier diagnosis has probably also with no sudden benefits due to the contributed to improvements seen for introduction of particular forms of malignant melanoma of the skin, breast treatment.

References and further reading

Social Justice Annual Report 2000, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjm-00.asp

Social Justice Indicators of Progress, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/social/sjip-00.asp

Information and Statistics Division, National Health Service Scotland http://www.show.scot.nhs.uk/isd

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, National Centre for Social Research http://www.natcen.ac.uk

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 6, Health :

6 Scottish Executive Chapter Author Pete Whitehouse 0131 244 7310 [email protected]

Health Statistics Helen Mansbridge 0131 244 2368 [email protected]

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey Kerstin Hinds 0131 557 5494 [email protected] Crime and Justice

Chapter7 90

Crime and justice are issues that are never taking place there has also been increasing far from the public eye and the level of discussion on the best way of measuring crime is a major political subject. There is incidents of crime. The traditional much debate about the reasons behind measurements were based on the crimes criminal activity with many people believing reported to the police, however it is clear that socio-economic conditions are the that a considerable number of crimes major influences. Others believe that a remain unreported. In addition to the breakdown in the concept of communities, actual crimes taking place another major or changes in something more intrinsic concern is the fear of crime that is such as morality, or a perceived softening experienced by people. of law and order are more to blame for the level of crime. This chapter seeks to provide an over view of the nature and impact of crime and the In addition to the actual criminal activity measures used to deal with it.

Reporting Crime The amount of crime recorded through Survey (SCS) which runs every four years. the administrative procedure of making out This survey includes unreported and a crime record for offences investigated by unrecorded crimes, but unlike the the police, forms the main basis for administrative count from the police, the information on the reporting, recording, SCS only reports on crimes against clearing up and resultant action taken individuals or property and as in all surveys when a crime has been committed. These is subject to sampling errors. figures however do not tell the whole story as many crimes go unreported and Over the last ten years the number of some reported crimes are not recorded by crimes and offences(1) recorded by the the police – in cases where they consider police in Scotland has fluctuated between the reporting of a crime to be a mistake, 900 thousand and 1 million each year. too trivial or where there is insufficient The number of crimes has fallen over the evidence. period, from almost 520 thousand to less than 440 thousand, whilst the number of The other main source of information on offences has risen from 420 thousand to 7 crime in Scotland is the Scottish Crime over 500 thousand.

(1) Contraventions of Scottish criminal law are divided for statistical purposes into crimes and offences. The term crime is generally used for more serious criminal acts: the less serious are termed offences. 91

Chart 7.1: Recorded Crimes in Scotland, by type of crime, 1990-1999

600 Non-sexual crimes of violence Crimes of dishonesty Other crimes 500 Fire-raising, vandalism etc (includes indecency)

400

300

200 Number of crimes (000s) 100

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive

Chart 7.1 shows recorded crime over the Chart 7.2: Total number of crimes recorded period 1990 – 1999. The general pattern per 10,000 population in 19991 by local has been one of declining numbers due authority area mainly to the fall in the number of crimes of dishonesty which in the early 1990s, Under 400 >400 <600 accounted for 74 per cent of recorded >600 <800 crime. Improved security measures such as >800 <1000 better home protection and car security 1000 and over may have played some part in the overall drop of 28 per cent between 1990 and 1999 in the number of these crimes, and in 1999 dishonesty accounted for around 63 per cent of all crimes recorded. However 7 other crimes such as non-sexual crimes of violence have increased by 29 per cent over the decade. The increase in “other crimes” by over 100 per cent since 1990 has been principally due to the large increase in drug crime which has shown an increase of 233 per cent over this period.

Source: Scottish Executive Note 1: The mid-year population estimate for 1999 was used. 92

Incidents of crime vary considerably across Orkney and Shetland. In the worst area – the country. In particular, crime in Dundee – the rate was 223 incidents per Scotland is more prevalent around the 10 thousand population, whereas in the population centres of the central belt, best area – Eilean Siar – there were 44 along with Aberdeen, reflecting in part, the incidents per 10 thousand population. nature of cities. In 1999, Aberdeen City had the highest number of crimes Recorded crimes of carrying offensive recorded - over 1,500 crimes per 10 weapons were most common in Glasgow, thousand population. Glasgow had the next reflecting at least in part, police pro-actively highest rate – over 1,400 crimes per 10 targeting this behaviour. In Glasgow the rate thousand population – with Edinburgh and was 44 cases per 10 thousand population, Dundee both having crime rates of over with the next worst – Dundee – at 22 cases 1,200 crimes per 10 thousand population. per 10 thousand population. The lowest incidence for this crime was in Shetland In addition to crime rates being different with 3 instances per 10 population. between areas, the types of crime were also varied. In Strathclyde there was four Figures on clear-up rates are of great times the number of serious assaults - 20 interest to the public. Over the period per 10 thousand people - than in Dumfries 1990 to 1999 the percentage of recorded and Galloway – 5 per 10 thousand people. crimes cleared up by the police rose from In the Grampian region there were 77 30 to 43 per cent. recorded fraud crimes per 10 thousand population compared to only 23 per 10 Clear-up rates varied markedly depending thousand population in Central region. In on the type of crime. Property related Tayside region there were 13 crimes of crimes tended to have comparatively low indecency per 10 thousand population clear-up rates, whereas crimes of violence compared to 4 per 10 thousand population had higher clear-up rates. For a number of in central region. crimes the identification of the crime and the offender tended to occur The highest rates of vandalism were simultaneously, such as drugs possession, recorded in the four cities – Dundee, and therefore the clear-up rate was close Aberdeen, Edinburgh and Glasgow, whilst to 100 per cent. the lowest rates were in Eilean Siar,

7 Chart 7.3: Clear-up rates as a percentage of those recorded, 1990, 1995 and 1999 Year Crime 1990 1995 1999 Serious assault 65 54 64 Robbery 28 29 38 Sexual assault 67 66 68 Housebreaking 16 17 23 Theft of a motor vehicle 24 24 32 Fraud 70 81 74 Vandalism 20 21 24

Source: Scottish Executive 93

Over the years there has been much ownership. However, over the years discussion about the levels of violence and shootings have accounted for a relatively in particular the number of homicides. small percentage of the total number of Events such as the Dunblane tragedy in homicides – typically less than 10 per cent. 1996 in which 16 children and one adult The most common method of killing were killed have led to a considerable during the 1990s was the use of a sharp tightening of the laws governing gun instrument which accounted for around

Chart 7.4: Number of homicide victims recorded by the police, 1990-99

160

140

120

100

60 Number of victims 40

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year

Source: Scottish Executive

The number of homicides over the last killed by a relative or acquaintance, with decade was relatively small with the average less than one quarter of victims being killed number of homicide victims fluctuating by a stranger. around an average of 110 per year, a rate of 21 victims per million population. 7 There is some indication that the level of Drugs and Drug Related Crime homicides has been slowly increasing since the 1950s. The average number of homicide There has been a steady and substantial cases initially recorded each year by the rise in the number of drug related offences police was 32 in the 1950s, 60 in the 1960s, over the 1990s. Whilst the number of 85 in the 1970s and 92 in the 1980s. crimes involving cultivation and illegal importation have remained relatively Men are considerably more likely to be a steady, there has been a 250 per cent victim of homicide than women. In 1999 increase in the number of ‘possession of over 80 per cent of homicide victims were drugs’ crimes and a 215 per cent increase men and almost two thirds of all victims in the ‘possession of drugs with intent to were men aged 16-49. Victims of supply’ crimes, over the last decade. homicides were most likely to have been 94

Table 7.5: Drug related offences since 1990 Crime category 1990 1993 1996 1999 Illegal cultivation of drugs * 300 300 100 Possession of drugs with intent to supply 2,700 4,900 6,600 8,500 Possession of drugs 6,500 12,400 16,700 22,800 Drugs, other offences (including illegal importation 300 300 300 400 All 9,600 18,000 24,000 31,900

Source: Scottish Executive Note: Figures are rounded to nearest 100, resulting in possible rounding errors *Indicates non zero figure less than 50

In 1998, there were over 17 thousand drug involved heroin and 11 per cent involved seizures by police in Scotland of which 79 amphetamines. In many cases drug seizures per cent involved cannabis, 13 per cent involved more than one type of drug.

Table 7.6: Percentage of people who have taken any kind of drug at some point, by age and gender

Females 40 Males 7 30

Percentage 20

0 12-15* 16-19 20-24 25-29 30-39 40-59 Age Group

Source: 2000 Scottish Crime Survey and Office for National Statistics Note: *Figures taken from Smoking, Drinking and Drug Use among Young Teenagers in Scotland 1998 95

The extent to which young people are one-third of cases involved repeat exposed to the drug scene is illustrated in victimisation. Where the number of Chart 7.6. According to the SCS 2000, previous incidents was known, in about nearly half of males aged 20-24 had taken half the cases there had been a single drugs at some time in their life. previous incident, in a third of the cases there had been 2 or 3 previous incidents Figures on drug use amongst very young and 2 per cent of victims had been people are also high and in 1998 it was reported as a victim on 11 or more estimated that 18 per cent of pupils aged previous occasions. between 12 and 15 had used drugs. Whilst only 3 per cent of 12 year olds had used The age distributions of both victims and drugs, by the time pupils were 15, this perpetrators were similar, with the most figure had risen to almost 40 per cent. frequent age group being 31-35 years. Virtually all pupils who had used drugs had However, when looking at the incidence used cannabis, whilst 15 per cent of 15 per 100 thousand population; females are year olds had used stimulants and 10 per at most risk of being victims of domestic cent had used psychedelics. The figures abuse when aged between 26 and 30. suggest that boys are more likely to have used drugs than girls, but the difference is Half of the incidents of domestic abuse relatively small. recorded by the police involved cohabiting couples. In 29 per cent of cases, the victim This level of drug use is of grave concern, and perpetrator had previously been in a especially the apparent increase in very relationship but this had broken down. In young people being offered drugs. It was 20 per cent of cases, the victim and estimated that in 1998 over 20 per cent of perpetrator were in an on-going 12 year olds had been offered drugs and relationship but were not cohabiting. by the time pupils were 15 years of age, over two thirds had been offered drugs. Racially Motivated Crime Domestic Abuse Little statistical information is currently For the first time, over a 9 month period available with regard to a racially in 1999, Scottish Police Forces collated aggravated course of conduct amounting information on 26 thousand cases of to harassment and racially aggravated domestic abuse. Of these just over 11 action, the two recognised offences. In 1999, 7 thousand were recorded as a crime or police recorded 106 offences of racially offence and following on from this 7 aggravated harassment and 280 offences of thousand cases were referred to the racially aggravated conduct. These two Procurator Fiscal. Of those incidents of new offences came into force in late 1998 domestic abuse where the sex of the and the legalisation may not be being used victim and perpetrator were recorded, fully in all police forces. Her Majesty’s 92.3 per cent of cases had a female victim Inspectorate of Constabulary collects and a male perpetrator and 6.9 per cent statistics on racist incidents reported to had a male victim and female perpetrator. the police – the definition of a racist incident having recently been adapted to Where information was available on reflect Sir William Macpherson’s report whether the victim of an incident of into the death of Stephen Lawrence. domestic abuse had previously been In 1999/2000 police recorded 2,200 racist reported as a domestic abuse victim, about incidents. 96

The Criminal Justice System

Chart 7.7: Overview of action within the criminal justice system 1999

Crimes and offences committed

Non police source Neither reported Detected by ‘Secondary’ crimes crimes and offences Reported to nor detected by police and offences (eg TV licence police police or other (eg speeding) (eg offending on bail) offences) agency

Not recorded by Not recorded by Crimes and offences police police recorded by police1

Crimes2 Offences 435,703 504,450

Recorded crimes and offences cleared up by police

Crimes2 Offences 188,912 483,590

Refer to other Reports received Vehicle defect Police conditional Dealt with by agencies by Procurators rectification offers made (motor Police detecting (eg most children Fiscal2,3 scheme referalls vehicle offences) warning agencies are referred to reporter) 281,708 31,585 168,198

No Referred to Transferred to Procurator fiscal proceedings reporter other Procurator Diversion Fiscal Fiscal conditional offers Fiscal office warnings fines made (motor vehicle offences 42,548 2,222 9,3984 1,372 18,709 17,6942 8,8042

Persons proceeded against in court6

Crimes Offences 7 53,778 93,063

No charge Custody Community Probation order Fine Others proved Service Order

19,039 16,091 4,888 7,340 83,479 15,637

Source: Scottish Executive Notes: 1.Crimes recorded in 1999 may not be cleared up or dealt with until 2000 or later 2. A report to the procurator fiscal may involve more than one crime or offence and more than one alleged offender. 3. The total number of reports to the fiscal includes reports on non-criminal matters such as sudden deaths. 4. Includes cases associated with other cases within the same Procurator Fiscal Office. 5. Figures relate to offers which were accepted. 6. Figures for persons proceeded against count the number of occasions on which a person is proceeded against. Note: the figures given in this chart for the number and outcome of reports received by the Procurators Fiscal in 1999 differ marginally from those previously published; they reflect final data now available. A number of outcomes may result in subsequent prosecutions or referrals to other agencies, for example if a condition such as the payment of a fixed penalty is not complied with. For simplicity, these pathways are not shown in the diagram. 97

Scottish Crime Survey

The Scottish Crime Survey (SCS) is a large on victims, anxieties and concerns about scale household survey of public experiences crime, and attitudes to the police. and perceptions of crime, based on a core sample of around 5 thousand interviews The SCS 2000 estimated that just over half with adults (aged 16 or over) throughout of all crimes were reported to the police. Scotland. Whether an incident was reported was heavily dependent on the type of crime. It is widely accepted that victimisation Motor vehicle thefts were virtually always surveys provide an important complement reported as this is the first step for making to the statistics compiled by the police. an insurance claim, whereas only one quarter Not all crimes are reported to the police of vandalism crimes were reported. The and, of those that are, not all are reasons for not reporting a crime may be subsequently recorded. Crime surveys linked to where somebody lives and their provide a fuller picture of the extent of, own assessment of whether reporting the and trends in, most types of personal and crime would result in action being taken. household victimisation. Crime surveys Chart 7.8 shows the percentage of incidents also allow the opportunity to explore reported to the police in 1999, as estimated issues related to crime, such as the impact by the SCS 2000.

Chart 7.8: Percentage of incidents reported to the police

Theft of Vehicle Housebreaking Theft from Vehicle Bicycle Theft Theft from Person Vandalism Robbery Assault 7 Other Household Theft Other Personal Theft All Crimes & Offences 0 102030405060708090100 Percentage reported to police

Source: Scottish Executive, Scottish Crime Survey 2000 98

The SCS 2000 estimated that during 1999 in this type of crime – vandalism, thefts and there were just over 840 thousand crimes attempted thefts of and from cars - from committed against individuals and approximately 337,600 crimes in 1995 to households. This was a fall of about 13 per approximately 237,600 in 1999. cent on the 1995 figure and 20 per cent on the 1992 level. Of these crimes in 1999 One in five people had been the victim of roughly one quarter – 218 thousand – at least one crime covered by the survey were vandalism and a further 14 per cent – during 1999, while approximately 1 in 17 120 thousand – were acquisitive crimes. had been victims on two or more occasions. Certain groups of people were Whilst acquisitive crimes have fallen by 35 at more risk than others for specific types per cent since 1992, crimes of violence of crime. For example, those most at risk appear to have increased. In 1992 there from violent street crime were young men, were around 170 thousand violent crimes, and those least at risk were older people. but by 1999 this had risen to over 210 thousand. However it would seem that the rise was due largely to an increase in Comparison with Police Statistics repeat victimisation of individuals as the Only certain crimes are directly comparable number of people affected had changed between the SCS and police statistics. very little. As in 1995, only 3 per cent of Chart 7.9 compares SCS and the police people in Scotland had been the victim of a figures for reported crimes for vandalism, violent crime in 1999. acquisitive crime (housebreaking, theft of vehicle/bike) and violence (robbery, assault). An area of considerable attention during In the SCS 2000, 549 thousand comparable the 1990s was car related crime. Greater crimes were estimated compared to 180 awareness and the increased use of crime thousand police recorded crimes (33 per prevention has lead to a 30 per cent drop cent).

Chart 7.9: SCS estimates compared to police recorded crimes

250 Vandalism 200 Acquisitive 7 Violence

150

100

Number of crimes (000s) 50

0 SCS 1993 Police 1992 SCS 1996 Police 1995 SCS 2000 Police 1999 Source and year

Source: Scottish Crime Surveys 1993, 1996, 2000; Scottish Executive 99

Public Perceptions of Crime Results from the SCS 2000 indicated that The SCS 2000 clearly shows that women 28 per cent of respondents considered were around 3 times as likely to feel unsafe crime to be an extremely serious problem. than men, and that older people felt more This compares with 44 per cent in the SCS unsafe than younger people. The proportion 1996 and 50 per cent in the SCS 1993. feeling unsafe fell from 39 per cent in the One area of concern was the level of SCS 1993 to 35 per cent in the SCS 1996 safety that people felt when walking to 28 per cent in the SCS 2000. around their own neighbourhood. Chart 7.10 shows the percentage of respondents to the SCS 2000 that felt unsafe when walking alone after dark in their area.

Chart 7.10: Percentage feeling unsafe when walking alone after dark

Male 50 Female

20 Percentage of respondents Percentage 10

0 16-24 25-44 45-64 65 or over All Age Group 7 Source: Scottish Crime Survey 2000

There was also a similar drop in the Scottish courts in 1999. A fine was imposed proportion feeling very or fairly worried as the main penalty in two thirds of the about being a victim of housebreaking, convictions (77 per cent in 1989), 13 per which fell from 59 per cent in SCS 1993, cent resulted in a custodial sentence (8 per to 52 per cent in SCS 1996 to 45 per cent cent in 1989) and 9 per cent in probation in SCS 2000. or community service (5 per cent in 1989). For all those given community service, Court Sentencing and the probation or custody, the proportion given community service or probation rose from Criminal Justice System 37 per cent in 1989, to 43 per cent in 1999. A total of 127,400 persons were convicted and sentenced in criminal proceedings in 100

Chart 7.11: Court sentencing – index of penalties imposed (1989 = 100), 1989-99

250 Admonish, caution or other Fine 200 Probation Community service order Custody 150

100 Index (1989=100)

0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive

The successive reduction in the number of and breach of the peace (these exclude cases where fines – the most common convictions for motor vehicle offences and penalty – were imposed can be explained other miscellaneous offences of a generally to some extent, by offences most likely to less serious nature). These convictions be punished by a fine being increasingly involved 45,400 individual offenders. dealt with outside the court. In 1999, the The peak age for offenders was 18 – see average fine imposed rose by 3 per cent Chart 7.12 – and the proportion of 18 year from the 1998 level, to £182. olds in the Scottish population with at least one such conviction in 1999 was much In 1999 there were 69,100 convictions for higher for males (7 per cent) than for a crime or the offences of simple assault females (1 per cent). 7 101

Chart 7.12: Individuals per 10,000 population with one or more charges proved in court in 1999 for a crime, breach of the peace or simple assault, by gender and age

800

700 Males Females 600

500

400

300

200 Rate per 10,000 population Rate

100

0 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 Age Source: Scottish Executive

Of the 45,400 individuals who were The vast proportion of these prisoners convicted at least once in 1999 for a crime, were male – around 96 per cent, although simple assault or breach of the peace, 45 the average daily female prison population per cent had one or no previous conviction had increased from 137 in 1990 to an all in the period 1989 to 1999, while 17 per time high in 1999 of 212. The report cent had ten or more. Just over a fifth had “Women Offenders – A Safer Way” in a conviction for a non-sexual crime of 1998 recommended increased use of bail violence; 23 per cent had at least one drugs versus custodial remand for the treatment conviction; 6 per cent had over ten of fine defaulters and the tailoring of criminal convictions for a crime of dishonesty; and justice social work services to specifically 4 per cent had more than ten convictions meet the need of women offenders. which resulted in a custodial sentence. 7 The number of prisoners on remand also showed an increase from 751 in 1990 to The Prison System over one thousand in 1999, so that in 1999 for every 6 prisoners in custody, one was Chart 7.13 shows the trends in the number on remand. Of those prisoners not on of prisoners in Scottish prisons. Over the remand in 1990, 19 per cent were young period 1990 – 1999, the average daily offenders. This figure had dropped to population increased by 28 per cent from under 14 per cent in 1999. under 5 thousand prisoners in 1990 to over 6 thousand in 1999. Scotland does however have less of its population – 118 prisoners per 100 thousand population – in prison compared to the United Kingdom – 123 per 100 thousand population. 102

Chart 7.13: Average daily population in penal establishments by type of custody, 1990-99

7,000 Adult Sentenced Under 21 Sentenced Remand 6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

Number of prisoners 2,000

1,000

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive Over the period 1990 to 1999 there was a The percentage of prisoners serving substantial change in the length of sentence sentences of more than 4 years but less being served by non-remand prisoners – than life increased from 31 per cent in 1989 see Chart 7.14. In 1990, 14 per cent of to 42 per cent in 1999, but the percentage adult prisoners were serving sentences of of prisoners serving life sentences less than 3 months, by 1999 this figure had remained at around 12-13 per cent. dropped to less than 3 per cent.

Chart 7.14: Average daily adult sentenced population, by length of sentence, 1990-99

5,000 4,500 Less than 3 months 2 years - less than 4 years Life/Section 205 3 months - less than 6 months 4 years or over (excluding life) 7 4,000 6 months - less than 2 years 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 Number of prisoners 1,000 500 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 Year Source: Scottish Executive 103

Conditions in Scottish prisons are constantly with older people more likely to consider under review. Following a cluster of suicides, that the police are doing a ‘very good’ or a research concluded that although ‘fairly good’ job. However, there has been improvement could be made to the suicide a fall in the proportion of those aged 60 strategy in operation, much of the problem and over saying that the police do a ‘very stemmed from the damaged nature of good’ job, from 21 per cent estimated by many of the people who enter prison – the SCS 1993 to 16 per cent in SCS 2000 particularly women who are sent to (27 per cent in SCS 1996). During the same Cornton Vale. The Scottish Prison Service period the proportion of 16-24 year olds produced a new strategy on suicide and a saying that the police do a ‘very good’ job rolling programme of training is now under had remained stable at around 9 per cent. way. Currently the strategy is subject to research and will be reviewed in the light Over the 1990s the SCS recorded how of the resultant conclusions. people felt about the way their local police carried out their work. The results indicate Attitudes towards the police that whilst there are fluctuations between years, approximately 7 out of 10 people The attitude of the general public towards thought that their local police did a fairly or the police is a subject of much discussion. very good job and under 1 in 5 thought Attitudes towards the police vary that their local police did a fairly or very according to the age of the respondent, poor job.

Chart 7.15: Percentage satisfaction with police, 1992, 1995 and 1999 Would you say that the police in this area do a good or a poor job Attitude SCS 1993 SCS 1996 SCS 2000 Very good 18 20 14 Fairly good 52 53 58 Fairly poor 11 10 13 Very poor 854 Don’t know 12 12 12 7 Sources: 1993, 1996 and 2000 Scottish Crime Survey

Of those victims who had reported incidents Staffing levels to the police (SCS 2000), just under three quarters said they were ‘very’ or ‘fairly’ Another area of public interest is the satisfied with the way that the police had staffing levels of the police and prison handled the matter. Similar levels of service and in particular the number of satisfaction were reported in SCS 1988, women and people from ethnic minorities. SCS 1993 and SCS 1996. 104

Chart 7.16: Staffing levels of the Scottish Police Service and Scottish Prison Service, 1995-96 to 1999-2000 1995/96 1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 Police % Female Officers 13.0 13.8 14.8 15.3 15.8 % from Ethnic Minorities 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 Total Police Officers 14,517 14,788 14,961 14,810 14,722 Police Support Staff* 4,181 4,447 4,670 4,858 4,865

Scottish Prison Service 4,575 4,654 4,856 4,891 4,871

Source: Scottish Executive Note : *Figures include SCRO and Scottish Crime Squad, Clerical and Technical Staff and Traffic Wardens but exclude domestic/cleaning staff. Figures for the police relate to strength at 31 March of each year.

The number of female police officers in female. Although rising, the number of Scotland is steadily increasing – from 13 ethnic minority officers in the Scottish per cent in 1995/96 to nearly 16 per cent Police Service is not yet proportionate to in 1999/00 while overall numbers in police the ethnic minority population of Scotland, forces remain fairly steady. Of those which was estimated to be 1.6 per cent in recruited in the last year, 29 per cent were 1999.

7 105

References and further reading

Main Findings from the 1996 Scottish Crime Survey, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/resfinds/crf16-00.htm

Main Findings from the 2000 Scottish Crime Survey, Scottish Executive Central Research Unit. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/resfinds/crf51-00.asp

Criminal Proceedings in Scottish Courts 1999, Scottish Executive Justice Statistics Unit, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00041-21.asp

Prison Statistics Scotland 1999, Scottish Executive Justice Statistics Unit, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00040-00.asp

Domestic Abuse Recorded by the Police in Scotland, 1 April - 31 December 1999, Scottish Executive Justice Statistics Unit http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00017-00.asp

Recorded Crime in Scotland 1999, Scottish Executive Justice Statistics Unit, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc14/rc99-00.asp

Motor Vehicle Offences in Scotland 1999, Scottish Executive Justice Statistics Unit, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00042-00.asp

Homicides in Scotland in 1999, Scottish Executive Justice Statistics Unit, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/stats/bulletins/00043-00.asp

Scotland’s People, Results from the 1999 Scottish Household Survey Scottish Executive Development Department, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/shs/

Women Offenders: A Safe Way, Social Work Services and Prisons Inspectorate for Scotland 1998 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/law/wosw-00.asp 7 106

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 7, Crime and Justice:

Scottish Executive Chapter author Neil Bowie 0131 244 0324 [email protected]

Criminal Justice Statistics Sandy Taylor 0131 244 2224 [email protected]

Criminal Justice Statistics Katy Barratt 0131 244 2226 [email protected]

Scottish Crime Survey Fiona Fraser 0131 244 8275 [email protected]

7 Transport

Chapter8 108

It is becoming increasingly important to difference in distance travelled between monitor transport in Scotland. Last year: the sexes is narrowing (table 8.1). The there was controversy about the safety of reasons people travel more are varied but our railways, there were protests about the may include the fact that there are more high price of fuel leading to disruptions in commuters than previously, and also more oil supplies; and the link between transport out of town centre retail parks. There is emissions and climate change again featured also an increasing tendency for people to in the media. These issues have raised many take their holidays abroad, and more questions about the sustainability of our business travel. Over the 10 years from transport system. How convenient and 1989 to 1999, air terminal passengers in accessible is our public transport system? Scotland have increased by 73 per cent Is there too much traffic on the roads? How (Transport Statistics, Scottish Executive) can we promote more sustainable ways of travelling? Should fuel prices be lowered? Shopping was the most frequent purpose of travel in 1997/99, accounting for 22 per This chapter aims to inform the debate on cent of journeys (Table 8.2). The other some of the above issues. Topics covered main purposes of travel were “commuting include modes of travel, travel habits, costs or business”, “visiting friends at home or and convenience of transport, transport elsewhere” and “other personal business” safety, and the impact of transport on the which includes visits to the doctor, environment. hairdresser, library or church, and escort journeys other than escorting someone to Travel Habits a place of education (Table 8.2). The mode of transport most commonly used for People travel more than they used to. The journeys of all purposes was the car, except average distance travelled per adult in for journeys to education where walking 1997/99 had increased by over 50 per cent was more popular and the “miscellaneous since 1985/86 (Table 8.1). Distances journeys” category (including “just walk”), travelled since 1985/86 had increased for where unsurprisingly walking was also the each age group and each sex, and the most common mode.

Table 8.1: Distance travelled per adult per year, by age and sex Miles Men Women All All adult adult All Year 16-29 30-59 60+ men 16-29 30-59 60+ women adults 8 1985/86 7,000 8,100 3,200 6,800 5,300 4,100 2,100 3,900 5,200 1989/91 7,800 10,500 4,300 8,300 6,700 7,100 3,300 5,900 7,000 1992/94 8,300 9,300 4,000 7,700 6,900 5,900 3,500 5,300 6,400 1995/97 9,000 10,800 5,900 9,200 5,900 7,500 4,000 6,200 7,600 1997/99 8,700 10,400 6,500 9,000 8,400 8,200 4,400 7,000 8,000 Source: National Travel Survey (1) (2) Note: 1. Figures are rounded to the nearest 100. 2. Because of the small size of the Scottish sample, the samples for two or three years must be combined to produce results, and even they may be subject to large sampling errors. 109

Table 8.2: Journeys per person per year by purpose and main mode, Scotland 1997-99 Row percentages Other private transport Other public All modes Driver of Passenger (eg bicycle, Local transport (total number Purpose of journey Walk car, van in car, van motorcycle, bus rail, taxi, air, of journeys = or lorry or lorry private hire ferry, non- 100%) bus) local bus)

Commuting or business 12 58 13 3 10 4 196 Education 42 3 22 8 21 4 62 Escort education 25 51 12 – 8 4 25 Shopping 33 35 20 1 9 2 230 Other personal business 20 48 25 1 4 1 192 Visiting friends at home or elsewhere 26 33 29 2 7 4 177 Sport/entertainment 17 40 32 3 6 3 72 Holiday/day trip 6294114– 7 29 Other (including ‘just walk’) 97 3 – – – – 75

All purposes 28 38 21 2 8 3 1,059

There are interesting gender differences in “Women and Transport: Moving Forward” the modes of transport used. For 1997/99, by the Scottish Executive, has found that 49 per cent of the miles travelled by women women travel less in relation to their by car/van/lorry were as a passenger rather employment and are more likely to work than the driver, compared to only 14 per close to home and walk to work. cent of the miles travelled by car/van/lorry by men (Table 8.3). Women were also The “women and transport” research by more likely to use local buses: 7 per cent the Scottish Executive has shown another of all miles travelled by women were by important gender difference in that women local bus compared to only 4 per cent of express higher levels of fear for their 8 miles travelled by men. This illustrates the personal security, both on and waiting for fact that women’s travel patterns are often public transport, and also in the use of car different from those of men. The report parks, particularly at night. 110

Table 8.3: Distance travelled per adults per year by main mode and sex, 1997-99 Column Percentages Main mode for adults aged 16 or over Men Women Walk 22 Driver of car, van or lorry 68 38 Passenger in car, van or lorry 12 37 Other private (eg bicycle, motorcycle, private hire bus) 32 Local bus 47 Other public (eg rail, taxi, air, non-local bus) 11 13

All modes (in miles) = 100% 9,024 7,007

Source: National Travel Survey (1) Note: 1. Because of the small size of the Scottish sample, the samples for two or three years must be combined to produce results, and even they may be subject to large sampling errors. Another reason travel patterns are different Driving habits vary with sex and age between the sexes is that fewer women (Table 8.4), and income. In 1999, 56 per have driving licences and that women have cent of men, 34 per cent of women and 44 less access to cars than men. National per cent of all people aged 17 or over drove Travel Survey results, which are based on a “every day”. A further 12 per cent drove sample of a few hundred households per at least once a week (but not every day). year in Scotland, suggest that in 1985/86 Almost three-fifths of adults living in about a half of people aged 17 and over households with an annual net income of held a full car driving licence, increasing to £20k or more were said to drive every roughly two-thirds in 1997/99. Most of the day, compared with only a quarter of those rise is due to an increase in the number of living in households with an annual net female driving licence holders, from about income of up to £10k (Scottish Household one-third of women in 1985/86 to over Survey 1999). Scottish Household Survey half in 1997/99. Over the same period, the 1999 results show that the proportion of proportion of men with a driving licence adults driving to work increases with income. rose from approximately two-thirds to over three-quarters. Over three-quarters Travel habits have changed since the increase of all people aged 30 to 49 held a driving in car usage, such that less people use public licence in 1997/99. Scottish Household transport or walk. This is illustrated in Survey results (only available for 1999) for Table 8.5 which shows just how much those holding a driving licence by sex and change there has been in means of travelling 8 age are given in Table 8.4 and differ slightly to work, over the past thirty years. In from the National Travel Survey results. 1966, 47 per cent of people used the bus The Scottish Household Survey has a larger or train to get to work but this reduced to sample size and therefore provides more only 14 per cent in 1999. Conversely, only detailed and reliable results, but time series 21 per cent used the car to get to work in are not yet available. 1966 compared to 69 per cent of people 111 using the car, van, minibus or works van in One reason more people drive to work is 1999. Numbers of people walking to work because people commute further, due to have also decreased significantly with 24 the movement of city dwellers to housing per cent of people walking in 1966 but only in suburban areas. 13 per cent walking in 1999.

Table 8.4: Frequency of driving (1) for people aged 17+, 1999 Row Percentages

Holds full Doesn’t A least once At least licence, have Sample a week once a never full driving size Every day (not every day) month drives licence (= 100%)

All people aged 17 + 44 12 4 4 36 26,924

by sex: Male 56 13 4 4 23 12,600 Female 34 11 4 4 47 14,324

by age: 17-30 39 11 6 3 41 5,594 31-40 61 12 3 3 21 5,284 41-50 59 11 2 3 25 4,763 51-60 48 12 3 5 32 4,373 over 60 24 14 3 6 53 6,910

Source: Scottish Household Survey (2) Note: 1. For holders of full licences. 2. Excluding “not known” and “not stated” cases.

Table 8.5: Usual means of travel to work Row Percentages Year Train Bus Car Bicycle Foot Other Total

1966 (spring) 4 43212246(3) 100 1971 (spring) 3 3529224(2) 6(3) 100 8 1981(1) (spring) 3 25461204 100 1991(1) (spring) 3 18591154 100

1999(4) (autumn) 3 11692131 100

Source: Scottish Census of population 1966 to 1991, Labour Force Survey, 1999 Note: 1. Excluding those who worked at home in 1981 and 1991. 2. Includes “none” in 1971. 3. Includes “none” in 1966; and includes unspecified means of “public transport” in 1971. 4. “Train” includes underground, and “car” includes “car, van, minibus and works van”. 112

In 1999, 60 per cent of primary school age they had made a journey of more than a pupils (those aged up to 11) and 48 per cent quarter of a mile by foot to go somewhere of secondary school age pupils usually (eg as a means of transport to work, to the walked to school, 15 per cent of primary shops, or to visit friends), in the last week pupils and 36 per cent of secondary pupils (Table 8.6). Even fewer adults (40 per cent), usually went by bus, and 23 per cent of said that they had walked more than quarter primary pupils and 12 per cent of secondary of mile in the last week just for pleasure/to pupils went by car or van (Scottish keep fit. Younger adults were more likely Household Survey 1999). than older people to have walked to go to a specific place, and men were more likely Further evidence for people becoming than women to have walked for pleasure/ more reliant on the car is given in Table 8.6. to keep fit. In 1999, only 52 per cent of adults said that

Table 8.6: Percentage of adults walking at least once in the previous week (1), 1999 Cell Percentages

Walking as a means of Walking just for pleasure Sample Adults (aged 16+) (ie to go somewhere – eg work, or to keep fit (includes Size shopping, or visiting friends) jogging and walking a dog)

All adults 52 40 13,703

by sex: men 51 44 5,899 women 53 37 7,804 by age(2): 16-30 64 37 2,439 31-40 54 42 2,721 41-50 51 45 2,104 51-60 51 43 2,124 over 60 43 36 4,315

Source: Scottish Household Survey Note: 1. The person made at least one trip of more than a quarter of a mile by foot for the specified purpose. 2. Excluding “not known” and “not stated” cases. 8

In 1999, only 3 per cent of adults said that, pleasure or to keep fit. Slightly more men in the previous week, they had made a trip than women used a bicycle to go to a of more than a quarter of a mile by bicycle specific place, or just for pleasure or to as a means of transport to go to a specific keep fit. Slightly more younger adults than place. 4 per cent of adults said they had older adults used a bicycle to go to a specific made a trip of more than a quarter of a place (Scottish Household Survey 1999). mile by bicycle in the last week, just for 113

Modes of Transport The car is the dominant mode of transport Local bus passenger numbers substantially in Scotland. Since 1975, the volume of car exceed rail, air or ferry passenger numbers. traffic on major roads (motorways and However, in contrast to the rise of the car, A roads), has more than doubled, from an passenger numbers for local buses have estimated 9,300 million vehicle kilometres historically been falling. The number of in 1975 to almost 20,000 million vehicle passenger journeys on local bus services kilometres in 1999 (Chart 8.7). has more than halved, from 891 million in 1975, to 413 million in 1998-99 (Chart 8.7). High car usage in Scotland today is also However local bus passenger numbers for shown by the fact that 64 per cent of those 1999-00 increased by 4 per cent on the aged over 17 now hold a full car driving previous year: the first increase for many licence (Table 8.4), and also 62 per cent of years. households have regular use of a car (Table 8.8).

Chart 8.7: Car traffic (Vehicle kilometres on major roads, M and A), and local bus passengers, 1975 to 1998/99

25,000 1,100 1,000

20,000 900 Local Passengers (millions) 800 15,000 700 600 500 10,000 400 300 Car Traffic 5,000 200

Car traffic (millions of kilometres) Local Bus Passengers 100 0 0 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 year

Source: Scottish Transport Statistics, Scottish Executive Note: 1. The apparent fall in car traffic in 1996 is thought to be a result of the effect of local government reorganisation and changes to the trunk network on DETR’s method of estimating traffic volumes. 8 114

Table 8.8: Households with the regular use of a car(1), 1988-98 Column Percentages

Number of cars in household 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

No car 47 44 43 42 43 41 38 36 39 35 38 1 39 42 41 42 42 43 44 45 44 46 41 2 14 14 15 14 12 14 16 17 16 16 17 3 or more . .. .223222224 All households 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Family Expenditure Survey, General Household Survey, National Travel Survey Note: 1. “Car” includes light vans, etc. 2. Up to 1989, it is not possible to distinguish households with two cars from households with three or more cars.

Rail passenger numbers have been rising number of passenger stations has increased from 1995 onwards and stood at just over from 307 in 1989-90 to 334 in 1999-2000. 60 million in 1998-99. The total route On the Glasgow underground, over the length of the railway network in Scotland past ten years, the number of passenger has remained at around 2,700 kilometres journeys has varied between 13.4 million throughout the past ten years and the and 14.7 million.

Chart 8.9: Air passengers, 1975-99

4 8 Numbers (millions) Passenger

0 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 year Source: Transport Statistics, Scottish Executive 115

Air travel is the fastest growing method of find public transport convenient, compared transport at the moment. Air passenger to 84 per cent of those living in the “four traffic in Scotland increased from 4.2 cities” (Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and million terminal passengers in 1975 to 16.0 Dundee). Remote rural communities are million in 1999 (Chart 8.9). In just the past defined as households in settlements of ten years (1989-1999), numbers of air less than 3,000 people, who are not within terminal passengers have increased by 73 30 minutes drive of a settlement of 10,000 per cent in Scotland. Most air passenger or more people. traffic (57 per cent) in Scotland in 1999 was to/from other parts of the UK. 6 per Another reason people may not use public cent of all terminal passenger traffic in transport is difficulty in getting access to 1999 was to/from other Scottish airports, the services, for example for disabled and 26 per cent was between Scotland and people, pensioners or parents with young Europe, of which almost three-fifths was children. Table 8.11 shows that less than to/from Glasgow airport. 15 per cent of Scotland’s bus fleet had a low floor in 1998. The report “Transport Social consequences of the provision for Disabled People in Scotland”, change in modes of transport produced for the Scottish Executive, also found that some strategically important bus Decreasing use of public transport may in stations are inaccessible; many trains were part be due to the fact that, since 1980, inaccessible due to lack of ramps; only 51 public transport fares have risen faster than of over 300 stations were accessible to all the cost of running a car (see Chart 8.15). areas for wheelchair users; and Glasgow Chart 8.10 shows that only 40 per cent of Underground was inaccessible to people those living in “remote rural communities” with reduced mobility.

Chart 8.10: People finding public transport “convenient” by urban/rural classification, 1999

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 "convienent" 30 8 20

Percentage that find public transport Percentage 10 0 The four cities Other urban, Small accessible Small remote Accessible rural Remote rural All (pop > 10k) towns towns Urban/rural classification

Source: Scottish Household Survey 116

Table 8.11: Transport provision for physically disabled people travelling by bus, 1998 Number Percentage Bus types in operation High Floor 5,193 88 Low Floor 732 12 Of which: kneel 600 82 manual ramp 91 12 automatic ramp 36 5 Low floor bus operation Currently operate low floor buses 48 26 Intend to operate low floor buses in next 3 years 24 13 May operate low floor buses in next 3 years 22 12 Do not intend to operate low floor buses in next 3 years 91 49

Source: “Transport provision for disabled people in Scotland”, Reid-Howie Associates, 1999 Growth in dependence on the private car has or more cars available for private use led to the exclusion of some of the poorer compared to 88 per cent of households in sections of communities. For example, only “high income” areas (Table 8.12). A similar 33 per cent of households living in “families pattern of disadvantage is found when looking in council flats” areas, and 34 per cent of at people who hold a full driving licence by those living in “renting singles” areas had one the type of area that they live in (Table 8.12).

Table 8.12: Households with a car available for private use by number of vehicles available and MOSAIC type, and people who hold a full driving licence by MOSAIC type 1999 Row Percentages

Number of cars available for private use by household members: Sample People aged size Sample size 17+ who hold (= 100%) MOSAIC area (type of Two or (= 100%) a full driving people neighbourhood)(2) None One more households) licence(1) aged 17+)

High income areas 12 49 39 1,686 84 3,398 Middle income owners 20 52 28 2,135 77 4,138 Lower income owners 29 53 18 1,310 69 2,412 Better off Council 41 48 11 2,406 55 4,680 Disadvantaged Council 8 Estates 50 42 8 1,623 51 2,871 Families in Council Flats 67 28 5 1,127 39 1,833 Renting Singles 66 31 3 1,236 42 1,825 Singles and Flats 47 44 9 1,283 62 2,041 Country Dwellers 13 51 36 1,383 83 2,735 Institutional Areas 21 52 27 505 78 950

All areas(3) 37 45 17 14,714 64 26,924

Source: Scottish Household Survey Note: 1. The interview asks whether the person holds a full driving licence (car or motorcycle) for those aged 17+. 2. Scottish MOSAIC is a neighbourhood classification system, described briefly in the “Notes and Definitions”. 3. Including a few cases for which the MOSAIC category is not known. 117

Those without access to a car find getting parking. Figures from CB Hillier Parker access to increasingly centralised services show that in the 1980s there were a total difficult, especially if they live in rural areas. of 16 new shopping centres and retail Many others, particularly in rural areas, can warehouse parks, larger than 50,000ft2, struggle to run a car on a low income. constructed in Scotland on out of centre A study by the Central Research Unit, sites. This rose to 48 during the 1990s, of Scottish Executive, in 1998, on the nature which 4 were factory outlet centres. of car dependence in five contrasting study areas of rural Scotland indicated that Such developments have affected the isolation from services appeared to be the vitality and viability of existing centres and strongest determinant of car ownership, have resulted in an increasing dependence with often even the least affluent in the on access by car, often resulting in longer remotest areas, running a car. Income was journeys and more congestion and an important indicator of car use, with the pollution. People without use of a car often more affluent households making more of find they are excluded. their journeys by car, and using their cars for longer trips than those in lower income To combat the threat to town and city groups. Of rural households without access centres and to encourage new developments to a car, 80 per cent earned less than in locations which are accessible not only £10,000 a year. Many rural dwellers by car but by a choice of transport, a key without regular access to a car were found government planning policy guideline was to be dependent on friends’ or relatives’ introduced in 1996. This requires planning cars for travel to work and, particularly, authorities to adopt a sequential approach the supermarket. to selecting sites for new retail/leisure developments. Town centre sites are Since the mid-1980s there has been a rise identified as the preferred location, followed in the amount of out of centre shopping by edge of centre sites and then out of development, fuelled by a significant centre sites. Scottish Executive research increase in retail expenditure, rising found that in 1998, for all approved retail consumer expectations, the creation of developments over 1,000m2: 39 per cent larger retail formats, and increased car of floorspace was in town centres, 18 per ownership. Car users have found access cent on edge of centre sites; 38 per cent easier and more convenient than on out of centre sites; and 6 per cent in congested town centres with restrictive out of town locations.

8 118

Chart 8.13: Approvals and refusals for retail developments by floorspace area, 1998

180 Approved 150 Refused - no appeal )

2 Refused - potential appeal/inquiry 120

60 Floorspace (in 1000m 30

0 Town centre Edge of centre Out of centre Out of town Location of retail development

Source: Development Department, Scottish Executive

Personal expenditure on transport In 1998-99 expenditure by private increased by 53 per cent, rail fares rose by households on transport totalled around 72 per cent and overall bus and coach fares £5.6 billion, with over 85 per cent spent on (including long distance services), rose by motoring (Chart 8.14). 65 per cent. However, the cost of just purchasing a motor vehicle increased by Most of the transport components of the only 16 per cent over this ten year period Retail Price Index (RPI) have increased which is more slowly than the RPI itself. It more rapidly than the RPI itself (Chart 8.15). is worth noting that although people’s Between 1989 and 1999, the Retail Prices expenditure on motoring is increasing at a increased by 44 per cent. From 1989 to slower rate than people’s expenditure on 8 1999, overall motoring expenditure public transport, the increasing cost of (including purchase and maintenance costs, petrol and oil is narrowing this difference. petrol and oil, vehicle tax and insurance), 119

Chart 8.14: Total Household Expenditure(1) on Transport in Scotland per year (average for 1996-99, millions of pounds)

339 237 124

Other travel and transport 2,415 Bus and coach fares

Railway fares Maintenance and running of motor vehicles Purchase of motor vehicles and accessories

2,460

Sources: Family Expenditure Survey Note: 1. Based on weighted data and including children’s expenditure. The sample size is small so should be interpreted with caution.

Tax (duty plus VAT) represented about 83 low carbon dioxide outputs will be taxed per cent of the price of unleaded petrol and less, as will cars that use alternative fuel. 84 per cent of the price of diesel in Great Another government initiative to ensure Britain in 1999, compared with 57 per cent that the less cars pollute, the less tax their and 61 per cent respectively in 1989. owners will pay, was the 1p per litre incentive for ultra low sulphur petrol that Vehicle Excise Duty (VED) encourages the took effect from the 1st October 2000, to running of smaller vehicles (which are be followed by a further 2p reduction from usually less environmentally damaging as April 2001, subject to widespread availability. they use less fuel), because the duty is higher on larger vehicles. Furthermore, In comparison to transport fuels, both from 2001, VED on brand new cars will be industrial and domestic fuel prices have based on a vehicle’s carbon dioxide emission fallen in real terms between 1984 and 1998. figure and the type of fuel used. Cars with 8 120

Chart 8.15: Transport components of the Retail Prices Index (1987 = 100), UK

210 Bus and Coach fares 200 Rail fares 190 Purchase of motor vehicles 180 Total Motoring expenditure 170 Retail Prices Index (all items) 160 150 140 130

Retail Prices Index (1987=100) Prices Retail 120 110

100 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 year Source: Office for National Statistics Transport Accidents Despite increases in population, numbers part be attributed to the many car safety of vehicles licensed, and road traffic, road campaigns by government. Recent campaigns travel is getting safer (Table 8.16). include “Foolspeed”; a long-term road The provisional total number of casualties safety campaign sponsored by the Scottish (of all severities) in 1999 was 20,976 which Road Safety Campaign (SRSC) and including was 7 per cent less than in 1998 (Table 8.16). a series of TV adverts and posters with a This represented the lowest number of distinctive logo, to tackle the problem of casualties since 1956. It is 23 per cent below speeding. There has also been the extension the 1981-85 average level and therefore of “Crimestoppers” (a free telephone line above the government target for a reduction for the public to report crime), to include of one third by the year 2000. Fatal and road crime. The Children’s Traffic Club in serious casualties from road accidents have Scotland is another road safety initiative decreased even more markedly and were introduced by the SRSC – it comprises half the 1981-85 average level, in 1998, materials aimed at helping parents/carers when there were 4,453 fatal and serious to teach pre-school children how to be accidents. The reduction in the number of safe when out and about. The introduction 8 accidents and casualties are even more of more traffic calming features such as significant given that the number of humps and chicanes can be very effective at vehicles licensed in Scotland in 1999 was reducing road deaths and injuries, particularly estimated to have grown by almost a third for children, cyclists and pedestrians. since 1988 (Table 8.16). There is also improved crash protection and features such as anti-lock braking This improvement in road safety may in systems in new cars. 121

Table 8.16: Vehicles licensed, road lengths, and casualties, 1960 to 1999 All licensed Year vehicles Road lengths Number of (millions) (thousands km) casualties

1960 . . 45.2 26,315 1965 0.951 46.2 31,827 1970 1.124 47.2 31,240 1975 1.304 48.3 28,621 1980 1.398 49.4 29,286 1985 1.514 50.7 27,290 1990 1.788 51.7 27,225 1991 1.830 51.9 25,346 1992 1.884 52.0 24,173

1993 1.874(1) 52.1 22,415 1994 1.900 52.3 22,573 1995 1.910 52.8 22,194 1996 1.966 53.1 21,715 1997 2.023 53.1 22,629 1998 2.073 53.3 22,457 1999 2.131 53.5 20,976

1981-85 average(2) 1.453 50.4 27,142

Per cent changes: 1999 on 1998 2.8 0.4 –6.6 1999 on 1981-85 ave 46.2(1) 6.2 –22.7

Source: Scottish Executive Note: 1. Figures from 1993 onwards are on a different basis from those for previous years, due to a change in the source of the data. Figures from the new source are about 2.5 per cent lower than those from the previous source. The calculated percentage change includes an allowance for this. 2. Baseline for 1/3 casualty reduction by year 2000. 8

Estimates show that the number of drink- casualties is estimated to have dropped by drive casualties fell by 39 per cent between over a half. This improvement was probably 1988 and 1998 (Chart 8.17). The number influenced by the many government drink of people killed as a result of drink-drive driving campaigns held over the last two accidents is estimated to have fallen by 29 decades, and related changes in public per cent, and the number of serious attitudes. 122

Chart 8.17: Casualties which involved motor vehicle drivers or riders with illegal alcohol levels(1), by severity, 1987 to 1998 2,500 All Slight 2,000 Serious Fatal

1,500

1,000

500 Number of drink driving casualities

0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 year

Source: Transport Statistics, Scottish Executive Note: 1. Above the current drink-drive limit of 80mg of alcohol per 100ml of blood.

Scotland has a good record on road safety these rates are higher than the UK average. compared to the rest of the European However, the Scottish Executive and the Union. In 1998, Scotland had among the SRSC continue to carry out initiatives lowest death rates per 100,000 population, aimed at reducing in particular, the child at 9 per 100,000 for adults and 3 per pedestrian casualty rate in Scotland. 100,000 for children (Table 8.18), although

8 123

Table 8.18: Road deaths: EU comparison, 1971 and 1998 Rates per 100,000 population(1) 1971 1998 Adults Children Adults Children

Portugal(2) 24 10 33 8 Greece(2) 15 4 27 4 Austria 46 13 20 2 France 42 12 17 4 Spain . . . . 17 3

Belgium . . . . 16 3 Irish Republic 24 9 16 3 Germany . . . . 15 2 Italy 23 6 13 2 Finland 29 13 12 4

Denmark 28 14 11 3 Netherlands 28 13 11 2 Luxembourg . . . . 9 1 Swedem 18 5 8 1 Scotland 19 10 9 3 United Kingdom 16 8 6 2

Source: Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions and Scottish Executive Note: 1. Adults aged 15 and over, children aged under 15. 2. Data in 1971 column are for 1970. Data in 1998 column are for 1997.

Despite the recent concerns about the safety Environmental impacts of of railways following some derailments, transport Scotland continues to have relatively few railway accidents. Provisional figures from the Health and Safety Executive for It is widely thought that current levels of 1999/2000 are that there were 151 train traffic growth are unsustainable. On the 8 accidents in Scotland, a small reduction on basis of past policies, overall traffic levels the previous years total of 156. There across the UK are forecast (by the DETR, were 25 deaths, all of which involved 1997), to grow by 38 per cent between trespassers or suicides, and many of the 1996 and 2016 and by 53 per cent train accidents were due to vandalism. between 1996 and 2026. 124

Air travel is increasing rapidly and is also facilities tailored to local needs. The Scottish the most polluting form of transport. Executive has also legislated to give local There is no tax on aircraft fuel, unlike the authorities the powers to introduce local high taxes on road transport fuel. congestion charging schemes for driving within or driving into an urban centre in Road transport is a major source of carbon order to tackle congestion. dioxide emissions as well as other pollutant emissions particularly nitrogen oxides, Various measures are being implemented by carbon monoxide and lead. EU directives local authorities and operators to promote will mean cleaner petrol and diesel and the use of public transport. Local measures significantly tighter emission standards include the implementation of bus priority from new vehicles from 2000, and further schemes, known as “Greenways” in improvements in 2005. However, in the Edinburgh. The principal aims of bus priority longer term, increases in traffic volumes schemes are to make bus travel more could result in a reversal of these trends. efficient, improve traffic flow and encourage travellers to use the bus rather The Government acknowledge the link than the private car. As well as giving between climate change and emissions of priority to public transport, such schemes greenhouse gases and are committed to can involve priority for pedestrians and reducing them. Thus for environmental cyclists and enhancing traffic calming on reasons, UK government and Scottish side streets. Research by the Development Executive transport policy is currently Department, Scottish Executive, has found directed at encouraging sustainable, that Greenways have improved the reliability alternative modes of transport. of bus services, enabling them to by-pass congestion, and that passenger boarding on Public versus Private the A8 corridor (Glasgow Road) had increased since the implementation of Transportation Greenways in August 1997. Moves to promote the use of public transport include delivering a national Just over one half of identifiable public transport timetable offering more reliable expenditure on transport by the government and accessible passenger information and and local authorities was spent on roads in greater through ticketing across public 1998-99. Just over a quarter was in franchise transport with simpler, more flexible payments to ScotRail and 11 per cent was ticketing systems. The Scottish Executive spent on other public transport, support has legislated to facilitate “Quality for public transport and concessionary Partnerships” and “Quality Contracts” fares (Chart 8.19). which ensure high quality bus services and 8 125

Table 8.19: Total Public Expenditure(1) on Transport in Scotland (millions of pounds), 1998-99 63 Other 292 ScotRail Franchise

236 Support for Passenger Transport Concessionary Fares CalMac Highlands and Islands Airports Public Transport - Capital(4) 42 Roads - Capital(3) 42 Roads - Current(2) 184 23 6 14

Sources: Scottish Executive, and OPRAF Annual Report 2000 Note: 1. This includes expenditure on transport within the Scottish Ministers’ responsibility, and expenditure on transport controlled by local authorities. 2. Roads – current expenditure includes minor and routine repairs to roads, including winter maintenance, road lighting and parking, and road safety and traffic management surveys. 3. Roads – capital expenditure includes new road constructions and improvements to roads, structural maintenance, expenditure on toll bridges, bypasses, bus priority measures, forest roads. 4. Public transport expenditure excludes expenditure on bus priority measures.

It could be difficult to persuade people to respondents in Scotland cited improved use public transport as an alternative to the information on bus services (64 per cent) car. Less than half of the Scottish bus users and improved reliability (62 per cent). on the People’s Panel (a survey commissioned by the Cabinet Office), At the moment, Scottish Household Survey thought that reliability, frequency of service 1999 results indicate that 45 per cent of all and personal safety standards of buses current car commuters say that they could 8 were good. This survey found that the make the journey to work by public most positive aspect of local bus services transport. The percentage varies with was the accessibility to bus stops on foot urban/rural location of the home with 58 (64 per cent considered this to be good) per cent of adults living in the four cities and the least positive was the cost (fewer (Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and than a quarter of Panel members in Scotland Dundee) claiming it would be possible to considered the cost of their local bus make the journey using public transport services as ‘good’). When asked about but only 19 per cent of adults living in possible improvements to bus services that remote areas (households in settlements of might encourage them to use buses more, less than 3,000 people, who are not within 126

30 minutes drive of a settlement of 10,000 for not driving were financial, cited by 44 or more people). This again highlights the per cent, and personal preference (43 per issue of provision of public transport in rural cent). Other reasons were lack of access to areas being inadequate (see also Chart 8.10). a car, ill health, preference for public transport and environmental considerations. Five possible means of raising revenue for Advantages of not using a car were perceived public transport were put to the People’s mainly in personal terms – reduced stress Panel members. The least popular levels, an enhanced social life, convenience, measures were the gradual doubling of absence of parking problems, cost savings petrol costs over 10 years (9 of every 10 and improved fitness. Fewer respondents Panel members in Scotland opposed this cited wider environmental or altruistic measure), and increasing VAT on goods benefits. and services (83 per cent of respondents in Scotland opposed this). Among Panel A simple and effective method of members in Scotland, there was greatest encouraging motorists to contemplate the support for charging motorists £2 for environmental and social effects of car use driving through town centres at peak times and consider alternatives, is through (over one third in favour of this measure), education. Research undertaken by the and 3 in 10 surveyed were in favour of Scottish Consumer Council for The cutting spending on new roads. Scottish Office concluded that sustained and relevant education could play a part in Some research by the Central Research promoting behavioural change away from Unit, Scottish Executive,1999 was done on car use, but only if acceptable alternatives why some people choose not to drive cars, to car transport were available. The the ways in which these individuals adapt Scottish Executive is currently preparing a to non-car ownership and the benefits of Travel Awareness Campaign for launch non-car use. The main reasons people gave later in 2001.

8 127

References and further reading

Scottish Transport Statistics 19, 2000 Edition, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk www.scotland.gov.uk /stats

Travel by Scottish Residents: some National Travel Survey results, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk www.scotland.gov.uk /stats

Road Accidents Scotland 1999, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk www.scotland.gov.uk /stats

Household Transport in 1999: some Scottish household Survey results, Scottish Executive, http://www.scotland.gov.uk www.scotland.gov.uk /stats

Car dependence in rural Scotland, Central Research unit finding no. 53, Scottish Executive, www.scotland.gov.uk/cru

Why People Don’t Drive Cars, Central Research unit finding no. 75, Scottish Executive, www.scotland.gov.uk/cru

Integrating Transport, Research paper 99/06 prepared for the Transport and Environment Committee, Scottish Parliament, www.scottish.parliament.uk

Transport (Scotland) Bill, Research Note 00/10 prepared for the Transport and Environment Committee, Scottish Parliament, www.scottish.parliament.uk.

The Integrated transport Bill, The Executive’s Proposals, Scottish Executive publication www.scotland.gov.uk

Transport Statistics Great Britain, 2000 Edition, DETR http://www.statistics.gov.uk www.statistics.gov.uk

Transport Provision for disabled people in Scotland, Reid-Howie Associates, prepared for the Central Research Unit, Scottish Executive, 1999, www.scotland.gov.uk/cru

1998 Retail Development Survey, Scottish Executive, 2000, www.scotland.gov.uk

Women and Transport: Moving Forward, 2000, Reid-Howie Associates, prepared for the Central Research Unit, Scottish Executive, 1999 8 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru www.scotland.gov.uk/cru

Comparative Evaluation of Greenways and Conventional Bus Lanes, Development Department Research Programme Research Findings no. 83, Scottish Executive, 2000, www.scotland.gov.uk/cru

General Research Findings No.2 1999 – The People's Panel in Scotland: Wave 2 (August-November 1998), www.scotland.gov.uk/cru 128

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 8, Transport.

Scottish Executive Chapter Author Anna Wakeley 0131 244 0443 [email protected]

Transport Statistics Alastair Douglas 0131 244 7255 [email protected]

Central Research Unit, Transport Janet Ruiz 0131 244 0377 [email protected] Other Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions 020 7944 4748 [email protected]

8 The Environment

Chapter9 130

Scotland is famous for the beauty of its the potential effects on health when they natural landscape. Its mountains, glens and become polluted. There have been lochs draw both locals and tourists to enjoy significant changes in land use, with more walking, fishing and many other recreations of Scotland becoming urbanised and in the countryside. We can easily forget industrialised. While traditional crofting still that the landscape we see today has been survives, modern farming has moved to formed by man as well as nature. For more intensive and specialised methods. example, much of the current woodland has been planted rather than seeded naturally. There is much we do not understand about Scotland’s built heritage, from the Stone the complex interactions which shape and Age houses of Skara Brae in Orkney, to the change our environment, often at a global castles of Mar in Aberdeenshire and the level. Natural events, such as volcanic planned Georgian cityscape of Edinburgh’s eruptions, and human interventions, such as New Town, also attracts many admirers. burning fossil fuels, can both impact on the climate. Increasingly, we see that events However, man’s effect on the environment far from Scotland, such as the accident at can be far from beneficial. In recent years, the Chernobyl nuclear power station in many people have become concerned Russia in 1986, can affect us directly. about the quality of our air and water and

Climate change and the Greenhouse effect

Life on earth could not survive without the – permanently below freezing in Scotland. ‘greenhouse effect’, where clouds (water Important ‘greenhouse gases’ are carbon vapour) and gases in the upper atmosphere dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and form an insulating layer which keeps the halocarbons, with carbon dioxide accounting earth’s surface warm. Without this heat- for around three quarters of emissions of retaining blanket, we would be 33°C cooler greenhouse gases in the UK in 1990.

Table 9.1: Greenhouse gases and their sources

Gas Sources Carbon dioxide Burning fossil fuels, forestry, land use change Methane Coal, oil, gas production, landfill, organic waste, animals Nitrous oxides Chemical industry, catalytic converters, animal wastes, fertilisers Hydrofluorocarbons Refrigeration, air conditioning

Source: Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions

Increasing the amount of these gases in the significant changes in the weather, with air improves its insulating properties: global rainfall patterns changing and increases in 9 average surface temperatures have risen by severe weather events such as storms. between 0.3°C and 0.6°C since the late Low-lying ground could be flooded, as the nineteenth century and projections suggest oceans expand as they warm up and ice on that they could rise by about a further 2°C land could melt, further increasing sea by 2100. Some areas may experience levels. In other areas, the effects of global 131 warming may be more positive, increasing frequency of severe gales; crop yields, for example. • reduced direct short-wave solar radiation causing increased cloud cover. Possible effects of climate change in Scotland (examined by the UK Climate Scotland will also be affected by the impact Impacts Programme) include of climate change on other countries.

• warmer temperatures with more change In 1998, total greenhouse gas emissions in in winter than summer; Scotland were 23 million tonnes of carbon • more rainfall, with autumn and winter equivalent, 3 per cent less than in 1990. seeing the biggest increases, spring During the same period, total emissions in amounts dropping and summer rainfall the UK fell by 9 per cent, mainly because remaining similar to today; of a switch from coal to gas for electricity • increased risk of flooding due to more generation. In 1998, agriculture, forestry intense rainfall; and land use produced over a third of total • decreases in the overall number of gales, Scottish emissions, with the energy sector although with an increase in the producing nearly a further third (Table 9.2).

Table 9.2: Total greenhouse gas emissions, Scotland and UK; 1990 and 1998 Millions of tonnes of carbon equivalent (MtC) and percentages

Scotland UK Scotland as % of UK 1990 1998 1990 1998 1990 1998 Sector MtC % MtC % MtC MtC % % Energy 6.0 25 6.8 30 74.2 59.0 812 Business 4.5 19 3.0 13 54.3 49.0 86 Transport 2.4 10 2.4 10 34.0 35.7 77 Domestic 2.0 8 2.0 9 22.0 23.5 99 Agriculture, forestry and land use 8.5 36 8.5 37 23.9 21.8 36 39

Public1 0.4 2 0.3 1 2.6 2.9 15 10 All 23.8 100 23.0 100 211.0 191.9 11 12

Source: Scottish Executive Note 1. Some public sector emissions are included with business.

Under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, averaged over 2008-2012, a decrease of industrialised countries were set legally 12.5 per cent. The UK Government has binding targets for reducing greenhouse gas also set a separate domestic target of 9 emissions below 1990 levels by 2008-2012. reducing carbon dioxide emissions to 20 The UK must reduce its 1990 baseline per cent below 1990 levels by 2010. emissions of 211 MtC for a basket of 6 Scotland will make a full contribution to greenhouse gases to 189 MtC per annum meeting these targets. 132

The Air The burning of fossil fuels (such as oil, coal tonnes (47 per cent from road transport) and and gas) is the biggest single source of air carbon monoxide emissions were 4.8 million pollution. Fossil fuels are used in industry, tonnes (73 per cent from road transport). in the home and in transport. Many atmospheric pollutants have been linked to Ozone is a naturally occurring form of human health problems. Sulphur dioxide, oxygen. High in the atmosphere, it fine particles and nitrogen dioxide can protects the earth from the harmful effects increase asthma symptoms. Particles are of ultra-violet light, which can damage our composed of a wide range of materials, eyes and cause skin cancer. The such as sulphate and nitrate formed by manufacture and use of fridges, aerosols, chemical reactions in the atmosphere, and foam and packaging releases halocarbons include suspended soils and dusts, seasalt, into the air, where they drift upwards and biological particles and particles from start to destroy ozone. This increases the construction work. They come from a amount of ultra-violet light, which can variety of sources (including road traffic) cause skin cancer, reaching the earth. and can affect breathing. Carbon monoxide reduces our blood’s ability to carry oxygen, A hole in the ozone layer was first a particular risk for people with coronary discovered in Antarctica in 1985 and NASA artery disease (angina), and ground level announced the largest Antarctic hole, three ozone irritates eyes, throats and lungs. times the size of the USA, in September However, not all air pollution is caused by 2000. Satellite observations show that total people. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen atmospheric ozone levels over Scotland dioxide both occur naturally as a result of, have declined by around 10 per cent over for example, volcanic activity. the last 20 years. Emissions of halocarbons have been reduced by 80 per cent over Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide can the last 10 years and the ozone layer be chemically changed in the atmosphere, should begin to recover. However, it may to create acids which increase the slight be 50 to 60 years before it again natural acidity of rainfall. ‘Acid rain’ has approaches the level of 20 years ago. been linked to the death of fish, birds, and trees and damage to buildings. Because it is At ground level, where it can be toxic to airborne, it can affect plants, animals and plants and animals, ozone is formed by a properties thousands of miles from the complex series of chemical reactions original source. For example, 33 per cent initiated by sunlight, so ozone formation is of sulphur deposition in Scotland comes very weather dependent. These reactions from England and Wales and 44 per cent can take place over several hours or even from elsewhere in Europe. The majority of days, and the ozone measured in a particular acid generating compounds emitted in location can have arisen from emissions Scotland are deposited elsewhere. Acid many miles away. These effects mean that deposition is of particular importance in raised ozone levels tend to occur the Galloway area, where there are 400 • in the summer kilometers of rivers classified as polluted • in the south, rather than the north, of 9 from this cause. the UK • downwind of the source, in rural and In 1996, UK emissions of sulphur dioxide suburban areas, rather than city centres. totalled 2 million tonnes: 72 per cent of this came from power stations. In 1998, The (revised) Air Quality Strategy for nitrogen oxide emissions were 1.8 million England, Scotland, Wales and Northern 133

Ireland was announced in January 2000 and represented a considerable improvement set national standards for various pollutants, since 1993. The 1999 particulate based on medical and scientific evidence of measurements (PM10) also met the their effects on health. Air quality is objective levels at the Edinburgh Centre measured at a limited number of locations and Glasgow City Chambers sites, but those in Scotland (Table 9.3). at the Glasgow kerbside site exceeded them. However, in every year from 1993 In 1999, the measurements on carbon to 1999, the nitrogen dioxide objective monoxide and sulphur dioxide (in Edinburgh was exceeded at both the Edinburgh and Glasgow) were well below the Centre and Glasgow City Chambers sites, objectives set in the strategy. In Edinburgh, as was the ground level ozone objective at the only Scottish site in the automatic the remote Strath Vaich site, in the north monitoring network where sulphur dioxide of Scotland (Ross-shire) and Eskdalemuir, measurements for several years were in rural Dumfries and Galloway (southern available, the 1999 measurements Scotland), except in 1998.

Table 9.3: Air pollutant levels, 1993-1999

Air Pollutant NAQS objective Monitoring stations 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Carbon 11.6 mg/m3 measured Maximum eight hour running mean (mg/m3) Monoxide as an 8 hour running Glasgow City Chambers 7 6.3 5.5 4.4 7.9 3.5 4.2 (CO) mean Edinburgh Centre 5.6 4.1 3.7 4.3 2.9 3.5 1.7

Nitrogen 40 µg/m3 annual mean Annual mean concentration (µg/m3) dioxide concentration Glasgow City Chambers 51 49 50 52 50 52 51 (NO2) Edinburgh Centre 51 51 50 47 49 47 42

Sulphur 266µg/m3 15 minute Number of times 266/µg/m3 exceeded dioxide mean not to be (measured as a 15 minute mean) (SO2) exceeding more than Glasgow Centre ...... 0000 35 times a year Edinburgh Centre 46 28 18 7000

Particles 50µg/m3 24 hour Number of days 50µg/m3 exceeded (PM10) mean not to be (measured as 24 hour mean) exceeded more than Glasgow Centre ...... 8 18 11 9 35 times a year Glasgow Kerbside ...... 80 68 43 Edinburgh Centre 15 9 19 14 8 1 3

Ground 100µg/m3 daily Number of days 100µg/m3 exceeded level maximum (measured (measured as the maximum daily 8 hr as an 8 hour running running mean) ozone mean) not to be Edinburgh Centre (urban) 0 0 2 3102 ‘(O3) exceeded more than Eskdalemuir (rural) 8 13 24 10 17 6 17 10 times a year Strath Vaich (remote) 11 25 21 11 12 10 26

Source: UK National Air Quality Information Archive 9 134

People living in Scotland are generally nearly four fifths of Scotland was grassland, positive about air quality. More than half mire (a kind of wetland which can form the People’s Panel members in Scotland peat) and heather moorland. By the 1980s, did not consider poor air quality a problem these accounted for two thirds of the land at all, compared to 2 in 5 of the UK Panel. in Scotland. By contrast, woodlands While only 1 in 14 respondents in Scotland increased from 5 per cent of land cover in considered poor air quality ‘a serious the 1940s to 14 per cent in the 1980s. Half problem’, more than 1 in 3 London of the UK’s forests are in Scotland, but dwellers on the Panel (36 per cent) Scotland is still one of the least wooded expressed serious concern about their countries in Europe (Forestry Commission, local air quality. 2000). The percentage of arable land was similar throughout the period (around 10 per cent), while built and bare ground The Land increased from 3 to 4 per cent (Chart 9.4). Between the 1940s and the 1980s, there were major changes in the use of land in Without planning controls which encourage Scotland. Some of these were associated the re-development of ‘brownfield’ sites with urban development (including road over ‘greenfield’ developments, more of building, formal recreational use of land Scotland’s land could become urbanised. and reservoir construction). Agriculture Around 70 per cent of recent became increasingly intensive and specialised. housebuilding completion in the larger Woodland increased, largely as a result of Scottish urban areas has been on commercial conifer planting. In the 1940s, brownfield sites.

Chart 9.4: Summary of land cover change in Scotland 1940s to 1980s Percentages 100 Bracken and low scrub 90 Built and bare ground 80 Fresh water 70 Woodland 60 Arable 50 Heather moorland 40 Mire Land cover (%) 30 Grassland 20 10 0 9 1940s 1970s 1980s Year Source: Scottish Natural Heritage 135

Agriculture in Scotland is very different countries. Around two thirds of respondents from that in England. In 1999, 8 per cent of said that they had visited woodlands for agricultural land in Scotland was tillage, walks, picnics or other recreation in the compared to 46 per cent in England: 45 last few years, again with little variation by per cent of Scottish agricultural output country. came from livestock, compared to 26 per cent in England. Eighty three per cent of The legislation to establish National Parks Scottish agricultural land is in less favoured in Scotland received Royal Assent in August areas: nearly three quarters of land in 2000. The likely first such areas are Loch these areas is rough grazing. Lomond and the Trossachs, and the Cairngorms. However, many parts of Demand for organic produce has increased, Scotland are already protected by various partly in response to consumers’ concerns designations which reflect their about food safety (including the use of environmental importance. For example, in pesticides on crops). The organic aid scheme 1999, Scotland had nearly 1,500 sites of provides support for farmers who wish to Special Scientific Interest, covering 920 convert to organic methods of production. thousand hectares, or 12 per cent of the In 1995, there were 16 participants, and land area. around 15,500 acres of land were included. By 1999, this had increased to 126 Many people belong to organisations which participants and 75,800 acres. promote the protection and enjoyment of the environment. In 1999, the National Forests and woodlands provide natural Trust for Scotland had 236 thousand habitats for many kinds of wildlife and members, the Friends of Historic Scotland many people enjoy visiting them. They also 46 thousand, the Royal Society for the act to reduce the effects of global warming Protection of Birds 68 thousand, the Royal by absorbing carbon dioxide. Nearly 90 Zoological Society of Scotland around 14 per cent of Scotland’s woodlands have thousand and the Scottish Wildlife Trust been planted or re-planted in the last 50 nearly 15 thousand. years. In the early 1970s, over 30 thousand hectares a year of new woodland was Water being planted, almost entirely conifers. In 2000, just over 10 thousand hectares were There are approximately 100 thousand planted, of which half was broadleaves. kilometers of river in Scotland, of which The area of Scots Pine has increased, as over 52 thousand kilometers are monitored the Government has introduced incentives by the Scottish Environmental Protection to encourage the planting of native species. Agency (SEPA). In 1999, 71 per cent were Public opinion is in favour of increasing classified as ‘excellent’ and only 0.2 per woodland areas – more than half of all cent as ‘seriously polluted’. River water is respondents to a Forestry Commission of generally highest quality in its upper Survey in England, Wales and Scotland in reaches, becoming dirtier along its length. 1999 said that they would like to have the Important causes of river pollution are area increased by half or doubled. sewage effluent, diffuse and point agricultural However, only a third of respondents in sources and mine drainage. Scotland favoured such substantial 9 increases, with two fifths saying they would A number of EC Directives are driving like a little more. Two thirds of those who improvements to the water environment in wanted more woodland said that this Scotland. A particularly interesting should be mixed, rather than all conifers or indicator is the EC Bathing Waters all broadleaves, with little variation in the 3 Directive (76/160/EC) which sets out 136

monitoring requirements and quality day on average. This means that we use standards for designated bathing waters. more than 400 litres of water per person Meeting these standards often requires a per day, not just in the home but in variety of pollution prevention and control industry and other areas. measures to be carried out within the catchments leading to the bathing waters A key test of drinking water quality is that themselves. At least 20 samples are taken it is free from contamination by human at each bathing water throughout the pathogens, particularly those which cause bathing season (in Scotland, 1 June to mid- enteric diseases (whose symptoms are September) and tested for total coliforms, sickness and diarrhoea). Enteric diseases faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci. are mainly transferred by faecal High numbers of these indicate an contamination of water supplies, and this increased health risk. The mandatory contamination is determined by the standard checks coliform (total and faecal) presence of faecal coliforms (Escherichia levels: the guideline standard, also coli). These are known to be present in monitors streptococci. In 2000, there were normal faeces, so even though they may 60 bathing beaches in Scotland, of which 9 not themselves be agents of disease, they failed to meet the mandatory standard. Of are indicators of contamination. Some those which met the standard, 24 achieved coliforms other than E.coli occur in the the higher guideline standard as well. This intestines, but in much smaller numbers. compared with 12 mandatory standard Others occur in soil and vegetation, but failures out of the then 23 designated these are also believed to come from waters in 1998, which was considerably faecal matter, through the spreading of higher than in preceding years. manure on agricultural land or animal droppings. If faecal coliforms are present in The main cause of bathing water pollution a sample, this is clear evidence it contains is sewage. This was formerly nearly always faecal pollution: if faecal coliforms are discharged directly into the sea, without absent but a few coliform organisms are treatment, but a large programme of detected, the probability is the pollution is investment by the Water Authorities is less recent and from the soil or other driving up treatment levels all round contamination. The absence of both Scotland. Pollution levels are affected by coliforms and faecal coliforms shows that factors such as currents, wind direction the water is highly unlikely to be polluted. and rainfall. The poor results in 1998 are believed to be connected with wet In 1999, 98.5 per cent of tested samples weather that summer. For example, from consumers’ taps were free from sample failures can be caused by sewers coliforms. This compared to 90.5 per cent overflowing during storms or rain washing in 1990. The very strict standard of zero slurry off fields and into rivers. A risk of faecal coliforms was not quite achieved in failures after high rainfall can still remain 1999 – 99.7 per cent of samples met this even after improvements in sewage test (Table 9.5). The major centres of treatment. This is particularly true where population in Scotland are served by relatively high livestock intensity can lead well-equipped water treatment works, to heavy bacterial loads in water courses if where failures are rare and have only 9 best practice is not followed. minor impact on water quality. In rural areas, suppliers may be less well equipped Our developed resources for public use to deal with changes in the condition of the amount to more than 3,600 million litres a water and consumers may experience day, of which we use 2,300 million litres a more variation in the quality of the supply. 137

Table 9.5: Drinking water quality1 1990-1999, Energy percentage of samples from consumer’s taps free from coliforms and faecal coliforms Compared to the rest of the EU, Scotland and the UK generate very little of their Percentages energy from renewable sources such as Free Free hydroelectricity and wind power. In 1998, from from Scotland generated 9 per cent of its coliforms faecal electricity from renewable sources, similar colinforms to Denmark, Greece and the Netherlands. Year % % The UK produced only 4 per cent of its electricity from renewable sources. This 1990 90.5 96.0 compared to 14 per cent in the EU as a 1991 93.1 97.0 whole, 7 per cent in Germany, 14 per cent in France and 22 per cent in Italy. Forty four 1992 95.4 97.9 per cent of Scotland’s electricity was 1993 97.3 98.7 generated using nuclear power. This 1994 97.7 99.1 compared to 28 per cent for the UK and 1995 97.4 99.1 34 per cent for the EU overall. Only Belgium, Sweden and France had higher 1996 97.7 99.3 percentages (Chart 9.6). 1997 97.7 99.2 1998 97.6 99.5 1999 98.5 99.7

Source: Scottish Executive Note 1. Excludes private water supplies.

Chart 9.6: Electricity generation by fuel used, EU comparison, 1998 Percentages

Renewable sources Nuclear Fossil fuels Scotland EU average Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Irish Republic Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Portugal Spain Sweden United Kingdom 9 0 20406080100% Percentages

Source: Eurostat, Scottish Executive, OFGEN 138

The use of nuclear power presents quite There was a sharp rise in levels of caesium different problems from those caused by 137 (a radioactive element) immediately burning fossil fuels. Treatment and disposal after the incident, which then fell markedly of nuclear waste is difficult and expensive. in the following year, before decreasing There is a risk of additional radioactive gradually to pre-1986 levels (Chart 9.7). contamination both from power plant Levels comparable to the post-Chernobyl operation and waste disposal. For example, ones had not been recorded since a peak the incident at Chernobyl nuclear power in 1964 caused by nuclear testing. However, station in Russia in 1986 affected levels of even the peak levels did not approach radioactive elements in milk in Scotland. those considered to be a risk to health.

Chart 9.7: Activity concentrations in milk, Scotland, 1970-1995, annual averages

100.00 Caesium 137 (Bq/litre) Strontium 90/calcium, (Bq/gram) 10.00

1.00

0.10 Activity concentration in milk

0.01 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 Year Source: National Radiological Protection Board

Scotland has one of the best potentials for homes. New houses must reach a National renewable energy in Europe. The Scottish Home Energy Rating (NHER) thermal Executive has set a target of producing 18 efficiency rating of around 7. However, per cent of Scotland’s electricity from much of Scotland’s existing housing does these sources by 2010, as part of its not reach this standard. Data from the strategy to reduce emissions. The 53 1996 Scottish House Condition Survey projects announced under the third round showed that most homes have adequate of the Scottish Renewables Options in insulation on hot water tanks and three April 1999 included 28 using wind power quarters have satisfactory insulation round (with a generating capacity of nearly 80 pipes, but only one in eight meets the 1991 9 Megawatts), 3 using wave power (capacity Building Regulation standards for loft 2 Megawatts) and one using biomass insulation and only a third had wall (capacity 13 Megawatts). insulation. Traditional methods of construction may limit the changes which Emissions could also be reduced if we used can be made to improve the thermal less energy, for example, to heat our efficiency of older Scottish housing. 139

Waste In 1998/9, Scottish councils managed nearly Packaging Waste (94/62/EC), introduced at 3 million tonnes of waste, of which they the end of 1994, required member states to recycled 4 per cent, well below the levels implement legislation which would achieve achieved in many other countries (Table 9.8). targets for the recovery and recycling of Fewer than half of Scottish councils had packaging waste by 2001. This Directive is separate collections for recycling and these an extension of the ‘polluter pays’ principle, accounted for only 2 per cent of the total as it requires the producing companies, refuse which councils managed. Overall, 80 rather than government or individuals, to per cent of the material from separate undertake the recycling. collections was recycled – including almost all glass and metal, but only two fifths of In the 1999 Scottish Household Survey, garden refuse. Falls in the market price of more than half of adults said that their recyclable materials have led some councils household never used recycling facilities and to withdraw or consider withdrawing one in twenty had no recycling facility separate collections. available. However, nearly a third said they used a recycling facility at least once a month. Most waste in Scotland (96 per cent) goes to landfill. The Government has introduced Use of facilities varied by neighbourhood a landfill tax to discourage disposal of waste type, with the highest use in areas in this way: the tax increased from £7 a described as ‘high income areas’ and tonne to £10 a tonne in April 1999 and will lowest in those areas described as ‘families rise by £1 each year until at least 2004. in council flats’. Usage also varied by Meeting the EC Landfill Directive whether the household had access to a car (1999/31/EC) will require stepped reductions – 63 per cent of adults in households with in the amount of biodegradable municipal no access to a motor vehicle said they waste which is disposed of in landfill sites. never used recycling facilities, compared to Much of our waste comes from packaging. 41 per cent of adults in households with The EC Directive on Packaging and access to a motor vehicle.

Table 9.8: Commercial and domestic refuse managed by Scottish councils, 1998/9

Total refuse Recycled Refuse source % of Thousand Thousand refuse tonnes % tonnes source

Mainstream collection (household and commercial) 2,378 83 14 1 Separate collections of paper, cardboard, glass, metal and garden refuse 67 2 54 81 Special uplifts 47 2 1 2 Civic amenity sites1 369 13 41 11 9 All refuse 2,861 100 110 4

Source: Accounts Commission for Scotland Note 1. Civic amenity sites are not part of the refuse collection services. 140

References and further reading

The Scottish Environment Statistics 1998, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library/stat-ses/ses-00.htm

Digest of Environmental Statistics, Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions http://www.environment.detr.gov.uk/des/index.htm

Scottish Climate Change Programme, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/environment/ccm-00.asp

UK National Air Quality Information Archive, http://www.aeat.co.uk/netcen/airqual/

Air quality strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, 2000, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/environment/airquality/default.asp

Land Cover Change: Scotland 1940s-1980s, Scottish Natural Heritage http://www.snh.org.uk/strategy/ncms1/htmgifs/method/landcovr.pdf

Economic Report on Scottish Agriculture 2000 Edition, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/agri/documents/ersa-00.asp

Drinking Water Quality in Scotland, 1999, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library3/health/dwqs-00.asp

Scottish Bathing Water Reports, Scottish Environment Protection Agency http://www.sepa.org.uk/publications/environmental_reports/index.htm

Benchmarking refuse collection – A review of councils’ refuse collection services, Accounts Commission for Scotland http://www.audit-scotland.gov.uk/publications/pdf/00l01ac.pdf

Scotland’s People: Results from the 1999 Scottish Household Survey, Volume 1, Annual Report, Scottish Executive http://www.scotland.gov.uk/shs/docs/rep99-v1.pdf

The People’s Panel in Scotland: Wave 2 (August- November 1998), General Research Findings No.2, 1999, Scottish Executive, http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library2/doc02/grf2-00.htm

9 141

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 9, Environment:

Scottish Executive Chapter Author Anna Wakeley 0131 244 0443 [email protected]

Environment Statistics John Landrock 0131 244 0441 [email protected]

Scottish Environment Protection Agency 01786 457700

Scottish Natural Heritage 0131 446 2277 [email protected]

Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions 020 7944 4748 [email protected]

9 142

9 Lifestyles and Social Participation

Chapter10 144

Most people in Scotland have a strong This chapter explores the views of people sense of national identity, which is distinct in Scotland on a range of issues, their from other parts of the UK, and many find interests, and how they spend their time. it a good place to live. The most significant constitutional change in 300 years took General Attitudes and Beliefs place in 1999, with devolution of power to the Scottish Parliament. This stimulated People in Scotland today are happier than public debate about Scotland’s place in the those in the rest of Britain according to UK, Europe (where it has many historic results from the Lloyds TSB Lifeindex links, for example, with France) and the Survey. This survey also reported that world. Arguments about whether three-quarters of people living in Scotland devolution was (or should be) the first step are happy about their health and there is on the road to full independence, and how less stress over time pressures and crime this would affect Scotland’s citizens than anywhere else in Britain. However, continue. There is concern about falls in other results showed that only one in the turn-out to vote at elections and other three are happy about work and two in measures of civic participation. five admit to loneliness.

Many commentators regularly lament the The 1999 Scottish Social Attitudes Survey decline of ‘traditional values’ such as going found that 40 per cent of people in Scotland to church, and our increasing consumerism. do not have a formal religion (Chart 10.1). Most homes boast a range of labour saving However, the 1998 British Social Attitudes appliances, such washing machines, fridges Survey found that only 10 per cent of and freezers, microwaves, and vacuum respondents ‘did not believe in God’; with cleaners, which would have been a further 14 per cent identifying with the unimaginable at the start of the 20th century. statement: ‘I don’t believe in a personal Our shopping is done in supermarkets and God, but I do believe in a Higher Power of malls, rather than in the individual shops of some kind’; and a further 15 per cent the traditional high street. As we spend identifying with the statement: ‘I don’t know less time on domestic chores, we can take whether there is a God and I don’ t believe part in an increasingly wide range of other there is any way to find out’. This suggests activities such as sport and enjoying the that some of those with no formal religion arts. We travel and see new places. For the do still hold spiritual beliefs of their own. affluent, choice is everywhere. However, there are increasing concerns that we need . to do more to ensure the social inclusion of disadvantaged groups.

Many homes also have a computer or other means of accessing the Internet, to e-mail friends rather than using traditional letters, and to surf the Web for information. An ever increasing range of television channels is on offer, leading to concerns that we are becoming a nation of ‘couch potatoes’. However, more traditional media such as newspapers and radio are still popular. It is easy to suffer information overload. 10 145

Chart 10.1: Religion(1) of people living Chart 10.2: How people living in Scotland in Scotland, 1999 view their national identity, 1999

Other British not description Church of Scotland Scottish 4% 35% 4% No religion More British 40% than Scottish Scottish not 3% British 32% Equally Scottish and British 22% Non-Christian 1% Roman Catholic Other Christian 14% 10% Source: Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 Note: The question asked was: “Do you regard yourself as More Scottish belonging to any particular region?” than British 35% The national identity of people in Scotland may have become more pronounced since Source: Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 devolution. Chart 10.2 shows that 68 per The Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 cent of people living in Scotland view also found that about three-quarters of themselves as “more Scottish than British” people living in Scotland would rather live or “Scottish not British”. in Scotland than anywhere else in the world.

Political Attitudes

Devolution of power from the UK Attitudes to Europe and the EU are also government to the Scottish Parliament in divided in Scotland. Table 10.3 sets out the May 1999, was one of the biggest opinions of people living in Scotland, on constitutional changes for 300 years. Some what the long term UK government policy matters such as defence and taxes, are not on Europe should be. Only one in ten devolved. However, many policies which people living in Scotland think that Scotland affect the daily lives of people living in should leave the EU. One third of people Scotland are set by the Scottish Parliament. in Scotland think that we should try to Results from the Scottish Social Attitudes reduce the EU’ s powers, and two in ten Survey showed that in early 1999 just after think there should be no change. Nearly the elections to Parliament, 64 per cent of one quarter are pro-European; who want people thought that a Scottish Parliament to increase the EU’ s powers, or work for would give ordinary people living in the formation of a single European Scotland more say in how Scotland was government. governed. However, 32 per cent thought it would make no difference.

10 146

Table 10.3: Opinions on EU policy, Scotland 1999 Column Percentages Britain’s long term policy should be: Percent “to leave the EU” 10 “to stay in the EU and try to reduce the EU’s powers” 36 “to leave things as they are” 22 “to stay in the EU and try to increase the EU’s powers” 14 “to work for the formation of a single European government” 9 “Don’t know” 10 Total 100

Source: Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999

People living in Scotland show more should be health or education. This is agreement on the way the government backed up by the 66 per cent of people should spend its money, than the wider living in Scotland who think that the second issues of independence and Europe. Table priority for extra government spending 10.4 shows that almost three-quarters of should also be health or education people living in Scotland think that the first (Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999). priority for extra government spending

10 147

Table 10.4: Opinions on priorities for extra government spending(1), Scotland 1999 Column Percentages

Items of government spending 1st priority for extra Government spending Health 46 Education 26 Housing 7 Help for industry 6 Public transport 4 Roads 3 Social security benefits 3 Police and prisons 2 Defence 1 Overseas aid 0 None of these 1 Don’t know 1 Not answered 0 Total 100

Source: Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 Note: 1. Respondents were asked: “Here are some items of government spending. Which of them, if any, would be your highest priority for extra spending?”

People living in Scotland also agree that who are sick or disabled should be increased, there should be more government spending and over two thirds thought that benefits on some specific social security benefits for parents on low incomes, disabled people even though this would probably mean who cannot work and retired people should paying more taxes. For example 80 per be increased. There was less support for cent of people living in Scotland thought increasing benefits for single parents and that benefits for people who care for those the unemployed (Table 10.5).

10 148

Table 10.5: Opinions on whether the government should spend more on particular social security benefits(1), Scotland 1999 Column Percentages

% of people that think there Government spending on social security benefts should be more government spending on this than now1

Benefits for people who care for those who are sick or disabled 80 Benefits for parents who work on very low incomes 70 Benefits for disabled people who cannot work 68 Benefits for retired people 68 Benefits for single parents 33 Benefits for unemployed people 25

Source: Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 1Respondents were asked to bear in mind that they wanted more spending, this would probably mean that they would have to pay more taxes. If they want less spending, this would probably mean paying less taxes.

Social participation Getting involved in the community and Scottish Parliamentary elections in Scotland interacting with people can be very in 1999. According to Scottish Household important in terms of feeling part of society Survey 1999 results, overall, 72 per cent of and a citizen of the country. Recently there the population voted in the Scottish has been a tendency to mourn the lack of Parliament elections. However, the official community spirit in today’s towns and turnout figure for the election (Bochel and suburbs. The following tables give an Denver, Scottish Council Elections 1999), indication of how involved in the was 58.5 per cent. Survey research community people living in Scotland are. commonly over estimates turnout at elections. The over-reporting from the Some think that voting in elections is an Scottish Household Survey is likely to be a important way of getting involved in the result of several factors including a desire decisions of the country, whilst others do by respondents to give a socially not vote because they feel it will make no acceptable response, genuine confusion or difference or because they are not forgetfulness and, potentially, a greater interested. Chart 10.6 shows the willingness among voters to take part in proportions of people that voted in the survey research itself.

10 149

Chart 10.6: Whether voted in Scottish Parliament election in May 1999 by age, Scotland

Percentage that voted Percentage 20

0 18-24 25-34 35-44 45-59 60-74 75 plus Total Age Group

Source: Scottish Executive Scottish Household Survey (interviews done between July and October 1999)

Of the people who didn’t vote in these European elections perhaps reflects the elections, the most common reasons fact that Europe is an issue further from included: “not interested in the election”, home and the results have a less direct “away from home on election day”, “too impact on local issues, especially since the busy”, “not registered to vote” and “no constituencies for European MPs are very point”. large so there is less local identification with the candidate. The low turnout could It seems that people in older age groups also be attributed to lower awareness of are more likely to vote in elections with the European Parliament elections about four fifths of those aged 45 and over compared to other elections which get stating that they voted in the Scottish more publicity, and voting fatigue, since the Parliament elections compared to under council and parliamentary elections one half of 18-24 year olds (Chart 10.6). preceded the European elections in This trend is consistent with other Scottish Scotland. Twice as many people did not Household Survey results which show, vote in the European parliament election older age groups are more likely to agree compared to the other elections because with the statement: “voting in local they “did not understand the issues” government elections is important”. (Scottish Household Survey 1999).

Scotland and the UK had the lowest Table 10.7 also shows that participation in turnout for the European elections of all the EU elections has been declining the countries in the EU in 1999 (Table 10.7). throughout the EU, over the past fifteen The lower proportion participating in the years.

10 150

Table 10.7: Participation in EU elections(1)

Percentage turnout by year 1984 1989 1994 1999

Belgium(2) 92 91 91 90 Luxembourg(2) 87 87 89 86 Italy 84 82 75 71 Greece 77 80 71 70 Spain 69 55 59 64

Irish Republic 48 68 44 51 Denmark 52 46 53 50 Austria . . . . 68 49 France 57 49 53 47 Germany 57 62 60 45

Portugal 72 51 36 40 Sweden . . . . 42 38 Finland . . . . 60 30 Netherlands 51 47 36 30 United Kingdom 33 36 36 24 Scotland ...... 25

EU Average 61 59 57 49

Source: European Parliament Note: The figures for Portugal and Spain in 1984 are for the 1987 elections and the figures for Austria, Finland and Sweden in 1994 are for the 1996 elections. 2. Voting is mandatory in Belgium and Luxembourg.

Another indicator of the extent of clubs, for which one quarter of men are community involvement is club membership. active members. The most common Chart 10.8 shows the numbers of people groups that women take part in are living in Scotland that are active in various religious groups for which just over one in clubs, groups or organisations. Overall, 48 six women are active members. Three per cent of men and 45 per cent of times more women than men are active women in Scotland, are active in an members of parenting associations. Over organisation or club. The most common twice as many men compared to women groups that men are involved in are sports are active members of social clubs.

10 151

Chart 10.8: Percentage of people who are active members of organisations, groups or clubs, Scotland 1999(1)

Percentage that are active members 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20 Political party Trade Union Environmental group Parents association Tenants or residents group Religious group Voluntary service group Other community group Social Group

Type of organisation Type Sports club Womens Institute Womens group Professional organisation Men Women Pensioners organisation Scout/Guides organisation Other organisation

Source: British Household Panel Survey(2), produced by the Institute for Social and Economic Research at the University of Essex Note: 1. Interviews carried out between September 1999 and March 2000. 2. British Household Panel Survey 2001, figures are unweighted.

In 1999, Scottish Household Survey results groups. Chart 10.9 shows that those indicated that one in five people living in working part time or studying were more Scotland gave up time to volunteer in the likely to volunteer. Other Scottish community. One quarter of women in the Household Survey results indicated that middle age groups (35-59) volunteered, volunteering was more common in rural making them more likely to do voluntary areas, and rose as household income activities than men or women in other age increased.

10 152

Chart 10.9: Whether gives us time as a volunteer/organser(1) by economic activity and gender, Scotland 1999

In Education

Economically Inactive

Part-time employed

Female Full-time employed(2) Male

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Percentage that give up time to volunteer

Source: Scottish Executive Scottish Household Survey 1999 Note: 1. The question asked was: “Do you give up any time to help as a volunteer or as an organiser for any charities, clubs or organisations, these days? I mean in an unpaid capacity.” 2. Full-time employed also includes those who are self employed or on a government work or training scheme.

The main beneficiaries of this voluntary people to be involved in the community. activity are churches or religious Church membership of the Trinitarian organisations (23 per cent of volunteers churches (churches that believe in the holy describe their organisations in this way), trinity), has been declining over the past organisations working with young children twenty years (Table 10.10), for example (21 per cent), organisations working with membership of the Presbyterian church the elderly or the disabled (both 12 per has decreased by over a third. However, cent), or working with the arts, culture or membership of the Non-Trinitarian sport (13 per cent). churches has increased by nearly two- thirds, and membership of other religions Religious membership and attendance at (for example the Muslim faith), has more religious meetings and services can enable than doubled.

Table 10.10: Active membership of churches: 1980-2000, Scotland Thousands

Roman All other Non-Trinitarian Other Year Catholic(1) Presbyterian denominations Churches Religions

1980 296 988 153 26 25 1985 285 900 151 29 30 1990 284 816 155 35 42 1995 249 726 150 38 50 2000 225 639 150 42 59

Source: Christian Research 10 Note: 1. Mass attendance (the Roman Catholic have no equivalent to the Protestant concept of membership) 153

Chart 10.11 shows that just over one figures given in Chart 10.11, due to the quarter of those with a religion, attend tendency for survey respondents to over religious services and meetings at least estimate because they wish to give socially once a week, and over one third of those acceptable responses. However, there is with a religion never or practically never evidence to suggest that church-going is do this. As shown in Chart 10.1, 40% of significantly higher in Scotland than in people living in Scotland do not associate England and Wales. Research by Christian themselves with a religion and therefore Research showed that in 1998, on an are not included in Chart 10.11. average Sunday, 7.5 per cent, 7.4 per cent and 13.5 per cent of the total population in It is worth noting that the proportions of England, Wales and Scotland respectively, people attending religious services and attended church. meetings is probably much lower than the

Chart 10.11: Frequency that people with religious beliefs attend religious services or meetings(1), Scotland 1999

Once a week or more 27% Never or practically never 34%

Varies too much to say/ don't know/ refused 2% At least once a month Less often than once a year 16% 6% At least once a year 15%

Source: Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 Note 1: Excludes special occasions such as weddings, funerals and baptisms.

Lifestyles People have more leisure time than they had a deep freeze/freezer. Over three- used to. This is partly due to technological quarters of Scottish households had a progress. Less time is spent on household microwave oven and almost a quarter had a chores because of various household dishwasher (Table 10.12). Not unsurprisingly, durables which we now take for granted. households with higher incomes were The Family Resources Survey found that in more likely to have these consumer 1998-99, 93 percent of Scottish households durables. had a washing machine and 89 per cent 10 154

The proportion of households with consumer video in 1998-99 than in 1985-86; over seven durables has increased over the past 20 times as many people owned a dishwasher years: twice as many households owned a in 1998-99 than in 1981; and over 1.5 as computer in 1998-99 than in 1985-86; over many households owned a microwave three times as many households owned a oven in 1990-91 than in 1998-99.

Table 10.12: Households with selected durable goods, Scotland Percentage of households with selected durable goods Durable goods 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1993-95 1998-99(1) Washing machine 83 87 91 93 93 Dishwasher 3 5 10 15 22 Deep freeze/freezer 39 59 76 83 89 Home computer . .13172127 Video . .35647685 Microwave oven . .. .476478 Compact disc player ...... 4367 Satellite dish ...... 26

Source: Office for National Statistics: General Household Survey and Family Resources Survey, Department of Social Security Note: 1. Data for 1998-99 is from the Family Resources Survey, but data for all other years is from the General Household Survey.

Equality between men and women has not claimed that they shared the responsibility yet been reached in the home, where for grocery shopping, cooking, cleaning and women still remain responsible for many washing/ironing. This perhaps indicates that household chores. 64 percent and 77 mens’ perception of sharing household tasks percent of Scottish women claimed to be is different from womens’. mostly responsible for cleaning and washing/ironing respectively, compared to One in twenty households claimed that the 9 percent of Scottish men who claimed someone else (probably a cleaner), had the to be mostly responsible for both of these main household responsibility for cleaning. tasks (Table 10.13). More men than women

Table 10.13: Division of household tasks between couples in Scotland(1)

Percentage of each gender with responsibility for particular household tasks (couples only)

Mostly self Mostly partner Shared Other TOTAL Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Who does the grocery shopping? 14 53 43 11 42 35 1 1 100 100 Who does the cooking? 20 63 55 14 25 22 1 1 101 100 Who does the cleaning? 9 64 57 8 29 24 5 4 100 100 Who does the washing/ironing? 9 77 71 5 19 15 2 2 101 99 Who is responsible for childcare? 2 64 63 2 33 34 1 1 99 101

Source: British Household Panel Survey, produced by the Institute for Social and Economic Research at the University of Essex Note: 1. The data was collected between September 1998 and March 1999. They are unweighted. 2. Totals may not add to 100 due to rounding. 10 3. This question was only asked to couples with children so the sample size is lower. 155

Results from the Family Resources Survey cable service had been marketed and was indicate that 27 per cent of households had available, (most of Scotland outwith the a computer in Scotland in 1998-99. Further central belt is not cabled), was higher in Family Resources Survey results show that each area, than the average UK cable TV 14 per cent of Scottish households had take up rate, except in Dundee and access to the internet from home during Aberdeen. the period April 1999 to March 2000, increasing to 19 per cent of households for Adult television viewing in Scotland was the period October 1999 to September the highest of all viewing regions in the UK 2000. Scotland has the lowest proportion in 1999, with people in Scotland watching of households with internet access of all at least two hours more TV per week than UK regions, except Northern Ireland. the UK average. Average weekly viewing Internet access is highest in London and of television in Scotland was 26.2 hours the South East where, during the period per week for males, and 29.5 hours per October 1999 to September 2000, 34 per week for females (Table 10.14). This gives cent and 30 per cent respectively, of an average of 3.7 and 4.2 hours of TV households had internet access from viewing per day for males and females home. respectively. Since many people work or study during the daytime, these viewing figures suggest that many people spend all Entertainment and the media evenings with the TV on.

Almost all households now have televisions Those aged 65 and over watch twice as and television viewing is a very popular much TV as 16-24 year olds. Older people pastime. Table 10.12 shows that 85 per spend more time watching TV than other cent of Scottish households now have a age groups, possibly because they have video and 26 percent have a satellite dish. more opportunity to, since they are less Research by the British Audience Research likely to be working, looking after children Board (BARB) has shown that in 1969, the or studying. Those in lower social classes average number of television sets per TV tend to watch more television (Table 10.14). household was 1.0 and this had increased to 1.8 by 1998. There were 24.3 million Evidence from BARB suggests that people televisions in the UK in December 2000 watch more television in winter than (BARB), almost one for every two people. summer. For the UK, in July 2000 people watched an average of 23.5 hours of The Independent Television Commission’s television per week, compared to 28.0 (ITC) quarterly cable statistics show that hours of television in January 2000. the number of homes with cable TV is rising. Just over a quarter of UK homes to Despite the amount of time spent watching which a cable service had been marketed TV in Scotland, listening to the radio is still and was available, had cable television by very popular. The fact that one can listen October 2000 (ITC 2000). The proportion to the radio while doing other things such who take any cable service (cable TV, cable as housework, driving and getting ready in telephony or high speed internet access), the morning may have contributed the was even higher, at 39 per cent of people continuing popularity of radio. In 1999, in the UK in October 2000 (ITC 2000). In men spent an average of 19.0 hours and April 2000, the proportion of homes that women an average of 16.1 hours per took cable TV in Scottish areas where a week, listening to the radio (Table 10.14). 10 156

Table 10.14: Television viewing and radio listening by gender, age and social class, BBC Scotland Region 1999 Hours per person per week Television viewing Radio listening All (aged 4 and over) 27.9 17.5

Sex Males 26.2 19.0 Females 29.5 16.1

Age 4-15(1) 18.5 7.8 16-24(1) 19.2 18.9 25-34 27.1 20.6 35-44 26.2 20.3 45-54 30.9 20.0 55-64 35.1 19.2 65 and over 39.6 16.8

Social Class AB 23.5 16.6 C1 24.1 16.7 C2 28.0 19.3 DE 32.8 17.4 Source: British Broadcasting Corporation Note: 1. For radio listening the age categories are 4-14 and 15-24. Table 10.15 illustrates the changes in the figures show that the most popular TV viewing shares of different channels over channel in December 2000 was ITV which the past twenty years in the UK. The accounted for 29 per cent of viewing time increase in the number of channels in Scotland. Nearly one fifth of viewing available has affected the viewing shares of time was accounted for by satellite and the mainstream channels (BBC1 and ITV) cable television, reflecting the increased more than BBC2 and C4. For example choice in this area of the television market. ITV ’s viewing share decreased by eighteen percentage points between 1981 and 1999, Soaps are the most popular type of compared to a one percentage point television programme. Research by the decrease for BBC2. This is probably Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board for because BBC2 and C4 cater for more the week ending 31st December 2000, specialised audiences than the mainstream showed that the top thirteen television channels, and are therefore less likely to programmes with the highest viewing lose their audience to other more figures in the UK were all soaps. Eastenders generalist channels such as C5 and the regularly attracts the largest viewing cable and satellite networks. audiences and during the Christmas week 2000, one in three people in the UK Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board watched a particular Eastenders episode.

10 157

Table 10.15: Television viewing (of individuals), by television channel, UK 1981 to 1999 Row percentages Channel ITV (inc OTHERS Year BBC1 BBC2 GMTV) CH4 CH5 (Cable/Sat)(1)

1981 39 12 49 ...... 1986 37 11 44 8 . . . . 1991 34 10 42 10 . . 4 1995 32 11 37 11 . . 9 1999 28 11 31 10 5 14

Source: Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board Note: Includes RTE Ulster Chart 10.16 shows the most common third of all radio listening. Radio stations radio stations listened to in the UK. The attracting over a third of the radio listening BBC accounted for 51 per cent of all hours hours in their marketing area include Radio listened to the radio, with Radio 2 the most Clyde 1 & 2, Tay FM & AM, Northsound 1 popular BBC station. Local commercial & 2 and Radio Borders. National Scottish radio stations are much more popular than commercial radio stations such as SCOT national commercial stations. In many areas FM and Beat 106 attract less than 10 per in Scotland, the local commercial radio cent of radio listening hours for their station for the area accounts for over a defined area.

Chart 10.16: Radio listening(1) by adults(2), by radio channel, UK, June-September 2000

Other Listening 2% BBC Radio 1 11%

BBC Radio 2 13%

Local Commercial 39% BBC Radio 3 1%

BBC Radio 4 11%

BBC Radio 5 Live 4% National Commercial BBC Local/Regional 8% 11% Source: Radio Joint Audience Research Limited Note: 1. The percentage listening to a particular station is calculated from total hours listened to the station compared to hours listened to all stations. 2. Adults aged 15 and over. 10 158

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 1999 newspaper in Scotland (Table 10.17). results show that 76 per cent of adults The Sunday Mail is the most popular read a daily newspaper at least three times Sunday paper with 44 per cent of the adult a week. The most widely read newspapers population reading it. Readership figures in Scotland are regional papers or Scottish for any given newspaper are generally versions of British papers. 40 per cent of three times higher than the circulation adults living in Scotland read the Daily figures, since more people read papers Record, making it the most popular daily than buy them or have them delivered.

Table 10.17: Newspaper readership of the fourteen most popular newspapers in Scotland, October 1999-September 2000 Type of 14 most popular Percentage of adults (15+) who paper newspapers in Scotland read(1), (2) a particular newspaper

Daily Daily Reocrd 40 The Sun 26 Daily Mail 7 Glasgow Evening Times 7 Aberdeen Press & Journal 7 The Herald (Glasgow) 6 Daily Express 6 Dundee Courier 5 The Scotsman 5

Sunday Sunday Mail 44 Sunday Post 30 News of the World 23 Mail on Sunday 6 Scotland on Sunday 6

Source: National Readership Surveys Ltd Note: 1. This survey estimates the potential readership figures of a newspaper so does not measure the number of people that actually bought or were delivered a paper, but estimates the proportion of people that read a copy. 2. Respondents are shown a prompt card and asked if they read the paper “yesterday” or “last week”, depending on whether it is a Sunday or a daily paper.

Newspaper readership can give an patterns. The Royal Commission on the indication of the views of a country, since it Press is concerned that the press should is a major way that people are informed show truthfulness and diversity and avoid about local and national affairs and can sensationalism, so that readers are well- influence political views and voting informed about the issues of the day.

10 159

Free newspapers are becoming more widely in Scotland is Sky/Sky View TV (the Sky TV available. Most major towns and cities have Guide), which 13 per cent of adults read their own free advertising paper, but (Table 10.18). This is a free TV Guide that recently a free newspaper called Metro has households which subscribe to Sky TV, started being distributed to morning automatically receive. Magazines which are commuters in the major cities in Europe, free to subscribers are among the most now including Edinburgh and Glasgow. widely read in Scotland, and include Cable The idea started off in Sweden where the Guide, M&S magazine, and the AA members’ paper achieved a circulation of 240,000 a magazine (Table 10.18). day. Since then it has spread to other European cities and has become the major Almost a quarter of 15-24 years olds read morning newspaper in Prague and Budapest. FHM which makes it the most popular When Metro was first distributed in the magazine for this age group. Readers Digest central belt of Scotland in Winter 1999, is more popular among older than younger 100,000 copies were circulated. people. Of the 11 most popular magazines, almost half are TV guides illustrating the There are a wide range of magazine titles popularity of TV watching as a pastime. available now. The most popular magazine

Table 10.18: Reading of popular consumer magazines in Scotland, October 1999-September 2000

Percentage of adults aged 15+ Magazine reading a particular magazine(1), (2)

Sky/Skyview TV Guide 13 Take a Break 10 Cable Guide 9 M & S Magazine 9 What’s on TV 8 Reader’s Digest 8 AA Members Magazine 6 FHM 6 Woman’s Own 6 TV Times 5 Radio Times 4

Source: National Readership Surveys Ltd Note: 1. This survey estimates the potential readership figures of a magazine so does not measure the number of people that actually bought or were delivered a magazine, but estimates the proportion of people that read a copy. 2. Respondents are shown a prompt card and asked if they read the magazine “last week” or “last month”, depending on whether it is a weekly or monthly.

10 160

Information from the Chart Information Cinema admissions declined sharply from Network (Copyright) shows that the best 1.4 billion in 1951 to reach a low of 53 selling single in Scotland in 2000 was “Can million in 1984. This fall was probably we fix it” by “Bob the Builder”, followed influenced by increased use of televisions, by “Pure Shores” (All Saints) and then and later of video recorders. Over the “Rock DJ” (Robbie Williams). next decade however, cinema admissions rose and were 128 million in 1999. This Recently cinema attendance has seen some revival may be related to the investment resurgence in popularity in the UK after and expansion in multiplex cinemas in nearly 40 years of decline (Chart 10.19). recent years.

Chart 10.19: UK Cinema admissions: 1951 to 1999(1)

1,400

1,200

1,000

800

600

400 Cinema admissions (millions) 200

0 1951 1953 1955 1957 1959 1961 1963 1965 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 Year

Source: Office for National Statistics Note: 1. Data collection was suspended in 1985 and 1986

Toy Story 2 was the top UK box office film sports during 1997-99. Men take part in a of 2000, taking £43m. This was followed by much wider range of sports, with 12 sports Gladiator (£28m) and Chicken Run (£26m). having male participation rates of over 5 per cent, compared to 6 sports for women Leisure Activities (Chart 10.20). A popular leisure activity in Scotland is doing sport or physical recreation. 63 per cent of the population participated in

10 161

Charts 10.20: 12 most popular sports(1), Scotland, 1997-99

a) Men

Walking (2+ miles) Football (any) Swimming (any) Golf Snooker/billiards/pool Cycling Multigym/weight training Tenpin bowling Running/jogging Fishing/angling Hillwalking/climbing/mountaineering Bowls 0510 15 20 25 30 Percentage

b) Women

Walking (2+ miles) Swimming (any) Keep fit/aerobics Dancing Tenpin bowling Cycling Multigym/weight training Running/jogging Hillwalking/climbing/mountaineering Snooker/billiards/pool Bowls Badminton 0510 15 20 25 30 Percentage

Source: Sportscotland Note: 1. Figures based on the 2 months in which the survey participation rates are highest between 1997 and 1999.

10 162

Scottish Household Survey 1999 results matches in Scotland for the 1999/00 indicated that 34 per cent of adults had season, was over 18 thousand people per used their local park in the past week, 10 match, but Rangers and Celtic attract by per cent had used a swimming pool, and far the largest audiences in Scotland of 14 per cent had used a sports centre. around 50 thousand per match.

Watching sport is another popular activity. Another way people spend their time is by The highest attendance at a Rugby match participating in, and attending the arts. The in Scotland in 1999/00 was at Murrayfield Scottish Household Survey 1999 found that when over 67 thousand people attended 16 per cent of adults said that they had the England versus Scotland match. The used a public library and 4 per cent said highest attendance at a Scottish that they had visited a museum, in the Premiership football match in the 1999/00 week prior to interview. The Scottish Arts season was over 60 thousand at Celtic, Council found that the three most popular when they played St Johnstone. This may arts activities participated in at least twice have been because it was the first game of in 1998 were, reading books (73 per cent), the season. Scottish Premier League attending the cinema (57 per cent) and analyses show that the average total buying a work of fiction or poetry (41 per attendance for professional league football cent), (Chart 10.21).

Chart 10.21: Participation(1) in the 12 most popular arts activities in Scotland, 1998

Percentage participation Percentage 20

0 Reading Attend Buy a work Attend Art Attend Attend Attend Crafts Buy a work Attend Knitting/ Attend Folk Attend books cinema of fiction/ galleries/ Musicals/ Rock/ exhibition of art/ Plays other & Scottish Contemporary poetry museum pantomime/ pop music craft object textile Traditional painting variety show crafts Music Activity

Source: The Scottish Arts Council Note: 1. Frequency of participation of at least 2 times in 1998.

10 163

Participation in the National Lottery is high abroad. The International Passenger Survey in Scotland, and has been since its launch in estimated that in 1998, Scottish residents 1994. In 1996-99, results from the Family made 2.7 million visits abroad of which Expenditure Survey showed that 62 per more than two-thirds were for holiday cent of people living in Scotland purposes. 63 per cent of all holidays taken participated in the lottery (in the 2 week abroad by Scottish residents, were package diary keeping period following the holidays. Almost half of all trips abroad interview), and they spent on average were from Glasgow airport followed by £3.70 per week. This compared to a UK London Heathrow (15 per cent), and average of 60 per cent participation in the Edinburgh airport (8 per cent). lottery with an average of £3.80 spent per week. Since the lottery started in 1994 The most popular holiday destination in until the end of November 2000, nearly 1999, for people living in Scotland, was the £757 million from the lottery has been Balearic Islands, Spain, (Ibiza, Mallorca, distributed to charities, arts, heritage, Menorca, or Formentera), where 324 sports and millennium projects in Scotland. thousand visits were made (Chart 10.22). Many people living in Scotland take trips

Chart 10.22: Holiday destinations abroad for Scottish residents, 1999

Spain - Balearic Islands Spain - Mainland Spain - Canary Islands France United States of America Greece Italy Turkey Portugal Austria Canada Other overseas destinations 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Number of holiday trips (thousands)

Source: United Kingdom Tourism Survey Note: 1. The survey counts multiple destinations. For example if someone mentioned that they would be visiting both Austria and Italy in the same trip, then each country would be counted.

The most popular visitor attraction with visitors, and the most popular attraction free admission in Scotland in 1998, was the with paid admission was Edinburgh Castle, Kelvingrove Art Gallery & Museum, Edinburgh which attracted 1.22 million Glasgow which attracted 1.13 million visitors.

10 164

References and further reading

Scotland’s People, results from the 1999 Scottish Household Survey, Scottish Executive 2000 http://www.scotland.gov.uk/shs

Regional Trends No 35 (2000 edition), National Statistics, www.statistics.gov.uk

Independent Television Commission News Releases, www.itc.org.uk

Attendance at, Participation in, and Attitudes Towards the Arts in Scotland, Final Report, The Scottish Arts Council 1998

First Release: Internet Access, National Statistics, www.statistics.gov.uk

Statistics and research from the “Broadcasters’ Audience Research Board” http://www.barb.co.uk

Religious Trends, Christian Research, London (Tel: 020 8294 1989)

Quarterly Summary of Radio Listening, Radio Joint Audience Research Limited www.rajar.co.uk

Seven years in the lives of British families, evidence on the dynamics of social change from the British Household Panel Survey, 2000 Institute for Social and Economic Research, University of Essex www.iser.essex.ac.uk

Lloyds TSB Lifeindex Survey, The Henley Centre, www.henleycentre.com

New Scotland, New Politics?, Paterson, L.et al., Edinburgh University Press, 2001

British Social Attitudes: Focusing on Diversity (the 17th report), 2000, Jowell, R. et al. Data is also deposited for public use at the UK Data Archive at the University of Essex www.essex.ac.uk

Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, National Centre for Social Research www.natcen.ac.uk

10 165

Contacts

Contact points for further information relating to Chapter 10, Attitudes, Social Participation and Lifestyles:

Scottish Executive Chapter Author Anna Wakeley 0131 244 0443 [email protected]

Scottish Household Survey Louise Finlayson 0131 244 7557 [email protected]

Other Scottish Social Attitudes Survey Kerstin Hinds 0131 557 5494 [email protected]

British Social Attitudes Survey Alison Park 0131 557 5494 [email protected]

British Household Panel Survey John Brice 01206 873 543 [email protected]

Christian Research Peter Brierly 020 8294 1989 [email protected]

10 166

10 Appendices 168

Appendix 1: Definitions and Terms

Symbols and Conventions Large family: two adults and three or more children, or three or more adults Symbols. and one or more children. The following symbols have been used Small family: two adults and one or throughout Scottish Social Statistics: two children. .. not available . not applicable 1 Pensionable age refers to men aged 65 and over and to - negligible women aged 60 and over. (less than half the final digit shown) “Scottish MOSAIC” is a neighbourhood 0 nil classification system developed by Experian. * sample size too small for reliable It draws on a large number of Census estimates variables, augmented by some published Rounding of figures. non-Census information, to distinguish In tables where figures have been rounded between postcodes in terms of types of to the nearest final digit, there may be an housing, housing densities and household apparent discrepancy between the sum of characteristics. It uses statistical analysis of the constituent items and the total as variables such as home ownership, car shown. ownership, age, health, employment status and occupation to identify types of Units on tables. neighbourhoods with similar characteristics. Figures are shown in italics when they With ten broad areas, subdivided into 47 represent percentages. types, this geodemographic system has been used in both the sampling and analysis Definitions and Terms of the SHS. Further information about MOSAIC can be obtained from Experian (i) Scottish Household Survey (SHS) (www.experian.com). “Household” is defined as one person or a group of people living in accommodation (ii) Labour Force Survey as their only or main residence and either sharing at least one meal a day or sharing “Employment rate” is those who are in the living accommodation. employment expressed as a percentage of “Household type” is defined as follows: all persons of working age. Single pensioner: one adult of “ILO unemployment rate” is the pensionable age1 and no children. International Labour Organisation Single parent: an adult of any age and recommended measure, which counts one or more children. those of working age who are without a Single adult: an adult of non- job, are available to start work in the next pensionable age1 and no children. 2 weeks, and have been seeking a job in Older smaller: an adult of non- the last 4 weeks, or are waiting to start a pensionable age and one of pensionable job already obtained, as unemployed. It is age1 and no children, or two adults of expressed as a percentage of the pensionable age1 and no children. economically active of working age. Large adult: three or more adults and no children. “Economically active” are those who are Small adult: two adults of non- in employment or ILO unemployed of pensionable age1 and no children. working age. 169

“Economic activity rate” is those who • Fertility: The fertility rates used in the are in employment or ILO unemployed projection were based on assumptions expressed as a percentage of those about the average completed family size economically active plus those outside the of successive cohorts of women. It was labour market (the economically inactive), assumed that the average completed of working age. family size will continue to decline from the current figure of over 2 children per “Economically inactive” are those who woman for those born in the early are neither in employment nor unemployed. 1950s and reaching the end of their This group includes, for example, all those child bearing lives, to 1.66 for those who were looking after a home or retired. born in 1972, before rising again to 1.75 for those born in 1987 and later. “Full time” employees are those who • Mortality: The mortality rates for the work over 30 hours per week. first year of the projection, 1998-99, were based on estimates of the “Part time” employees are those who numbers of deaths in that period that work 30 hours or less per week. were available in the autumn of 1999. The mortality rates for later years were “Disabled people” are people that based on long-term trends up to 1998- answered yes to the following question: 99. Generally, mortality rates were “Do you have any health problems or disabilities assumed to fall, though at some young that you expect will last for more than a year?”. adult ages it has been assumed that rates will continue to experience small (iii) Population increases for some years to come. In line with the long-term trends, it has “Population estimates” are based on the been assumed that the mortality rates number of residents counted in the 1991 for Scotland will continue to be higher Census (adjusted for definition differences than those for England & Wales. and under counting) with allowances for • Migration: Assumptions about future subsequent births, deaths and migration. levels of migration are based on analyses The population is defined to include all of trends in civilian migration to and persons usually resident in Scotland from the UK and between the four whatever their nationality. Members of constituent countries of the UK. For the United Kingdom and non-UK armed forces 1998 based projections, a net migration stationed in Scotland are included. Armed loss of 1,000 persons a year for Scotland Forces stationed outside Scotland are is projected from 2001 onwards; a net excluded. Students are treated as being loss of 3,000 persons a year was resident at their term-time address. assumed in the previous, 1996 based, projections. Most of the change is “1998 based Population Projections” attributed to a reduction in the assumed are prepared by the Government Actuary level of migration loss to the other UK in consultation with the Registrar General constituent countries. for Scotland. Some information about the (iv) Housing assumptions used in the projections is given below. “Household projections” are produced approximately every 2 years. Their • Base population: The projection was purpose is to give an indication of possible based on the Registrar General’s mid- future numbers of households if trends 1998 population estimates. observed in the past continue. 170

The calculation of projected household “New Towns” in Scotland, New Town numbers involves using the following two Development Corporations were main sources of information: established under the New Towns Acts for • Data on households from previous the purpose of laying out and developing Censuses of Population can be used to New Towns. identify trends which have taken place in household formation in the past. “Scottish Homes”: a housing agency that Census information is available for the is primarily an enabling and funding body, years 1971, 1981 and 1991. This historic but it also has a landlord function, having information is used to project possible inherited all of the Scottish Special Housing future trends. Association (SSHA) housing stock. • Population projections produced by the General Register Office for Scotland “Housing stock estimates”: of the total give an indication of possible future dwelling stock from 1991 onwards are trends in population. Estimates of the based on the 1991 Census. This 1991 numbers of persons living in communal baseline is updated each year using establishments are subtracted from the information on new housebuilding, total population figures to produce conversion of property to housing use, and projections of the numbers of persons demolitions (collected on returns living in private households. submitted to the Scottish Executive), together with public authorities’ counts of The household projections are then their own stock, and Scottish Homes’ calculated by applying projected trends in count of housing association stock. household formation, derived from the first of these sources, to projections of the “Housebuilding: Dwellings Completed”: numbers of persons in private households, a dwelling is completed when it is ready derived from the second source. for occupation, whether in fact occupied “Dwellings” are buildings or parts of or not. If a dwelling is transferred to buildings which form a separate and self- another agency after completion it is contained set of premises designed to be considered to have been completed by the occupied by a family or, in some cases, first agency. groups of individuals (e.g. hostels or cluster (v) Income flat). Temporary dwellings are excluded. “Private Sector”: dwellings owned by “Net Household Income” is the total private landlords, whether persons or income of all members of the household, companies, and owner-occupiers. including dependants. It is net of the following items: “Housing Associations”: societies, • Income tax payments bodies of trustees, or companies • National insurance contributions established for the purpose of providing • Domestic rates/ council tax housing accommodation on a non-profit • Contributions to occupational pension making basis. They also provide housing for schemes special groups such as the aged, disabled, • All maintenance and child support single persons, or housing on a mutual or payments self-build basis and in recent years, • Parental contributions to students living associations have extended their activities away from home into provision of low cost housing for home ownership and regeneration of inner “Income After Housing Costs” is derived city areas. by deducting a measure of housing costs 171 from the income measure. Components of inequalities. The four indicators are housing costs include: rent, water rates, combined to create a composite score. mortgage interest payments, and insurance The deprivation score is divided into seven premiums. separate categories, ranging from very high to very low deprivation. The seven “Equivalised household income” is categories were designed so as to retain household income that has been the discriminatory features of the “equivalised” in order to take into account distribution of the deprivation score, rather the variations in the size and composition than to ensure equality of numbers between of the households in which individuals live. each deprivation category. The four This is known as “equivalisation” and variables are: adjusts income in order to reflect the common sense notion that, for example, • Overcrowding: persons in private a household of five adults will need a higher households living at a density of more income than a person living alone in order than one person per room as a for them to enjoy a comparable standard proportion of all persons in private of living. It is needed in order to make households sensible comparisons between households. • Male unemployment: proportion of economically active males who are “Median income” is the income value seeking work which divides a population when ranked by • Social class 4 or 5: proportion of all income, into two equal sized groups. persons in private households with head of household in social class 4 or 5 “Earnings” as defined in the New • No car: proportion of all persons in Earnings Survey relate to gross pay before private households with no car tax, national insurance or other deductions, and exclude payments in kind. Part-time All of the proportions are calculated on the employees are excluded from this measure households in a given postcode sector. as are those who are not on adult rates and those whose earnings have been affected by absence during the survey period. Payment of arrears from another period made during the survey period are excluded as are payments due as a result of a pay settlement but not yet paid at the time of the survey.

“Mean” or “Average” income or earnings, is the value found by adding up all the values in a population and dividing the result by the number of people.

(vi) Health

The “Carstairs and Morris index of deprivation” is composed of four indicators, which were judged to represent material disadvantage in the population, using Census data. The index also correlates well with a range of health 172

Appendix 2: Major data sources used in Scottish Social Statistics

Data source (and subjects covered) Frequency Type of Scottish Survey of data respondent coverage size

Multi purpose data sources

Scottish Executive The Scottish Household Survey Survey designed to provide the Scottish Parliament Survey is initially All adults in Local authority 2 samples with accurate, up-to-date information about the being funded for 4 households, area (for each of 31,000 characteristics, attitudes and behaviour of Scottish years with reports random adult 2 year sample) households households and individuals on a wide range of issues every quarter (1999- in household over the related to social inclusion, local government and 2002 inclusive) first 4 years transport. Information includes household type, tenure, health & social care, public and private transport details, income, financial matters, volunteering, access to internet.

Office for National Statistics The Labour Force Survey Designed to provide information on the UK labour •Biennial from 1979 All adults in Local Approx market which can then be used to develop, manage, (but not using ILO household authority 9,300 evaluate and report on labour market policies. A definition of area, Local households wide range of information is collected on respondents’ unemployment) Enterprise in Scotland personal circumstances and labour market status •Annual from 1984 Company including economic activity, duration of •Quarterly from (LEC) Area unemployment, industry of employment, occupation, 1992 mode of employment, social class, qualifications.

1. Population data sources

General Register Office for Scotland Population Estimates and Projections • Mid year population estimates for Scotland by sex, •Estimates of the All individuals Local Census single year of age, council and health board area Scottish population – authority • Population projections for Scotland by sex, single annual area, Health year of age and sex •Population projections Board Area Births, Marriages and deaths for the administrative • Births, birth rate, live/still births areas of Scotland – • Marital status, mean age at marriage, method of every 2 years celebration, denomination •National Scottish • Divorces by ground, duration of marriage, sex & projections – every 2 age at divorce, age at marriage years • Deaths by administrative area, country of birth, •Information on births, cause of death deaths, marriages etc • Expectation of life – each quarter

Population Census A wide range of information including: Every 10 years All individuals Lowest level: Census • Household type and characteristics (tenure, “output areas” amenities) which are • Labour market information areas • Personal characteristics containing • Rural/urban locality of population about 40 • Religion (for 2001 census) households • Marital status, lone mothers, average number of children per family 173

2. Housing data sources Scottish Executive Household Projections The calculation of projected household numbers Approximately every Local Census involves using the following two main sources of 2 years authority information: area • Data on trends in household formation from previous Censuses of Population. • Population projections produced by the General Register Office for Scotland.

Housing Trends Local Information on housing in Scotland for elderly people Annual authority Census and disabled people by type of housing and sector. area Scottish Homes Scottish House Condition Survey Information on the housing stock (property type, Every 5-6 years (there Any one Scotland (local 20,000 age, size, condition) and occupants (household type, were Surveys in 1991 householder authority area households health, employment). and 1996 a third survey for some is scheduled for 2002) variables)

3. Education data sources Scottish Executive School Census Information on sex, school year (and ethnicity, Annual All school School Census numbers with English as a 2nd language from 2000 pupils onwards) for pupils in schools; and information on sex, age and type of disability/record of needs for pupils in special schools. The National Management Information Systems Project (NMIS) will replace the school census. NMIS will improve information from schools and Education Authorities through electronic data exchange. It will also open up new opportunities for analysis of equality issues by providing better access to information and better data linking.

Teacher Census Information on sex, age, qualification held, and Annual All teachers School Census subjects taught for teachers in schools. The National Management Information Systems Project (NMIS) will replace the teacher census (see above). Further and Higher Education Statistics Various data (age, sex, subject, level of study) on Annual All further Local Census students and staff in further and higher education and higher authority area institutions. Data are collected by the Higher Education education of student’s Statistics Agency, the Scottish Further Education Funding students permanent Council and the Student Awards Agency Scotland. home address

Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) Examination Results Information on sex, stage in school, grades obtained Annual All school Constituency Census at different stages and qualifications obtained when leavers or Local leaving school. The SQA, and the Scottish Executive authority (Education Statistics and Her Majesty’s Inspectorate area of Schools), produce publications from this data. 174

4. Labour Market data sources Office for National Statistics The Labour Force Survey See multi-purpose section.

5. Income, wealth and expenditure data sources Department for Social Security Family Resources Survey (FRS) Annual All adults in Approx Information on: receipt of Social Security benefits, Scotland household 1,700 housing costs, assets and savings, type of family, households mean income, source of income. Although some of in Scotland the information collected is available elsewhere, the FRS provides new or much more detailed information in a number of areas and brings some topics together on one survey for the first time.

Households Below Average Income Derived from the Family Resources Survey, and Annual All adults in Scotland Approx previously (pre-1993/94), derived from the Family household 1,700 Expenditure Survey. Includes data from the Survey households of Personal Incomes. in Scotland

Information on household income by characteristics of the household. Concentrates on households below average income.

Social Security Claimants Data on those claiming specific social security Quarterly, twice Social Variable – Variable – benefits is derived as a by-product of the yearly or annual Security normally usually a 5% Department of Social Security’s systems for depending on benefit claimants available by sample, administering the relevant benefits. Information is Government although for available on the number of claimants split by a range Office region, some of variables including: type and rate of benefit, age local benefits of claimant, length of award, and region/area of authority, selected residence. parliamentary 100% data is constitutency. also Also ward available. and postcode sector for some benefits

Office for National Statistics New Earnings Survey Information on the earnings of employees in Annual Employees Data available 15-20,000 businesses of all kinds and sizes. Data are collected by local people in on hours worked, industry, occupation, place of authority area Scotland work, sex, age, respondents’ personal for authorities circumstances, labour market status, levels, with large distributions and make-up of earnings of employees. sample size

Family Expenditure Survey Survey of household expenditure on goods and Annual Households Scotland Approx 600 services, and household income. households in Scotland 175

6. Health data sources

Information and Statistics Division, NHSScotland (ISD) The ISD of the NHS compiles the latest available Main publication: Individuals Local Various, data and trend statistics on a comprehensive range “Scottish Health authority usually census of health topics to assist planning, policy, Statistics” is produced area, Health (mostly performance measurement and research. Most of annually (but Board Area administrative the data is provided by NHS trusts, health boards continuous recording) records) and general medical practitioners.

Scottish Executive Scottish Health Survey Information collected on a wide range of health related Every 3 years Individuals Health Board 1995: 8,000 information including details of physical activity, Area people eating habits, smoking, drinking, blood pressure, 1998: 12,000 obesity, respiratory, blood and cardiovascular people problems, and general health matters.

7. Crime and Justice data sources

Scottish Executive Court Proceedings database All persons proceeded against in Scottish Courts. Annual Individuals Sheriff court Census Information on main crime and sentence. or local authority areas Recorded Crime database All crimes and offences recorded by the police. Annual Crimes Local Census Information on volume of crime, type of offence authority and clear up rates. area

Homicide database All homicides recorded in Scotland. Information on Annual Homicides Local Census location, method of killing, relationship of accused authority to victim and motive. By victims and accused area persons.

The Scottish Crime Survey Survey covers experiences of crime, percentions of Every 3-4 years (there Individuals Scotland Approx crime and perceptions of policing in Scotland. Data were Scotish Crime 5,000 are available on estimated victimisation rates for Surveys in 1993, 1996, individuals specific categories of crime, reporting rates to and 2000) police, public perceptions of crime and the police. Data also available on drugs use (drugs offered and taken), method of use and perceptions of risk.

Scottish Prison Service Scottish Prisoner Records All prisoner warrants and movements in Scotland. Annual Prisoners Local Census Information on sentence length, main crime, authority prisoner history and other prison related area information. 176

8. Transport data sources Office for National Statistics National Travel Survey Survey collects “travel diary” details from a sample Annual, but since the All Scotland 300 of households across Great Britain. Travel for all survey includes only household households private purposes is included. It provides information 300 or so households members in Scotland about travel patterns by age-group, by sex, by in Scotland each year, socio-economic group, by working status, by samples collected household income quintile and by whether or not over three years are the household has a car. combined.

9. Attitudes, Social Participation and Lifestyles National Centre for Social Research Scottish Social Attitudes Survey The series began in 1999 and provides a unique Annual (from 2001 One adult Scotland, 1,600 adults source of data for monitoring and interpreting the onwards) per East and attitudes of the Scottish public towards a range of household West social, political, economic and moral issues. It is Scotland, based on the British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey Central Belt (see below). Many questions asked on SSA are also vs rest of included on BSA, enabling comparison between Scotland Scotland and the rest of Britain.

The survey is funded on a “modular” basis, with different funders supporting modules of questions dealing with a particular topic of relevance. The findings are published in an annual report and the data will be available for secondary analysis from the UK Data Archive at the University of Essex.

British Social Attitudes Survey The British Social Attitudes (BSA) survey series was Annual One adult Britain Over 3,000 conceived and first carried out by the National per adults Centre for Social Research (then SCPR) in 1983. household

Institute for Social and Economic Research (funded by ESRC) British Household Panel Survey Individual and household details include: Annual All adults in Scotland Approx neighbourhood and individual demographics, households 2,000 current employment, labour and non-labour households income, health and caring, employment history, in Scotland values and opinions.

Issues asked every 2 waves of survey include: attitude towards cost/payments for health care, distribution of wealth – social justice, government’s roles and responsibilities, environment, management of household expenditures. There are also different topical issues in each wave of the survey.

Sportscotland Information on sports participation by type of sport, Annual Adults and Scotland 6,000 adults social class, frequency of sport participation, club children per year membership. Our roles and aims This publication belongs to the Compendia and Our role is to provide Parliament, government and the wider Reference theme. community with statistical information, analysis and advice on most aspects of Scottish life, to improve decision-making, Our commitment to data suppliers stimulate research and inform debate. We aim to provide an Confidentiality: Confidential data from statistical enquiries is authoritative and impartial picture of society and a window on handled in accordance with the Government Statistical Service the work and performance of government, which allows the Code of Practice and with the Data Protection Act. impact of government policies and actions to be assessed. Burden: Information is not collected unnecessarily, but only Information is available in a variety of paper forms and on the when there is a clearly identified need. Only the minimum amount Scottish Executive Website at www.scotland.gov.uk/stats. of information is collected to meet this need. This is a National Statistics publication Review of data collection: Data collection systems are National Statistics are produced to high professional standards reviewed regularly to ensure that the information is still set out in the National Statistics Code of Practice. They required and that the collection system is operating cost- undergo regular quality assurance reviews to ensure that they effectively. These reviews are conducted in conjunction with meet customer needs. They are produced free from any both users and suppliers of the data. political interference. Liaison: Close liaison is maintained with major suppliers of National Statistics publications are grouped under the statistical data, such as local authorities, by a system of liaison following broad subject headings (themes): committees. Feedback: Arrangements for major data suppliers to have Agriculture, Fishing and Forestry access to the data (subject to confidentiality constraints) at no, Other Government or reduced, cost, is handled by the liaison committees or by direct consultation. Commerce, Energy & Industry Health & Care Our commitment to users Consultation: We consult users about the development of Compendia & Reference our statistics. Labour Market Integrity: We ensure the statistics produced are not Crime and Justice presented in a way which is misleading. We also Population & Migration comprehensively check the data at all stages to safeguard standards of accuracy. The Economy Openness: We are completely open about our methods of Social & Welfare collecting and processing data and about the methodology used in published analyses. Education & Training Transport, Travel & Tourism Release: We will provide on request all available statistical information, subject to confidentiality, reliability, pre- The Natural and Built Environment publication embargoes, and on sufficient resources being available to carry out the work involved. An appropriate charge may be made. Timeliness: We guarantee that requests or correspondence will be given either a substantive reply within 7 working days or an acknowledgement to be followed up (by a stated date) with a substantive reply.

Produced on behalf of the Scottish Executive by Astron, B16803 03/2001